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Between Cold War and Colonial Wars: the Making of West German Policy Towards the Portuguese Dictatorship, 1968-1974

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Between Cold War and Colonial Wars: the Making of West German Policy Towards the Portuguese Dictatorship, 1968-1974 The London School of Economics and Political Science Between Cold War and Colonial Wars: The making of West German Policy towards the Portuguese dictatorship, 1968-1974 Rui Miguel Ponte Vieira Lopes A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, October 2011 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99,898 words. 2 Abstract This thesis analyses the making of West German policy towards the Portuguese dictatorship during the governments led by Willy Brandt and Marcelo Caetano, from 1968 until the dictatorship’s downfall on 25 April 1974. This case study sheds new light on the interaction between the Cold War and colonial politics, particularly on the multilateral dimension of the process of Portuguese resistance to decolonisation. Although the starting point is the bilateral relationship between the Federal Republic of Germany and Portugal, this thesis takes a multifaceted approach to the topic. It examines the role of various external and internal forces pushing for change and continuity in Bonn’s policy towards Lisbon. Research demonstrates that not only did that policy become a contentious issue internationally, it also polarised West Germany’s society, parliament and different sections of Bonn’s social-liberal coalition government. Taking this into account, my work covers the diplomatic, economic and military areas of the relations between the two states. It also addresses the parallel ties between the German Social-Democratic Party and the opposition to the dictatorship, including the Portuguese socialists and the African liberation movements. The thesis argues that, despite many impulses and pressures to assertively confront the Portuguese dictatorship’s refusal to decolonise and democratise, West German policy towards the Caetano regime remained essentially cooperative, even if becoming increasingly ambiguous over time. That option reflected the geopolitical and conceptual contradictions between adopting a more aggressive policy towards Portugal and defending Bonn’s contemporary policy of rapprochement with Eastern Europe (neue Ostpolitik). Thus this thesis illustrates the interconnectedness between the global Cold War framework and the perpetuation of colonialism in Africa. 3 “Whoever uses the term ‘colony’ in front of the Portuguese to refer to their overseas provinces commits a serious and potentially insulting error of form. It is not appropriate to describe Portugal as a dictatorship and it is offensive to voice it in front of the Portuguese. The Portuguese form of government is adapted to fit the needs of the country and it gives personal freedom and legal security to the individual citizen. Portugal’s standard of living is substantially more modest than that of the Federal Republic. The wages and salaries of the Portuguese are far lower than the corresponding German ones; nevertheless the people in Portugal are generally content and happy.” Pamphlet handed out by the ZdVP to the German troops stationed in Portugal (quoted from “Gewisse traditionelle Eigentümlichkeiten”, Der Spiegel, 05.10.1970, Nr.41, p.26) 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements 6 List of abbreviations 8 Introduction: Setting The Stage 11 1 An “Insult To Africa” And Other Offences: The International Front 34 2 Facing The ‘Tribunal’: The Domestic Front 83 3 From Außenwirtschaft To Außenpolitik: The Economic Front 119 4 The Price Of “German Grandeur”: The Military Front 151 5 Trapped By The “Typical Dilemma”: The Diplomatic Front 185 6 Either Weapons Or Coffins: The Parallel Front 221 Conclusion 245 Annex 1: Hierarchy Of The Federal Government 258 Annex 2: West German-Portuguese Foreign Trade 259 Annex 3: Notable Actors 261 Bibliography 265 5 Acknowledgements This thesis has been long in the making and I have many people and institutions to thank. First and foremost, I wish to express my gratitude to the various public and private archives which allowed me to use their resources in order to tell this story – and particularly to the librarians and archivists who helped me access the dusty books and documents which fill the footnotes of the text. I am grateful to all the actors and witnesses who disrupted their busy schedules so that they could answer my prying questions, whether as official interviews or as informal chats which nonetheless gave me insight into a past era. In this regard, my special thanks to José António Chaveiro, who granted me a fascinating interview which, although not cited in the final thesis, provided valuable leads for paths of research. I would also like to convey my thanks to the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, which funded this project for four long years – its support was crucial every step of the way. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Kristina Spohr- Readman, not just for the keen and abundant feedback which substantially elevated the quality of my work, but also for the patience and trust she repeatedly displayed when dealing with my eccentric working style. My deepest gratitude is also due to the couples who made me feel at home in the three cities where the bulk of my research took place: Sara and Theuns in London, Joana and Rocha in Berlin, and, naturally, my parents Cristina and João in Lisbon. For a much briefer – but very intense – period, Marie and Alexandre sheltered me in Paris and for that they deserve my gratitude as well. Several friends, colleagues and professors, in Portugal as well as in the UK, discussed the content of this thesis with me and helped me bring it to life through their insightful questions and suggestions. In this regard, Professor Odd Arne Westad’s Cold War History research seminar was a particularly rewarding forum. Of the many, many people who contributed – some until the very end – with support of different kinds, a very special thanks goes to Sara Gamito, Maria do Mar Pereira, Laura Ryseck, Branwen Gruffydd Jones and Maria Fernanda Rollo. My thanks also to the brave team of proofreaders who came through at the last minute. 6 Finally, I wish to warmly thank all those who did not discuss the thesis with me, but who nevertheless contributed to the final outcome by giving me their affection and a much needed sense of perspective. 7 Abbreviations AA – Auswärtiges Amt (Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs) AGM-Komitee – Deutsches Komitee für Angola, Guinea-Bissau und Mozambik (German Committee for Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique) AIP – Associação Industrial Portuguesa (Portuguese Industrial Association) AKAFRIK – Aktionskomitee Afrika ASP – Acção Socialista Portuguesa (Portuguese Socialist Action) BDI – Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie (Federation of German Industries) BfV – Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution) BGA - Bundesverbandes des deutschen Gross- und Aussenhandels (Federation of German Wholesale and Foreign Trade) BMI – Bundesministerium des Innern (Federal Ministry of the Interior) BMVg – Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (Federal Ministry for Defence) BMWi – Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft (Federal Ministry for Economics) BMZ – Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation) BND – Bundesnachrichtendienst (FRG’s Intelligence Agency) BSR – Budessicherheitsrat (Federal Security Council) CCILA – Câmara de Comércio e Indústria Luso-Alemã (Portuguese-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry) CDU – Christlich Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union) COREMO – Comité Revolucionário de Mocambique (Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique) CSCE – Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe CSU – Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern (Christian Social Union of Bavaria) DAC – OECD’s Development Assistance Committee DED – Deutsche Entwicklungsdienst (German Development Service) DGB – Deutsche Gewerkschaftsbund (German Trade Union Federation) DGS – Direcção Geral de Segurança (Portuguese Political Police) DIHT – Deutschen Industrie- und Handelstages (German Chambers of Industry and Commerce) DKP – Deutsche Kommunistische Partei (German Communist Party) EEC – European Economic Community EFTA – European Free Trade Organization EKD – Evangelische Kirche Deutschland (Protestant Church of Germany) 8 FAP – Força Aérea Portuguesa (Portuguese Air Force) FAZ – Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (a national German newspaper) FCO – British Foreign and Commonwealth Office FDP – Freie Demokratische Partei (Free Democratic Party) FES – Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (Friedrich Ebert Foundation) FNMAL – Fábrica Nacional de Munições para Armas Ligeiras (Portugal’s National Light- Weapons Munition Factory) FRELIMO – Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Liberation Front of Mozambique) FRG – Federal Republic of Germany GDR – German Democratic Republic GPMMC – German-Portuguese Military Mixed Commission GRAE – Governo Revolucionário de
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