CEU eTD Collection A LONG-TERM TERRORIST CAMPAIGNANDPOLITICAL DISCOURSE: A LONG-TERM A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the THE ROLE OF ETA IN SPANISH POLITICS Department of Political of Political Science Department Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisor: CarolHarrington Central European University By Asta MaskaliBy Budapest, Budapest, June 2007 nj nait ơ CEU eTD Collection I herebydeclare that thiswork contains nomaterials any accepted for other degrees in any other institutions. This thesis contains no materials previouslywritten and/or published byanotherperson, unlessotherwise noted. ii CEU eTD Collection the moralthe dimension and the moral choices between goodand evil. equivalential represent arenot basedneutral butconstructed political on chains divisions, frames”, i.e. “war the logic the of equivalence,forth where brings everyone often who isnotwith us violence is against of us. Finally, presence the the However, to. priority given hegemonize discourse and itis up to the democratic political actors which of them will be to in an can beemployed attempt logicthat the difference) of of or equivalence in the discourse according totheir own needs. There are different types logicof (the logic elements different these connect actors democratic (2) constructions; discourse respective for their discourse historical inthe available elements take the actors political democratic Based onthefindings of investigation the followingthe have conclusions been drawn: (1) is given on the influence that the events of March 11 had on the discourse. emphasis aparticular Here 2004. of campaign electoral and the Lizarra of Declaration the detail crucial two in moments reshaping of discourse the on violence, namely, signing of is violence instudied finally, andthein Spain BasqueCountry; both chapters lasttwo the examine and nation the on discourse historical the then, country; in the violence role ETA of of the are furtherthe investigation used inthe that andframeworks concepts main presentsthe the first chapter theoretical stages: three through The investigation goes terrorist violence and provide itwith meaning. ustounderstandthe the combination allows elements, these and,of civilization), through (culture, of the country the in historical discourse are present the on that elements discursive builds but in avacuum, created not is terrorism on discourse the that second, and, of terrorism on the political system withoutassumptions whichguidethe of outlook analyzingassessfirst, wecannot work: the that impact the the discourse of the political actorsseparatistactors. group ForETAmain political country’s of the discourse the and country the of life the political the the is purposestaken as The objective of ofassess thesisthis is how to presencethe a of influences a terrorist group situationthis thesis, tothe examine. case ofprecisely, the impactSpain it has on the politicsThe of the country (or region, or thein entireanalysis world). moreits or, tend nature, its political i.e. element of terrorism, attacks important leave one 11 to aside fight September the after and before both isagainst studies the based addition, In phenomenon. theon Basquetwo are enlightening understand historical the we try when cases of that to terrorism exclusivelydevelopment on the Al gavefor the 2001 on The attacksof States arenewed UnitedSeptemberimpetus the 11, Qaeda-type Islamicof the terrorism studies and forget of terrorism.that there are numerous These new studies, however, tend to focus Abstract iii CEU eTD Collection journey; to my father for making my life more comfortable and to my grandmother for knowing sowell when I will needdesperately herring. my grandmother to and comfortable more life my making for my father to journey; my motherfor help, and suggestions especially comments on lastthe days of long this Finally, Icannotbut be eternally grateful myto family. Therefore, thanks to my sister and not be obvious at all. managed “obvious”My might goestoLena,whopersuademegratitude enormous that to have arein achievedmy nothing. even You thoughts callI don’t writewhen emails.or my Vilniuscoming to friends, alwaysso pleasurable.you My dearest without Iwould all supported mewho through lastthe stages of my and in struggle all Tartu make who Zoli,inAnna,Ksenia, Budapest; andRobert Biljana,Ana,Txomin andIñaki in Bilbao; my life and on my thesis. I am Over the long years of writingtruly this numerouswork people left anindelibleimpression on thankful to everybody who was with labyrinth. me Basque in the this myself time orienting start me to for – abovein all mysupervisor to Bilbao Josetxu Martínez Montoya whohelped enormously and inUniversity Bilbao Deusto myhost, the University, CurieEuropean of program just the right environment towrite this dissertation. A special gratitude also goes to Marie I am grateful to the Department of Political Science and the Library of CEU for providing Bozoki for initial help with my work. hope this isnota terrible Also disappointment) thanks tomyfirstsupervisorAndras Paul inbox.believed to Thanks I can Roe who thatsomething very few when do did(I help,unfailing and support comments on endless the pages with which herI wasflooding proposals andideas,suggestions, thesistheir added tothis all who with I am to those grateful truly comments. First of all, thanks to my supervisor Carol Harrington for her Acknowledgements iv CEU eTD Collection GI...... 178 AGAIN...... CHAPTER IV. ALTERNATIVE HISTORY – BASQUE NATIONALISM 131 AND ETA...... ILNE...... 104 ...... VIOLENCE CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL DISCOURSE. SPAIN: FREE, 60 ONE AND INDIVISIBLE ...... HPE .TERTCLFAEOK OIGBYN TROOOY..... 37 CHAPTER I.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK. MOVING BEYOND “TERROROLOGY”...... 4 INTRODUCTION...... LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...... 3 TABLE 1 OF CONTENTS...... CHAPTER V. DECLARATION OF LIZARRA AND NATIONAL UNITY. THERE AND UNITY. AND BACK OFLIZARRA NATIONAL V.DECLARATION CHAPTER CHAPTER III. AFTER TRANSITION. USING HISTORICAL DISCOURSE TO DEAL TODEAL USINGHISTORICALWITH AFTER DISCOURSE TRANSITION. III. CHAPTER C 2001 M “ E D M P T C F T B T F C T T T V C T F “T C D W “C CONSTITUTIONALIST LAN ROM ROM THE ROM THE ND OFTHE TRUCE TO HERE RANSITION AND HE HE NEW HE HE RANSITION TO DEMOCRACY AND DRAFTING OFTHE AND DRAFTING RANSITION TODEMOCRACY IRTH OF IRTH ONCLUSION ONCLUSIONS ONCLUSIONS ONCLUSIONS REATING THE ECLARATION OF ECLARATION IOLENCE INTRANSITION IOLENCE ISCOURSE EANINGS OF EANINGS OF ITCHES HE ULTURE OF TERROR OF ULTURE Discourse construction. Concepts 57 and ideas...... 55 Identity ...... connection Schools of discourse 49 analysis...... 45 Frame analysis...... C PP PSOE ELECTIONS D A IVIL A : THE CHANGES IN CHANGES THE GOVERNMENT ISASTER RDANZA JURIA , PSOE ETA HERETICS AND OTHER ANDOTHER HERETICS COMMUNISTS W “ GOVERNMENT F , ORIGINS FRAMES IRST AR ...... 222 ...... E L L ...... 173 ...... TO ...... 130 ...... 99 ...... S ”, GOVERNMENT NEA TO IZARRA IZARRA ...... 146 ...... PANISH IDENTITY ...... 218 ...... W T GENERATION OF D L T ESTING GROUND EMOCRACY ORLD IZARRA AND THE TRUCE OF TRUCE THE AND IZARRA RANSITION ” , TO THE TO IDENTITIES ” : ” 2001 FRONT P – L 2. 1. ROTECT THE B ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF EXPLANATION ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIOLENCE IZARRA : W : PROTECT THE BETWEEN TERRORISM ANDGOLPISMO TERRORISM BETWEEN S R ASQUE POLITICS ASQUE ELECTIONS AR TO EARCH FOR NEW DISCOURSE IN THE NEW DISCOURSE IN EARCH FOR ADICALIZATION OF ADICALIZATIONTHE OF C ...... 206 ...... 127 ...... IVIL ...... 159 ...... 151 ...... 45 ...... 167 ...... : F 1898 FROM TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE ...... 186 ...... ? W RANCO N AR ATION ...... 201 ...... AND ITS ENEMIES ITS AND S ...... 133 ...... R TATE ECONQUISTA TO THE END OF END THE TO ECONQUISTA 9719 ...... 179 ...... 1997-1998 ...... 76 ...... 119 ...... 39 ...... , T ...... 193 ...... ETA PROTECT DEMOCRACY PROTECT PP C ONSTITUTION DISCOURSE ANDAPPROPRIATION DISCOURSE THE OF ...... 68 ...... N...... 212 PNV...... 105 ...... 83 ...... 110 ...... 19 ...... 37 ...... TH CENTURY ...... 61 ...... 1 CEU eTD Collection EEECS...... 274 REFERENCES...... 266 CONCLUSIONS...... CHAPTER VI. ELECTORAL CAMPAIGN OF 2004 226AND THE EVENTS OF 11-M...... P P S C D E F T ERIODICALS RIMARY SOURCES RIMARY ECONDARY SOURCES ECONDARY RAMING PROCESSES RAMING XPERIENCE OF DISLOCATION XPERIENCE OF HE BACKGROUND ONCLUSIONS EALING WITH DISLOCATION EALING WITH rm eoac...... 242 Frame resonance...... Protagonist identity field, prognostic and 240motivational frame...... Diagnostic framing and the antagonist 233 identity field...... 287 ...... 262 ...... : . C D ...... 232 ...... ASO OCUMENTS . B OOKS ANDARTICLES OOKS C AROD AND THE TRUCE ANDARODFOR THETRUCE ...... 256 ...... F ROM ...... 287 ...... 11-M TO ...... 274 ...... 4M...... 247 ...... 14-M C ATALONIA ...... 227 ...... 2 CEU eTD Collection ETA HB(EH) ERC PSOE PSE-EE PP MLNV EE PNV UCD IA IU EA – – – – – – – EAJ/PNV – Izquierda Abertzale Izquierda Unida – Partido Popular Socialist Party PSOE, later referred to as PSE Nationalist Party,further referred to simply as PNV Movement referred to simply as Socialist Party People) Also referred toasBatasuna People) Alsoreferred interpretation – ETA environment independence, the also organizationsto this belonging environment; in another Euskadiko Ezkerra – Eusko Alkartasuna – Euskadi taAskatasuna – Esquerra deCatalunya Republicana Unión de Centro Democrático – Partido SocialistaObrero Español – Movimiento de LiberaciónNacionalVasco Movimiento Partido SocialistadeEuskadi-EuskadikoEzkerra Herri Batasuna(Euskal Herritarok) –United Left –Popular Party Eusko AlderdiJeltzalea/Partido Nacionalista Vasco –Basque Leftparty – Basque Solidarity party –Patriotic thepeople Left, ideals sympathizingtothe of Basque LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS –Basque Land andFreedom –Union of Democratic Center – Catalan Republican Left – Spanish Socialist Workers Party, later Party, Workers Socialist –Spanish – Unity of the People (We Basque – Basque National –BasqueNational Liberation – the Basque branch of the –Basque 3 CEU eTD Collection problems andpossible patterns of their development. Examiningnew. something as them investigate to trying than phenomena the on light more these shed can analogies inthe past.Searchingmakesfor analogies it these situations sensetorevisitcomparable allowsanalogous phenomenain inhistory tounderstandand that order some of recentevents the us to as development better of patterns similar follow past, inthe roots their have phenomena assess andmany bewas that forgotten seemed another to What type or of policy.against one evaluateprotect idea, to another or action, one of course another advance or one to were used the responsesmethods weremanywas thatthere whenterrorist instances beforgotten Whatseemed to to e.g. Simon,Benjamin 2000) was“new(see, terrorism.” now facing what wewere least new,then at not was terrorism be exotic said, better Terrorism as suddenly if andnew,or, appeared to a phenomenon surpassing infame any existingthe of terrorists andnon-terrorist organizations. few,became in only most selectedoneof famousthe the to world, the organizations always in not in Al known once though number, quality. significantly increased Qaeda, years and the amount of works flooding the libraries, book stores and web pages inon fiction topic the journalisticfive and field. Academic, soared lastproduction the terror” becoming the order of the day,made terrorism one of the most trendy topics in the “war on andthe superpower world’s of the reaction the nature, spectacular their well as development of the studies of the gavefor the 2001 on The attacksof States arenewed UnitedSeptemberimpetus the 11, phenomenon of terrorism. The scale of the attacks as Introduction 4 CEU eTD Collection 1 issue,this controversial is here My as togodeeperintotask certain organizations. not terrorismterrorist groups or as of cases events some by denominating mean exactly we on what beenreached has agreement common no far so but one, longstanding a is issue the on debate The subject. The definition of terrorism is a source of one of the greatest controversies surrounding the between them, which is often ignored in the literature. relations orthe actors political democratic the on space, political onthe terrorism impact of issue the addressan of Iwill addition, terrorism. In understand current the findto use and from historical campaign attempt to a to patterns perspective general For the purposes of this work, I will look at the development of the long-term terrorist theoretical field. theoretical in work the current the better to position inorder research areaof in this problematique analysisthe with start did my research However, prevention. its consequently, and, phenomenon of the to this They question. mostly finding with concerned are forthe causal explanations existinganswer asufficient provide not do research in terrorism theories mainstream the of Most theoriesin country.the discourses identification has how the presenceand shapes of such groups fieldthe of political of terrorism. in tosomemore criteriaterrorism of is,but impact corresponds such scientific what what as of someterrorist is groups in designation whetherthe interestrole. not important My It might be useful to assess the For acomprehensive discussion, see Schmid 1988, pp.1-38. 1 my concern is the discourse of terrorism in which naming has an 5 CEU eTD Collection developments of the “urban guerrilla” “urban the of developments oppression andstruggles legitimate themeans andin as employed understandable theface of thatintellectuals sawthese and Many researchers cases. andafewother independence the countriesfor struggle into their tactics terrorist incorporating Algeria were or Ireland, Israel in movements liberation” “national of their point development; atone tactics terrorist were 19 of the Russian revolutionaries were There occurrence. suffering numerousprompted examinations of form this of violence and toexplain attempts its also vocabulary from political the into term the brought that Revolution French the in their Terror of Reign the moment: the at phenomenon unheard-of an not was course, of such, colonialbutSchmid (1988), they their incommenced work void avirtually land. Terrorism as rulers,themselves in spilled blood understand trying to phenomenon,the paraphrase to Alex terrorists the than ink more spilling started untilscientists social then, Since phenomenon. the the up intensive discussions about the nature of the phenomenon, its thenature of causes about phenomenon,up intensivethe discussions andeffects. changing and America of andbrought North Europe attitude the democratic started states new violent actors of the 20 of the actors violent new use to group last the Therefore, “terrorists” astheirown denomination was theRussian connotations. Narodnaya Volya 1870s-1880s, ofthe unfavorable while the rather invoked soon term the Revolution), was it used ofpolitics, vocabulary the in as a “terrorism” of positiveappearances first the with While 1970s. the of inEurope and termAmerica Latin in (for both used widely was and Robespierre, theoretician, and leader guerrilla Brazilian a Marighella, Carlos terror was an indispensable companion3 of virtue“terrorism” by the Western media (see,for example, Guelke 1995, p.2-3). in times of of revolts warfare, the student uprisings 1968which of the and asimilarinfluence had on view the of ofimpact type such the Six the in especially Day language, everyday the in “terrorism” War word media. ofthe appearance the and tactics of terrorist of usage June increasing the both influenced time that of events 1967,Several These 1987). (Laqueur ofterrorism” “age the calls which events: gave an 2 impetus death for ofan increasingChe Guevara use of thein term1967 which showed the shortcomings of guerrilla The inthe1960s terrorist activities upsurge of description. The “urban guerrilla” became a useful denomination for such purposes. such for denomination auseful became guerrilla” “urban The description. The term “urban guerrilla” to describe what in other places would be called “terrorism” was coined by coined was “terrorism” be called would places other in what describe to guerrilla” “urban term The Lacquer that era an activities, terrorist contemporary of the beginning the marks 1960s of the end The th century, even when using similar methods, preferred other terms for self- for terms other preferred methods, similar using when even century, 3 in the midst of the economically advanced and advanced economically the of midst inthe 2 generated a great concern and interest in interest and concern agreat generated th century resorted century to who 6 CEU eTD Collection questions to the agenda – it appeared that the security services of countries respective it the services of appeared that security agenda –the tothe questions new 2005in have London inJuly prompted of Madridof March and attacks 2004 services, but also of in indicate only afailure not of to attacks US seemed security the the September 11,2001 the theorists that wereHowever, thissituationdoubt to by was put events of the newmillennium.the The expected to predict for thestudies of terrorism. sciencesacorner of withinsocial framework the create and prevent them. Theterrorist violence inits many andmeansplaces of apparition, and managed eventually to a moresoon gave seriously way to research examinegrounded and thattried to theories (while never losingattraction inthepopular lore) culture pseudo-scientific and their the in psychopathological terrorist Thesetheories peopleviolence. the makeupof engaged explainviolenceincidents thebyconspiracy of this the and/or theories focusedmainly on extraordinarinessthe of terrorism andthe terrorists, attempting to in violence The initial world the developed so-called type analyzingtheories of this knowledgeterror industry and how itdevelops the understanding of phenomenon.the perceived as such an enormous problem,phenomenon. it is necessary the to about startperceptions Thus, our structure from and issue the ifthe problematize helps we examination research wantscholarly to of know what counts as immigration,The happens wayitsame poverty to trafficking, unemployment, or the terrorism and why terrorism scientists tosupport denominationsthe theyproposedesign and to it.ways of combating is possess thegovernments the Though monopolyphenomenon. the discussing when use to reference of frames of naming in the industry” issue on topicthe and with established, together governingthe elites, principal the of terrorism, what “knowledge prompted couldbeThese of rapid true events the called development they also often turn to the 7 CEU eTD Collection terrorism research make the scientific neutrality or critical viewpoint doubtful. critical viewpoint or neutrality makethescientific research terrorism in figures leading the of majority the of concerns policy the importantly, but finally, And systems). party and parties (e.g. matters serious more with itself concern should which science, of political serious matter a than “entertainment” of be popular the that to much on rumors, stereotypes and prejudices. Secondly, the topic itself is often considered aforementioned lack of scientific quality in a great part of terrorism research that relies so employed in a negative or disdainful manner. There are several reasons for that: first,is regularly even “terrorology” term such the that extent an theto doubtful considered often are research of terrorism qualities scientific the mentioned, been hasAs it shouldof questions that the beaddressedin of theories the terrorism.discussing some are acts? These of terrorist prevention the for e.g. and practice, theory the between in and sciences social the within both terrorism of study the of place is the What events? expected to act as a positivist acts from doing preventthe terrorist intakingCan “terrorology”be place? general science witha responsibilityits demands of forthe theoreticiansthe predictability carried much attacks the these There riseswhether occurrence as of anatural question of terrorism andof theirsocial alack to indicate of theoretization. inability to explain and by seemed aswell–alackso of prediction to blame here wereput “terrorologists” The effects. and theirexplain causes such events, wouldbe ableto lacking that were the theories that and oldfrom the ones different werecompletely “new”terrorists the that up anexcuse This brought of the terrorists. Islamic threat overlooked andIRA in somewhat second, the ETAinfirst“old” thecase, andthe so-calledpaidgroups, terrorist moreattention the to 8 CEU eTD Collection causes of terrorism, to the preferential treatment of the analysis of methods of the combating of appreciation lack of the leads to criticisms, these to according campaign, terrorism agenda in thepromotegoverning circles and use and acertain to their expertise encourage policy counter-terrorismabout the sphere.academiciansWhyte has beencoined totalk “embedded 2005) recently expertise”a term (Burnett, of way same the TheIn military. British or American the usually, emphasisside, one only from events the in the onfield effectiveness view the and by of neutrality a lackof characterized “court-journalism”, acertain indicate of terrorism notion In vocabularyjournalism SecondGulfWarthe this enteredto of embedded to of a counter-researchIraq. that arein war current the especially 11and of September events the after clearer even became closely related policydue to“narrow and control.”orientation on prevention (Crelinsten 1987) This to lack Ronald emphasized,a Crelinsten once in of of quality is studies the often terrorism circles about the exclusive policy-orientation of the terrorism research.As, for example, in academic the beendisquiet has there “warterror” on resulting the 11and September of events the before Long matter. third the with deal to complicated more much is It sphere, and thus has to be studied with the same concern as other phenomena of the kind. political in importance great of a phenomenon is terrorism that fact a remains still it people they are accusing. The second is also easily dismissed as whether we like it not, or terrorism. The ones who claim that are perpetuating the prejudice in the same way as the of theories noserious thereare that claim warrant the not does this science, serious to than fiction of sphere the to more belongs it of most and terrorism about written The first of these criticisms can be easily dismissed – though it is true that a lot has been 9 CEU eTD Collection themselves. in flawsits considering costs; studies and resulting the the research downgrade effectiveness disturbing. Voice of reflexivity is lostsuch underand criticism the circumstances; ofinclude(e.g. to involving evennon-violentprotests someas “risk-groups” terrorism the counter-terrorist andin collection measures) andcounter-terrorism actual the data international terrorism (exclusively focus research inthe both flaws methodological relation this from resulting as seen be might what and governments respective the with organizations two the campaign givehowever, relation the for of worry,Obviously, any reason doesnot above the allof is seen Whyte bases (Burnett, 2005,p.8-10) data authoritative terrorismthe incidents. of as a superior andTerrorismConflict aim, without important academic journals in the field: in the journals academic important Political Violence Terrorism and Andrews St. the founded RAND of strongmen – the another one to mostin influential thefield. two of The terrorismgroups research are closely connected The AndrewsRAND-St. nexusismentioned as example an of “embeddedthis expertise” prevention understanding the contexts in which itis born itis hardly possible to work on its example, Whitetaker, 2001. in Colombia (or now Iraq) are always treatedThe flaws like this are oftenas found“terrorism” inofficial databases of terrorism. Forinexample, the the Americanattacks of pipelines Turkish Nationalreports Airline office.(Burnett, Whyte 2005,p.10) on terrorism. See, for the Kurds in response to the police killing of a Kurdish4 youth in custody and a peaceful protest outside the it and forgetfulness of the fact that terrorism is born In Burnett and Whyte two of such incidents are noted: the occupation of a German embassy in Athens by . ; in addition, the two organizations maintain one of in maintain most twoorganizations the ; addition, the one of ; the members of both are editors of the twomost Terrorism andPolitical Violence in the contextin the Center forStudiesin and that without and Studies in 4 ), is ), 10 CEU eTD Collection Douglass and Zulaika in their seminal work seminal in their Zulaika and Douglass aboutcalling doubts discipline. strong studies aseparate limited. All terrorism creates this very is analysis for cases of number the and narrow very is subject the Furthermore, is no methodology, common and the focus common isof enquiry vaguely defined. terrorism, which,inaddition,is and widely indifferently studies. Theredefined different – phenomena the of one on focus their just is name same the under theories different example, areafor same because (the regards, be asadiscipline viewed can actually studies terrorism the studies)whether example, for is questionable, It remain. discipline scientific a as it understanding they do not asto doubts is, other moment the at situation real whatthe matter no terrorism possess a Even if we agreeunified that there is still a possibility of conceiving an idea of neutrala study of methodology. What unites the the debates surrounding its position as a discipline (or not) should not escape shouldnot) attention not as (or position as a its debates surroundingthe discipline the and thisinstitutionalization of terrorism research field. a shortcomingnot Yet, the of advantage be an well may angles different many so from is studied terrorism of subject the itself that fact andthe in the field created theories the of quality change the not does enquiry scientific of object asan or discipline aseparate areaas the of denomination the is However, considering adiscipline. one university when mightbeeasier departments and centers of research Establishment demand. needa scientific than of a bureaucratic It could be said, though, that an attempt todefine terrorism studies as a discipline ismore fieldsother of research towhich various theories of terrorism are related. pieces,separate the beinto should terrorism dismantled Thus, they studies suggest that discourse. category of atabooed as terrorism image of created already the perpetuate ideaby that arguing of of keeping terrorism asthefocus a field to of study only works Terror andTaboo (1996) add to these doubts add tothese (1996) 11 CEU eTD Collection individuals resort to violence to achieve toviolenceindividuals to resort whoare the theirindividuals most objectives, forefront of analytical the The questions toterrorism.approaches groupsor whycertain for the birth offind to reasons Attempts causesof terrorism. the analyses of the first consider Weshould terrorist organizations together. theories keeps those that analysis in terrorismone part goes inof line the withoption for worlddistinguishingthe between ideanarrower objects of inquiry that withinor the theories of wasanother, discussedaccording before are to the– itat authors’is theonly even or etc.) analysis, discourse methods, the qualitative or methodology used (quantitative aims object (apologetic, of explanatory,psychological, sociological, anthropological theories,policy etc.) or according to the oriented,disciplinary etc.). My own inquiry. possible Other classifications mightinclude differentiations according to affiliationsof object narrower based ona is grouping responsesterrorism. This to state examine the of thesedevelopment of a terrorist organization and its innertheories dynamics, and finally, theories that discuss the ones that the to on move place,then first in the of terrorism, examine causes (in this to try that theories distinguish Iwould purposes. specific their for constellations different case use can weauthors different and would convenience of matter a is only theories these of clustering have,Understandably, theories. of sets three for some with be dealing would we phenomenon, example, to see it as a separate discipline aside, we still decide to pursue the quest of explaining the If various“terrorology” thevalueof about these reservations putting the possibilities and of terrorism. tothesecuritization adds community how scientific the and world contemporary in the isentrenched industry knowledge this much how shows clearly it 12 CEU eTD Collection terrorist activities in Europe of the 70s were no different from other politically active politically from other no different were of 70s the inEurope terrorist activities whoinwere engaged those away in studies showedthat the of 80s.The results the psychological research projects tookplace after the wave ofterrorism in Europe withered concerned with the question of who and why engages in terrorism, numerous level,ideas. micro Onthe her share who andthose by Sterling exposed from those individual motivationsjoining for The findings, thegroups. however, significantly differ the and for terrorism potentiality the with concerned arealso researchers serious More audience. its find well can ungrounded, or improbable how matter no explanation, every “everythingin ispossible that world of darkness” Affairs of As once claimed, Foreign SpanishMinister theformer understanding. inleast popular the claim at theirplace to resurging them, touproot constantly attempts such “theories”of 80s.Though scantly extremely the tendtoresist all grounded, the (1981) that became popular in the circles of the American administration at the beginning of book Claire Sterling a “theory” is a examplesuch of best Probably the by evil puppeteer? an manipulated are themselves that world anenlacingall organizations through web of are all connected that oracquired innate individualsdisturbances psychological with existenceof of a set this than to explanation beabetter lives. there innocent Can for disregard pathological manyso all, After easy. is rather definitions explanations conspiracy or it-is-beyond-understanding the succumb to to temptation the terrorism in discussing mentioned that has alreadybeen It of terrorism makers. policy and sometimes scientists social bother that issues are violence in engagement their for conditions the are what and step a such make to likely insist that the perpetrators of these crimes have a The terror network: thesecretwar ofinternationalterrorism ( El País , 15 March thus , 15March 2004) and 13 CEU eTD Collection numbers. (Crenshaw 1998)Ronald Wintrobe in his “Can article suicide bombers be in lack they what actions violent bytheir compensate to want which and resort) last the as of the groups which fail achieveto their objectives by other means (terrorism is seen here supposedly would show “true the it as face” of government.the beneficial as be seen can reaction governmental same the and condition arevolutionary creating groups will be seenas elitist, among the latter– the powerof terrorism to set agendas, possibility of 5 andbenefits. costs of acalculation after in comes engagementterrorism that emphasizes Crenshaw Martha Forexample, acts. Other theories trying to murderer). by (e.g. one explain fighter) as afreedom a negative a terrorist’s behavior (e.g. oneself image of a positive of replacement the demands exit the because terrorism, discussfrom exit to thedifficult it make also rationalitymechanisms Such etc. victims, of dehumanization of terrorist blame, creatingThese apositiveimageof of oneself,attributing include ways the control society. from the of distance moral the him/herself to (Bandura 1998,p.163) disengagement” help that anindividual “intensivethrough psychological training” moral codes of behavior violence, and turn to the so-called “mechanisms moral of Psychological theories also discuss the ways, in which individuals abandon the usual we ordinarilyadmit.” care to (Rubenstein 1987, p.5) like usthan “more are activities in who terrorist engage those is that message general the in Post 1998,p.27) arequoted (see,e.g., “personality certain such studies disturbances” Though (Ferracuti 1998, p.60). leftist terrorists German of (West) incase were confirmed Ferracuti wereunder in1998, p.60)that findings examination study, and thesame his (see, terrorists” left-wing Italian the to common characteristics any psychopathological identified havenot studies “Psychiatric Ferracuti writes, asFranco example, people. For Among the former– a punitive governmental reaction, a potential loss of support and a possibility that the 5 Thus terrorism may be seen as a rational choice as arational maybeseen Thusterrorism 14 CEU eTD Collection broader movementbroader with which future the terrorists identify. 2001,p.105) (Crenshaw almost anything,butmost often tends to be a violent reaction of the government against a Aprecipitating masses.the on (Crenshaw2001,p.101-105) otherhand,canbe the event, of the passivity of because usually elite of the part the of disaffection andthe processes; participate in political to opportunities alackof grievances; existence of concrete the justified; as government against violence of view society’s the mentions also she preconditions for terrorism. Inaddition, andas general“permissive” urbanization terrorism.” Within (Crenshaw 2001,p.101) she the former distinguishes modernization of occurrence the precede immediately that events –“specific run,” andprecipitants long a over for terrorism “setstage that factors i.e. preconditions, societies: in certain Crenshaw distinguished between two types factors of which encourage a rise of terrorism the work on such topic, herclassical Martha conditions prompt In a choice. arises what us and that their decision to start a career in terrorism of most “normal” as areas the terrorists arguing that theories these with weagree If, then, is a rational decision, the question suicide for the cohesion of the group. a commit to individual an such for is rational it enough, high is solidarity of value If the solidarity. the for in exchange beliefs own her to according act to autonomy her of part up here he takes inspiration from the analysis of the religious sects) an individual is giving He maintainsp.2) 2002, thatinjoiningengage”. organization (Wintrobe (and aterrorist activity that is “an perfectly rational individuals and be that bombings suicide can seen asa of kind rational extreme example rational?”of tries to provea an even moregeneral difficultpoint – that suicide bombers are also class of behavior in which all of us 15 CEU eTD Collection violence and its objectives. its and violence renounced leader, and creator charismatic most sole its was who Guzmán, Abimael after even activities 6 theory also puts a lot of attentionwhodevoted her(1995), study the German left-wing Whileto and Italian groups. her to the Porta della two Donatella of is that my mind, to other field, inthis work significant most levelsThe of the analysis – macrobelonging, afeelingofself-importance andnew belief system”. a (Hudson 1999, p.34) level group with its pressureswith of theconformity subject and terrorist dealing Theories organizations. of pathof developmentwe shouldlookatthe emphasizeconsensus and similaritiesthe provisioninitiated itpeople that of “abetween sense of and independent p.113) independent often external of of events” 2002, (Crenshaw the a terrorist group momentum, its own gathers aprocess as “[t]errorism that emphasized Crenshaw Martha and any other springsmall from it. harsher the suppression of the movement, the more likely it is that a terrorist group will government to the broad protest movement with which the future terrorists identify, the Porta (1995)stresses thethe process essential of delegitimation Sprinzak whileEhud anti-culture (Acquaviva1979) strong values”a andthecreation of of the state.factor existence of the of a“crisis Acquaviva accentuates in Sabinogroup situation. a particular (Sprinzak 1998)for For Donatella by may be beacertain a memory which to said reactivated historical 1989, p.45), of the Dellaoccurrence(Weinberg and state order the existing the to resistance alongof tradition society of given in the existence is the term, of Crenshaw’s borrow to “preconditions”, terrorismimportant most for for Thus, Wilkinson,details Weinbergthe picture. as of Davis, aswell one tothe and is the reactionMost of the other theories on the causes of terrorism echo Crenshaw’s ideas, adding more of Probably best would example the here bePeru’s 6 . Thus, to gain some understanding of the dynamics of terrorism Sendero Luminoso , apart ofcontinued which its 16 CEU eTD Collection tend to diminishtend longerto the they stay (Della 1995, underground. Porta p134) notes, author the differences, these However, born. are they which from movements, the from of stem exhibit mainly character the which many The groups differences, terrorist protectneed group.the find newataskthatdemands more anda to recruits, openness interests that different the between balance a find to have theygroups these on, Further language. in mightchange have, a even and as, enemy the of image the and for self-image of a change example, ideology, of adjustment between seeking This internal 1995, p.115). involvessuchas avariety the the within group, of processes to win supporters (Della“deeper Porta engagements, moreviolent andmore deeperunderground” and and to them leads which own, their of dynamics the follow in violence”, “socialized groups, p.112)these Subsequently, 1995, Porta areas.” (Della movement violence-prone more inbecome the more competitive “to radical inorder adopt tactics Italy).These groups from rivalsprotect the movement in and radicalneo-fascists the repression the (e.g. some of these organizations prompts forces police with hostile in encounters of form from the state violence the of to develop certain experience time, same Atthe “scarce resources”. for the and movement the within place self-defense groups, forleaving theirsurplus and compete organizations movement aof activists haveto that whose goal it isto reach phasethe ofhighest mobilization. Subsequently, enthusiasm the withers away, to itinput crudeterms, such movements, the gathertheirforceas those of 1968, gradually 1995)analyzesTarrow how aterroristgroup is from movement. born a wideprotest To The study, based on Charles Tilly and Sydney Tarrow’s protest cycles theory (Tilly 1994; organizations. terrorist of dynamics the with concerned conditions leveland micro joining forreasons violentclandestine – itgroups is mainly 17 CEU eTD Collection and the subsequentHowever, when such theories seemed to have been rather forgotten, the recent war in Iraq insurgencystrategies were attempted as in the colonial Malaya. (see, e.g., Von Tangen Page 1998) theremilitary same the where Ireland, areaof Northern more spot-lighted ina be asuseful revived seem of worked well “ruthless” didbecause colonial not the inworld setting to what the some of these(Clutterbuck Supposedly,eventually 1973,p.181) had author to the idea, this rethink old theoriesresponse to it, for power does ultimately lie with ofthe government and itscounter- security forces.”be toppled bymilitary means. “[T]errorismbe andcan hasbeen by eliminated a ruthless beingcan idea anyinsurgency that main the theseaccounts, characterize insurgents) the recommended cut to off suppliesfood populations for the thataresuspected of supporting 1973; Kitson little 1971)Strategies with heedis, human tothe (itcosts for example, namesknown of here arethose Richard Clutterbuck andFrankKitson. (Clutterbuck involvedinsurgencies in fightagainst later inMalaya,on the Kenya,Ireland. or Thebest to be written on the issue, were those of the influential leaders of the British armed forces research on terrorism in has fromgeneral started such “response” studies. The first books the that It canbesaid attacked. been have studies terrorism the responses that state of in area the is mostly it discipline, separate asa terrorism of discussion in mentioned The last sphere of inquiry which I would like to discuss here is that of state responses. As Rome, the barbarians and the fights against them remain outside of the gates. be evensaid Here,as actual plays the violence that roleinside in little group. the ancient could It undergo. actors non-violent the that trajectories the from different significantly societies,(underground, outcast) development the of terrorist organizations is not Thus, whether we look at it as the dynamics of small groups or that of the closed 18 CEU eTD Collection between the counter-terrorism measures and legislation and the subsequent penal and thesubsequent legislation measures and thecounter-terrorism between contradiction on the account a satisfying written yethas nobody example, For agenda. into response the when deeper most problematicissuesappear the we look However, of the Leftist the of is members in casesit where action to the other given (e.g. France aprecipitated amnesty lowered the chances of a democratic transition resulting alsoin ending terrorism), butin Amnesty can Italy,sometimes but proved a disaster in very well worked sentences, etc.) bein shorter (receiving exit organizations the to incentives Northerna solution Ireland and had only legal aregiven organizations the of members where strategies, “betrayal” example, a (e.g.partial success in in Spain.Spain, For handle how to terrorism. recipe of is single no there that –itappeared ones neutral it the of wasthose in and scientists “embedded” of works the in argued both failed have terrorism that itsfightfind Attempts to way to aunitary more answers. raise thanprovide questions absence usually less optimisticfind,findings are to more their are difficult toterrorism of Neutral response the studies than those of the than increasedmilitary “embedded” political andstrategic to the circumstances decisions pressure. experts, andwhile their the declineworks, to ofdate, increasethe to andgatherstrength, only ofmilitary movement the increase allowed pressure IRA and the “armed thatstruggle” eventually was more due problematic How war on terrorism. in recent the advocated measures often are same the tomight the change be inis wellthat so 1999), Hoffman former (Morrison-Taw, inthe and used arewell latter respected represented the of studies the and school, counter-insurgency the with connected isclosely circle by the Andrews exampleRAND-St. aforementioned The country. in the be employed to insurgency of Northern Ireland: the Accion Directe ledonly rejoin them to armedthe struggle). 19 CEU eTD Collection authors would like to see in descriptions of the phenomenon. The three most important most three The phenomenon. of the see in descriptions wouldlike to authors various that of 22 elements alist hasdistinguished Schmid Alex characteristics? those are What itssystem. political the on impact for theanalysis of develop aframework try to phenomenonthe of terrorism,its underlying and characteristics through this investigation In order to answer this question we have to start with a somewhat deeper examination of and even bring about its demise? In short, what is so terrorizing about terrorism? small of menandgroups armed women can seriously functioningthe disrupt state of the or made believe (by the organizationsWhy isit believed system. impact on political a great such toachieve manages terrorism themselves as well ashow answer failto they Significantly, their themselves. actors political the between relations opponents) that these 1987), they seriouslynot how these assess do influencerelations the life political and the 2003,Crelinsten (Weinberg,Pedhazur opposing be sympathetic or they terrorist groups, who do analyze toof thesea certain seriously deal withextent theAs itimpact could be seentheof fromterrorism the discussionrelations onof thepolitics. main trendssolved and isvery unlikely be solved.to in researchEven between thoseof terrorism, been yet researchers, not has that none A contradiction jails. in treatment thesubsequent in their inexistent political actorsitis suspects, captureandthe trial of leading to in the the period emphasizedmuch and the very is whileof putitinaspect words, terrorism political to other the convicts.Or, the of Irish treatment term, Northern the borrow to “normalized,” in completely the results measures often its draconic legislation terrorismwith the 1993) that 1998, Della Porta treatment of terrorismthe Ithas is convicts. been noted some (Von works Tangen Page 20 CEU eTD Collection phenomenon. the to given attention the explain and activity criminal mere a from it distinguish features These would two response. to bemore precise, requiresapolitical impact, or, which are by nature itis often argued in different sources and appears as self-evident that terrorists have aims, all, of first sides: different two from seen be can terrorism of aspect This nature. political its be to claimed is phenomenon in the interest profound a such for reasons the of One emphasize that the idea of the “changed world” after the September 11 September the after world” “changed of the idea the that emphasize scholars Many 2001). (Wallerstein hyperbole.” silly is this I think 11. September after again same the be never will world the that said frequently been has “[I]t States, United the in people the of consciousness people in the world. As Immanuelof the most the Wallerstein for noticedexperience daily ina than relation to the phenomenon attacks and theirextraordinary and impact exotic an on more the is terrorism now 7 most significant amount of attention. As Loren Lomasky writes: gets that violence is type of the exactly “political” see, often aswecan “political” and, adjective the merits violence all not However, attention. political demand but forces, security andother police for the concern notonly some point, become, at crime rates demand all the attention Large-scale violence can ofobviously becomea terrorizing forceand would definitely the governing bodies to“Violence” variables. explained. and“political” would become heretheexplanatory deal with it. Mob violenceshouldbe that elements the in fact, and“fear”are, “terror” that say wecould discussion, or high proposed of the inlight characteristics three atthese look if we analysis, crude In avery in terror 51% of all definitionsthe (Schmid 1988,p.5). are thefollowing: –mentioned violence “political” in –infear83.5%, 65%and and After the events of September 11, 2001, such a statement might not appear to be justified, however, even however, justified, be to appear not might statement a such 2001, 11, September of events the After prominence. (Lomasky 1991, p.87) extraordinary ascends to it terrorism, as werecognize garb dons destructive activity when Yet, newspapers. oflocal back pages escape the events dothese Only rarely natural assault violentcalamity. or by innumerable arevictimized people Every day political . Secondly, it is suggested that terrorism has apolitical has terrorism that is itsuggested . Secondly, 7 th are somewhat exaggerated. somewhat are 21 CEU eTD Collection some attention, receive times currentlyat prisoners) governmentsthe basically releasing as refuse (such to requests negotiate “modest” with terrorists. certain While unfavorable. more even not they do not give thewanted results. Forthe groups seeking to attainother types of aims, the statistics is 9 system of states. to the same ideological family is the fact that all of them are commonly aiming at subverting themay stateallow or theone to speak of a general ideology of terror and to see all the terrorist organizationsfreedom youwill as and be belonging as the foundersright of Republic”the (Robespierre 2000, p.297) However, what a despot governsscene during bythe Frenchterror Revolution,do notit allow to portrayhiswas terrorism as understoodanideology. Furthermore,stupefied from its very appearance as on a the political neutral weapon.terrorists Rightist the wereAsand as Robespierre Leftist muchthe against subjects,case, each other Italian the asagainst in (e.g. the state). state wrote: the The differences against only not “Whenin groupsthemselves and inbetween their goals fighting he is right aspolitical spectrum,a for nationalist the despot; and for various other reasons. Some of terrorist groups engage in a overcomesome authors, might be misleading. Terrorism canbe used by the groups onboth right and leftby of the terror 8 enemies of attributed the actions al to Qaeda. Therefore, an important question arises: how toexplain it was thegovernment– of perpetrators not the United the States themselves that even claimed. As, for example, in the case of the most spectacular one, the September 11aims of the terrorists proclaimed the to in ismeasured results relation by campaign the of if that success the campaign, terrorist successful any hardly was There numerous. arepretty Such examples be by precipitated kidnapping Gómez willforever remain mystery.” (Deas1997,p.368) “[h]ow thatthis wasto miracle writes ironically M-19and‘thethe Theauthor people’.” forces, “bring fusion armed of the aboutthe they bodyguardssought to claimedthat and Colombian M-19,terrorist group kidnapped aConservative politician, killed his means terrorist researchers notice asignificant discrepancy between the aims and the effectiveness of the program,itwill not be deemed (Lomasky terrorist” However,1991, p.88). many individual group represents itselfor as acting in servicethe ofa political ideal or an “[u]nless writes, Lomasky As criminals. mere from them distinguishes obviously The “terrorist” groupsdefinitely have political claims tomake: thisis whatmost The terrorist actions used to further nationalist objectives sometimes have a success, but more often than often more but success, a have sometimes objectives nationalist further to used actions terrorist The Part of literature onterrorism tries to represent terrorism as aspecific ideology. idea, This according to 8 to achieve them. Malcolm Deas, for instance, gives an example of a 9 . Furthermore, sometimes the responsibility of the attacks is not attacks of the sometimes the responsibility . Furthermore, 22 CEU eTD Collection considering the sociological research made in this field, focusing on the development of development the on focusing field, in this made research sociological the considering give Certainly, discredit thanto them prominence. ideas the moreviolence to tends isthat obvious bepretty to seems what of all, First shaky. somewhat is ideas,also certain solidarity the of with expression an be just might theactions terrorists’ movement that claim Lomasky’s However, from which they stem,importance. or, more concretely, having asecondary as be should seen a “material” claimsthen The rationality. expressive support for but ofinstrumental asamanifestation not activities seesterrorist For example,Lomasky seem to play a secondary role. Such an idea the made political demands have group, of the cohesion themselves of securing arole is advanced in several other works as isactivity.joining an If organization basedon well. questfor solidarity the acts and the that political claims donothave asignificantimpact on the decision engageto in terrorist mademeaning instance,for remains.Wintrobe, of claims the say Interpreting wecould Secondly, even if we admit that terrorists are as rational as most of us, the question of the discussed. of were terrorism when the micro-level upon theories touched fieldthe of psychiatry. Thefaults of and refutations have argumentthis alreadybeen They irrational attemptsfall understand are completely theirbehavior andwithin to any insane. arejust acts committerrorist who those that do, on terrorism of books the some Two main answers arepossible to these Firstquestions. of itbeall,could claimedas means? terrorist the by all at anything achieve to failed have them before others of numbers significant areappearing while scene on the new groups terrorist assess thefactthat such a discrepancy between the results and the persistence of the terrorist tactics? How to 23 CEU eTD Collection what is the essence of the movement, this worldview gets stabilized pretty quickly pretty and stabilized is thisworldview gets movement, of what the essence of understanding in the and explanations the in flux a certain be can there engagement violentactivities and relatively remains stable overtime. Whilebeginningthe at of the already be created might which worldview, made butacertain are that claims “material” theconcrete is not then, in situation, this is important What events and happeningsin world.the the of mythical understanding nearly creationcertain of a longof process effecta discourse itselfthe However, movement. the to adhere to (as and grievance well expressed the with identify as the acts) go further than to sympathizers The allow community” thediscourse 1997). possible claims (Apter these claims, which are“a couldbe called Apter, tosustaincreate following David attemptor what, acts to just a side of the it perpetrators by making claimsthe couldbe arguedthat these First, this work). terrorism canbe of (most provided, which bewill examinedmore deeplyin ChapterIof on research science political the of margins the from already answers hypothetical Some important? what else is dying. What,then, terrorists try the achieveto by inengaging their violentactivities? And tactics just shows ispreclude (Schmidand blood terrorist language 1988,p.23) usedtendsto dialogue” of that the ideas ofsuch a that fact “the very notices, asSchmid rightly Yet, are exhausted. ideas thepolitical movement are in engagesdeep in a terrorist activity only aftercrisis, all the other means for getting attention to their that 1995; of also 1991) Della Porta make Sidney ideasthese Tarrow do sense.Agroup it is actually work aforementioned (see, the movement protest wide the from organization terrorist the political in these activities if the “material” claims they not they make are that ifclaims in the“material” activities these prior to the engagement in engagement the to 24 CEU eTD Collection 10 for community touse theterms the William Connolly difference, through many (and of and “enemy” between the“friend” with isconcerned itself discourse whilethe discourse could bearguedthat thematerial have claims in only importance a marginal terrorist the identity creation could be one of the main tasks of the terrorist discourse. Therefore, it One could claim that the whole process of community virtuous. the of the of creation the suchas objectives, transcendental akind of toward directed actually is it ismadeand acts Terrorism of symbolic as well much apparent. pretty becomes symbolic actsa kind ofand ritual concentration plane.terrorism itself mightAs be seen as belonging not to the realmmost of thematerial politics, but to of the definitions Now, if we agreeto that itis the worldview, not the concrete claims that are important,the then of thetranscendentality, ritualpossible. is deliberation no when mention point two elementsis the It discourse. a radical of end a dead more exactly, or, anapex canbeseen as acts – their as well as thewritings terrorist direction, any in develop not relation does and change not does withmaintaining this the“community”, and whichworldview is around organized it. Asit terrorism are aimed theclaims discourse, The future made produced exactly andcommuniqués at writes: alchemy” 1997,p.11)while (Apter whole the setting As actually same. Apter the remains in areincorporated a certain furtherthe “linguistic through events this worldview About the understanding of terrorist acts as a ritual see, for example, David Moss, 1997. both both self-validating and self-sustaining (Apter1997,p.11). in discourse embodied communities, discourses that politicalinterpretative into violenceincorporated not are only events buildsis when on itself,[i]t but becomes 10 to use Schmittian terminology or, to create an identity identity creation distinguishing clearlyandsurely is in fact a ritual process. And 25 CEU eTD Collection Anthropoetics ( Violence andtheSacred intheModern World Jurgensmeyer Mark by edited of essays selection the is analysis an ofsuch example A good violence. the context of the Frenchrevolution, but also the in broadercontext of political and especially religious 13 by Catherine Kinzler and Hadi Rizk, etc. and Class in the Frenchand Classinthe Revolution book Hunt’s Lynn in be found can level same the at them keep and emotions contain to point and its end is associated with the emotional fatigue. Other important ideas about terror asan program Revolution 12 found in others as well. 11 societies theWestern within groups certain people, native of the histories erased Violence itself has in a specific meaning While these writesituations. about manyauthors “them”. from “us” distinguish life anddeathas between asastruggle to an attempt Schmitian sense of radical politics, it This,others). could be argued,is makes what terrorism in and political political This is how the French revolutionary terror is sometimes explained is sometimes terror revolutionary French the is how This made. are name actions in the in midst community whose the be of can alsothe produced cohesion Emotional theenemy. of in the camp fear creating more than at attempt actions violent it the be that argued could However, of terrorism. aspects the definitely of one fearis of andincitement is meaning of word the theFear, of etymological course, indicatesusage “terror” is word the of one that dealingemotion.here with the strong meaning asan of Here the terror writes: Apter As histories. these forth bringing at attempt asan be seen might in general violence political and terrorism sacrifices and victimization are explained in the theory of René Girard theory of inthe areexplained andvictimization sacrifices See, especially his especially See, Lyford be can Edwards, processes same the probably most while societies, of Western concentration ascholarly is There one of the classical theorists of revolutions, in his book resonance to presentresonance to ones. (Apter 1997, p.17) violence. provide past Theretrievingrevelatory of events authenticity and acertain legitimating of way a itself is which of retrieval the victors, by obliterated history In far so “erased” asadominant history iswhat is theirs, recounted anti-history, a claimed that terror appears in the societies where the public emotions have reached the highest the reached have emotions public the where societies the in appears terror that claimed http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu La Violence et le sacré (1984), in the (1984),the collection in of essays emotional construction (1998).Girard’s beideas can successfully applied not only in (1992), as well as a set of articles in journals like See especially articles of Nils Zurawski “Girard in “Girard Zurawski of Nils articles Seeespecially comes to the fore as well. The La République etlaTerreur 12 ; this is also how the how is also ; this The NaturalHistoryof Politics, Culture 13 . In these In . 11 , edited , , etc. 26 CEU eTD Collection http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0801/resent.htm in Terrorism” of Psychology Underground The Idolatry: Resentment, Ulster” “terrorists”? the to addressed storms Thisverbal these assess how to and reaction this understand how to question will be is question The activity. terrorist to the state the of reaction disproportional seemingly closely related to and againstthe p.33) also (for example note warn Some authors, Lasser 1987, other the question of how to assess the wondering that: Lomasky, writing about Loren state. the doagainst latter as the terrorists the against rhetoric with as inflammatory the reactions of theterrorist state officials tactics. to Notstate give demandsthe into theymakethe asthiswould the perpetuation only encourage of listeningterrorist toevents, what amongthey the politicians notesthat terrorists are not tobe listened andto have that in no way should the to say, the exists aconsensus Currently muchstate there these pay notdemands. attention to do that nevertheless states factis responds the forthe that result suchalow reasons One of the tactic. using aterrorist achieved by thatare results actual the and between claims themselves a hugegap the exists there that claimed was it terrorists the of demands “political” the discussing When violentinclinations. coming ofthe outside the from purge community itselfandits thus community the from foundation atthe initial excitement of the moment reproduce means serves to asa terror theories, of the community, to externalize one’s own fears, show the violence as (Lomasky 1991, p.96). of terrorism impact the discussing when tones near-apocalyptic adopt judgment political seasoned of persons Sober-minded … elicits. it commentary fevered and,political activity disrupt hand, other onthe structures capacity terrorist to of the One can hardly fail to note a disproportion between, on the one hand, the nugatory http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0801/ulster.htm ) and Andrew McKenna in “Scandal, in McKenna Andrew and 27 CEU eTD Collection considered important andif important as is into it entered considered thepolitical issue, such asecurity be only can threat the field, the in working authors the to according all, After terrorism. in in international indeed important are general relations impactof the understanding The ideas studies of Copenhagenthe School of security and thein constructivists legitimacy” (p.144). ideas and issues defining the state” or to the “external recognition of the state, its external legitimacy of the political unit which relates primarily ideologiesto and other constitutive paradigmatic proposed by Barry Buzan and others (see Buzan et al. 1998), terrorism presents itself as a security of types different between distinction the account into taking Furthermore, own identity. its it which creates through state tothe “other” as the maybeseen sense, again, terrorism this In population. the bythemajority of been whichaccepted haveotherwise state, the example, Campbell 1992). Terrorism here proposes itself as it attacks the fundamentals of for it ownidentity its (see, can which create to in eye its which it and relation can turn statehas friends against the manymore Of between andenemies. course, adversaries clearly distinguish to attempt an as politics Schmitian of logic the follows also it that in a sense, discourse, terrorist of in the sameway creation as the the can be understood findings of the previous section, one answer just proposes itself – the reaction of the state could of here.First beAgain,all, hypothetical arguments given the some considering andthestate. terrorists between engagement the of dynamics the understand better helpactivities terroristandshould to the to political reaction political threat. A political threat here is understood as a threat to “internal to asathreat is hereunderstood threat Apolitical threat. 28 CEU eTD Collection principles of its creation. The state sometimes allows that suspension of real time and by timeand of real suspension that sometimes allows state The its creation. of principles return to theeven uses themmoment for that purpose. Terrorism atmosphere or injoin acertain mightthe producing terrorists in state whichthe process of tries theto disrupt thecreation normal timeas a but acts, even of a series or as acertain not act of be should understood terror context politics, a of the this problem. In terrorist to the state the inof reaction the visible fear arestill controlled community of this Theaspects Vovelle1985,p.62). fear” (seefor “controlleda kindexample, of and by thatfirst systematic employment by Jacobinsthe in the French Revolution, wasto understood as change from its Terror, reaction. in thestate’s alsoapparent are of terror aspects The emotional the whodecide pay such attention to terrorism just particularits or manifestations. ones whythe issueand is ask havedecides what a political politicalwho system,to we sphere that it should be political. In order, thus, to see why terrorism has an impact on the political in the made is a decision because political, is terrorism words, other In countries. their publicsof the issueto security ita as exactly be present soand it should that decide (politicians) actors securitizing some because issue an is terrorism that clear becomes it issue, security asa as a political or it conceive whethermatter we Andno 1998, p.24) (Buzan et al.political justifying bounds of procedure.” and normal outside the actions which meansis that it “presented as an threat,existential requiring emergency measures In discussionsthe of terrorism, issue the only isnot politicized,also but “securitized,” version of politization.” (Buzan et al. 1998, p.23) asamoreextreme be seen can … “[s]ecuritization etal. write: asBuzan or discourse 29 CEU eTD Collection contingent and subject flux to is rendered permanent”more (Campbell 1992, p.33). sense of changing the meaning but rewriting in the threaten.sense The contours ofof identitythis inscribing have been the subject something ofconstant (re)writing: sonot rewriting that in the that which is 14 construction a such that show to tries state the of fundaments the attacking by terrorism as itself, state the for implications more has it but be right, might This terrorists. the of attitude nihilist a calls author the is what This completely. system whole the destroy to political andorder is parasitic uponit” (p.100),while terrorism is seen here as attempting LomaskyTo quote again: “[c]riminal activity operates within interstices the of the measures. military and police serious and themost rhetoric” “inflammatory butthe terrorists copingwith way other noof is there then that seems It isunderstandable. very reaction strong the violence) legitimate of only source (as the state any foundationalof the principles attack p.78). Thus, asthe terrorists 2000, emotion, than of the rationality and instrumentality of the public politics” (Hermant, Bigo also emphasizing that “whatis at stake is in fact more of a symbolic order, of the political number from andvariety of sources the Hermantwhich itandare (p.99). emanates” Bigo limitthe to be concerned to thereason is precisely …that its provenance whatever would limit domain the of authorized violence”As (p.100). violence itself is “deplorable that politics of “rejection is a it that is significant so terrorism against fight a makes what and circumstances these under important most is what Furthermore, author’s). emphasis it “problem”? According to Lomasky, for example, terrorism is important “because of what to the terrorist state of the reaction a different canbe there whether remains The question is in politics flux. a constant which gains normal of the time identity that state, the during the of of thestrengthening “… just as the source of danger has never been fixed, neither has the identity which it was said to represents and not just because of what it ofwhat just because andnot 14 brings about ” (Lomasky 1991,p.97, ” (Lomasky 30 CEU eTD Collection assessment and the discourse of securitization is not created is in isnot created discourse of but andthe assessment securitization a vacuum, apartof threat the violence, on discourse the Finally, constructions. discursive the looking at by analyze impact than way this to isnoother there idea that ageneral surges systems political phenomenon assess and its through toimportancethat influencing political as a locate terrorism to from attempts the Secondly, in particular. system political aspects of the important very the of terrorismone to attention sufficient devote not do they that extent such phenomenon,to it fighting i.e. of ways and phenomenon the its of causes the for search impact the on focused have in general and its influenceThis discussion allows several observations. Firston of all, thethe authors writing on terrorism as presented an foundationsviolence threatening of very outside the state. the is terrorism when that from different be significantly should then itself discourse The threat. security” as longeras itbea “political can no presented security register, different a into itself the problem puts terrorists stancethe of political the negating as a andcrime envisioning terrorism as crime or war is very important in this context. Showing terrorism [and] with (Hermant,whom a war…has started” Bigo The2000, p.88). question of denying or him valorize apoint status political to to him when itbecomes up equal quasi adversary “criminalize [the] to made either can be anattempt write, and Bigo Hermant itAs as a showing versuswar. crime) against fight the (and,consequently, crime differencesthose canbe in seen andthefightagainstterrorism as envisioning terrorism There might be furtherexcluded. differences in the reaction is is important, more it and,what is arbitrary as well histories the parasiticupon of the of the state to isas thestate it actually ideaand legitimate the arbitrary as a of violence of unique source the terrorists. One of 31 CEU eTD Collection and should be assessed in relation to another, what I would call a Qaeda is overshadowed and in Qaeda is ignored virtually overshadowed even more debates on terrorism.the But Al infamous the In even Spain, sphere in asthis organization. attention political the 1960s,the as none none aprominence asthem ETA, of of gainsthem such much gets consider all the resurgent “old” terroristif we Even isindeedpuzzling. of ETA persistence the Therefore, than inside. the of those groups that were born out of the movementssettled and in the events regions haveother influence more on experiencesthe violenceof of outside Europe, primarily the Middle East. The conflicts of the old continent appearbe to When we thinkof violence, warand terrorism itis more common to thinkplaces about current operational and political weakness notwithstanding. its debate, political of the center the at kept is still and democracy of consolidation in since the every alternation power indirectly it political influenced life,the influence on have animportant managesto decades still two thelast declinethroughout in asteady hasbeen astheorganization, which respect, in interesting casethis a very haveETA. Spainis chosen caseof inits fightthe with Spain group Basqueseparatist the could help us explainthey whether theseeing and impact example specific some at looking by of them terrorismconsider to necessary on the political system. For that Havingpurpose thesequestions raised andhavingintroduced it these basic assumptions, is I has on the political system. it impact that has an terrorism we canreally why understand that discourse to this relation civilization)itis, it how beperceivedand to.Itis should how berelated should in only even (or nation the and state a certain what of understanding time through developed i.e.the “general discourse”, Gamson’s William to assimilar can be seen This concept historical discourse historical 32 . CEU eTD Collection discourse not only in case of terrorism studies, but in the general assessments of the issue. the political discourse, looking at ways of betweendifferent connections the I,establishes inChapter is outlined adding to the elaborations which framework, chosen theoretical Finally,more the than no sketchy. are newspapers of the frameworkit in advanced assessed mannerand a systematic ideas and were the that invarious books for was thenever but mentioned, analysis continuously been has life political Spanish the on terrorism of of mustbe theimpact respectthat saidin this It theBasqueCountry. terrorism inSpainand within it. In addition, this study also contributes totheunderstanding of question of forces political of constellations the and field political the on terrorism of impact the to pay attention not enough still yearsdo in recent the increasingly popular so became they of all, it contributes to studythe of a political discourse, this study developmentwill attempt to throw light on a set of issues: first of the the with are concerned fields that studies different of the concepts theoretical by using Thus, of terrorism, whichcase for analysis. even though interesting makes of an such andETA situation Spain the discrepancy manifested that highly this exactly is it And significant. is importance political its and organization in the forms of attacks of Madridthe killed Barajasairport people, two physical the presence of organization the was minor. This mid-2003meanwhile, between December 30, and 2006, when a bomb in aparking garage discrepancy between the In policy. years anti-terrorism been has lastthe three overthe leading parties two the the actual attacks rivalrybetween organization; the greatest the to constantly refer speeches of politicians of the with. headlines Many of front-page the of ETA; leadingnewspapersthe refer to the so, ETA seems to overshadow most of other problems with which the state has to deal 33 CEU eTD Collection the international relations, anthropology and discourse analysis in order tofill analysis in inorder gaps the and discourse international anthropology the relations, from of theories set atthe look will I First, work. of the structure the ideas guide These space in general. political andon the shapeof the actors the of political discourse onthe aconnection such of result is the what and violence with be connected to comes understanding this how understanding studies nation the through of will thein-depth examine time, developed the how show in general discourse historical the with dealing parts the While nation. the to relation its and violence on discourse the of development in the points turning become discourse and the in-depth studies of some important sets of events that have (or failed to) historical of the analysis the of acombination chosen: has been approach pronged fully to In analyzeandevaluate theimpact inorder Spanishatwo- of ETA the politics, in violence discourse. the of place the assess to try this through and Country Basque the and Spain both in nation nation. Thus, a part of this fieldunderstandingandbe of political madeinthesphere would the the of contested the dissertation will deal its violence between connection the presume that itto bewould possible organization, with the specific understandingbe isaseparatist drawn.AsETA could violence ideas and political the between of the connection the in which points, andthe are where discourse of this characteristics examineare theunderlying to in what order country of discourse the historical atthe whyviolenceis look makesitwords, necessary perceivedaspolitical.This to other In presence. its with connected are issues political and ideals political what at look firstof itall is necessary to in country, the organization of importance a terrorist the The of development study this inwas basedthe on first understand intuition that to order 34 CEU eTD Collection of ETA brought to the development of the birth Basque that nationalism changes the to be paid will and to attention the Most similarities nation. the of and understanding Basque 19 the from development its and discourse historical Spanishthe Basque theto presents alternative part The fourth nation. the on exclusively almost PPconcentrated conservative the while position, more state-oriented pragmatic, side of the Spanish political the on Itwillbearguedthat nation-violence-state. between relation the on actors political main actors, the of positions the and democracy to transition the the after country in the Socialistdiscourse Party, PSOE,The always following retained a more parties. political of the discourses part inArticle Constitution) of legal the 2of in andthe documents (suchas the country the deals with both gainedexpression understanding andthatthis nation “ethnic” of the characteristics the general many the of nation retained of Spanish understanding the argue the will that development I and in assessed. benation its maincharacteristics the will historical presented context of Spanish last nationalism twothe throughout centuries, the understanding of Spanishthe the nation-state-violencethe analysis on Basing be presented. will nation the regarding historical discourse Spanish the Second, the works of variousmain ideas and theoretical concepts which will further guide this work. scholarsuseful who forexamined the analysismost arethe discourse of theories that conclusion lead tothe will discussion The initial the of thedevelopment impact of terrorismin the theoretical assessmentof of terrorism, theand, the way it was presented inconsequently, this introduction. I will present the th century onwards and assesses the main characteristics of the of maincharacteristics the assesses and onwards century 35 CEU eTD Collection the nation and those who try to destroy it.destroy who to try and nation the those of protectors between thebetween and but PP ETA, actors, democratic between contest “coalition” of forces, whichfor is orchestratedpower inby contestants chain,actual the this latter of party.In the all opponents ETA,the subsumes chain the making state from other the and core the at the protector) its as party the (and elections nation the has chain – one which the not theSpanish in creation through equivalence of of clear chains the wasconstructed party’s discourse Socialistsof the principal political actors in the country – the Popularare Party, PP.I will argue that the substituted on onviolence primarily discourse nation the andthediscourse on Spanishside, the one as the between into connection ana study in provide will Madrid crisis March 11 attacks the of enemy by theAnother situation campaign– the for the general elections of 2004 and subsequent the itis violent, but also that it still belongs to the Basque “house.” with inETA adouble way,both its acknowledgingimportantof most characteristics: that dealt actors Basque democratic the years, for nearly ten impact have alasting to proved isBasques, reconciled with ETAviolence.the Itwillbe arguedthatin case, which this the see how of unity this beimportant to it will solidarity, Basque of the clear show The being declaration Lizarra one nation on the andhistorical are connected. discourse of Lizarra declaration and preceding the events andfollowingit, showing how violence signing the all, of First actors. important most the of some of discourse the significantly examineThe nextparts two situations which indepthtwo did manage (or changed not to) BasqueLeft. and theradical as PNV) referred Party (later Nationalist Basque –the forces EAJ/PNV –the main Basquepolitical between the differences 36 CEU eTD Collection violence in the region reached such heights that the British Parliament was forced to send to forced was Parliament British the that heights such reached region the in violence basin during the so-calledstudy, authorwasanalyzing the violence against thenative Indians in Putumayothe river rubber boom at the turn term of“culture of terror”the which is now20 often used in the anthropological works. In this In his 1987 book “Culture ofterror”–anthropologicalexplanation of violence anddiscourse. between power relation on the speculations mainly Foucauldian the points, starting by common areunited theoretical theories 2001),notaccommodated Thirdly (Kurtz inany discourse. andofficial essentially, these anthropologists) focusing on voicesthe victims,“disarticulatedof and dispossessed” pluralitythe re-discovering doing) are relations international of theorists (like either actions, and events the of reading ofalternative an providing by discourse, (state) ideas official the abandoned “deconstructing” on emphasis the Secondly, research. of areas respective their of theories with and of in explanations actions existing the events the existing the mainstream ondissatisfaction the firstly, common: in things some have the analysis, of methods different way toof internationalthe Truththeory – poststructuralist enquiry scientific of spheres different in two recourse seek and orrelations (likehas weshouldsuch animpact, move beyond theinvestigations done in science political and the itanswer to why in order Therefore, anthropology. factors. “material” the on concentrate to just enough postmodernnot is it systems political the on impact its especially and terrorism of phenomenon the These theories, discussingWe stopped the theories a suggestion terrorism with of wheninvestigatingthat though using completely Chapter I. framework. Theoretical beyond“terrorology” Moving Shamanism, Colonialismandthe Wild Man th , Michael a Taussig coined century. At the time, the 37 CEU eTD Collection dense web ofmagical (Taussigrealism” 2001,p.213-214). mysterious side of flourishes mysterious by means the andfantasy of inrumor woven a the on stress fanatic the which in myth and silence by nourished and on “based by perpetrated coloniststhe in name the of …civilization” (Taussig 1987,p.134).Itis savagery the and by colonists the Indians tothe thesavagery attributed between has(everybody participate initsto functioningperpetuation) and “mimesis ina way of Thus, for Taussig, terror is a (Taussig 1987,p.107). savagerythe it with on was which dependedand their world which, complicit” therefore, stations’ employees were “constantly reproducing their world overand over againagainst in though,fora senseless therubber andmaiming Not killing Indians, end product, (Taussigp.53). Thus, according 1987,author: tothe understanding of way the business can from transform terror a means toan end initself” Furthermore, in toassess terror termsis,these author, according tothe “ourto obscure behavior. rational economically seem tobean not force does labor scarce supposedly a Taussig. out Killing Casement notes factspresents, that againstthe goes argument control. Thus the excessive brutality was explained in economic terms. However, such an monopolistAmazoninkeep it violenceunder Company, the region,to resorted to rubber,“not butlabor” (Taussig was 1987,p.53) scarce inPutumayo,Peruvian the As labor scarcity. of interms ofviolence acts these explains Casement, envoy,the Roger in report, this area.In the committed atrocities the areporton produce to a specialenvoy 1987, p.100) itsof (Taussig themain consuming Indians themselves, whom product. and were form life,of amode of production, and inmany forways, many people, not least andsimply werenot Torture werea utilitarianmeansof terror production; they cultural construct (Taussig 2001, p.220), all (Taussig 2001,p.220), encompassing 38 CEU eTD Collection distinct acts under one category, that of terrorism, is as illusionary as putting under the under putting as illusionary is as terrorism, of that category, under one acts distinct not claiming that acts, which are called “terrorist”, do not exist, but that putting all those deeply embedded in culturethe of times”the (Douglass, Zulaika 1996,p.96). They are constructs imaginary but be nothing to appear inspection, aclose on that, phenomena Zulaika and Douglass view terrorism in with analogy witchcraftas a “pervasive social some insightinto the phenomenon of terrorism as well. of intoa darkmedievalmind.the can Looking however, phenomenon, deeper provide invention be an consideredto now is witches of whiletheexistence exist, do accused of they anditare acts couldfor, the terrorists be both the said, analogy, faulty a completely be to seem might this glance first the At modernity. early the of witch-hunt the at as way Douglass Zulaika, otherand anthropologists, two suggestlooking ina atterrorism similar Witches, hereticsandothercommunists beginning there was the word, but action did follow pretty close. through but discourse, whichthe spills itself into very real and concreteactions. In the sustained and out is born that Fear fear. shows, etymology its is, as terror Finally, is not. what one is one against who of is affirmation fear. an Terror by that andnourished Other fearthe of of out born Other, the against of oneself an affirmation at isanattempt terror Furthermore, and evil, etc. between good civilization, and savagery the between culture and language in apparent dichotomies the of born is it that violence just than more much places that are omitted in by in because produced is accents the prolongedthe terrorist it campaigns.useful, It puts the mainstream theoriesit aswell, can situations the mind, ones of other terror beappliedas chronic such to on terrorism. It showsmy to however, terror, state the for validonly is theory thatTaussig’s that mightbeargued It Terror is 39 CEU eTD Collection understanding of the world as it existed at the time and serving a clearly designated a clearly time atthe servingit and existed as world the understanding of embeddedinthe deeply construction, modernof age wasacultural early the witchcraft the above), (see terror Putumayo the of analysis inTaussig’s Like importance. terrorism, asin thesame in witch-hunt, Moreover, is terrorism. so occasions, on certain attempted the relationshipwas actually persons toattain groups The witchcraft or objectives. their concrete of the general feelingconcreteinsecurity of and fearontopersons. also, Both, by could beused phenomenoncan the change world bytheirviolentdeeds today.couldBoth be used for siphoning a to the discursivebelieved in witches’ ability to conjure practicesthe evil forces, same so there areway persons whoterroristsisin modernity, of early fearful elements the combined most aswitches the Furthermore, believe of they high combineTaking thisaccount, into analogythe with witchcraftgains more grounding. those offrustration, and ineffectiveness intaming contingency” global (Connolly 1991, p.207). our age. As there“domestic constituencies with explainagents of evil to vagueexperiences the danger, of were personsIn comparison,who truly William Connolly of accusations witchcraft: for example, the Oldridge, Darren to According terrorism. becould needs. about said social Thesame, whichserved probably, one, certain claims and a pretty real phenomenon modern in agewas,therefore, Witchcraft early the matters. that terrorismhas its momentum. It could be said that itis not the facts, but the reaction to them that interpretation their but own, of areality their have areaccusedof andterrorists witches servesboth that events The etc. illness, bad weather, of instances the witchcraft of category as a provision for p.11) a remedy,for amisfortune thatwasotherwise tounderstand hard (Oldridge 2002, anger in the situation of social conflict, and it offered an explanation, and possibly … servedmajorfunctions two for people the involved: itprovided an outlet of 40 CEU eTD Collection 15 maleficium forfunction involved allthepeople –the villagersby inquisitors, affected the inside and the barbaricinsidemission American and the civilizing the outside, of the people, all the a civilized into dividing theworld frontier” of The “myth state is the that encountering. dangers describe the to andsymbols used metaphors images, the similar same or trace Accordingly, time. the throughout continuity insignificant a the exhibit discourses these foreignFurthermore, policy discourse of the United States of America, one can of the state itself.For, Campbell claims: Unitedand, States consequently,how thelatter helps produceandto maintain the identity the of policy foreign in the is constructed danger of understanding the how analyzes on hand,anything other reality.the But with ofriskinsurance,“Nothing assumption the that in isa itself; no thereisrisk risk in shaped aforeign policy mainly, USAduring,the of periodthe of War. Cold the Starting that threat and danger of interpretation the is concerns Campbell’s main the of One in a sense the questions that Campbell explored in his work. identity Campbell’s (1992) international Outof workrelations. important these, for most my the is Davidpurposes periodthe of Coldthe War.Thisissue is much given inconsideration studiesthe on Getting closer to today, one could also consider the menace of the Communists during A harmful magic, the enactment of which was attributed to the witches. what ‘we’ have to fear. (Campbell 1992, p.54) whoabouttruth ‘we’ andwhatare byhighlightingnot, and who ‘we’ are what and requiresprovideof ‘man’. …the state ‘danger’ to discourses of new theology a of and discourses the ‘state’ the of thediscourses to central are ‘danger’ of … discourses . This work is particularly useful for the investigation thus presented for it echoes 15 and the witches themselves. and witches the Writing Security. UnitedStatesforeignpolicy and thepolitics of can be (Campbell arisk” theauthor 1992, p.1-2), 41 CEU eTD Collection acts the terrorists the between discrepancy acertain the to extent explains then, interpretation, as well. This commit andterrorism is to be perceived as a ritualthe behavior, thus, essentially, a symbolic phenomenon goals thatas a intended andsymbol” perceived they raise forisact itthe means in terrorist fact; andnot that rather, symbolically “only happens themselves:mean callinghe symbolic terrorism doesnot bombing akidnapping,that amurderor beingby that a explains Thornton ritual identify. clearly can population the of apart which with victim asymbolic attacks a terrorist rather anger, but fear, can person provoke rarely concrete a of murder a is claimed, itAs victims. symbolic chooses or facilities symbolic certain fear”,attacks of create a “general seeking toclimate which, of certain type activity, asa is vision, understood terrorism this among In researchers. the significant support Thornton studies terrorism in1964by and hasgained since on Perry Thomas then a asa was understood terrorism asamodern phenomenon, from stage on itsthe appearance nearly In addition, that one should look at if one is to grasp the essence of such a phenomenon as terrorism. such that imagean is It is sustained and perpetuated. then discursivethe constructions fear and threatening images of is phenomenadifferent arecreated.It through discourse isitis that Therefore, what atthis point that clear begetting should through discourse less intact. recently gave way to the terrorists, with the metaphors used remaining, however, more or inimagery, popular mainly) butalsothe (and in political the latter and the discourses by not only Continent werereplaced currenttimes.Thus,to the Communists Indians the in New colonies the from of first the inception is the transported west of imagery wild symbolic violence . For the first time this term was introduced in the (Thornton For1964, p.77). Douglass(Thornton Zulaika and 42 CEU eTD Collection be analyzed viadiscourse. should itself terrorism the thus, construct, discursive asa cultural, beshould understood andthreats dangers gettingthementionedthemselves, backto authors in chapter, this envisionsitselfforsociety agroup fears. and attempts toovercome The or their these a concrete and dangersthat fears, threats the of terrorism, examine context the needthe to surroundsfield that terrorism in tounderstandorder how it works. This, indicates again, a certain field, taken out of which they lose all their meaning, itis necessary lookto at the field act. Asof violentthe surrounding discourses symbolsbeperceived only can within terrorism,be may not which easily graspable forones the notparticipate who do in the of construction inthe elements the to points also and creates terrorism fear that the extent of the ritual. The of functions be the descriptions violence seenineachandevery can of one these Terrorist ritualized and symbolic elements of this violence explain to a great they they have avery meaning clear and in are enacted order to: not mean that the actions performeditrational”isi.e. it not eitherirrational However,or does (Douglass Zulaika 1996,p.83). on the ritual planebehavioritmeans thathere“the betweenmeansrelationship and not isends ‘intrinsic’, are senseless. On the contrary, ¾ ¾ ¾ changes in the world order (see, for example, Turner 1974). or to restore apre-existing status of a personorgroup (see, for example, 1993); Sørensen of participantsthe of by ritual the ambiguity,overcoming “more-or-less” the status change ontological the to or plane metaphysical the on world the transform status” participantsto the of ritual the 1973, p.406); (Rappaport transmit the information on the “physiologic, psychological or sociological status quo of the society in response to the unwelcome the to in response society the of 43 CEU eTD Collection For that purpose, the insightsfrom a couple of other areas of research should be useful. discourse of terrorism is shaped and how the identities of the actors are created through it. Therefore, in order to understand how terrorism works, we should look at the way the arethat: from theories these can be taken that points initial The drama. see terrorism might we way on the influence study inspiration a provides forconstant this andwork has Taussig’s work a significant Campbell’s work, this for importance undeniable an have theories these of insights The words that run as follows: analysis as terrorism. However, to answer such a challenge of controversial object such a case inof the betrue especially Thismight facts. actual let me use David Campbell’s Oftentimes the theoristsforward. is from of put discourse perspective the ideathe ofseeingphenomenon acertain of discourse when involved are misunderstanding a accusedis often there as again, stressed be should note One of trying to deny the existence of the any discursive condition any p.9)of condition discursive (Campbell 1993, emergence. of outside asobjects themselves constitute could they that assertion different rather issuch field. Whatis denied notthat existobjects thought,butthe externallyto a discursive of structuring dependsupon the God’, of wrath ‘expressions of the is in their objects of‘natural phenomena’ specificity constructed terms as or whether But will. my of independently now, and here occurs it that sense the in opposition. Anearthquake orthe fallingisa brick of an certainlyevent that exists, realism/idealism the with or thought, to external is aworld there with whether do to hasnothing asan of discourse isobject every constituted The factthat object 2) 1) their actions andinteractions. their actions shape creation andthis through of actors the theidentities create helps discourse matters; discourse 44 CEU eTD Collection investigation of ErvingGoffman’s investigation of to the study of social movements mainly by David Snow and his associates (see Snow et Snow (see associates his and Snow David by mainly movements social of study the to book The conceptframe of wasintroduced into social sciences in byGregory Bateson his 1954 Frame analysis pretty blurred and the language is often used interchangeably 2002, p.63).(Johnston is two the line separating that the itbeshould remembered However, them separately. hereIwill examine therefore approaches, ofmethodological sets different somewhat frameshavenotions produced anddiscourses The two analysis, of discourse etc. political movements, social on in research the asundertaken discourses frames and of analyses the with above presented theories the connects clearly concern common This the constructions of identity of a collective actor. As Paolo Donati notes: with areconcerned all them of Furthermore, Luckman (Berger, 1966). construct a social events will be interpreted. In a sense, all of them depart from an assumption that reality is through of ofwhich subsequent structures the makingconsequently thought, part them a and events the of interpretations the in transmitting language of importance the on relations, international and in anthropology theories above mentioned the as same the all, of First of assumptions. set a on developments theoretical and investigation of methods their base them of All approaches. different terminologically as well as methodologically “frames”The notions and“discourses”brought havetwo upsomeof similar though identities frames, Discourse, goal goal is also givenmeaning. (Donati 1992, p.137) collective thespecific through appears asacultural which construct therefore, an ‘identity’,… the formation of a collective actor requires the construction of a collective self: which is defined on the basis of the available cultural tools and, Steps toan ecology ofmind and entered the field of sociology mainly through the Frame analysis (1972). These concepts wereadopted These concepts (1972). 45 CEU eTD Collection assigning responsibility for doing that; and agents” be and toredress problemthe action thesecondto taken one proposingand diagnosticdivided groups: into two and prognostic, thefirst “identifying one culpable intolerable,“unjust, of deserving action”collective and (p.137); compartmentalized fashion”, the change of one component in such systems does not does systems in such component one of change the fashion”, compartmentalized highly in “a related are that principles of anumber on depend flexible, completely are system depends on one core element. Viability such a dependingwith tightlyinterconnected elements. oneof principle, upon On the other extreme we would are completely rigid, that find those ofwhichwe on extreme one the structures, find systems that fallingof thecontinuum beliefsystem the the They as p.205). within characterize is withineffort life relevant (1988, toorresonates of world potential the participants” structure of internal “the thetwo: into be divided largerbasically can Those it. to external are that belieffactors system or ideology” themobilization andSnow (1988), framing of Benford any of dependson a set potential and “the extentto According resonance. frame tothe of is that which respect this in notion important Another the framing fashion” (p.138). in andmeaningful they unified andarelatively hand together sothat “events experiences groups: Following and Snow Benford (1992)the functions frames of can be divided into three definition frame,of following the traditional conceptualization of the notion was that of: 1992,Huntetal. andal.Snow andSnow Their etc.). 1986,Benford 1988, Benford 1994, Benford 1992,p.137) pastenvironment. (Snow, and or withinsequences one’s experiences, actions of present events, situations, objects, encoding and punctuating selectively by there” world “the simplifies out that andcondenses schemata … aninterpretative punctuation – singling acertain out condition,social whichis defined further as packaging which allows to unite various attribution –which is 46 CEU eTD Collection organizational frame will have. Three planes of frames can be distinguished this way: this distinguished be can frames of planes Three have. will frame organizational but that of isnotsuggested from work Snow andhis framing only the the matters, colleagues that there be What can importance here. is ofgreat is concerned organization any movement are which with framings of levels different different of conceptualization the especially notions, These above. discussed frames framingsframes differ in the mobilizingthat potency,master Finally, interpretation. rangeof agreater andallow flexible more are second which is similarhave to the idea of resonance and elaborated influence offrames, the of which the first are rigidrestricted and into allow littledistinguished interpretation be can it, doing are and they the in which manner in the and function on Theperform butcandifferin function, blame”of “specification (p.138). the articulation the effect attribution have the frames also Master (p.138). movementorganizations” any number of that of those “constrain more generic and they are but frames, organizational the to are similar themovement the of frames master The examination. current the for concept important an Thirdly, and introduce Benford Snow (1992) notionthe “masterof frame”, which is also (p.210). narrations” cultural “existing the to itcorresponds i.e. that fidelity, narrative thirdly, the and of people involved; tothe the ithow relates experiences i.e. commensurability – experiential it; into fit events actual the how get, can frame the verification participants,the empirical depends three others: credibility how much on – i.e. for frame the of relevance the element, second The (p.205). structure whole the challenge 2) 1) the movement master frame; the general belief system; 47 CEU eTD Collection to when we analyze the patterns in discourse and try to assess the importance of violence of importance assess the to try in and discourse when patterns the to we analyze about politics), this theory shows what we should look for, what we should pay attention whatcognitive arepresent structures in minds our whenwe think and talk (in casethis – Asit this work. frameworks deals with of language, find conceptual tryingthe to out These(Donati 1992, p.141). ideas theimportance linguistics for of emphasize cognitive memory”, is “[c]ognition perceiver’s thus the nothing more than or re-cognition” culture Or, to put it otherwise, perceptions are based on the categories that “are already present in notes: Lakoff subject. the object or it frames way perceive the we should Therefore, elements. other some at time suppresses but thesame represented, of object the elements In a sense, metaphor could be said to operate in two ways, i.e. it highlights some of the another, but the but another, isdescribed through of one objects, which two the sameness indicate between the not of essential the of parts framesthe through which weperceive themetaphors world, do Lakoff andLakoff 1996). Beingone 1980, Johnson MarkJohnson (Lakoff,1990, of metaphors,George in onthefunctioningworks asexamined of work the the instance, For importance. particular of are fields in these findings the of here,some undertaken especially1993), cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics. For the research tobe The of framingisconcept also usedin “cognitive fields different science”of (Johnson facts ignored. (Lakoff 2003, p.3) neural circuitry.The framesWhen the are facts in the don’t synapses fit the of frames,our brains the – framesphysically are keptpresent and thein the form of we forindetermine look imageshow encodedexperience culturally to inorderto our us either… functions as a symbol rather than as a sign:a which is tosay that it does notgive 3) should feel the organizational organizational the frame. description likeness about the thing (White represented 1978, p.91,emphasis author’s) of one object to another. As Hayden White notes, metaphor: notes, White Hayden As another. to object one of or an icon of the thing it represents, butrepresents, it thing the of tells us what 48 CEU eTD Collection five trends within the political discourse analysis: distinguishes Howarth investigation. of questions different somewhat with are concerned and frameworks methodological develop different they do etc.), deconstruction, Derrida’s school, Frankfurt the anddiscourse, power between relations on Foucault hegemony, on (e.g.Gramsci theories background ideasWhile most similar basetheir of theories the on drama. of terrorist actors the between interaction of discourse the of analysis the for used be can they how on focus aspecial with arediscussed discourses macro-level the moredeal with that theories for help little of is macro-levelthe analysis I intend that undertakein to paper.this Therefore, further characteristics linguistic on exclusively theories these of concentration the but as well, project this for importance great of are categories thelinguistic Some of 1993, FaircloughWodakWodak 1996,Van Meyer 1985, 2001,1998, Dijk 1995, etc.). School, Analysis Discourse Critical the of investigations the example, (see,for texts is taken into account, they still devote most attention to the linguistic produced was text the categorieswhich in context of the those when even and texts separate of analysis level micro- concerned with the are however, of theories, Most these investigation. of object political astheir works discourse take numerous that years haveappeared there In recent Schools ofdiscourse analysis events. of interpretation our and thinking guide that in our thought patterns clearly subconscious Lakoff,shows these according to which, sense,” “common so-called here–the be can added also Another metaphor. in their constructions. One of such important elements was already mentioned – the 49 CEU eTD Collection discourse analysis. discourse beview schools post-structuralistto the his shaping of seems of the other the theories to Howarth’s ones (seeJäger2001). adherence own of certain suggestions post-structuralist using are also Analysis school with Discourse Critical the associated researchers of the the different schools cannotbe drawn as sharply as Howarth suggests. For example, some between boundaries the Furthermore, it be can hardly butexhaustive. in politics, analysis theoriesclassify the of to discourse different This canbeusefulinorder distinction 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) 2000, p.5). examineto historical functioning” and their political construction and (Howarth constitute symbolic systems and social orders and the task of discourse analysisis “discourses For them, Mouffe). Derrida, Laclau, (Foucault, Post-structuralists its dialectics. of inexamination analysis discourse the social systems inwhich function” they 2000, p.4) and (Howarth sees the role of constitutingthe Dijk) relationship “mutually between and discourses seesthe The aforementioned Criticaland power. discourse analysis as ideologies whichhelp justify and makenatural school unjustthe allocation of goods (Fairclough, Wodak,MarxistsPêcheux view (Althusser 1969,1971, 1982, Žižek1994) that discourses Van discourses and“reproduce transform materialthe world” (Parker1992, p.1). look at way the the that try to and of discourse sources material the emphasize that 1992,etc.) 1994, Parker 1979,Harré, 1975, Harré (HarréMadden Realists category. into this Positivists and empiricists. Frame analysis of the social movement research falls 50 CEU eTD Collection common features of all these texts are, i.e. what makes a discourse into a coherent whole, a whole, coherent a into discourse a makes what i.e. are, texts these ofall features common texts that make them into a coherent whole. InDonati’s understanding, what matters is to see what the Johnston’s definition discourse is seen asasum of texts, that is, itdoes not suggest the links between those term. real in human the (Donati world” is1992, p.138) clearerin denoting the meaning of the event’ … the actthrough which ideative are actualized andsymbolic constructs andmade as “‘language is giving of Donati adiscourse a assuch. discourse the definition that The define be to can hardly taken but for investigation, sources the areimportant “artifacts” 17 satirical prints, statutes of associations,posters, pamphlets and so speeches, on’” (Johnston 2002, p.67). slogans, articles, newspaper demonstrators, ofpolitical actions meetings, at debates 16 is partis analysis approaches agreat that While it true of analysis. of the discourse It seems thatthis is distinction made on a certain a-priori understanding of two the trends offers one actualp.72). less (Johnston to 2002, reference texts framing the and texts the at closely looks analysis discourse the that in methodologically, p.72) and,2002, Johnston gets about”, whaton andprocesses talked effect their and their role in movement development” and the discourse analysis looks at “cultural frames action collective describe frame “mostly studies that (i.e. research asks the that approaches that Johnstonconcepts, sees in the discourse i.e. andthe frame concept analyses areof in framesthe questions and that of discourses. The main differencesby organization. an developed “material” artifacts of asasum discourse of understanding specific a on based is distinction Johnston’s concepts, two inthe to given is whatkinddefinition of matter itdoes while However, concepts. these between clearly (2002), Johnston this is a problem and research the design should always distinguish with the discourseinterchangeably used isoften terminology frame the terminologyliterature movements social the In (see Donati 1992 as an example for that). According to Itcould be said that here a distinctionbetween Johnstonis taking Sewell’s definitionof discourse and sees it as “the sum total of ‘manifestos, records of 17 In such an understanding, however, it is hard not to see a link between the two sum and system is what makes all the difference. In system 16 . These 51 CEU eTD Collection Benford 1988,p.204).The discourse showtheory to tries impossibility inherentthe fix to to resist them andthe attempts Hegemonic theory. in discourses ofinvestigation the discourse subjects are also of core the areoneof concern discourse hegemonize the to Attempts framing”). “boundary on for the offraming isal.same concern expressedbytheadherents p.194-196 (see Huntet 1994, framing analysis The 2000,p.9). “us”much creation the with and“them”concerned (Howarth of division (see, isfor very byHowarth as described theory discourse the example, For similar concepts. example, Snow This mutual however,suspicion,notinhibit does twotrendsthe in develop to analysis explanations and that suggests tendencythe beshould reversed 2002, p.88). (Johnston causal from the away ismoving movements onsocial in literature the analysis done 2000, p.132).(Howarth Inthesame is wayJohnston most lamenting of that discoursethe realism” and idealism empiricism, of forms all “against isset theory his as findings, in their interested longer isno Howarth approaches, positivist empiricist of category the into frames of analyses the putting by Thus, projects. other’s each for suspicion contact on the theoretical level of these disciplines, and their adherents often showmutual islittle there However, works. for their ideas respective similar come upwith and often investigation of objects with deal similar the hereactually approaches presented The two and can often prove fruitful for the extensiveness of the analysis. impossible not is approaches thetwo of combination sense, the that large. In at society the or movement the in prevalent meaning of structures larger the with as texts singular with asconcerned is not consequently, andof analysis which, the awiderrequire view, that of practices alargerdenote system to discourse take which approaches, different focusing on a small set of texts that are analyzed in depth, as we have seen, there are also 52 CEU eTD Collection social relationships. a morefrom philosophical position, dissatisfaction the on accounts with existing the the position. The whole society is its main level of investigation. The theory also starts from introduced and afterwards the notion of “master frame” appears. frame” of “master notion the afterwards and introduced was system” belief “general the of importance the next, framing, individual the with mainly was concern 18 structures. broader first investigating theindividual frames of mind and moving only then forward to analyze perspective, bottom-up more the from starts also It data. empirical the on more relies theories, mainstream in the events the of explanations the with dissatisfaction the with begins that research movements social practical The approaches. two the of points starting different in the lies probably question first the to answer The be bridged? cannot it great that so them gapbetween Is the two? the between differences then Whatare the Geertz. to thesame –AntonioGramsci authors theFrankfurt school or orCliffordthinkers, of frames and the discourse theorists of theorists the movement Essex social school the both lookFinally, for supporttheorists). movement for social their for p.137 claims1992, 2000, pp.121-122forHowarth theaccount of discoursethe theory concern and Donati (see two between the balance finda precarious trying to and agency, between structure credibility” (Laclau Inaddition, both are concerned 1990,p.66). they with relation the discourse the subjects, by the theinterpretation of acceptance the decides theory which as acharacteristic, also social movementpointsliterature. Where the frame analysis argues for about “frame resonance” out ideologies:strength of their and ambiguities gaps”(Donati existsthat1992, p.139) in the the “acceptance the than rather “weaknesses show to concern asimilar discourse, identities inthe the of a discourse depends on its Consider, for example, the evolution of research of Snow and his colleagues. In their first works the 18 In contrast, the Incontrast, theory discourse not concerned theindividual is with 53 CEU eTD Collection empiricalnumerous criticisms that are directed to it. By so doing, itleaves little space for the actual applicationis very much with integrity itsthe concerned of theoretical withstand tryingstance, the to theory discourse isthatthe are noticeableapproaches inthe two that from differences the inferredWhatbe could also p.198). 1988, and Snow 2000, p.9-10 (seeHowarth theorists of the movement of social in the find works the place concepts andwhose analysis of discourse concepts.could be the work of Stuart Hall, which suggestsis mentionedHowever, by Howarth that as a brilliantthe conditions example for thatit are prettydoes favorable. allowOne of the examples forof this a range of backgrounds cannot find a ground for discussion. To date, the discussion between the different trends of the trends sparse. different really the been has between analysis discussion the date, To discussion. for ground a find cannot backgrounds theoretical similar certain to be traced even can and concerns similar have that theories the that 20 illustrate their notions of logic of equivalence and difference (Laclau Mouffe 1985). 19 analysis? the to approaches different two the separates that chasm the If these are the main differences, what an illustrationdoes of some of the notionsit with whichsuggest they operate. about the possibilities as serveonly data empirical so the that priority aregiven concepts Theoretical situations. of bridging with the defense discourseand– the by point moreMouffe developedtheory is Laclau concerned as often of their notionsthe On his hand,hit with does operate. other the which self-critiquethe also they philosophical philosophicalit forsearch deeprooted the of not does explanations p.5) inasensethat principleswhich the researchers are working there is often too narrow and technical (Howarth 2000, than withsuch theas the analysis one used in empiricist critiquethe of approaches, his is right approaches. probably two Howarth in the ofsocial concrete movement the of theoretization isof in level the first, from the stems which difference, The second literature, that the discourse analysis on Another question could be whether there is a need to do so. To my mind, however, it is pretty unfortunate pretty it is however, my mind, To so. do to need a is there whether be could question Another to Chartism and Revolution French the of usage Mouffe’s and Laclau be could here example An 19 20 To my mind, it mind, my To 54 CEU eTD Collection identity is never a final product, its creation is an unceasing process. Thus, while from the This is of one ideasthatall the discourse and frame the incommon have analyses – that (Campbell 1992, p.25). they operate” name in whose identities the constitute to identities –work and stable investigatingcountry,“foundational prior, how primary, about – discourses discourses States is tryingCampbell, aswell, of when examining the discourse foreign the policy Unitedthe of to show, primarily, others. and Taussig and Douglass, Zulaika of as those such relations, international and in anthropology theworks aforementioned the with theories creation these connects what is also and re-creation identity Furthermore, idea of ofdiscursive the objects”2000, p.2). construction (Howarth of the and identitiessubjects of form that the meaningful practices of are“systems discourses identityHowarth For movements. social the of processes ofidentity the the understanding of a way creation. Thus, for the pioneers of framing analysis Snow, Benford and others, framing is identity of in matter the can befound probably two between the One connections the of connection Identity well. as theory scientific investigation), it thus be can with compatible certain notions in the discourse area of from different is borrowed completely framing a itself but concept example, one concepts from other spheres of investigations (the aforementioned different the notions adopt to of free Hall, can be rather be to itself shown has and investigations empirical the with concerned more is hand, other the on framing, and frames the on theorizing making the connection between differentapproachesthe possible. movements’ Thesocial is with, it concerned that the problems investigate to be applied can that methodologies 55 CEU eTD Collection phenomenon phenomenon itsreceives meaningandis content. givena concrete the discourses and in the way they create the identities of the protagonists that the itis of theinteractions being through sinceitisdiscourses constructed participants, of in allow totake terrorism seriously as acultural construct and to seek understandto the way locate principalto the wheresearch for point meaning weshould the terrorism. They of Theyhelp tothis importance project. areoffundamental aspects of Thesediscourse two of actors. shapeidentities the to “them” distinctions “us” and of creation and antagonisms of the importance emphasize the theorists discourse way, same the identity. In movement the of creation the is for used that frames essential be called a factors: first of all,most ofthe theories mentioned above agree on this point, on what can of number a on depends takes it shape the and constantly on going is creation identity ifdiscarded, it fitnot does frames,the itis suggests), only a superficial The observation. first glance it might seem that frames are static (as Lakoff’s note on a fact being for the creation of movement identity and talks about the of antagonists the importance the emphasizes frame analysis respect, society. that In that of various actors between alsodepends The shape will interactions on the identity take it. to alternative aplausible presenting challenger will be alsodepends greatly finding weakon the points of this and structure on successful the How themselves. challengers of the appearance of the pointat the depend significantly on the initial starting point,i.e. the discourse prevalentin the society discourses”.Benford (1988)as a “general belief system”, inor Campbell as “foundational The discourse of the challengers according to all these theories would historical discourse of a society in question, which is referred to in Snow and boundary framing as one of the 56 CEU eTD Collection (Howarth, Stavrakakis 2000, p.11). two Stavrakakisp.11). In other words, thelogic creates 2000, of (Howarth, equivalence society” margins of division the relegate that to to polarity,endeavoring antagonistic project employing alogic of difference attempts to weaken and displace a sharp divide social space by meaningscondensing around antagonistic two poles, [while] a seeksto equivalence thelogic of employing “a project and write: Howarth Stavrakakis As difference. andof equivalence of logic the discourse: hegemonic) (potentially particular types of logic, which may be (consciously or not) used in the construction of have, They system). however,international movement, (organization, country a particular in hegemonic different becomes its discourse where situation the toachieve attempts force Every political ways of place in world. the doing it. Laclauworldview, which all would persuasively meaningto give and events the actions taking and MouffeTo put distinguishit p.15) Stavrakakisavailable –floating 2000, –aspossible” signifiers in (Howarth, elements more heresimplestabilize nodal points that form the basis of concrete social twoorders by articulating asmany terms,hegemony it isFirst of itall,beshould mentioned, the that aspiration of isany discourse toachieve an endeavor theory. from discourse the are borrowed that concepts to create atsome of the look is it time to Here beenintroduced. have already framethe analysis to pertaining notions, theoretical the of Some an discourse. political in the violence of role all-encompassingwouldpresent main liketo that willfurther the beused forexamination concepts of the While many importantthe ideasof for this workhave, obviously, appearedbefore, I Discourse construction.Concepts andideas . Howarth and Stavrakakis describe this process as an attempt “toconstruct and 57 CEU eTD Collection outside,”i.e. those elements in discourse, which are completely antagonistic theto chains is a“constitutive called what represent it. Theseelements of leftstill outside are elements In noaddition,matter how much hegemony discursiveprojectthe achieves, some is context. in particular which is terms, justone have there these acceptable that of and“fixes” meaningtheir in a sense outthat of the many we might understandings that the in elements other discourse attracts which point, becomes anodal This signifier then term, butwhich,in fact, means nothing beforeit is a putinto soup of floatingthe ones. Then have “empty A signifier,we an intervening. isanother signifier” abstract which which meanwords different things people. to is, meaning Their thus, floating. in Toputitexample, pp.98-99) Torfingmoreterms, 1999, areabstract simple there for (see, “identity.” the with them provide to and themselves to them attract to manage meaning with overflowing are that signifiers, floating of full field, a discursive into “master signifiers” which are empty meaningof by themselves, butwhich, byintervening points become of an extreme importance here. These discursive elements are described as Nodal whole. a coherent into elements discursive of organization an implies difference, of that or logicequivalence of the employing whether itself, process Finally, the andincreasing (Laclau,Mouffe1985,p.130). complexity” expansion its of logic a is difference of logic the while space, political of simplification in the understanding of this theory, “the logic of equivalence is a logic of the it. Thus, into as possible asmanyelements integrate andto space expand political the to tries hand, other the on difference, of logic The society. in the inherent negativity the all signifyand consequently all to one one of come – andthe chains the positivity the other themselves between opposition a sharp in are which of all elements, discursive of chains 58 CEU eTD Collection of chapters. of comingthe three developmentwill be Its oneof focuses majorthe “historical discourse.” the interpretation things,other 2002,p.4)Iwill their system. callthis“natural” (see,Lakoff political imbuedin mindssocieties of intoliving theessence the those people the as among of, is towhatis usually And“common related cognitive that linguistics. sense” interpretation this interpretation is closestinterpretation by political wouldactors the most resonate with peoplethe ingeneral when to what is the “common void.absolute in discursive often The exist elements space discursive the andtheir sense” interpretation, constructionmustFinally, discourse neverit beemphasized again the in that takes place according to reinterpreting the fact in such a way that it would fit the existing discourse. domesticate it – eitherleadingit,allserious to strain which ofattempts to experienceson discourse the kinds by changing the discourse within in integrated Dislocation (Torfing thea discourse question” 1999,p.301). puts itself to accommodateresults the fact from or by a iscalled theory what in discourse the emergencealways some domesticate happenings of importantthe into their system. leads to This cannot they world, of the in place taking events the events all of interpretation allow would which which cannot achieve all Even though providehegemony to attempt discourses the and aworldview to be domesticated, opposite. its time is same andatthe self the of forunderstanding the necessary whichis “other” confrontational symbolized exactly this represents and not,” outside I am constitutive “what confronting or for that discourse of in in arenevertheless necessary elements but thediscourse, as represented order which to maintain its identity. “What I am” can only be understood by dislocation – “a destabilization of that a discourse of –“a destabilization 59 CEU eTD Collection essence of the nation were passed on to democratic institutions. These three periods and periods three These institutions. democratic to nation were passedon the essence of transition, makingofthethe duringideas whichthrough the Constitution certain about nationthe duringand the state the SpanishCivilWarFrancoism and and the period of 19 the throughout process. Three main periods will be distinguished here: the initial stage of nation-building in hauntedthis during the the country discourse identity public issuesthatthe and national troublesome Spanish the analyze Iwill of the creation thus, In chapter, this itself. asserts understanding imposes,and State defeating whichthe andthe Nation consolidates and through entity collective the to challenges the of vision general the and ones) alternative these on itself impose to ability its and discourse primary the of strength the on thepowerof historical these (which discourse), wouldalternative constructions depend both (i.e.isformedalternative alternativethe argued, vis-à-vis core constructions the be it influences,could State andthe Nation the on discourse of nature The general public. envision violence with and theissues itintellectuals,associated for politicians and the another, providing points of reference, the tropes, frames and metaphors through which to historical understanding of look at is the itto necessary discourse, of general political the part indispensable thealmost Nation and the State as it travelsin the country and the way itis linked to the various issues becomingeventually an from one generation to violence of of place assess the discourse to In order narratives. and ideas, concepts other in exist and not violence, dangerdoes Understanding threat from a void, detached of Chapter II. Historical discourse. Spain: free, one and indivisible th century, the culmination confrontationof between different visions of 60 CEU eTD Collection the “Spanishthe as nation”, or, Philip Silverhas it“spiritual put spinal of cord Spanishthe historians, nationalist the all For starting point of all the historical discourse on Spain. One could of seethebeginnings modernthe imageof inthe Spain of 20 the the beginning self-ascribedsince military, which, or by the ideathe by of nationalism, role ascribed “inward-looking” particular the personified the 20 the politics throughout nation; the idea of assertitselfnationalism to become onthe anoverarchingand discourse all-inclusive “two Spains” that contemporarycomes to play discourse a significant the in to relation appear that identity of this aspects important certain to limited on violence. Theserole concernin thecreation in thecenturies. Spain throughout investigation The will chapter this of be thus mainlycountry’s the inability Itof isthe not Spanishthe task of this work toin considered this chapter. analyze in depth all the aspectsmade contributions thatwere understandingof be andtheSpain tothe Spanishwill of the national identity of the Jews from the territoryGranada, the last Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, and coinciding with the expulsion of the contemporary 19 the of interpretations its especially Spain, Creating theSpanishidentity: from Reconquista to theend of 19 on from another.meaning, whichislater generation one to transferred with in” “filled gets nation the of signifier” “empty the how see us help will aspects nationalismsinstead of protecting borders the from country’s foreign invasions. These focused exclusively country ondefendingthe peripheral rising the against the unity of th century; the importance of the experience of the Civil War; theCivil of theexperience of importance the century; Reconquista th century. Endingin 1492with conquestthe of is seen as a central event in the creation of creation in the event central a as is seen Reconquista th century Reconquista is the principal isthe th century,has and 61 CEU eTD Collection the Spanishthe imperial expansion, which wasseena as continuation of Spanish the the After Pelaz López2002,RomeroSalvadó 1999, pp.94-125, etc.). by Franco during general the SpanishCivilWar the of example,1936-1939 (see,for in the 19 expansionist policies. This idea of continuity from the Visigothstate to the present Spainwas then adoptedsuccessfully) fighting against their domination. However,such claim gavegrounds legal for King’sthe ground,invaded by the Arabs, was invented by the chronicistsfor of the King Alfred III. This claim has little historical Visigothactually, Kings of Toledo and thus had a rightful claim for the territory of the Iberian peninsula, illegally Reconquista the 21 territory of Asturias neverThe endbelonged of to the to Inquisition.powers the Visigoths andincreasing the remaining to of persecution was fiercely leading from toinward turned thus the direction, Spanish Church. Theconquest outward (and final take-over of the Muslim states, to their successors as well as to the authorities of the conversion onlyskin-deep unsatisfactory deeply organizers the was andthus of to the Catholic monarchsinternal one. With the fall of the last Caliphate and the expulsion of the Jews, the realm of still contained a great number of convertsconquest asastate-building tool. In 20 the to Christianity,which requires a complete whose eradication a greatextenthistory can to unity be distinguished:in the and homogeneity Catholicism, of all the other identitiesTwo main elements and of anthe emphasis on the discourse. revisionist historians image bythe isquestioned day. tothis from This Visigoths nation” of times the civilization” providing (Silver 1995,p.40), animage continuity of “Spanish the of For a summary of the research on the topic, see Silver 1995. According to these historians, the idea of idea the historians, these to According 1995. see Silver topic, the on research of the summary a For th century’s nationalist tradition. Reconquista , at the core of which was the idea that the Asturian Kings were direct descendants ofthe descendants direct were Kings Asturian the that idea the was which of core the at , Reconquista 21 was completed, attention shifted from the external enemy to the , butis still shaping alarge part of Spanishthe nationalist coincided with the “discovery” of America and the beginning of beginning the and America of “discovery” the with coincided Reconquista that influence the future centuries of centuries of Spanish the influence future the that th Moriscos century these two ideas were explicitly ideasused wereexplicitly two these century and Jews and giving more and more 62 CEU eTD Collection half of the 19 religion of political for example,unit(see, Álvarez 1997,p.36-37). Junco local morelevel identities relatedto medieval kingdomsthe thatmade part of this greater Spanish the to loyalty the crown loyalties: of types two on mainly based was It sense. modern the and to Catholic in time, atthat wasfarfrom identity Spanishness characterized the thus, Whatnational religion. Thesedifferentsocial (see, andstructures. for political example, 1999, p.61-63) PérezGarzón loyalties “Spains”, its juridical could eachwith kingdoms, its aconglomeration own system,own of easily were there Instead inexistent. basically was “Spain” of notion the coexistEnlightenment, with the note until At is tothat it same the important Continent” time, 1997, p.36). (Álvarez Junco Old the of identities collective established firmly most the of one generated “inevitably of that was twentieth into the and century Junco emphasizes, portrayal the the throughout dominated nineteenth that Spain of absolute unity of the which peopleequated the Spanishness with Catholicism and, in the name of the latter, demanded under the patronage of the crown. In addition, as ÁlvarezRoman Apostolic Catholic religion, the only genuine one, This explicitly most in “the 1812CádizConstitution,the was articulated stating that again and “modern” re-interpretations againin history the in of country the of era. the the aunitedintotogether Spanishnessandthe will Catholicism animage whole, that surge up knitted country the of outside and inside both mission This mission. Christianizing At the dawn of the 19 2001). mother (Álvarez Junco all Spaniards” (in Álvarez Junco 1996, p.90, emphasis author’s). In the second th century this idea found its place in the conservative nationalist ideology, th century, Spain was one of in that oldestpolitical the units was oneof Spain Europe century, Mater Dolorosa , a Catholic image of suffering of image a Catholic , is andshall perpetually be the 63 CEU eTD Collection discourse throughout the entire the 19 throughout discourse nationalist Spanish the of elements main the of one became war this Consequently, constitution of nation”the (Juliá 2004,p.29). de Cádiz in the Spanish Parliament gathering instituted ( Independence,” liberals newly the itas a“Warof interpreting By assault. foreign the of against as people rising events the a singular washed Álvarezinterpretation down 1994) were of example, Junco to the for war (see, of the aspects various the all in which conflict, that of mythologization by Napoleonicresistance for (1808-1814) allowed euphoric popular armies The start, it seemed, could nothave been better. A successful resistance to the invasion of the essence of the country and tried to impose one or another version of Spain. time that the politicians andintellectuals alike elaborated mosttheir influential ideas upon is most inEurope, 19 the of countries the importantThus, most the marker in modern theconstruction Spanishidentity, in of the as Throughout the 19 Throughout the 59). of predominance same1999, p. the more civicconcept overthe polity (Pérez Garzón eventually theof “natural base” makingandessence state, immutable” the gained Junco 1996,p.93)Such a concept of nation,the asa“historical body with an essentialist it.” (Álvarez elites hadabandoned when the saved fatherland, the who was “the‘People’ represented might”a true that andRoman Carthagenian confronted which towns Celt-Iberian the Saguntum, and Numantia of spirit heroic Napoleonic “re-enactment and wasnothingZaragoza of Gerona to elsethan the a troops ages. theresistance Thus, remained of Spanishidentity the throughout that unaltered ) made a step “to transform a resistance to an invasion into the [moment of] [moment into the an invasion to a resistance transform “to made astep ) th century, the liberal century, historiography the traced developmentthe of this th century. Its interpretation for ideaof the interpretation bases gave century. Its th century, the age of nationalisms. It is atthat It nationalisms. of age the century, volksgeist of the Spanish as it Cortes 64 CEU eTD Collection the fact that: 1990,A inventp.203) lot tradition.” (Shubert of factorscontributed primarily to this, but fact, as it becameHowever, such a promising beginning not did resultin nationala successful In project. clear by the endand centralizedto createastrong an attemptof model. state French revolutionary a of the century,laws, and of customs and centralization unification towards Whence thrust the century. the Spanish liberalbefore 19 the characterized Spain that systems andjuridical, cultural kingdoms, political state “failed numerous unique spirit existence of the with a nation was hardly compatible to This and a of type supposed structure. certain nation political state “one unique” and elaborations.existencesoul” hadfarreachingFor the of inits further a consequences Buteven onthe existence “Spanish of the ideap.43). insistence the combined this with coming it with was onlynovelty the thethat liberalsSpain brought to (Brenan 1993, liberty” about “excitement from people” and the “sovereignty the emanated this ideathat GeraldAccordingBrenan, to p.97). (ÁlvarezJunco 1996, of a nation-state” construction p.97). The 1996, existencein of this “legitimize nation, consequence, hadto the Junco life”(Álvarez individual collective and for moral asetof derived prescriptions –aproductspecific“unique of core history, and culture from geographic profile, which The liberal vision nation,the of included thus, thecontinuity centuries;throughout and a Independence its freedom independentloving, spirit showed itself that so in clearly the even in the hardest times (such as rulethe “foreign” of dynasty Austrianof Habsburgs) maintaining times, own their into and Monarchs Catholic the to Visigoths from nation country faced no external threats, no international enemies, and only afew,brief, andonly enemies, nointernational faced threats, noexternal country Since 1814 has Spain in participated majornone of the European The conflicts. . War of 65 th CEU eTD Collection into into Spaniards. general agreementthat Spanish the liberal nation-building projectmanagenot did to transform peasants of leitmotif a as of failure myth of a Spanish history revision and historiography”profound “a (Burdiel been 1998, p.894). also has These reservations there notwithstanding, there historiography is a In recent p.50). these conflicts may well have brought up the disintegration of the state itself (see Alvarez Junco 1997, 22 as a unifyingforforce country the (Juliá giving 2004,p.56-57), legitimacy toits rulers act could only Catholicism order, keep to unable governments the sphereand political the in chaos continuous the With Catholicism. is Spanishness the of constituent essential the españoles whose y Pelayo Menéndez inits alternativezenith reached of MarcelinoSpanish nation. work This the conservative idea of the their own to elaborate started conservatives the when of century, middle the Thisdynasty p.45). localand Juncobythe situation (Álvarez privileges changed 1997, expressionreligion, “God” loyalties and“King,” asanother oldthe of traditional to the more of asan aggregate for Carlists, “Patria” herewasunderstood the force mobilizing modern” loyalties, thus, while “God, aslogan Patria,King” workedas mainthe “pre- in the inherent terms, traditional in the more expressed was nation a of idea liberal Catholic circles. conservative, from During came nation the on narrative liberal the to resistance The primary the first half of 1997, p.47),internally liberal the of project the wascontinuouslynation-state contested. century the conservativethreats opposition to the borderscivil wars, (1833-1840and so-calledto the Carlist wars Whiletherewereno 1872-1876). the of Spain, 19 the of in course the Furthermore, which were established centuries ago (Álvarez Junco One could say alternatively that the unity of the country was fragile enoughso that the participation in (Álvarez Junco1996,p.98) fervor. patriotic instilled with arms and called to never were numberspeople of PrussianFranco- to similar experience anything not did therefore, of Spain, pride. source colonialwar, wars, whose result, it should be noted, could only rarely orbe mentioned as to the two World Wars in the twentieth century. Massive ) of views1882 decisively conservativeAccordingly,) of crystallized Spain. the on History of the heterodox Spanish the heterodox History of th century country century the experienced two significant ( Historia de los heterodoxos de Historia 22 66 CEU eTD Collection Both the Catholic conservatives and the liberals of the19 of liberals the and conservatives Catholic the Both wrote: incredit expressing side this of Spanishidentity.the Inone passages of often he quoted and the essence to the Nation itself. The words of Menéndez y Pelayo are given most consequently,its general (Álvarezessence p.102). Junco 1996, past synthesizedand,p.48) and nation’s the version creating of akind eventually of excitingforcamps, both producingagreat extentsimilar to rhetoricJunco (Álvarez 1997, Spain mutuallywere not example, exclusive.For thewar was of equallyMorocco of versions conservative and liberal the notwithstanding, them between differences The Spain, everything else is a foreign imposture, the Catholic – Spain” “true is one there apparent: becomes century next the throughout Here than idea another developments. influence havean positive will enormous that spirit and the attempts of the “innovators” to prove otherwise resulted in calamities rather resemble nations (Juliá theof other Spain 2004,p.51-52) Europe. adifferentpossessed not did Spain “Europeanizers” these of belief the to contrary because, nation, the of self the true recover a way to is Spain not of Europeanization the conservatives for Europe, and by back fortified formerthe essencethe it of wouldberecuperated to taking Spain comingback Catholicism tothe and traditional monarchy. 2004,p.52)Whilefor (Juliá meant revival the hand, other the on conservatives, for liberties, civic getting meant butp.52), theways self thistrue recuperating liberals weredifferingof –for the revival rebirth the saw itof as People,the in becauseboth self” its“corrupted true (Juliá 2004, glory: wehaveno (translation other. in Carr1982,p.355) and greatness is Ignatius. our This St. the cradle of of theSword Pope, the Trent, Spain evangelizer of half the planet: Spain the hammer of heretics, the light of anti-Spain th century were concerned with concerned were century . 67 CEU eTD Collection state. Basque nationalism, as we shall see later, also started to impose itself. Secondly, it impose itself. Secondly, to alsostarted seelater, asweshall Basquenationalism, state. of reconsider Spanish the more thestructure to in andmorethriving calling this period with sinking” (Álvarezp.55). JuncoCatalan 1997, movement regenerationalistbegan many in the peripheralled emphasizes, as Álvarez Junco in wars, army colonial Spanish the of the The defeat elites to consider and nationalisms. BasqueandCatalan betweentheSpanishstate tensions newly emergent “abandoning the ship tendencies inidentity”national of conceptions heightening (Balfour 1996,p.113), the so obviously “centrifugal created it all, of First threatenedmentioned. be should event this of effects more Two wholecentury. of the events tothe reaction imperial crisis of identity” was thus much harsher and more hurting, as it accumulated the “post-“disasters” years.“disaster” brought tosurface hidden of previous the The duringcentury” (Balfourwas 1996,p.108) focus 1898eventsthe on overseas,andthe the been obscuredby domestic conflictwhich the raged on and off nineteenth the during Sebastian Balfour,Besides, according“the loss to while had America of Spanish also the demonstrating the superficiality of national identity Junco(Álvarez 2001,p.587). failure, the to indifference complete showed people Secondly, the (Juliá 2004,p.89). blame and acceptance of theinviteself- as the general humiliating to was so of all, defeat first ideological the terms: universal guilt – we arerecuperated all guilty because of thisemphasizes, thisdisaster was not a disasterpretty in economic or political terms, as the country quicklyJunco As Álvarez States. United the to Philippines Ricoandthe Cuba, Puerto from the losses of war. But it was seen as a disaster in The 19 “The Disaster”, generationof1898and its enemies th century a lossin of – lastSpanishcolonies century ended a“Disaster” the 1898 with of 68 CEU eTD Collection p.601-602). Álvarez 2001, Junco 1999,p.87, significantly (NúñezSeixas this process reinforced than aboutimaginary, or real the enemies, internal the external about more worry to began and threat internal the ones” (Núñez Seixas 1999, p.28). The loss of the last colonies identity until One ofthe main features the 19 the Spanish of coming century. colonies back tothepeninsula.An orientation, which will its vigor duringkeep theentire the from eyes the turning enemies, inside the to outside the from creation identity Thus, endof 19 the 2001, p.601). the country,which arole to it moststuck throughout of 20 the the the of unity it shifting preservation the of started attention to expansion thwarted, left the military without a sense of purpose. With the wars over and the colonial the end of the 19 Philippines, at for and the Cuba briefthe wars of duringanti-Americanism the upsurge of exception the with and state “enemy-less” “an became Spain referents. main the were p.90).Junco 1994,However, endat the of 19 the (Álvarez kingdoms” old the of diversity institutional the and labor manual from disdain –“clerical influence, Spanish state numbera great of the wentagainst traditions of weresupplyinglatter the “administrative-political and cultural model”, which actually the and colonies American in the rivals time long a were former the whom of French the Spanish identity at the xenophobia,rooted primarily anti-English andanti-French” (ÁlvarezJunco1994, p.90). time was constructed contrasting it with that of English and th century century itself nationalismSpanish oriented defensethe towards against th century fortified the orientation of the Spanish th century neither English nor French nor English neither century th century. (Álvarez Junco (Álvarez century. th century “deep- its century was 69 CEU eTD Collection timing timing of their work (see Carr 1982, p.528-529 orFerrater Mora 2003, p.18-19). later are supposed tobe the mainembodiments of this generation, though not belonging to it in terms of the critiques of the Spanish“generationofwho ’98,” is supposed tobe included state group.into Joaquínthis Costa,who started his and society long before23 1898 or José Ortega Y Gasset, who wrote his much loss of the last colonies was traumatic enough. As Martin Blinkhorn writes: Spain. for love“painful” intheir stances,wereunited backgrounds political and interests, particular meaningits of decline and for remedies These that. diverse intellectuals, in their problem” in –the Spain the world, of place characteristics ofits the national the essence, “Spanish the conceptualize to effort intellectual prolific most the ‘98, of generation Within theintellectual elites, thecolonial failure of 1898 gavebirth so-calledto the 1996, p.103). autonomy” (ÁlvarezJunco (liberal to “all opposed uniting those became “purely reactionary” national Spanishthe discourse or social) situationthe inwhich led,again, tothe other outside expansionist projects to directed or revolutionof the century), and, whichin independencebeginning the of glorification “Warthe (suchas of of Independence” the wasin already the secure, twentieth ofthe thus accentuation the state, Spanish of the existence the threatened nobody time, could not At the mobilizefuture. common for plan any presenting without empire, Spanish the of thetimes old century,masses. The lack of orientation to of theCatalan Spanish nationalism main the emphasize p.30) that for 1999, example,NúñezSeixas (see, researchers was towards theand past, towards glorificationBasqueIn addition that, to Spanishthe lacked nationalist discourse acommon The project. of the 1997, p.54). After century-long of the 1997, p.54). feelingwork a glorious creating a of Junco (Álvarez elites intellectual level least the on of at wasworking project national Itis actually not that easy to determine what are the conceptual boundaries of the notionof the 23 As Álvarez Junco emphasizes, the reactions to the Disaster showed that the showedthat Disaster the to reactions the emphasizes, Junco Álvarez As Patria , the , 70 CEU eTD Collection Unamuno Unamuno (FerraterMora 2003, p.64). tomb’ to Costa (Blinkhorn 1980, p.14), Ferrater Mora writes that to “lock the sepulcher of Cid” comes from 24 hearts of Spaniards in“be found the can that Spain” “eternal subterranean and Thus of developed theexploitation Unamuno idea 1980, p.15-16). (see Blinkhorn the spiritual links of not mundane material interests, political control or economic construction the for ofbasis a as serve a could end, newin the which, and nations empire, other from distinct embracing Spain and hadSpain a “human depth” (Álvarez Junco spiritual 1997,p.55), thevalues which made it Spanish America and had specificbased values thatit could offer to theon world. Contrary to theSpain materialist that believed Europe, Hispanizers so-called the distinguished: be also can current Another Anglo-Saxon world.” 1980,p.14) (Blinkhorn by demand that the Maeztu “embraceSpaniards bourgeois-individualistvalues the of sepulcherCid” of “lock expression the wasacall to best of which the Europeanization, the distinguished: canbe currents two the Again, place. totake “regeneration” for the be done what wasto to as significantly diverged movement the of intellectuals the situation, the of diagnosis in here,be the asthey were united had resurrectedand to evenifdead,Spain However, to participate in funeralsthe (see,Juliá 2004,p.90-92). affirms only thatthe be to thing doneis bury itto andDoradoinvites Pedro nations other death abounds in the first works after the Disaster, Unamunois crying forits death, Costa Spain, whichsuffered agony prolonged in diedand degeneration, imagery 1898. The of Itis not clearwho was the first to cointhe phrase. Blinkhorn attributes the call to ‘triple lock theCid’s malaise by which was produced 1898Disaster.the (Blinkhorn 1980,p.10) upon her continuation fantasy national of inspiredgreatness, byher imperial past, and largely dependent as a colonial power,a governingeliteto clung of of asanation whose This picture Spain restoration is central to any understanding of the 24 (see, for example, Durán Franco 1994, p.74) or an stronger Francoforeven p.74) or (see, example, 1994, Durán 71 CEU eTD Collection dictatorships of dictatorships Spanish 20 the of last idea, probably the least important here – was often used as a justification of two a destiny “ the of idea the nation: Spanish the and Spain on discourse of futureimpact developmentthe the on make animportant to popularized were influential of all the generation of most the echo, 1898made anda noteworthy others Costa while Unamuno, However, was Ortega y Gasset. Three of the soul. ideas its Spain, that he essenceof the about of Unamuno thought mentioned already them, the of One here. emphasis ideasneedaparticular of of war. Some these times the battle during slogans mobilizing into and peace of times the during regulations and laws the into concretely background ideasthatshape country meta-politicalmoreat the the but level, also as the only not serving life political into the way found their on later intellectuals ideas bythese expressed The be canhardly underestimated. national idea of character the the of creation the on influence their leaders, its of choices political the or life political Even though, apparently, Spanish the intellectuals had little influence over country’s the future. theandintobe centuries beatthroughout soul,” the cansensed of rhythmic the which circles of Spain and was used later on as well emphasizeto the existence of this“Spanish Mora 2003, p.69). This idearesonance(Ferrater within received significant cultural the future,wastheouter coveringof internal history, soul’s the purely pastor rhythm” For events. historical all underlying substructure permanent the discover there and themselves” if they directed “their exploration inward to the core of the innermost self and that of the select th minority century – those of Primo de Rivera and of Franco (see, that was lead that supposed to masses. theinert The two Spains ,” that of nation as 72 CEU eTD Collection personified by andseesinCastile it an important historical This project. idea gained the mystical same the to belongs still Spain, “hidden” eternal the of contemplation sphere Unamuno’s than as the This more rational of parts Núñez idea,though country.the 1999,p.84-85) (see Seixas latter, still envisages the on,Later dealing the“Spanish inhis with problem” historical essence of Spain,its phrasebrought the prominence to when he declared: largely the tired one, the alive “theSpains: and between youngtwo one this signified Madriddivide also andBarcelona and the official one.” betweenfor Catalanist SantsOlivertheMiquel dels rivalry alive p.148), (Juliá 2004, (Juliá 2004, p.149)For liberalBut it Costais Ortega there were who also andon doing go by separated so, seathe ofblood and ideas” abysm of 2004,p.147) (Juliá two Spains: fields one legalirreconcilable in compassion and mercy “without and fight in a constant dead caught them and the other real and Spain, killed by the other half,” he was writing (Juliá 2004, p.148). Menéndez Pelayo saw project, started by started project,in the 15 Castilethe and Thishistorical Spanish as the project” a “community of nation a “historical destiny.” them talkingas farback of about asthe beginning 19 the The metaphor of two Spains in Ortega’s time was nota new one. Mariano José Larra was nationalisms. asperipheral such forces, internal various the with relation itsnation, understandingthe of in position its of Spanish the and the world order the resonate in the historicalimportantare more asthey two The other historical national discourse. of Spanish the discourse throughout forp.567 example,the andp.648),but Carr1982, itdoes notadd much understandingthe to century and shape, to a great extent, for life. out for 1983, vol.10, (Ortega pp.266-267) reaches that aspiring, industrious, new, Spain, another and Spain worm-eaten Spains,Two gentlemen, areintertwined in incessantfight: one an dead, empty, th century, was what kept together the different Invertebrate SpainInvertebrate th century. “Here lies half of , Ortega describes , Ortega 73 CEU eTD Collection the 19 the version other Spanishness, this of nation the its raisedthat head asearly as themiddle of version of the toimposetheir wereunable elites intellectual secular While the divisiveness in or society.”thought (Blinkhorn 1980, p.17) hierarchy and authority, crusadingCatholicism, centralism, intolerance and towards of approach Spanishness the this and befound the essenceof in“principlesof was to formyth adherents was the Catholicism Militantuniting the p.531) century.” (Carr1982, “Catholic sixteenth of the Spain was The itsfor them only CatholicSpain back roots. to saw country for revival getting the only the Catholicthrough possible regenerationists of the old corrupt political, for go a generation of dismissal of the 98 wasto country While regeneration the through social systems– Catholicin trend tooregenerationism.generation ‘98.was another project this There and also the of the intellectuals the for prevalence solely a concern not was country the of Regeneration of Catholicism,interpretation. Falangist in its but form, original the in its notlarge a extent democracy,though, to again, Francoism to from of transition Falange prominence through reinterpretationsthe ofJosé AntonioPrimo de Rivera, founder the of most significant influence during the Franco’s reign, where it took its place of identity “dilutedidentity innot by Spain was impact of the andthe Reformation wars”religious Catholic the England, or Germany France, to contrary all, of First reasons. of number a a greatextentidentity based happento (Radcliffon 1997,p.310)This could religion.” for a national into “thiswas reformulated identity factthat the religious old collective nation isinto could shaping of understanding due prominence the butgain the survive th century century managed to consolidate itself significantly. Thatthis identity not only and a great admirer of Ortega’s work. It will also be revisited during the process be alsoduring the Itwill admirer revisited work. andof Ortega’s agreat 74 CEU eTD Collection does notallowdoes look them deeper intoto naturethe of politics. (Lakoff 2002, p.19) themselves toomuch “policythe with interest groupandissue-by-issueand debate” that those values,languageabout talk to an of appropriate valuesandadesign understandingunderlying of whichpolitics is“about myth andand metaphor emotional identification” andhence requires the is ismakingit,” upfor what usually “common called the Thus, (Lakoff sense.” 2002, p.4) somethingaware of we arenot inthat simply unconscious but being repressed, of sense Freudian the that in “not lifelargelyis unconscious ineveryday used of concepts system arguing thatthe LiberalsGeorge Lakoff discusses the “conceptual unconscious” elementstend in political discourses, legitimize its own authority” (Radcliff 1997, p.320). to fail in frame” to which “cultural an alternative never create could Republic the Community, doing. life the dominated of universe symbolic “[a]slong Catholic asthe because this period, They concernthe Second Republic, according toPamela Radcliff, the anticlerical wave was so strong in would Thesame of happen laterduring thehistory” times p.105). (Álvarez Junco1996, 1899-1909 wouldanti-clerical witnessimportant themost wave inmodern Spanish “the years - anticlericalism was astrong crisis 1898 the after elites liberal the of reactions why itthe hadstronger appeal,andwhy one of (Álvarez a 1996,p.100-101), Junco exactly vision this of country the gained that the upperhand atthe end of 19 the ready material forbewaiting them used.to Thatcould probably explain whyitwas this had they nation, the and state the of vision liberal the to alternative an construct to try andto nation the of essence the contemplate to started theConservatives Thus, when thecenturies.throughout intactleaving wasnobasically there (Radcliff 1997,p.310), identity religious revolution, th century, 75 CEU eTD Collection task of the army. (see,for example, Álvarez Junco 1997, p.58) issues) regionalist andthe be numbersafeguarding cameregardedas of Spain one to the or unrest labor (the country in the turbulence some was there time each invoked became the slogan of this inward looking nationalism, the salvation of salvation the nationalism, looking inward this of slogan the became of unity the Thus, missions. external in the participate to army the for opportunity friends.”probably Salvadó wrong (Romero 1996,p.126)In addition,itprovidedidnot an with adventure itwas “adangerous hand, other the on For elites, rulingthe p.588). Junco 2001, “from (Álvarez below” its for impetus development giving a certain process, building nation a advance to opportunity perfect a as war the in participation Spanish high The neutrality of Intellectuals saw the warbrought country the tensions. during was alterto decisively its contemporary history” (RomeroSalvadó 1996,p.123). intervene not did Spain in which a war “Ironically, writes: Salvadó Romero Francisco As fruit. a different also bore neutrality this However, growth. unprecedented experiencing and economy its developing sides, both to exporting by neutrality its of harvest full course, Firstthe World War.Spain neutral remained during conflict this and reapedthe The event of crucial importance for Europein beginningthe 20 the of the FirstFrom World War to Franco state. or thelaterdown approach nation- Republican“rational” identification with Spanish the easily translated to anew form identificationof with the nation-state than the Liberal top- more be could that allegiance monarchical the and Catholicism of culture pre-existing the Spain. Thestrength of visionthis largely of nation the toitswas beingdue embedded in in projects The sameLiberalandConservative nation-building the about be could argued th century was, of Patria Patria was 76 CEU eTD Collection These initiatives, however, had an opposite effect of strengthening significantly significantly effectof the however,hadan opposite strengthening These initiatives, Spanish and a ban on symbolsthe of nationalitiesperipheral (Núñez 1999, p.93). Seixas and consequential policies: prohibition languagesof useof the than other Castilian Spain unity of on the emphasis increasing inthe resulted wasmuchweaker) nationalism significantpolitical forces both in Catalonia andin Basquethe Country (Galician nationalismstime, peripheral especially thatwereestablishing as the themselves the at society Spanish the characterized that tensions various the to overcome An attempt for example, Carr1982,p.567) less “iron of hadnocall for regimesurgeon” supporters the the andCosta’s appeal. (see, As was mentioned before, Ortega’s selectminority found a significant resonance with the ideas the itself to dictatorship wasfashionedof according regenerationists. some of the The 2004,p.175) (Juliá characterized Spain. that theRestoration forms of government it regeneration elites aspromised country the corrupt of true and extinguishing thoseold intellectual by relief in with the a certain beginning The wasgreeted the dictatorship arrival. of point the but somuch not of a military, the of as break, mission the long reconsideration twenty-years Salvadóp.130) However, 1996, this couldbe the seen momentof as culminating the (Romero thenation” of values sacred the defending just and politics be above to claimed forwith represent a particular now “[t]he past the not army but political did group Romero a break Salvadó,meant this uprisinglong dictatorship. seven-years to According so-called This mission internal of army,the protection in the invokedcohesion,of Spain’s the was pronunciamiento (military uprising) of Primo de Rivera in 1923 that started a Primo started in1923 (military deRivera of that uprising) 77 CEU eTD Collection writes, the metaphor of two Spains in the Civil War: Civil in the Spains two of metaphor the writes, Radcliff As Pamela the country. ofseeing ways different Spains”, two “two the between itwas simplified into strugglecould Inasense, binary the oppositions. besaidthat was Yet, as it happened with the War of Independence, this complex peripheral nationalisms. Junco1997,p.59-60) (Álvarez reality of the Civiland forces War centralizing the between and country the and city the between conflict the conflict, social affiliations), ideological of in terms and support of interms (both libertarian.” 1982,p.7) Álvarez (Beevor into Junco putsit four dimensions: international dimensions: “rightagainst left, centralist regionalist,and against authoritarian against three through it analyzes Beevor Anthony dimensions. numerous had conflict The remains one of primary the markers of Spanishthe historical memory. still CivilWarof 1936-1939, which the Eventually, with came Republic endof the the projectsimplementingtogether not talking was immensely about anyserious difficult. country keeping the that great so were axes Center-Periphery national the and Left-Right enormous, the country washowever, itThe faced wasshort-lived. in1931, The problems were Republic established so fragmented and centrifugal1930 wasmore than Carr pp.581-591) welcome. (see 1982, tendencies on the and the old political showing started elites ideological for contempt dictatorshipthe andits fall in the army the theend),butalso dictatorship till the Maeztu supported (only intellectual elites Not only dictator. the backs on theirturned “iron surgeon” the of arrival the welcomed The policies from the state.of Primo de Riveramoresurviveemergent cohesive nationalismsperipheral into thatgot pressure order the were often so confused that soon even those who 78 CEU eTD Collection project forproject thecountry, Republicans sothe both during whole the of existence the like 19 just the However, state. of the form a – wasloyalty particular to that indicates clearly they chose that Republicans) (the to a particular idea of the nation hardly possible. Hence, what united them – and the name loyalty madethe so diverse they factandwere that the mere p.63), 1997, (Álvarez Junco progressivemore “national” attached to andrationalism and cosmopolitanism were forces of this coalition, such as Anarchists and Communists that were hostile to anything the of stances ideological the particular Both Nationalisms. peripheral of representatives ranging from Anarchists, Communists, to Socialists Republicans, Liberals and forces includedof avariety that acoalition was Republic, there the loyal to On side the and Republicans the Nationalists. the parts of twothe of strugglethe aretelling sides enough: the two themselves were calling mélanges. different Theself-denominations ideas thatproduced understandingother with on both sides, it is the same werethe discourse of ingredients Butassomethe of p.61) the Junco 1997, Álvarez different understanding of the nation and a combination of this figures, the same historical episodes, like episodes, historical same the figures, their claims: forsave both strugglethe invoked wasto Spain,both thesame authoritative build to which on heritage samecultural the Warhad Civil of the sides both In asense, 1997, p.62). Junco (Álvarez national-Catholic” came from 19 of nation the that the idealizations two last …between “the of clashes the Warwasactually Civil itdifferently, the To put in (Radcliff thirties. the 1997,p.309) society understood is, lens which interpretative as through contemporaries the an be… should as not understood a social butas reality,an organizing that principle: th century liberals century didnot manage a toproduce working national Reconquista th century, the progressive-liberal and century, progressive-liberal the and theWar of Independence. (see 79 CEU eTD Collection so that general Millán Astray, the founder of Foreign Legion, claimed: need perceived insurgents Like a of “iron metaphors. Rivera, the the surgeon,” Primo de 1996, p.20).The Mar Molinero of discourse full Nationalistssuch organicist was of (Smith, defectors Catalan and Basque the nation Spanish glorious the to back bringing and Leftism of “cancer” the destroying by self” Catholic essentially country’s “the rebuild to sought state, and nation Spanish the of vision regenerationist conservative most Theirbasedideas on years.” were the p.65-66) (1997, thirty ethnicization previous the of Francoists Thisdefinitely was not the case onp.142) theknew other sidebetter of the passiveobjectified, intoin ‘pueblo’ an itshistorical subject (Graham own right.” 1997, struggle. how Asto Álvarezuse meansof handlingpoint hand,“hadno ofan other thetransformation and,onthe Juncothe writes,consequences “the of an intense social Republicans, on the one hand, relied on “the people” ( people” “the on relied hand, one the on Republicans, The theRepublic. of difficulties tothe nation” “the contributed of project a weakness of this p.112)be saidthat However,itcould 1999, also Salvadó (RomeroForetold.” Death contributed to the doom of the Republic. Romero Salvadó calls its history “Chronicle of a factors andmany other climate international the CivilWar.Truly, lost the Republicans This, of course, does not in any way imply that this lack of tradition was a reason why the Graham writes: Graham attractive Republicideology andafter start the of CivilWarthe failed a produce to viable imagery and to draw people to its idea of the nation and the state. As Helen all (Graham emphasisthat’ 1996, p.136, author’s) Spanish Parliament] –and even itthen was a rather ossified ‘1492and discourse: they nation’,task of ‘making asadynamic project the They failedunderstand to need the actively taketo on politicalthe and cultural only talked about the nation only talkedaboutthenation to eachother – that is inside the Cortes [the vis-à-vis el pueblo future. In In consequence, future. ) as their main reference main their as ) 80 CEU eTD Collection andJuliá For them, 2004,p.334) wasnot somuch Spain but“the unitya state, of of (see, forp. 648 example Carr1982, José Antonio speechesthe through of writings and Another important element of the Francoist discourse were the thoughts of Ortega filtered 1990, p.33) Preston p.696, andexample,for Carr1982, victors thevanquished.intodivided (see, –remained Francobecame dictator Francisco –as Spain and Spain powerful, remained end but extermination. Even after the end of the Civil War, the rhetoric of Spain and anti- negation,mixed upwith atheism andbarbarity” (Juliá 2004,p.290) can that have noother “a all,Spain at not but false only not Spain, is other one the that and andcivilized Catholic is true, that oneSpain isonly there actually that idea into the here transformed much by Spains” elaborated so Spanishintellectualsthe throughout thetwocenturies, got “two the Furthermore, rhetoriceternal (Juliáexclusive 2004,p.288) of principles.” and metaphysical and religious tragedy, “as an inexorable fate of a clash to death of two as isa narrated 2004,p.289) and (Juliá salvation” taleorigins of promise and of Spanish nation. However, during the WarCivil “this figure intorhetorical isconverted a from 19 the comes before, mentioned This was best exemplified by the idea of Spain and anti-Spain. The idea, as was disease is always from else.”somewhere (Campbell 1992, p.98) asensebut that of disease, nature is biological the thus not discourse socio-medical logic the In Campbellp.83) in “central of writes, to 1982, respect, this (quoted Beevor In the same way general Sanjurjo declared that “only an operation can save Spain.” free from false insentimentality” (quoted Beevor 1982,p.83) surgeon like flesh aresolute livehealthy into the cutting both, toexterminate how know will health-giver, Spain’s is which … Fascism, treason. high and revolution On this day of the Spanish race one half of all Spaniards are criminals guilty of th century conservative-Catholic idealization of the of idealization conservative-Catholic century 81 CEU eTD Collection emergent peripheral nationalisms. As neither the Spanish nor the peripheral nationalisms peripheral the nor Spanish the neither As nationalisms. peripheral emergent thenewly but to state, the outside nations other notto incontrast be organized came to “we” national ideaof in the country, the centuries construction of national the nearly two In summary of the discussion so far some Spain will be Spain and Spainin (quoted only” pointsRichards 1996, p.159) should be emphasized: first, As general duringÁlvarezit,Eliseo Arenas “from put tothedividingPyrenees line of Gibraltar, the its based language Spain,namely, principles culture. on “true” and of the unity Castilian of fundamental one the whothreatened nationalisms of peripheral repression the constant more and,by aferventand even clearly, supporters perhaps of rights Republican the continuous insistence on between differences the and Spain bylimitinganti-Spain the by werekeptalive War Civil divisions the In everyday politics, Carpegna 2004). in the Spain” of lands and men the between National Movement Principlesof inthe future presentand generations” by down written “constructed past, the a“unity They Spain in dictatorship universe”, the as the destiny created. postulated of that laws in the also anchored was version This nation. Spanish the of version only the FrancoThus, through andhislong lasting rule, conservative itself the imposed version as Iberian Peninsula. the the Monarchs: Catholic the of reign the during ago years hundreds as same the thus was about was War which always the nationalpervaded history” López (Pelaz 2002,p.82). What Civil the Spanish soul, and thein in destiny spiritwas what the “Castilian universe”, bestthe the which represented empire was the best synthesis of race and spirit of the crusade, Reconquista , the natural expansion of Castilian spirit to all of to corners spiritthe Castilian of natural , the expansion (passed in“unity theindivisible 1958)andpostulated (passed Organic Law Organic Law the State of of of 1966 (Suanzes- Law of the Law 82 CEU eTD Collection Reform, passed in the The most significantchange. to committed stepthe last attempt of the dictatorship to perpetuate itself, the King soon proved himself to bein the transition beginningJuan as the regime crowningThough in Carlos of to opposition the saw the democracy began. from dictatorship to transition of Kingdifficultprocess a of Spain, was an new the crowned adoption was Borbón de Carlos Juan and 1975 in died Franco Francisco When of the LawTransition todemocracy and drafting of theConstitution of Political full very of meanings.precise forgetfulness”, the translation from Romero Salvadó 1999, p.166). This 1999, from p.166). Salvadó phrasingmeans forgetfulness”, translation the Romero naming (Desfor Edles 1998,p.41-43)All ideas these of receivedexpression theirbest in the of the national reconciliation, include: the whole be grounded to was transition on whichthe ideas significant most process three The compromise. the oftransition transitionexample, Desfor Edles 1998, p.41-62) an agreement among the major political actors that should 1976. Thiswhatis lawpaved way “the often to forcalled of (see, spiritconsensus,” take placeas a peacefully“ and the new regime should be based on signifier empty an nation, The nations. from other the Spanish values,morality, and of essential Castilian the culture language personifying difference resultedside, Spanish the on consolidation, This chains. equivalential indistinctive and strong the creationemphasis of a wascohesive were strong enough imposeput to themselves as maindiscoursethe of community,muchthe on consolidating understanding the discourse of the vis-à-vis nation theas “enemy”based oncreating the two Cortes in by Novemberandadopted inreferendum December convivencia , and a notion of the “new beginning.” “new the of notion a and , Pacto con Olvido Pacto par excellence par ” (“pact of , became 83 CEU eTD Collection forgotten. homage ( homage received supporters Franco’s among dead the respond because justice, opponents historical Their ofrestoring way a society. is this in that division a new prompt will War Civil of the wounds the of resurging 25 and the oneof mainorganizingthe experiencespolitical life.Blinkhorn,of According to buta metaphor Warevent, morethan itself, Civil hasbecome a historical democracy the to transition the into well and Francoism through beginning, very its since Thus, mass graves of the victims of the Civil War and the dictatorship. memory is pretty strong and is expressed in, for example, attempts to discover the sites of forof recuperation thismovement Currently 1998). (seeLacasta-Zabalza, experiences Spain still that problems oneofthe is againstFrancoism forstruggle the appreciation of A lack theirs. losers the and position their keep winners the that also meant afterwards created dictatorship of the CivilWarand the events the forgetting hand,On other the the losing side might result in a renewal of the conflict. of grievances the front bringto the to an attempt that consideration the led to appeased possibility of a new armed of and political oftheal.contemporary p.118) reality,” the etfears 1988, (Gunther conflict in case the militaryinterpretations affected history profoundly “recollections of Spanish The reconciliation. and the extreme rightconstantly were not opted for aseemingly completealive, break with the past, the memory of the Civil War, though was losers. With the prospectto of change this scheme wasbe to reversed, the democraticbeforces put behindconstant reminder and of thethe (SánchezCivil new War andPrietofuture on the 2001,division memory.” a historical without present historical “a as seen was transition the that p.156)to of thebe Associety wasbased mentionedinto winners on before, andnational Franco’s state was based on a These attempts to recover the past, however, are a source of a lot of controversy. Some fear that fear Some of controversy. lot a of source a are however, past, the torecover attempts These Valle de los CaidosValle de monument is probably the best example here) while the Republicans lay 25 84 CEU eTD Collection Parliament talked about the situation in the country as being similar to that of of 1936 ( tothat similar as being inthecountry situation the talked about Parliament 2004, IñigoUrkullu, presidentof Humanthe the Commission Rights Basquethe of in November a few: just here give to numerous, are it seeing of ways both of examples forces. The political the between alliances for the imperative moral a as serves andalso field political the in tension extreme an represents War Civil the all, of first discourse: There are two canhardly andbeits importance underestimated. Spanishpolitical discourse the ways of ofprinciples organizing the of one as seeingfunctioning keeps still it that tells politics Spanish the usage inthe is eachtimeisa tension it there fact that evoked easily. The that be eradicated not of the Civil could name Herostratus, likeof War, the Civil memory of the the War.But of Civil the War metaphor division the over coming as process saw the therefore, transition, viewof The optimistic in the politicalthe political discourse. its memory fringes butthat tothe of forgotten, bebewouldwould relegated completely mean CivilWar the that didnot forgetfulness” “pact the of Eventually, forgetfulness.” of hence, likethe“pact stance adoption the the of visible transition, the during especially War and all futurethe was tobe organized with the fear that it will repeat itself. This was which to look at both the past and the present. All the pastWar waskeptaliveall throughout ofFrancoism period the madelensinto it a became through a presentiment of the The brutality of the war and the strength of confrontation as well as the fact that the Civil but impossible to discern any others.” (Blinkhorn 1980, p.22) Juliá also writes: makeitall asto Spanishlife of the aspect every “leftsuch deep scarsupon CivilWar the as a struggleSpains between two into metahistorical the key 2004,p.288) (Juliá intellectuals invented from beginningthe century of the interpret to their own time imagegenerations of that previousthe light on transforming the period, itsappalling projected an arbiter, aneutral thirdencounter or impossible to made … this war with the extreme confrontation that divided the society in two and 85 El CEU eTD Collection another. itisnot uttered as an appeal from one ally another,to but as an appeal from onevictim to Minister to make a righteous choice in his partners. This demand is even stronger because isit Prime the of the duty that indicates Otegi Nationalists, Basque samesideasthe the not morally neutral Withat all. reminding Zapatero histhat grandfather fighting died on with the Basque Nationalists, on the side of the Republic. This dichotomy, obviously, is andof together thesideCivil War,puttingInsurgents, thePSOE, theRight-wing PPto the sidesof between the acleardichotomy reproduces Otegi this, By expressing process. in part peace the take for them to acertain obligation here create inCivil War general The familybackground of Ministerandthe position Prime the PSOEduringthe of the remarked on oneoccasion: on remarked part in thesealliances and, evencoalitions. more so, of the Another approach to the Civil War is seeing it asan indicator of the possible coalitions or Thus, politicalthe environment. for in example,tensions heightened the indicate to present in the being to brought is violence past way ArnaldoCommunity reminded“NoPasarán” of the Popularthe (Tusell This Front.” 2004, p.357) Otegi, Autonomous of andapresident theMadrid rearguard of assassinations the adversary the leader region Madrid of “a in 2003, deputy PopularPartidoof threwtothe face Socialist of of Batasuna,País politics for Euskal Herria. ( alternative the should construct who ones are the war, lost the who ones We,the your who with makingexecuted grandfather. heirsthe together astrategy those of One cannot share the path to the resolution of a democratic conflict, Mr. Zapatero, 23 November 2003); during one of the scandals that took place in place autonomous took scandalsthe that one of during 2003); 23November El País moral obligation , 30May 2005) that the political forces have to take to have forces thepolitical that 86 CEU eTD Collection two Spains” out of political confrontation.” ( confrontation.” of political out Spains” two conceived as afinal of point discussionsthe issue, aboutthe asaway “leaving “the of beforeattempts todemandthat 2002)( four were its victims (there homagepay to andto regime dictatorial condemn the both 2002) for the victims of the War and the dictatorship. The reluctance of Popular Party to graves of the supporters of ( of Republic. the supporters graves of the communal reopen the andto honor regime the the victims of to d’état, condemn coup the evidencesurprised of everyone byacceptingsuch a link.In November to party 2002,the military of “moral uprising 1936 andexpress ( recognition” the Unida themselvesSocialists the of side the from both Therefore, 2002) (Juliá andFrancoism.” the with especially Popular the connected Party that cord umbilical certain a of existence “insistedthe on from the heirs theSocialists dictatorships, before two while the of tradition period conservative the of the CommunistAccording party, made clear-cut. sides were tothose whotook of people motives the the Juliá, IU ( afterpolitical field was, asusual, thefuzzy simplified, between divisions the sidestwo and the the PP came in the reality 2002,Jackson2002)the be black (seeJuliá cannot seen andwhite as just to power, as historians warningspastthe thatAgainst issue. out broughta still of alive political it tried toindicates.grandfather” During the rule of PP(1996-2004)the the Civil War often was go back to heirs who your “the referenceexecuted of asthe dictatorship, to those Francoist the liberal-country – the PP – camebe to associated with the winners of the Civil War and the future of the main of is parties the one that of Otegi statement from the be seen can Whatalso – United Left) there often came demands that the government condemn government often came the that –Unitedthe there Left) demands El País El País El País 20 February directseen 20February 2002) was as , 21 November 2002) This gesture was 2002)Thisgesture , 21November , 21 November, 21 However, this 2002) El País 20November Izquierda 87 CEU eTD Collection mass graves of supporters the of Republicthe ( “heirstill The Franco.” support forreopening monetary provide the denial of the of to examples ofitsup policiesbrought are dubious accusationto supportthe party the that is view with suspicion the relation of the PP with the Francoiststill parties legacy. other The Therefore, completed. the entirely been never has past the with break the sense, convivencia 26 how it topushitmuch duringmatter transition the was attempted aside period. itbecouldTherefore, Civil the imagery arguedthat no War was neverreally overcome, in 2002) Valenzuela (quoted is “the anti-Francoist.” official andwillculture such when become complete only not is democracy Spanish dictatorship, the of years past the of grievances the all forget because arguing judgment, that of nature of the transition,the whichincludedidea to an concursthis with Navarro Vincenç p.347) 1998, nationalisms.” (Lacasta-Zabalza peripheral bythe with justice all declared anti-Francoism, with the compete “ifshare it orto not author, anything rejectFrancoism, Spanishcannot does nationalism According tothe 1998,p.317) losers.” Spain (Lacasta-Zabalza “invisibilized the of an exists still there that for example, talks, Lacasta-Zabalza Franco. with connections On the otherand to“dig out the remnants of hate”. (El side,Pais 26 November 2003) therebackgo past tothe to attempt an initiativenaphthalene,” of asa“revival PP coined the is a mistrust up bitter brought polemics thefollowingyear law afterthe was approved. The then-ruling of theagain Franco of victims tothe paytribute to initiative case.The to bethe not proven has motives of the PP and its “spiritual” See Desfor Edles 1998 on the symbolization of the Civil War as a “profane” in contrast with “sacred” , i.e. peaceful coexistence peaceful , i.e. El País , 7 November , 2002)or the 26 In that 88 CEU eTD Collection documents that should be relocated to the public archives accessible to all the historians” (Jackson2002). whose goal admitted isto legitimate uprising the of 18 [1936] July keepand inthe private possession debates in the points reference main the of is one and best the nation Spanish the of idea the expresses which 2, Article Constitution, the of articles essential the of one about also into detail of this process, butHouses it of theis Parliament important and finally, thein both referendum. text the of to It discussions ismakethe not Affairs, the task of some Constitutional this of work Committee toin the go points project the about its course and the drafting of the text byinvolvedlong Itfour Drafting stages: process. andcomplicated Constitution the was a of a parliamentary subcommittee asense Constitution. identity of –the creates a communal also system, ( which,in providingaddition to the for framework legalthe functioning of democraticthe we should payattention themainthatwas duringto document created period this and organizing of principles Getting Spanishthe political life. backtothe transition process, later itto keeplivingon was resuscitated as andprocess, metaphors oneofmain the In summary, memory CivilWarthe though waspushedasideduring the Transition 2005) 27 funding foundation private generous the public to provided Franco, Francisco of Spaniards” and are a “product of ( “productignorance.” of Spaniards” andarea government is “irresponsible current therefore the to“revivewants past,” the PSOE the by removing the statue and that breaksRajoy asserted leader,Mariano Its thisdecision. to heatedly reacted The PP Madrid. the spirit ofin from square ofthe Franco statue the toremove government of Socialist action the transition,” suchitself from the dictatorialacts legacy. Recently more polemic of this type has resulted“divide with the thedistance want to not does party the that beindicators to taken all are in office years its See, for example, for See, El País 24September2003. According to Jackson: “Francisco Franco foundation El País , 17March 2005; ponencia ), deliberations over ), El País , 19 March 27 during 89 CEU eTD Collection PP) andone to MC (Catalan Minority) PSOE, one to the PCE (Communist party),one to the AP (PopularAlliance, which later transformed into 28 more than 100 amendments from to the text, which but all were rejected. two 1995,p.45).Eventually,issues(Heywood PNVpresented of constitutional the the text major on decided that PSOE the and UCD meetingsof the secret itwas the that apparent which Edles (Desfor itcommittee parliamentary 1998,p.104), finally it leftafter became the text of the Constitution; draftwas supposed to that subcommittee the from wereexcluded Basque representatives sense.The in“outsider” this major as the beconsidered couldBasque probably PNV The largely results. with the leftthem dissatisfied and, consequently, whole process had also some firstside of effects: all,groups some of importantthe wereexcluded from the situation this However, passion. much without and smoothly go to Constitution religion, and also made it possible for the later parliamentary debates over the text of articles on for the instance, Republic, the of from Second times the the Spanishpolitics the Such in a situation resulted easysettling ofsomea rather very haunted issuesthat serious forces, especially the center coalition the UCD and the PSOE. (Gilmour 1985, p.194) major of informal the political meetings the butthrough orsubcommittee, committee form itwas nottook that of that deliberationsthe of questionsthe in parliamentary the the However, issuesdiscussed. on the awidecreate consensus to by attempt an managed that should be Constitution of the process drafting the characterizing aspects important several There are mentioned here.country. First of of the principal the parties nationalistsover relationshipand the between peripheral the all, as most of the transition process, it was The subcommittee was composed of 7 members from which three belonged to the UCD, one to the to one UCD, the to belonged three which from 7members of composed was subcommittee The 28 they were significantly “marginalized” in the work of of the work in “marginalized” the they were significantly 90 CEU eTD Collection represented by the governing party at the time – the UCD. –the time the at party governing by the represented 30 of this term in comparison with that of the nationalities (see, meaning Prieto e.g.the de Pedro 1993, pp.175-176) strengthen to attempt an as researches certain in of importance lot a given is which “Nation,” y regiones que la integrany la solidaridad entre todas ellas.” This translation misses the capital letterfor the e indivisible de todos loscomún españoles,patria y española, reconoce Nación y dela garantizaunidad el derecho indisoluble enla a la autonomía fundamenta se de las Constitución nacionalidades“La text: Original 29 This reads: article state. of Spanish character the national the expresses that Constitution 1995,(Heywood p.51) But probably mostthe controversial is Article 2of the interpretations.” just tovarying open than rather becontradictory actually to “appears in general text constitutional the that noted have researches Numerous controversial. negotiationsArduous of notwithstanding,aspects certain Constitutionthe pretty remained abstain and suggested the same for its voters in the referendum. to decided PNV the Parliament, the in Constitution the for voting of time the At p.23) 1998, (Bastida debates.” parliamentary lightduringmore the than occasion one to on This exclusion of the Basque minority created a “democratic deficit, which will come out the three elements of the same level of significance: “unity of Spain, solidarity between solidarity Spain, of “unity significance: of level same the of elements three the for otherparliamentary the of groundinggroups be had Constitution the basedon to mostimportant notion was that of the unity indivisibilityand of the Spanish nation, while entails. nation” “Spanish the of concept the what of interpretations blocks thathaddifferent two between Hedistinguishes legislation. in of presented this piece regarding thatwere notions the adopted representatives discussions over this articleIn his inspired book on this article, Xacobe Bastida analyzestook in minute details the way the place and the positions that different parties and their There was another – more centrist position, which attempted to mediate between the two extremes, two the between mediate to attempted which position, centrist more – another was There from taken Translation guarantees the right to autonomy of the nationalities and regions, which make it make up and thewhich solidarity regions, among and all of them. nationalities the of autonomy to right the guarantees and recognizes and Spaniards, all of homeland indivisible and common isThe the based indissolubleConstitution Spanish[N]ation,the of on unity the http://www.oefre.unibe.ch/law/icl/sp00000_.html 29 30 To the first one, the Francoist Right, the 91 CEU eTD Collection Bastida: (Bastida 1998,p.42)instead“Spain” (Bastida 1998,p.46).As a result, according to butitsConstitution, meaning entry bythe was “Spanish of undermined term the Nation” obviously,for peripheral the into nationalists, Article notion the was put 2 of the assessment. As mentioning of “nationalities” was the was “nationalities” of mentioning As assessment. notionsthe important most for each wereintroduced – thisisgroup asuperficial only – they wanted what everyone received that appears itglance first the at And,while p.45) 2 results. Franco state, but which did not provoke the ire of the army” (Heywood 1995, p.49), from which theponencia Article facing challenge “The that maintains also Heywood accounts). such of some on commentary interesting seriously discussed afterwards isoften forgottenby other researchersthe (see,Bastida 1998, p.52-53for an itself that the article came out in its complete form from the extra-parliamentary sources and was not 31 of cabinets formitself during took not the in discussions but subcommittee, the somewhere inthe text the Constitution, overthe negotiations the casesduring like in many Again, other “nationalities.” introduction nation” of sawthe of that and asindispensable “Spanish the over “Spain” term the favored Nationalists the and Left The text. the in “nationalities” nation”crucial and importance wasof opposing mentioning it strongly was to of Spanish the of “indivisibility term the of introduction the Right, the for Thus, nation. and state of Spanish the understandings respective reflect their best would way that impose tried the each Duringterms negotiations groups the of the article to of the ina p.33). 1998, (Bastida regions” and autonomy for nationalities to the right andthe its peoples Bastida even argues that it is the “military pen” that formulated the article (Bastida 1998, p.52). The fact The p.52). 1998, (Bastida article the formulated that pen” “military the it is that argues even Bastida nationality, foreseeing its inevitable inclusion into the text of the Constitution are Constitution the of text the into inclusion the of of unity the reinforcement essential way the included accuracy;this with inevitable its foreseeing nationality, APof captivating for nation concept that proposed insolubility.the the Cautions – feature of Unity Spanish the thehas now a character; indivisibility Spain as of , therefore, was to create a state structure which moved away from the unitary conception of the conception unitary the from away moved which structure astate create to was , therefore, la Moncloa (palace of the President of Government). of the President of the (palace sine quanon for the Left as well as, as well Left the for 31 (Bastida 1998, 92 CEU eTD Collection Bastida 1998,p.59). common fatherland,neither is common fatherland indivisible…” dogmatically in(quoted isno there here let’s ourselves, notdeceive “because, rhetoric, of Francoist worst like the this. of the Constitutionserved as a political wing of thisorganization. See the ChapterIV formore details on 32 of the senators from the Basque EE of drafting of the Constitution, but also by the participants This at lookingprocess p.53) was observednotthe only retrospectively by researchers the themselves. For example, one Article of 1998, 2was Conservatives.(Bastida triumphed,the victory the essentially Communists andthe Nationalists the whileformally notes, as Bastida However, “nationalities” p.770). the Constitution into Guerrero2003-2004, the (Blas term of mainprotagoniststhe do fightregime,managedthe of againstsowith the to putting nationalisms, which, consequently, tried to “impose their points of view” and, being some liberal idea of the Spanishhis pages, Franco’s dictatorship should benation blamed first of all for the distortion of andthe thein isexplicit nation” of “Spanish the for concept the whoseadmiration de BlasGuerrero, reinvigoration of resistanceState.” (quotedin Desfor From Edles for 1998,p.120) view,pointof a different Andrés the of ofstrength and unity thenational the for bomb atime doubt, peripherala without is, “nationalities” of concept accept the “To occasion: onone Fragaas Manuel emphasized that, and contradictory elements were “nationalities” and “nation” the remarking, that rightly, “nationalities”, term the of introduction the about unhappy still was Right Francoist The The EE had its roots inone of the factions of ETA – politico-militarand at the time of the creation with a rampantbrightness. (Bastida 1998,p.47, translation mine) shieldany interpretationagainst itinwhich would put appearsat this doubt, point nation isindivisible– which and common, indissoluble fatherland, -devised a as 32 ( Euskadiko Ezkerra ) argued that the article) arguedthat the sounds 93 CEU eTD Collection even if it is not expressed”. not is if it even Basque population, including the nationalists, is today still basically Spanish and this is its real identity 33 “national” identity. own haveeven their not some, do to according and, as“nations” be constituted never “Nationalities”, then, have only historico-cultural differences between themselves, can Thus, entities. national as really recognized not are Galicians or Catalans Basques, attributes. common some sharing conglomerations cultural but entities national perceived asfully not which are “nationalities”, nation of various existence the that schizophrenic ideas of existencethe of oneandindivisiblethe Spanishnation and within somewhat on based is state the of structure current the that then be argued could It a Francoist direction assuming that there are no different national identities within the within identities national different no are there that assuming direction a Francoist As it can be seen, the second explanation is significantly differentfrom the rest. It goes in ways: different in three interpreted be can Constitution the See, for example, Matías Múgica. “Cortar por lo sano” in El Pais, 25 March 2004, “The great majority of 3) 2) 1) possibility become aState” to (Álvarez p.376-377). Conde 2000, yetwhich not the does ofbeing have whichlacksconscience one and the oran nation undervalued historical characteristics linguistic and special cultural, the for qualified “a region is nationality a thus, regions, and nations the between Theory of the cultural nations. Here the term “nationality” is seen as a middle way “region”. the of from that reality” sociopolitical a different represent not “does thus and “region” as theterm same the istreated “nationality” term Here the “nation of nations” and should take a form of a federal state. asa of Spain aninterpretation leads to which nation”, from of the differentthat substantially “not a concept, as nationalities the sees that interpretation The 33 According Enrique to Álvarez Conde, ideathe “nationalities” of in 94 CEU eTD Collection … a synonym of a State, but an acceptance Catalanof or reality.the Basque “nation”. … Thisthe expression, term as thefits editorial inof neatly intoof theCatalonia and the Basque Country,Thus, for example, inone recent debatesof theon the changeideas of territorial isstatutes, to especiallyintroduce befilled lackthose in. lack cannot and this because sovereignty assuch,from they “nations” the notion of the hand,line bottom the of reasoningthis remains thesame: the “nationalities” are distinct upper the takes nations” of “nation the as Spain of interpretation the where even Hence, 1998, p.77) vegetative and the state, inthe understanding here“arenationalities presupposes aneternal formerinexistent.” (Bastidais 1998,p.75)The “thesovereignty nation in this political. In this theory, the latter possesses the state and thus also sovereignty and in the byFriedrichintonationscultural distinction the Meinecke the and elaborated divides that ideabased on but also This acontradictory was arose. “Nation ideaof nations” the the of entity, a national also presupposes somehow which “nationalities”, term the nation and contradictionsinto in oneputting article unitythe both indivisibility and Spanish the of but similarof Autonomous Communities best expresses the essence of the Spanish nation and state – system Spanish territorial current the that whilethird assumes the afederal state, idea of in theirThe other two explanations are different inpremises. their outcomes – the first one presupposes theinterpretation,just acertain nuisance, which can be forgotten most of the time. this for is, Constitution in the appears it as “nationalities” term the Spanish, than country Thus, according to Bastida, as there were such nasciturus state that remains like a fetus, conceived but never born.” (Bastidaborn.” butnever fetus, conceived likea remains that state El País writes “is not writes 95 CEU eTD Collection establishment reinforced, such as the importance of a Castilian spirit and, maybe, to an maybe, to and, spirit of a Castilian importance asthe such reinforced, establishment Francoist the that nation of the all qualifications other the evoke eyesubsequently the and unity.” “indivisible self-evident. InArticlenation” Constitution 2 “Spanish hasaquality of also the of the agreatextent areto dictatorship of Franco the ideals the notion and between this relation – “interpretationin ‘Nation’is (Brassloffof not doubt” thehistorical 1989, p.31)and content hasprecise a pretty nation” of “Spanish the concept The an signifier.” “empty not is meaning.It has“Spain” astrong to nation”asopposed “Spanish term because the Firstall, of discourse. we seeinconstitutional is what Spanish this the not However, state. the with synonymous largely is that “political” of quality a having nation the with This wouldconception presuppose ( a more civic do nothave arejustcultural and thus sovereignty entities. nation” (Bastida 1998, p.75) and have sovereignty, while those who donot have the state, of isthe tothat idea state “the of previous the arepolitical, because, havestates that subscribed tothis theory basically,– rests, in relationthe Thus,with state. the nationsthe cannot? This –and distinction majority the of “Fathers the Constitution” the of which others, the and sovereignty, of quality the have can which nations, the between such, the way itis provided inArticle 2 Constitution.isof the How made distinction the nation as understanding Spanish the visiblelook atthe Further of ifwe problems are 1998, p.59) this figure the Constitutionis based onthe nation throughits one quality: the “indissoluble unity”” (Bastida unity of Spanishnation” neitherthe innocent, –is a fruit noreffort of the of perfectionism. plastic Through 34 (Editorial State.” the is equal nation to schemes the centralist and …Onlyfor sovereignist nations. the of of Spain as nation concept constitutional “The initial synecdoche, with which we were presented – “The Constitution is based on the indissoluble the on based is Constitution “The – presented were we which with synecdoche, initial “The 34 The resonance of such a quality with these ideals can hardly escape hardly can ideals these with quality a such of resonance The a lafrançais El País ) concept of the nation, the of concept ) , 13June 2005) 96 CEU eTD Collection underlying and transcending variousunderlying andtranscending specifics canbestow generations and regional García PelayoFurthermore, remarked:as one of the most influential “only theoreticians the of affirmationconstitutional law, Manuel of the Spanish Nation as an entity of the Constitution making, Constitution the of in process the was understood wayitthe to according However, conceived. identity was here whichby undertaken hadfor state, before centuries national the Spanish the existed was very not albeitsuccessful project, for nationalization the category, thefirstexactly to the nation, which createsnations, the state comesthe before the nation and creates state.it from scratch and in the latter, itis Historically,in political the that them being between difference ideathe state, tothe of the related thus, it would seem that Both political sense have in nations of and vocation ethnic this the andsovereignty are Spain belongs isherefor thesovereignty by nations,investigation replaced origins.argument the of the political and cultural the between distinctions before mentioned the with be equalized not terms. The distinction between these two types of the nations – ethnic and civic – should nation”“Spanish isnot,first of itisbecause conceivedall, not incivic,but ethnic entity, the multinational canbe conceivedasa state” “Spanish the In while addition, language, one culture and one political one (LópezMira apparatus p.740). 2003/2004 based on auniform nation, create Spanish tried to forcefully which under dictatorships, López Mira 20 thirdsXosé the of two that reminds Álvaro even greater extent, suppression of the peripheral nationalist demands. Thus,for example, 1998, p.154) (Bastida nation…” Spanish the of unity indissoluble the on based is Constitution constitutional… in Constitution the of is1978 …it Spanishnation the its which own precedes norm, which is seen as a product of the will of the former: “The the nation was seen as founding the state: th century Spain was living was Spain century 97 CEU eTD Collection 1996, p.26) Socialists as well saw the “Spanishnation,” not the state as afundamental concept (Smith, MarMolinero 35 legitimacy to the totality, unity and indivisibility of the Spanish State” fundamental principle of the Spanish state. Spanish the of principle fundamental nota of and “an reality” acknowledgement conceived as areBasque “nations” as recent attemptsconstitutional project.to Thus,change the introduction of thebegreatthepermitself-determination) the for basis such accordto to the an too was term “nationalities,” wording in the same way of (or independence of of a possible demand Thespecter miserably. havestatutes failed Constitution by enteringinto actual the introduce such an Obviously,understanding to attempts Basque p.81) the the Catalanvol.2, itself.Letamendia 1994, for example, (see, Monarchy) thestate and of Spanish the and the medieval tradition the (following country the of units territorial various between contract Spanish andinstead nationidea Monarchy of one Spanish of isan there a certain social nationthe we find of the pact-like nature between contacts the Basques the and the of of“unityinstead andindivisibility” backgrounds, where conceptual based on different was theSpanishstate of understanding –their process from constitutional alienated the difference is fundamental – and this is one of the reasons why the Basque deputies feltso (both PNVandthe were upholding EE) during drafting the Constitution.the of The nationalists for example, Basque ideasthat, againstthe completely understanding goes this and nation, the but indivisibility, of quality a has that thus, state, the not is It Bastida 1998,p.65) This idea was upheld not only by the Francoist Right, but basically by all the political forces. The 35 (quotedin 98 CEU eTD Collection writes, in writes, “oursuch politicala situation actions be will tend to guided by illusion the that the one chain is seen as completely antitheticaltwo chains of elements that workas constitutive outsides to one another. Whatto belongs theto elements of the other. see hereconstructed As we logic of equivalence caseof in a paradigmatic Like equivalence. Torfing in logic line of with centuries worked thelast two throughout hegemonization project Using centuries. two the throughout nation oftheSpanish ofthecreation characterization good the termssignificantandis often in evoked contemporary the Thismetaphorpolitics. provides a of confronting in one another Thisan unceasing struggle. vision tobeextremelyproved Laclauopposing ideationsand these of strength equal largely The Monarchy. and ofreligion to the allegiance common StateMouffe, and the by the united regions of Nationa diversity as state the of vision gave Conservative-Catholic the and rise to the visionit of “two centralization Jacobin model the and French on based the idea, Liberal –the alternatives couldSpains,” itselfbe argued as the 20th century wasnosinglethere impose vision wouldof that state be Spanish the to able one andthat onlySpanish nation 19th the andwas aproblematic Throughout process. beginning the the of possible theWhatbe could from seen is partthis that the intellectual creation of andthe Spain Spanishinterpretation. in country. the discourse political overall the to violence of relation the on any discussion of point a starting Instead, embeddedin Theseof basic intheConstitution country 1978. the characteristics provide there were andas state the they were developed the throughout 19th and centuries 20th andfinally two different nation on of Spanish discourse the basic characteristics have I the outlined In this chapter Conclusions 99 CEU eTD Collection of the Spanish nation, as based on religion and monarchy, but also on the Castilian the on also but monarchy, and religion on based as nation, Spanish the of idea the Therefore, diminished. significantly was nation the of understanding Republican the nation asIt has thus been noted that both the logic of equivalence andsuch the elaboration of the idea of was more followedyears be the that will same lens. considered through successfulin the nation tothe threats The nation. indivisible and a unitary of vision this undermining and onautonomy the to rights their thedemanding nationalisms, peripheral also but ConservativeSocialism, and Communism of ideologies “alien” the – identity this contradict to stood side. Liberalwith its “Castilian soul” and “unity the in of destiny universe”the against that everyone and thelater one side the true Spain, with its Catholic putting on aconstructed Warsuch chain was of At time Civil the the sameness.” certain roots and Monarchical affiliations, chain identities of equivalential among different thatareseen elements as expressing but also a it “constructs in a way works such that of Thelogic equivalence side. “Nationalist” This visiblewas especially duringthe CivilWarSpanish andparticularly on so-calledthe before. of points reference were “others” that French andthe English replaced the peripheries of the country inthe nation the of visions alternative the on befocused has to come project national and to see them as “the Other”without, butwithinborders. Since the country’s theend 19 the of of thenot found are Spanish “them” the that is Spain of in case is different nation,what identity, national which juxtapose which thediscourses, nationalist all “us”almost in applied is logic same the that againsttrue is it While certain “them” ‘we’ that we haveand always sought tobe.” (Torfing 1999, p.129)by so doing achievefully constituted become the us to forcepermit will of antagonistic the annihilation the the cohesion of the th century Spanish century the 100 CEU eTD Collection strongly. contributed to this process. As a result, the logic of equivalence is reinforced even more enemies. The loss of the empire that brought internal tothe anto it end thejuxtaposing by outward but forces mission outside the to it of Spain by contrasting not also undertaken nation was wherethecreation identity.the of inasituation resulted Theseconditions national the of consolidation and build-up the on impediment major a as interpreted number of civil finallywars, inculminating bloodiestthe Civil War of 1936-1939, is instead, construction nation-state a and, experienced thisthroughout of the crucial period Europe military of major the inanyconflicts participated not of has Spain The factthat June 2005) the PP but also of the PSOE think, and against the logic and common sense.” ( “goes against the adefinition such that Constitution,claimed PP, of leader the Rajoy, Mariano autonomy of statute new against what the majority of in the project asa“nation” the of Catalonia re-definition of the against arguing example, the Spaniards, the voters of in“common for heard.grouped to sense” appellations areoften PP,the the Thus, inAndpoliticians, of thethese speeches heritage. embeddedinthecultural already is it nation of as concept the the framework, conceptual this invoking exactly they are of Spain, invoke “common the sense” understanding currently politicians Conservative the when Therefore, model. rational Liberal the than understanding sense” “common andmore nation of the qualities the of gained vision Conservative state the the said that establish itself as the main indivisiblemanagedto andterritorially morality,language unified “Castilian” and vision of the nature of the Nation and the State. It could be El País , 22 101 CEU eTD Collection existence of diverse national elements in the country, allowing three different allowing country, in the elements national of existence diverse denying the and both permitting sight, first Spanish atthe Constitution, schizophrenic field and a reference point for further discussions on the national issues. Article 2 of the nationthe in it both an provides understanding oftheimage inof nation the political the shared national identity” (Desfor 1998,p.102),the fixation Edles visiona certain of of a byexpressing political “forge[s] order life, that shapes the political that document isa Constitution As the system. legal Spanish in the embedded be to comes nation that were analyzed at creationlength inof thethis Constitution chapter. momentwas Duringthe principal contemporary the the transition discourse. political Inand this especially Article, the theunderstandingphrasing essence of Article of the 2 Spanishof theThe Constitution period metaphor for ofthe social tensions and the reminderof of the politicaltransition, allegiances. a both as functions thestill War Civil the extent, a certain to up only successful been have meaning though, national reconciliation policy of the and transition the during experience this overcome of can the still principalthe life. to of attempts experiences organizing Spanishthe political The State be of one and field seen political the in especially and society the in tension extreme an anddescribe as the the decisive used to a metaphor both Warbecame Civil in the where situation a resulted dictatorship Nation of years 40 the momentby followed war, the of intenseness the and brutality The force. by as forit theis hegemonization of political the spaceplace took byvirtual used elimination alternativethe of in the sphere,and from disappear political the to Spains” the“two between division the imposed as the state policy.As he became dictator, Francisco Franco did not allow the equivalence was the logic of War1936-1939, of Civil of Spanish the As aconsequence 102 CEU eTD Collection used to accommodate violenceused to in period. post-transition the it develops. In the next chapter we will Such seeis the context in howwhich the discourse of theviolence takes placeelements and in relation to which of historical discourse“problem” than the constitutive elementsare of the State. more asa areunderstood in nationalities these which framework essential conceptual the not change does factual existence placetheir of acceptance andthe important have any Constitution itself is In nationalities grounded. understandingthis the peripheral do not eternal the nation Spanish with its of characteristics unity and indivisibility, on which the more civic understanding, and Spanish nation. Thenationthe is still inconceived much pretty ethnic termsin contrast to the wording of the Article itselfdeeper implies the existence analysis of interpretations appears to ofbe thestill relations the product of the State of a andmore the conservativenationalities thatvision compose of theit, in a 103 CEU eTD Collection (terrorist) violence might play in the political discourse of the country. differencesinthe illuminating be their understand can discourses intryingto rolethe that and violence this accommodate to ways usedifferent actors Different Spain. of discourse mappolitical of inthe for find ETA aposition to country of the historical discourse inthe elements use the actors political democratic the assesshow weneedto Thus, political scene since 1968,buthas gained aspecial prominence in periodthe of transition. Spanish the on present been has chapter) coming in the development its see will (we ETA regime. previous of the contenders image violent the of the in discourse the accommodate to change and democracy of context new in the violence of interpretation different intellectualsimportantly, of centuries.of have two Also,provide political to actors the a experience Civil by of the andpermeated War, dictatorship, transition, ideas political the isinfluenced public,which by with waysthe the general wouldthe that resonate according tothe new realities. However, they can only alter the discourse on the nation in modify them to Some areprepared state. the and the nation someideas about adhere to its enemies, its essence and its outside. All the political actors at the moment of transition boundaries, its – nation the of understanding their has Everyone use. to ready and present arealready elements main discursive the transition, place.After take would re-shaping withina structure which post-transitionthe democratic re-deliberation, re-definition and andits accommodation of violentthe past, mainly in form the of civil andwars, provided dealtThe last of chapter exclusively Spanishnationalistthe formation the with discourse Chapter III. After Using historical transition. discourse todeal with violence 104 CEU eTD Collection the so-called the clear that it was the territorial questionbecomes it and period, ETA the violencein events those that to had thereactions and greatestevents the impactconsidering on However, until his from departure politicalthe scene in 1981.” (Preston 1993, p.98) of ban him the “earned hatred which party abitter on Communist dog the Suárez wasto According to Preston, breaking the word that he haslegalized. given was party to the army Communist the aboutalso but the keepingSocialists, the only not and Country) Catalonia about is and Basque true the powers (andthat especially autonomous extensive pretty by weregranted a newone; The oldwas replaced regions the Constitution country. of the leaders by be political the bypassed to eventually were reservations initial Allof Left.these (Share 1986,p.169) theSocialist should reform extendthe only to Finally, limitedautonomy. a only granted regions andthe remain intact was to state the of thecentralization completely abolished; not be reformed, to was Constitution Franco’s The approval of the military to the transition rested on threeagencies variousto the in events country,the such as demonstrations orworker strikes. limits set to the reform: the this period; and finally, in a form of overreaction of the police and other law-enforcement secondly,of attacks establishment which increasedits the ETA, the on in pressure exactly army; Spanish in the elements hostile of side the from regime nascent the of overthrow a violent of threat a constant all, of first – ways of a number in in transition present been has Violence violence. namely, aside, left been has took it form the conditioned During the discussion of the process of transition democracyto an important element that Violence intransition: between terrorismand golpismo ETA was an organization with a Communist flavor and represented separatism, i.e. a i.e. separatism, flavor andrepresented a Communist with ETA was anorganization golpismo (the military plotting to overthrow the newly established system). established newly the overthrow to plotting military (the 105 CEU eTD Collection down), thefollowing have importance firstan here: of ledall, coup the tothe indemonstrated massivemanifestationsthe throughout country the coupwasput the after forth democracy for newthe consolidate the masssupport bringing as system AmongWar. Civil the of brink the to back country the bring to the threatening was that affair an to numerous affairthe OnlyAntonio Tejero. intervention a determined of Kinghimselfputastop the outcomes so-called on 23 February 1981, the Sotelo Calvo Minister Prime new the of investiture the during ofParliament the of seizure the attempted the of The mostserious was them coup. byamilitary of demise newregime the the Therefore, the coupdiscontent of the military manifested itself through attempts to bring about(which actually served to conflict”. (see, for example, an editorial (see, for an example, conflict”. transition. linked Many commentators the military explicitly unrest and “Basque the For the Spanish military, ETA was the best example that things have gone wrong with the in regime. the has changed nothingthat anditssupporters organization the “proving” to deal methods as suspect, with ETA dictatorship forcesorder to during usedthe same law-and- The Spanish democracy. established newly the for manner apressure creating for the forthe government (Preston 1993, p.194) PNV, but at that moment Arregi’s deathreached agreementsput withthe the CiU PNVand othersmall partiesin a forpositionsupport and was about to do the same where with the itCongress could not for agree his minority on any supportgovernment,at the coming moment “ruined when episode, SuárezThis resigned torture. and a new police hopesPrime the of Minister Calvoforconsequence Sotelo a as a wasdied smooth negotiatingwho 1981, supportFebruary in transferin the arrested member of power.” The Prime Minister 36 Thus, and personnel.establishment Spanish army. Inaddition,almost ETA at this periodmilitary attacked exclusively the direct to threat unitythe of inSpain, was itself which mainthe objectof protection of the Examples of this are numerous, one of the most famous cases is that of Joseba Iñaki Arregi, an ETA golpismo and theattacksof ETA worked in in periodthis a mutually enforcing Tejerazo El País , named after one of the main organizers of on 1March, on 1981) 106 36 CEU eTD Collection to limit the demandsslow down the process of transfer of powers to the regionalof governments theand, first of all, principalso-called parties historical Armonización delProceso Autonómico in the Parliament: regions, (LOAPAAct – was infamousDevolution Standardization the coup the UCD andespecially the PSOE. the of asa consequence adopted importance considerable of legislation of A secondpiece The lawCatalonia was designed and to the be considered an act of rebellion. ( actof rebellion. an be considered and explicitly stating that a declaration independenceof by any part of the territory would more of severe orrebellion for publicsupport terrorism making sentences the terrorism, the changes in the Penal Code of the country in the matters of the of matters the in country the of Code Penal in the changes the foundation, whichwas provided by the Tejero’s attempted coup.ideological an needed decision this However, point. that at pursued government the that violence 38 37 ( Constitution brought was “moreflamboyant than Finally, Letamendia vol.2,efficient” 1994, p.410). coup the up severalLetamendia, to according (which, struggle antiterrorist inthe prominence army a greater legislative(Preston 1993, p.205, Letamendiavol.2, 1994, p.410) Thirdly, wasaninitiative togive there the politics. domestic with interfere to desire the overcome it help to and military initiatives,strongly for entry the NATOof was to Spain that supposed togive for anewmission its such towards redefinitiontrend the pushing army rolethe governmentthe with of the of as the Law ETA(pm) ofof disbandment the Defense of the political activities of its party This decision was possible also because of the reinsertion strategy for the prisoners who who renounced prisoners the for strategy reinsertion the of because also possible was decision This ETA politico-militar. About divisions in the organization see the Chapter IV. Ley de la Defensa delaConstitución Ley delaDefensa 37 , which decided to renounce onthe violence , whichdecided concentrate and to Euskadiko Eskerra. Euskadiko El País ) created in an agreement between the two the between in anagreement ) created , 22April 1981) 38 , of April 21 provided 1981) that for Secondly, there appeared a strong appeared there Secondly, golpismo, Ley Orgánicade but also 107 CEU eTD Collection drown theirspecificity. this usually incites a displeasure of the historical communities which think that such an equalization will fromcompetences those of the slow different have track, it wastrack considered fast thatof the with time regions these competencesa historical would have not so-called be did The equalized, War. but Navarre Civil the though before even Statute autonomies track” “fast the join to it allowed status) Foral Navarre’s y Amejoramiento del Régimen Foral deNavarra ( Statute its exception, an was Navarre place. take could autonomies created added to this group and the so-called slow throughtrack Article 143 throughwhich the devolution to other statutes passed inthe II Republic, i.e.Catalonia, the Basque Country Galicia,and laterAndalusia was of granting autonomy: the fast track of Article 151 reserved itforthe regions that had their autonomy 39 Basque Country. threatened the unity that was so precious to the armed forces. LOAPA, however, meant LOAPA,forces. however, tothearmedprecious was so unity the that threatened indicated adeviation of pattern from andin process centralism accepted the a sense El País you,“Thisjournalistnot against against nor it’s system”, is anyone, the see against that themselvesmilitary’s claimed general dislike of the establishedLOAPA stood as toan example political that the coupbe was interpreted system not so much“against as (thea result of that participantsthe LOAPA was it most brought serious forth discussions and most hadthe significant impact. political attention, of little the coupreceived and impact little had the struggle anti-terrorist system,”in the role its and military the of position the to relating measures of set first the While one of the 1995,Heywood p.145) assailants more i.e.itsof than articles, one third, wereunconstitutional. (Brassloff 1989, p.34, asserted14 ruledthat Constitutional the Tribunal, law which to appealedagainstthis nationalists to a referendum hierarchy being the laws: establishedof Statutes laws pacted ina and approved onlyregional law, including the Statutes of Autonomy, whichhad was a directthe over contradiction prevalent to be always the laws state the that ruled and an Constitution the by regions inferior status to the Constitution itself. The peripheral TheConstitution provided for the asymmetric federalist structure of the country, establishing two ways , 24 February of process the as areaction , 24February butdevolution. Obviously,to this 1981), 39 The law took away some of the powers that were granted to the - Organic Law of Reintegration and Improvement of Improvement and Reintegration of Law -Organic Ley OrganicaLey deReintegracion 108 CEU eTD Collection events. See, Manifest of the Hundred 1981. Hundred of the Manifest See, events. the treated press the way the with displeasure their and officers tried the to support expressed they which as the trigger 40 for the (including Catalonia, as one of the most significant of the demonstrations, amounting an Furthermore, whilemanifestations of Constitutionthe infavor Spain throughout shown. has LOAPA as structures, autonomous the of development the on greater hadcoup some influenceontheway anti-terroristthe struggle wasperceivedand even autonomies. Constitution,Duringand trial the Tejero his stated associates that had coup the four tasks:toreform the to freezecountry. Marxism, to secure unity indivisibility the of and of to task the army was that itsthe 8stating Article finish withinvoked with also currentConstitution the that, was inaddition to the wrong country. In terrorism going things see if they intervene to atask given are officers the where intervention, and to stop the military wassupposed beof followingtwo-centuries-oldThus, the coup tradition to the process of 1982c) As one of lawyersthe expressed himself: military intervention intopolitics and the primacy of the Patria. (See Prieto 1982a, 1982b, of tradition the patriotism, and Spain for love fervent – intent their for background what reasons had caused their involvementin such an attempt, stating all the historical in made their of The thelawyers army clear aswellsupporters participants coup, the enjoying successful the of achievement itssome of ends.”1993, p.205) (Preston were defeat, of coup’s the from theconsequences “asfar military, if suffering that the Later, a number ofofficers referred to this article as to one of the justifications of the frustrated coup and that beforethat Patriais in there 1982a) (quoted nothing. Prieto say would I is barbarity, only there is before democracy that said someone If Patria. that and books, than important more something is There words. printed the just There were alot of Constitutions in Spain, but some of them remained just books, 40 ( El País golpistas , 18March 1982) Whilefirst two the achieved,were nottasks the . They signed a letter that received a title of title a received that letter a signed . They Manifest oftheHundred,Manifest 109 in CEU eTD Collection also had some strange relation with the Spanish security structures and the extreme Right. As Preston As Right. extreme the and structures security Spanish the with relation strange some had also accounts withties to the French organizationthat also sprang forthfrom the resistance to the Francoist regime. Officially Leftist, onsome Resistencia Antifascista Primero de Octubre government. to entrance Party’s Socialist the with over and transition the consolidated was Spanishdemocracy the that It isoften considered State,protect protectthe PSOEgovernment: democracy The with violence. linked intrinsically atlarge Others, the made Basquepolitical actors Constitution, the the feelings” devolution“lukewarm towards more and the process significant and quicker the on aninsistence to ETA, connection ideological the involved), officers hadproblems”. formild repercussions the of Asaconsequence coup(which the pretty as one of the best examples of how bein LOAPA, this seen can respect especially and Constitution, Law of the on Defense the violent pressures are linked inundertaken tolimitits impact order are the clearexamplessuch of The an attitude. with the “territorial extremisms – terrorism, on the one hand, one the on terrorism, – extremisms two the balancingbetween nature, precarious a pretty wasof before,democracy this 42 of Tejerazo conspirators and their imprisonment (ibid.). Stepan1996, p.108), eventhough the authors add that itcould(Linz, be as consolidated seen already elections” trial the after general 1982 October the after opposition socialist the to of power transfer peaceful 41 Thus Letamendia writes: Asa casein consequence, the BasqueCountry. the half tookplaceestimated massive, inBarcelona) participants a million were this was not It was not only challenged by the two “There ETAs, also is stronga broad was thescholarly presence of GRAPOconsensus – that Spanish democracy was consolidated no later than the constitutional democracy.p.408) (Letamendia 1994,vol.2, all ran,butalso the as having lukewarm Spaniards the feelings only towards riskthat of enormous an instigator an only not asawhole as nationalism Basque present the to begin the State makers of opinion the and parties The political golpismo became clearly linked to the “Basque problem.” The subsequent measures subsequent problem.” The the “Basque linked to becameclearly Action Directe and the Italian the and , the First October Antifascist Resistance Groups, an Groups, Resistance Antifascist October First the , 42 and golpismo, Brigate Rosse Brigate 41 on the other. In addition, the However, asit was shown (see Holmes, Burke 1995), it Grupos de 110 CEU eTD Collection broke withbroke long-standinganother tradition Spanish –neutrality. and wasbasically initiativean of Suarez government. Inaddition, suchmembership major parties the between negotiated not was issuestransition, of majority other of to the contrary membership, in NATO The May 1982. entered country the organization, which promisingleavepower to membershipthe PSOEcame to of inNATO.The the wasthat time at the government Socialist the for very problematic proved The issuethat invigor thearmy on7January control over Lawentered (the 1984). providing that the Minister of Defense and the President of the Government had the direct military, the over Government of the clearly thesupremacy itstated that so Defense, on Law the reforming members, staff the of reshuffling staff, command military the of reduction through done was This military. the of considerations main the of out driven http://www.congreso.es/ year2000 by opponent PP, the receiving 45.24% and53.29% 182or of seats respectively.the from: Data 43 situation to the extent that ETA did. political violence inSpain, especially during the period of transition though it neverinfluenced thepolitical nevermight not or case the was that Whether even more. situation the destabilize to sought that forces besecurity known;1996, p.207). The authormaintains that GRAPO could havewell beenorganized by dissatisfiedthe however,claims, the group’s actions gave more advantage to the extreme Right than to the Leftist cause (see Preston GRAPO was a serious challenger over ETA’s monopoly of the anti-state and budget tomake sure that increasingtheraising and military the salaries An appease wasmade military attempt the measures. adoptingby to drastic sometimes achieved absolute majority in theallowed Parliament deal itwith to problems the The hadPSOE, though, allthecardsinits handling handstostart issues – these the heritage. problematic alternatives, other and the all crushed of support amount unprecedented which an received incominggovernment, the regime wasalready off. Thus, wearing of change the about euphoria initial the and times difficult living was economy Spanish ThePSOE received of votes 40.82% 177,orthe and 50.57% of seats, repeated aresult the only the in 43 came into a golpismo 111 is CEU eTD Collection security police,security services: ETA) persists andis as as strong before, demandingmore engagementfrom other the giving itgiving a different militarySpanish by both highersubjectingto the command it by organization in the and the past. This is achieved through the entry intoNATO, which changes the purpose of the army the ideaof the guardian the many Spanishunity of the causedso that in problems attempt at “denationalization” of Spanish armed forces,i.e., an attempt to take away from is forces: 1994, p.19) first work the useful.of of resulta moveall, Such isthe two of an (Letamendia nationalism” “police to “military” from made was move a PSOE the with that thought who Letamendia Francisco of idea the respect this In panorama. political loominglargein question the “Basque the terrorism kept and presence of problem” the All changesthese of policies alsoinfluencedand initiatives were by continuous the continuingin organizationthe won and Spain in remained NATO. of supporters heldon 12 March1986. The the issuewas Eventually,a referendum on 1986) country.Barnuevo the (Yáñez of stability” democratic and“defend the would in politics interfere to army the of desire the limit would organization the in permanence the NATO. One in persuadingboth hismembers party and citizens the of necessity the stayingof within of the argumentsmost of the party stuck to the idea of withdrawal.However, González put all his charisma in favornew raison d’être for the Spanish military. The issue dividedof the Socialists themselves, as the organization a may create inparticipation organization the believing that things, NATO, other among washis on position reconsidered Felipe González however, PrimeHavingbecome Minister, exactly that the raison d’être Guardia civil . Second, the image of the internal enemy internalimage enemy the (primarily the of . Second, , etc. 112 CEU eTD Collection The plan was seen as insulting (“as if we had no proper name” one of the Basque suspicion from suspicion from and Basque others.numerous actors ( political the from admiration conservativepages was and with the with opposition great received great isolatecounterterrorism lands. Basque ETAinof the document struggle and 150 to This The plan emergency.” ( ZEN was legal and experts politicians whileaccording to itothers represented a“masked of state no less some of opposinggroups; the and thelaw wastermed itself by a “legal monster” some controversial. by declaredunconstitutional were etc. conversations, listen their telephone to to terrorists, The idea of the plan was to advance ten days ( law seemingly invited for torture by its provision to keep detainees tokeep byits provision for torture law invited seemingly the counts: numerous on criticized were both and means, police and legal by terrorism Especial Norte Elements ( ArmedTerrorist and Bands the against Law as the in such period, the created laws The essence “policethis of nationalism” was probablybest visible inthe counterterrorism the existing means its enemy par excellence – ETA terrorism. discourse around the of creation the theto leading form strength existing in its state Spanish the with identification of the state, which also means overan attempt the toideological topple by all antiterrorism.”unity of the Spanish (Letamendiawith “functional services”birth of p.84) and security the (Letamendia 1994, the nation and the 1994,need to identification in of “affective is Socialistthe What see thisgovernment situation the we p.21)preserve This it, is but the of resultthe not so much of the concern El País Ley contraBandas Armadas y Elementos Terroristas El País – Special Northern Zone). Both documents were designed tackle ETA , 3 February investigate, 3February to possibility the1985); homes suspected of , 22April 1985) ) and the Plan ZEN ( El País incommunicado , 20 May , 20May 1983) Zona for 113 CEU eTD Collection the scene. the surged up from time to time in the speeches of politicians even afterwards. As Aznar, the Aznar, As afterwards. even politicians of speeches in the time to time from up surged it in both was the1993 andof election campaignsof today.1996; extensively used It 2001, p.217)(Woodworth became infamous.Admittedly, GALleft the its trace up to sewers” in the also but salons, in the and courts, the “in be defended to has law of rule socialists. The declarations of the party leaders with regard to the GAL affair, e.g. that the governing leftthe of democratic credentials stain the on a serious state by a democratic attempted enemy the of elimination physical of acampaign Such inArgentina. practices intime “dirty the war” sametype to reference the (though moredefinitely widespread) at the ETA. of GAL wascalled functioning The the hadnoconnection to is theestimate) members.killed some of whom of theorganization (9 27people, Inthisperiod ETA the At the same time, in 1983, the GAL ( wrote: Savater 1983) AsFernando it is probably not because withcounted highestthe number of intheworldpolicepersons andthus emphasizing that of the lack of the police that terrorism still thrived. (Uriarte contras forengaging in dirty waractions can be found in and González pros 1995. deliberating document CESID service Intelligence The 2001. seeWoodworth participants the of 44 in PNV, the of Vizcaya, aparliamentarian (Marco few political ones,” andvery measures “many police (Editorial politicians waswritingin 1983); Uriarte “lackshowed the of political sensitivity” For the best account of functioning of the GAL, evidence gathering about the organization and the trials Basque problem. (Savater 1983) Basque problem. (Savater dialogue in Euskadi,everything that exceptit finishit …butbecause offearwould really off willterrorism finish that the off rest primarilyfor terrorism,The plan ZEN seemson to be mostthe worrying destroying initiationand not because one would be afraid that firstof demilitarization of all the possibilities of the of political 44 El País This group functionedphysical This that was dedicated until group elimination to 1987 El País , 21 July 1983) Also, mostAlso, of , 21July observersthe 1983) noted thethat plan included , 20 May 1983) and emphasized that the Basque Country BasqueCountry the already emphasized that 1983) and , 20May Grupos Antiterroristas Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación ) appears on 114 CEU eTD Collection organization makingwithout any orallowing commitments political terrorist the violence, while the state wants to deal only with the technical aspects of dissolution of the of stop for the concessions political reach some to wants organization terrorist the “political Theconversations.” name itself isvery here:important during anynegotiation ( Algiers” of “conversations andApril (betweenNovember They nonstop years1989). 1986 were called almost attempts to negotiate with ETA, the longest negotiations taking place over two and a half werenumerous of there González government period the pragmatic antiterrorism. During Negotiations with ETA could also be seen as one of the elements of the “functional” or democratic transition.” Jiménez (Reinares, 2000,p.137) has beyond the explainingfactor why persisted majorETA can be a considered Jiménez, write: “Indeed, state-sponsored terrorism used to counter insurgent terrorism and Reinares of terrorism, ETA As experts the new recruits. numerous organization the to brought it such as and action-repression-action” of “spiral the of framework beit its to aperfectpropaganda strategic felldirty tool for into proved ETA, neatly war most of those responsible for organizing the dirty war received punishment. However, the organizing GAL.The“GAL scandal” was foryears, nearly dragging buteventually 15 infigures both security the apprehended and in government were services for the itfactwas organized high from very up in ranks was and high accumulating government With time, factual materialPradera 2004) in reference to one of the crimes of the GAL. that the securityhave cleanhands; we didnot use quicklime any tocover in assassination.” (quoted services were behindformer thePrime GAL Minister and that from in the PP, once argued after his party’s fall from power: “we conversaciones deArgel ) otherwise also referred toas 115 CEU eTD Collection nationalists in their entirety. With waris the peripheral the waged on the sametime butatthe measures, by police the PSOE at the beginning of their term in against ETA fight put on isthe emphasis also how PP government the We seewith will office, the “lack sensitivity.” of aforementioned aviewisalso the of such result Another antithesis. its becomes violence while (political) onenodal becomes point, politics democratic and the state the where onviolence discourse of the construction in a particular results This aspossible. much as discussions political of the out be left has to that as aquestion life. ETA terrorism appears here as a question beto solved,not as an ideology combat,to notwarrantissue, with which, deepconnections such,does and-order political the being facedlaw-it views the developed as a onterrorism of samechallenge, with Europe the traditionally view pragmatic on terrorism in Spanishthe Like politics. in countries other most the presents thus, PSOE, The state. the and violence of issue the on position PSOE The antiterrorism laws, the plan functional purpose. aside and only serve a technical, they ZEN, negotiations, also left actually are the negotiations of these aspects Political completely. organization the topple GAL affair, tells about the to needed win time to andtry of ETA attacks limit the to itattempted negotiations these Through state. of the as theprotectors its position of its understanding with accordance negotiationsinThus, PSOEgovernmentthe issueof approachingthe in wasacting they satisfy the State as well. (Sanchez Cuenca 2001, p.113) whatETA is beingbut satisfied and noserious only requiring outcome, conversations leaves both sides with what they need: the content of the talk appearsbe to political,with conversations” “political the Algiers, in “negotiations” the for chosen name The p.110). 2001, Cuenca Sanchez example, for (see, actor be seenasapolitical to organization 116 CEU eTD Collection always bring the anticipated results. The fact that the government negotiates can negotiates government the fact that The results. anticipated bring the always situation. the Negotiationsbe sometimes asolution can thenot to problem;prove however, they to do with deal to organization terrorist a halt to trying ones the for complicated challenge assuch.The with violent” “the of “thecombination makesit political” very its policies and actions. Naturally, one of the reasons for that is the nature of the terrorist It should also be mentioned that the discourse of the party may differ to some extent from Party. Socialist of the credentials all ruin democratic the to threatened existenceof the which such the GAL, as an organization to gave coverage alsosewers” not but “insalons” “inthe only protectSpanish the to González democracy touproottime ETA by attempts in means.Theidea overzealous undemocratic of It must be said, though, thatdemocratic system,the to the State itself.protection of the established the loyalty to the into transformed Republic the to loyalty this statetransition, resulted at least at and dictatorship endAfter of the Republic. the of adhere principles tothe to revolution one point in state, the existing Inthis PSOElargely regime. the period, gave upits urgesfor existing the to loyalty was forces, the between differences enormous notwithstanding Republican camp together kept the whatduring Civil War, remembered the that shouldbe idea. It core the present Warto Civil the years of during the party, crystallized the of existence entire the during present though state, the adherenceto the argued that as Here present. ofthe well shapes itself and thepolitics beitdiscourse guides could weseehowhistorical actors, political of in all other the as that PSOE the caseof In the understanding of “Basqueproblem.”the insensitivity not a crusade,butlackrather viewfight against ETA represents of and of a 117 CEU eTD Collection anything else, therefore, each of the episodes, organizations and people form form andpeople each a vision organizations of else,of anything episodes, the therefore, of not itself, of manifestation be to is taken violent is what opposites, different these isattempt a create chainfrom No made asanopposite. to pure “constitutive outside” the represent that ones the leaving only as possible, many signifiers as attract made to is an attempt where difference, chainsof basedon discursive discourse, as a“democratic” of the PSOE’s discourse on violence was closest tothat which Laclau and Mouffe labeled vs.democrats violent.the Consideringit this,could be saidlogic thethat of construction state level, but in the Basque Country with the appearance of the distinctive chains of Thethe essence of pragmaticthe statement denies ETA the position of antiterrorism,a political actor in its own right. conversation, of partner a as it accepting even Second, state. the against arms however,brandished was crystallizedeven notthose so much whoon the beforemention by extending the theinclude very chainsof limit, to difference to attempting (as the dialogueit presents should itself first of ideas:all, several captures Thisof statement ETA. disarmament thecomplete after take as partexactly only theafter type theof disarmament)democratic discourse that Laclau and Mouffe of of violencedialogue” through ( idea “end of recent the canbeseenin “theviolent” the no with negotiating is where there An attempt to thanreconcile not were kept secret. Otherwise, they were not called negotiations. the more often negotiations and these with ETA, time innegotiations to from engaged time possible policythat violence and politics are antithetical. Probably for these reason the Spanish Socialists of negotiationsideanullify the seemsto itself factof negotiating the Inaddition to that, actor. political with invigorate organizationthe andmore give it confidence inits position a theas proper actual discourse fin dialogado de fin la violencia ), which), placeshould take 118 CEU eTD Collection Aznar,for example, that in private he sometimes spoke Catalan. Minister Prime of the declarations bizarre some led rather to forces of courting these rely nationalistgovern the peripheral still had to The in alone, to parties. and on order Parliament, the in majority sufficient the have not did it possible, as much as nationalism diminishconservative inclined Spanishnationalism thestrength peripheral the of to targets of the assassinations. In addition to that, even though it wasa representative of the first the becoming members its strategy, of change this from significantly suffered itself on politiciansthe includednew parties.PP The primarily of oneSpanish the attacks the in terms of political violence. ETA was weakened,it but just changed its strategy, and the moment a difficult at Moncloa of Palace the came to its predecessor, as though, The PP, ProtecttheNation PPgovernment: The interpretation particular bewill discussedin followingthe pages. This nation the of of Right. of spaceforthe hegemonization much interpretation the the national realities withinit; by second, engage to refusing into the discussion,itleaves too other the with accommodating too is not aswesaw, which, nation, view of the present isby alsotrue thatleaving theseit, unanswered first,questions subscribes already the to it but is, essence its what and is nation Spanish the what of deliberations the to attention than that of the otherHowever, this is not to saypolitical that the discourse of the PSOE is so much qualitatively better actorsin,alsobut by presentconfiguration upthe keeping of signifiers in the discourse. the in the country. give deny to by undershould them possibility this do isto these circumstances refusing It is true that the forces political Whatthe discourse. political democratic dislocate the to party attempts sporadic pays less 119 CEU eTD Collection of the democratic politics, but of the nation. What we see here is the use of the logicof useof the we seehereis the What nation. of butthe politics, of democratic the only not antithesis an becomes here Violence violence. on discourse the of configuration in a different also party the results of discourse in the nation the on The focus if you aredenyingtheexistence of nation.”2005 the (FAES havepolicy aforeign “youmotioned: cannot Aznar Minister Prime former the example, for Thus, safe. and is healthy nation the that condition the on solely survive can state The importance. only here secondary the acquires The state inits discourse. central place Right for the entire Spanish the of focus main the century. been has nation the before, seen have As we Theequivalence. PP logic frame of the based on a(war) wehave logic of difference of instead the wefindmain focus instead and State, Nation the of as the the of PP, the discourse In the party the that developed. constructions discourse at broad look the isitto necessary however, Here, Lizarra. treaty of the on in-depthindiscussed in detail the two studies eventsof the work–on this of 11-M and The aroundactions and of the discourseit violence PP the constructed and is the nation time with the absolute majority) this offensive moved at its earnest. expressing views that are close to a rather radical part of the ideology of the party.analysis) is a think tank presided over by the former PP Prime Minister José María Aznar and thus and the nationalisms as such. After the party won the second mandate at mandate second the won party the After such. as nationalisms the and 46 Movement. Liberation National Basque the government, Spanish the when moment only the even and through negotiate to wish expressed publicly the itsCountry, own Prime Minister, called45 the ETA environment by the name it ascribed itself – with organization generous the was it that regret its showed PP the truce, the broke eventually ETA When already. secondyear of will PP of the rule inthe the disappeared butThese of all good signs The FAES ( Signs of that generosity, in fact, were numerous – starting from the move of prisoners closer the Basque Fundación para análisisel ylosestudios sociales 45 by anoffensive againstunleashing it, its environment inherited this focus and assigned to the Nationthe focus inherited and assignedto this the – Foundation for the social studies and 46 ) Moncloa (this 120 CEU eTD Collection itself tells. However, many Party, Nationalist i.e. Basque the PNV, name the forterms example, as, nationalist, themselves do not have their own existence calling donothesitate into this group are lumped all, that together ones after the outside the discourse evil. The term used to describe this other chain – nationalistmight – seem beto objective, mirror chain is created, which, as formerthe signified all the good, comes meanto all the so rigidly constructed notfitin thatdoes whereeverything edificeSuch a requiresthe an opposite construction could andcoherent logical in itself; butwhich not any does tolerate deviations. be dumped. Here,political as thesystem logicaround Condensingconcept. the meanings the Constitution,the of state, the democracy and the of concept equivalence of the nation,Castilian createsspirit at its dictates,core, does not allow much fluiditya in rigidthe interpretation of the construction, a nationwhereso is not the but muchin inpolitical,understood ethnic with terms, the which is Nation.largely Thisunderstanding, inherited from traditional the rightist discourse, constitutional assuch, framework butasasupport for acertain understanding of the a signification constitutionalistblockthe not of only thesupport for thelegal as the order, creating actors, political other on Constitution the of notion its imposed principles, basic its asone “constitutional the idea of having patriotism” election of established already this before PP, The indivisible. and one as nation –the nationalism Spanish the of we shouldfrom remember discussions, previous the adherencetotheestablishedthe rules also, but order, legal established the to loyalty the here signifies “constitutionalist” name Parliament in 2001, and whichwhich crystallizedwere then labeled themselves nationalistschains here, radical There aretwo in opposites. two organizethe discourse to equivalence most clearly duringvs. constitutionalists. the electoral campaign to Thethe Basque 121 CEU eTD Collection PP, ETA violence is definitely related to the “territorial problems” and the “debate “territorial about tothe and theproblems” violencePP, ETA related isdefinitely demands of peripheral nationalists to the outside of political discourse. According to the that there is a constant threat to the nation and, in addition, allows to push out the violence. of Theis helpfulpresence in becauseETA very it thatsustains theidea respect, Consequently, the discourse on the nation becomes entangled with the discourse on November 2005) (see, occasion. a different uson told another as nations, Catalan and ETA” recognize“paying Basque thebe to existencewould of to price the apolitical also it then and proclaimed, party the of leaders the of one as Statute, Catalan the of project here becomesETA the disintegration. with embodimentis threatened which well, as state the of guardian the hence And of all the problems of fewthe other country: politicalvery that is such ETA nation the of forces understanding wasAs the protected. behindfullyvigilantly be constantly subscribe the to it, the party appearsThe nation is in danger because of the strength of the alternativeto chain, therefore,be it has to its sole guardian.violence. related to ETA, a juxtaposition of thenationalists. good adherents to the legal order, the constitutionalists and the evil, of in PPis the Hence,whatwesee isit discourse expression the – violent. a very concrete One chain gains represents chain alternative this that “evil” the Thus, has ETA. includes indivisible and as its nodal pointanathema. In addition to that, the camp of those who are against the Spanish nationthe as one as be seen only can nation,nation alternative an of preaching the discourse, in good” “the the other – Obviously, nationthe with one indivisibleas and beingthenodal of point chainof the meaning of of nationalistandinacquired PP discourse the the term pureevil. the the El País 25 122 CEU eTD Collection and the judicial system haveanddeal judicialsystem the not toexpressbutwith. Violence does anything else forces security the that is problem the exactly it field, of political the out itto arepushed related issues As andasany democratic of the violence isoutside construction. discourse dissatisfactionsin asituation system.isalogical of thepolitical outcome Such the deal the judicialsystem This leaveswith the and to thepolice understanding significantly. is widened affinity ETA. to By criminalizing these organizations the understanding is of what violent engaging inviolent actions its bidding. armed they the organization are not and areprobably doing However, links have with environment nationalist of Basque the organizations of IRA,the the some from autonomy Fein hadasignificant Sinn the where case, Irish Northern to the contrary environment of radicalBasquethe nationalism asmaking partof ETA. Indisputably, of the most organizations the of persecute to decision Ihavemind the in power. in PP the with ETA during years the tackling of canbeseeninthepolicies “the violent” Another example of this criminalization and also of the stretching of the understanding of here. examples best the of is one discussed was sovereignty of plan his famous when Ibarretxe Juan José Basque of lawto the imprisonment Lehendakari backdoor the threatening problems, inthe wayas is same ETA a criminal organization. Pushingthrough the an criminal extent, to are, political on the agenda, they from excluded discussions the political; the“territorial becomeproblems” violence Notonly shouldproblems. they be Spain.”p.4) Insuchagainst issues 2005, outside arebeing (Aznar a way, the of relegated territorial the aboutof isconfiguration from debate Spain the terrorism inseparable per se per . Some of them could claim to have only ideological 123 CEU eTD Collection elements: the violence itself is senseless, has no point and no meaning, but the deaths it deaths the but meaning, no and point no has senseless, is itself violence the elements: significantrole. into Violence is discourse entered a combination through of two nation as presented by andgood evil work,chainsnot would if itwas based only on understandingthe of the the PP. However, hereTo come back to the point the of ethicization of politics, it must bevictims said that this division into of terrorismPopulars. come to play a wayin only wayisby with the andthattrue one dealingsituation true personified the first, of course, admitting inviting “comeconsensus”him personifiedby Pact, Zapatero Antiterrorist to back the to that he was wrong all alongPP notregularly to listen to the PP. but choicespolitical between the alternatives, good andleader evil.Currently, of the the There is opens morally neutral notare made, are i.e.that choices the of politics, in anethicization his arms results construction This evil.” “the and other ofthe and those “good” the represent chain one offers of elements the where logic of equivalence is basedon the PP of the discourse the Also, his embraceinexistent. to the currentis conflict the bethis In obviously, asenemiesto situation, eradicated. presented Prime are themselves andtheantagonists arerelegatedbe discourse political of outside disputed Ministermight issues that the PP, of the of discourse the a construction caseof In the contenders. be accepted issues andshould there shouldbe contended there have aconflict, forms thenodal of point discursivethe chain beinwhich should annihilated. For order to it in issues addition, of where, representative and any political isnot where violence inof from discourse logically the construction follows the conflict BasqueCountry” the “no of position The conflict. no is there emphasized, be should it consequently, itself, 124 CEU eTD Collection where heaskedhis doeverythingcolleagues to possibletosecurehis release,his family’s prison” from “people’s the written letters system. His political existing of validity the who happilymartyr, the Moro submittedof that into transformed been has being human a as person, a as Moro himself to the tortures country the forused thepersonal their of drama howthefigureMoro purposes, own of of his of elite executors political the how clearly shows author the imprisonment, his of time the induring order to reaffirm thestatements of politicians, the of examination the the through mediabook, this In and drama. social theof letters perspective the from events of the Prime Minister himself, written Minister Aldo PrimeMoro Italian the murderof Robin Wagner-Pacificianalyzing and the kidnapping (1986) by the of book from term the the borrow I scene. on the comes “morality play” a however, Here, constructed. and chains the –evilcanbe the whereis other good equivalence of one representing moral meaning totheunderstanding nation is of itself. the deaths becauseof It that these innocent, as they died for the nation (and at hands of the evil Other), their deaths give the ones who were innocent and were killed in spite of their innocence. As they died national police,the 47 for Patria, the fought actively who ones the arenot themselves victims is the that is here What interesting of nation. the ideaandfeeling the of in element consolidation the literature on nationalism that the cult of the “fallen for the patria” constitutes a significant is in It nation. emphasized the often of the martyrs reaffirmation is the of and a creation are meaningful. haveproduces “They died not invain” – resultsenselessthe violence of The fact that the majority of victims of ETA are members of various security services: the army, the Guardia Civil, Ertzaintza Brigate Rosse Brigate is irrelevant here. irrelevant is and public the reactions surrounding these 47 but the but 125 CEU eTD Collection any “rebellion” in victim the camp has be crushed. Whatto story the of Lluch showed understanding as one one chainaspositive of andtheother negative, butbecause that of the meaning to they equivalence, give chains existing the of victimsThus, support “immoral.” ( is Lluch) like one the (especially them of one distinguish to and victims the all for be to has concert the that arguing politician the of memory in Sebastian in San concert homage attendwould the PP not the Therefore, unity. toward national the on road the death another ETA, of victim another personality, any without names the of one becoming by martyrs the army of the into or subsumed forgotten wasbetter which victim, exceptional an Lluch made family the and government the between clash This 2000) November evade thedaughtersattend decided notto of thefirst rows demonstrationthe against hisdeathto possibilityLluch’s The deceased. the of family the and government the between evolved tension positions and an opponent of PP,thenthe in waskilledgovernment, by ETA, greatest that thepolitical between of dialogue different the was asupporter the politician who Socialist Prime When (Mees 2003,p.160) Lluch, aCatalan Ernest government. from sideof the Ministerthe and“distrust criticism” messagereceives the murder, Lluch’s Ernest caseof like in the would supportingembrace the policy of any individuality and as“typical” are destructionpresented victimsnot dying– invainand them. of ETA. If theWe can see such a situation often repeating itself in ( Spain. victims The arestrippedof reaction of the familiesof Moro as a sacrificial isvictim, accepting of hisdifferent, death as a means to achieve greater good. pleas wereignored and dismissed asfakeandthe real by wassubstituted Moro image the El País , 5January 2001; El País , 3January 2001) El País , 25 126 CEU eTD Collection especially the Catalan Statute, and the proposal of the dialogued end to violence. Autonomies, of Statutes the of reforms the namely, PP, the of rage a particular up stirred governmental actions having lied.Two of from accusations the former government the would and exonerate would events to the that ETA that tie evidence speculative, eventsinvestigation into 11-M open,matter howleast tofindno trying always some, at of its work in the opposition neverprobably been The as sour. PP believed itfallen from had grace unjustly and most was concentrated on that,principal hence, actors the demands in the SpanishEachto keep ofthepolitics these everreforms since lifestyles thrives. different to tolerance where the society thewas elections fiercelya negligible, is attendance Church of the where but 14 be Catholic to disputed claims which society bythe itself, the society the in changes the with PPline in goes only it andclaims, PSOE the doing, so the relationsIn country. the of outlook social even probably and legal the between change significantly would twoit that or Church the and Conservatives the of resistance strong a was there that fact examples of this. In implementinggood be can laws abortion liberalizing marriages, gay allowing these classrooms, the from reforms the party was not made hesitantas by a thetypical Left-libertarian changes party.and many were already implemented. In its social policies,The the PSOE can be seen changes of school curriculumwith the events toof exclude11 to 14 March. religion Before The assuming PPlostway howthe powerin 2004 wasdescribed in indetail dealing chapter the office, the PSOE promised a lot of The new PSOE government not in fieldthe as as sensitive oflendingthat asupport for its policies by victims.the was that the rigidity of the discourse of the PP does not allow any exceptions especially th March March 2004 had 127 CEU eTD Collection Constitution in its Article 2 recognizes national reality of Catalonia as that of a of that as Catalonia of reality national recognizes 2 Article its in Constitution Spanish a nation. Catalonia The Catalan the as feelingscitizens defined will and of the expressing majority wide in its Parliament Catalan “The that stating formula nice defining the Therefore, which isinsaid “Catalonia statement a nation” waswrapped a majority of the Spanish Spain is the only nation.” ( “for the remembered that Minister Prime very supportive the a nation.” Suddenly, matters of the kind) it was broken on the Articleother and airports 1 of the the and Statutefinances about which discussions said the “Catalonia(before first and broken was is much by itthis inmajority changewere passed if a great theirpromise own Parliament, Even thoughthe Catalans were would their promised that be Statute without accepted nation. Spanish the of indivisibility and unity of reaffirmation same the with ends in Spain, nations” of “nation Statutes. And in that discussion it appeared that even the emphasis on the idea of the the stronghold of the PP. But it inevitably had to do that because of the discussion of theleave such questions aside, knowing that to deliberate on them wouldbring it tofightin PSOE does notquestion the existence of the one and indivisible Spanish nation. Ittries to the because of all, First anyground. be given hardly can accusations these However, by later of violence,” “dialogueda declaration the confirm to end appearedto fears.their Spain. Coming to power of the Socialists and the reform of the Catalan Statute, followed the image of conspiracy of a “coalition,” connected with create party see,the triedas weshall to During2004, electoral the of campaign accept. ETA that was trying to destroy have its own opinion on the issues,itdoes that has shown PSOE power,the to coming After isunderstandable. The reaction something that the PP does not seem to be ready to El País , 8December 2005) 128 CEU eTD Collection end of the “permanent” ceasefire that came end ceasefire“permanent” of that the on 5 June 2007. of the 2006 andthe announcement 30, on December Barajas airport on by theattack first violence of shattered hopes of the problem the of solution the However, organization. and the party between governing the contacts of start the facilitated which ceasefire, “permanent” ETA’s of declaration violence” the and to end advance the “dialogued part of the agenda of political discussions with the proposal of the Prime Minister to has become itself years. violence for of position last The three the discourse opposition buildingblocks violence of This viewhavebeen the towards two attitude and the the with it. saw so far, this political force has a very particular view of what nation is and how to deal matter,infortechnical left and, these of the aswe hands PP the ground the discussions and related problems, and their willingness to see theunwillingness changes inof the theSocialists Statutes to discuss as the issuea simple of the definition of the Spanish nation The isinseparable from debate.” violence which insisted thatdebate the “the territorial didnotIt succeed because inthis of endeavor resistancethe from side the PP, the of The new PSOEgovernmentwas trying keephard toviolence outof territorialthe debate. view, nota legal reality. definition of Catalonia as a nation in such a statement only expresses a subjective point of the here so nation, Spanish indivisible and unitary the of primacy the on insistence the by downplayed successfully was text the into “nationalities” of entry the Constitution nationality.”( El País , 3 March 2006) Thus, in the manner as during the discussions of the 129 CEU eTD Collection constructions of the Basque historical discourse and the development of ETA. look isatit expanding butbefore necessary the them to on particular events, the of discussions the throughout configurations different in elements these see will We its core, while peripheral nationalism comes playto a role in it as an elementin the chain. itself The moral embodies has otheris chain good. constructed violencethat and at ETA party The as its nodal asa is nation,guardian represented whilepoint. of thechain that nation has equivalence of chain one where equivalence, of logic on is based hand, other logic of difference, leaving violence as a constitutive outside. The discourse of PP, on the As we have seen, the PSOE discourse is pragmatic; its construction is based more on the discourses. constructingchapter their discourse and discourse of Spanishthe throughout political actors years.these Aswehave seen in this will and ascribeseeattempts on toThe democracy. accommodateotherdifferent Spanish new the of existence entire the during present was Violence thatoccasions violence,role toto makeviolenceConclusions sense later, of it havein alsotheir beenthese part respective of the actors have different ways of 130 CEU eTD Collection its history is closely related to that of the isof three and its relatedtothat side Spanish of other provinces the history closely but here, case Navarre isalsoaspecial in pretty weak. movement thenational provinces madethe impose citizens, onits to managed French state the identity that cohesive more the and state French Jacobinic the to assimilation Their movement. nationalist strong very a developed never however, Basque, more in addition, and, agrarian more most furtheron. The attention French Basque provinces, otherthe hand, on beingpoorer, side pay border, wewill of to that the in Spanishside was born movement Southern, the Beherea (Basse inin Spanish, Nafarroa Basque) and Nafarroa three on French the side Lapurdi (Labour), Navarre)Comunidad AutonomaVasca and Zuberoaform an Autonomous region of the Basque Country (referred to as (Soule). now which andAraba (Alava), (Guipuzkoa) Gipuzkoa (Vizkaya), –Bizkaia border the ETA andIn nationalistthe imaginary territory its of consists four provinces on Spanishthe side of all the Basqueby two borderFrancethe between andSpain, oldest of the fixed one borders of Europe. nationalist“conflict” of Basque the characteristics First of all, though, a small note on the territory that would help to highlight certain interpretation history of bewill analyzedhere. Basque Onethe nationalist of these, discourses. historical identities andalternative the national into consolidate identity endof the 19 state Spanish the of failures The itself. imposing in successful very not was nationalism historical Spanish on from As Spanish the discourse, chapter the could beseen term with the Spanishpolitical actors rarely accepting that there is a conflict at all. 48 “Conflict,” as many other interpretations of the situation in the Basque Country, is actually a charged Chapter IV. Alternative history–Basquenationalism andETA ) and the separate state and autonomy of Navarre(Navarra of andautonomy state separate the ) and 48 is needed. Thus, the Basque land is intodivided th century gave birth to the alternative birth gave century País Vasco País or CAV – 131 CEU eTD Collection whose main task was self-protection from the outside forces. a closeditself community tocreate managed intoand closed Basquenationalism the expansive and Spanishaggressive nationalism,history the throughout 20 the of beyond inimagination.” roots to thelengths Tusell 2004,p.241)With (quoted the it] spread [helped “Cánovas Basque Franco nationalism. created Joseba Arregui stated: identity. However, this attempt achieved a resultopposite from whatit strove for. As more years than 30 of dictatorship, which torepress any manifestationstried of Basque by wasfollowed the conflict sobecause especially discourse, inthe historical reference theCivilWar points becamediscourse, of one of most important the of 1936-1939 historical Spanish of case in the As be assessed. will War Civil the of influence the Next, Basquenationalism. of the project hegemonic the of backbone a serve as to continue extent, a certain to modified ideas, religion. His Basques peoples and oftheIberianin Peninsulalanguage other terms race, and of discursive of between boundaries Basquenation,created the the distinctions putting Arana bediscussed. will Basques of distinction on emphasis the with nationalism Basque 19 in the movement for recuperation theoriginsnationalism First, community.Basque of imaginary nationalist Basque the of of traditional rights,end lostof duringthe the civil20 from the In inception theits Basque historicalof chapter, developmentthis discourse to wars of the sphere. of Basquenational features the distinct the of is one consequently, subsystems, legal of number a and systems political distinct two systems, administrative three into divided is it that fact The further. discussed be will th century be century will and exposed the ideas essential Arana, of Sabino thefounder of the th century will century be main indiscussed the addressing points thesocial th century, 132 CEU eTD Collection unknown links to other languages of linkssuggest unknown languages toother world genetic seem the andthe of code, to that area. Both language,the which is the only non Indo-European language with the surrounding the of from people the are different that traits genetic have certain Provinces availabledata investigators, region.the the according on to Thus, people inBasque linguistic and by historical, genetic amount nation of a great Basque exclusiveness of the Basque nationalistthe “origins” From to theCivil War historians expansivelogic of tothe difference. equivalence were greatly based on logic the of movemight the show hereasit discourse from the importance aided is particular of “the and violent” “democrats” between distinction The be examined. in their task will violence on of in discourse Enea change constructions the and Ajuria Pactof of the to create sidethe push signing the through Theattempts ETA to to Basques Spanishstate. andthe an image Country,of at the future of with the see howthePNVretainsits ambiguousposition regards to Basque the same time tryingFinally, to thepush Basque through nationalistinherent in the political discourse, there remains just “one truth.” thediscourse idea after of itnegativity represent all against the all positivity thatgoes where anyone and the transitionthe “pact” will be assessed.between is represents ETA wherewhat equivalence, basedof chains the on completely discourse Here wethe will the with community more exclusive even of creation the leads to eventually ETA bring others. the suffer, to butalsosomething on something to not becomes Violence armed through struggle. idea liberation national of andalso for the Basqueness criteria of instead onlanguage other all the such asemphasis Basquethe nationalist community, This emphasis birth on brings ofETA.inideas with defensive changes ETA the new into 133 CEU eTD Collection important role in the an BasquesLater on played conquerors. and Roman the tribes theVasconian between interaction of River, aspot Ebro inaround monasteries the arefound and Basque the Spanish tobe “Latin spoken by Basques”.Thethe in oldest texts both Castilian Spanish current the claims of and La Rioja region tothe its roots languagetrace Castilian the related to that of other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. One of the theories on the origins of closely very is Basques the of history all, of First differently. somewhat be viewed also again,likeOf incourse, theBasque historical caseof the history can Spanish discourse, as a Kingdom inseparate 1512. was divided betweenhis four sons and its grandeurwas lost. Navarre itself ceased toexist Kingdom the his However,after intosee allstate. death, one to Basque landsunited the (999-1035) isinhistory Basqueshad ever the Great the ruleof and Sancho only time state be only the to is considered Navarre of Kingdom the – of pride source Another recent imaginary, always different, never assimilated, always proudly on their own. the rights of the Basques each time they acceded tothe throne. Basques were, thus,in the beholdswearimposed, to had to rulers of Spanish andthe not Spain waspacted, empire the to belonging their Even region. the conquering of short stopped which of all Arabs, invaders of region the – Romans their crossed lands, never nor did orthe the Visigoths everythrough history.page of Basquesappear never havebeen The to byany conquered shines Peninsula Iberian inthe counterparts their from distinctiveness Basque again, on, The origins of the “Basqueremaining inhabitants autochthonous of Europe. nation” are thus traced Basquesthe of are descendants Palaeolithicthe inhabitants of only Continent,the the to the “times immemorial”. Further Reconquista , as well as the conquest of Americas; they wereoften Americas; they of conquest asthe well , as 134 CEU eTD Collection loss of the traditional rights – the was processes) industrialization the to related aswell closely (though one second The Basque society anda significantbroughtamount of immigrants from parts other of Spain. the region. First, the industrial takeoff of the region, whichin changed nationalism the outlookthe of of thefomentation and development the to contributed significantly which The 19 ( village.Alotneighboring native have of Basque learnspeakers to unifiedBasque the a of people for the even intelligible barely sometimes were intheregion spoken as dialects numerous the aunifyingfactor as serve hardly language could Even the lands. of Basque parts the betweenthedifferent unity existed and sense of a distinctiveness neither during the timesintellectual of the Kingdom famous figures, most the of some supplying Spain, of movements of intellectual suchmajor the Navarre,all as Miguel nor Unamuno,later, Píountil Baroja, the 19Ramiro Maeztu. In addition, absolute Church and the Liberal idea, which meant limited powers of both. the fight betweentwo different world-views: Conservative idea of thestate withabsolute monarchy and latethe King’s daughter Isabella.However, what was on thefirst sight asa dynastic quarrel supported who actually those meant were divide ofthe side other Onthe faction. of conservative leader the and throne the 49 (Navarre included) so different from the rest of the Kingdom. as the 1994, vol.1,p.133) Letamendia nationalism (see Basque for emergence of the ground prepared was what many researchers to according Privileges, of the recovery for movement Primarily, the of servingin Kings.In Courts Castilian 19 the Euskara Batua The name of these wars derives from the name of the King Ferdinand VII’s brotherCarlos, a pretenderto th century majorbrought century Basque tothe Country, transformations transformations, ) nearly language. as aforeign fueros fueros at the time were what made Provinces fourwhat time atthe Basque the were –at the end of the IICarlistwar th and early 20 and early th century in part century they took 49 (1876). th century a 135 CEU eTD Collection under fierce attack. under fierce unify country,the meaning to legal, its economicpolitical and arrangements, of the 19 However, in the end of the 18 itself. uponby laws Parliament wereagreed all the the in forcewere in tobeonly Kingnominal the sothat and a appeared provinces, the ruler of the earlier times, which, in addition, were impeding the economic growth of the of growth economic the impeding were in addition, which, times, earlier the of the that laws the only thus, this theory, According to laws. foral the going against enforce wasseen as to wanted Spanish), which becould usedin when situations the piecelegislationthe of King that 51 the and forgotten often is however, this, 50 ( comply” not do but obey, “I sentence the by expressed called formula legal the Finally, law. political and administrative civil, exemption from inhabitantsof torture the of provincesthe tothis,and, related separate extensive. by to thepeople Crown were Thesethe conceded of privileges Basque Provinces importantfifth The secure. land own their keep element to was duty their lands, home their outside of the regime service from exempted military ofthethe provinces were Fourthly, inhabitants the of trade and free exercise to allowed were provinces the the Thirdly, minimal. were crown the dues to customs beingborn in the province.and Secondly,provinces theirownbudgets retained the their themselves provincesreceivedthe ofBizkaiaand theGipuzkoa nobility bymere of of status virtue were put on the borders with the rest of Spain. Catalonia also had its “fueros”,but lost themmuch earlier – 1716.in (Conversi 1997,p.45) Actually, all the provinces had different had provinces the all Actually, th 50 century, when the Spanish state started to “modernize” the administration of “modernize” administration the started to state Spanish the when century, First of all, the so-called universal nobility, according to which everyone in 51 Newly rising Basque oligarchy, as well, saw in these rules remnants Juntas Generales th century, the system entered into crisis. At the beginning the At crisis. into entered system the century, Fuero Nuevo deBizkaia fueros fueros and have developed different legal and political systems political and legal different developed have and was also important in the Middle Ages – Ages Middle in the important also was (the Parliament of the province) certified province) of the Parliament (the (of 1526) is used as a reference point. Obedesco peronocumplo fueros pase foral pase came 136 , in , CEU eTD Collection were denied their free trade, aforalwere denied free trade, their judicial system and the provinces The abolished. progressively be to started system charter the and privileges” “constitutional unity of “affirmation prevailed overthe Monarchy”obviously the of years of just principle thelawin waspassed,the two after 1841, Consequently, discussions. fierce to way gave 1978) of Constitution later the of discussion This vague affirmation of the contrary principles in one Article (which we also saw in the 1998, p.23). “withoutaffectingbut that Constitutional the unity Monarchy”the of al. (dePabloet which in Article 1 its affirmed theexistenceof In awar1839, thus, ended with a compromise, confirmed inalaw of 25 of October, march towns. the againstunwilling to were unablecountryside; and peasants theCarlist the able re-conquer not The Liberals to in were war ended a stalemate. Carlist The first events as a kind of national liberation movement (de Pablo etal. 1998, p.21-23). forin example, 1836 aFrench-Basque traveler Joseph Augustin Chaho interpreted the fashion), it was alsointerpreted as a rising of the Basques for the defense of structure) and the big cities – the Liberals (who wanted political loose monarchy and rather preserve theexisting absolutist (who wantedto to modernize the state in French Carlos the sameit another, Basques havingthecountrysidepitted one support against Though asmuchthis a“civilwar”was intheBasque inCountry as the i.e.Spain,rest of came of warsstarted. thein first Carlist the in 1833when region Spanishstate the Time for expression ofPeninsula. this rivalry between Iberian the of restof the markets tothe for opening anobstacle as standing region, two opposing ideas about the place of the fueros of of Basque provinces and Navarra, pase foral fueros . Only the . Thus, 137 CEU eTD Collection of the Basque past and was mainly directed to the reconstitution of the foral system and system foral the of reconstitution the to directed mainly was and past Basque the of views romantic the on based was It itself. fortified war Carlist first the after already born Crown, in short, a betrayal. Spanish andthe Basques between the thepact of break aunilateral four provinces, As a result,of Abolition theworldview. movement to restore the diddistort however, defeat, The winners. the of side the on were themselves these rights that was of Basques the addition,a part In BasqueProvinces. the economically to serious In a sense, likedisposal. own their at theleft money the of Spanish “Disaster” therest Crown, the pay asmallsum to only to continued whichBasque Provinces to the of 1898, the defeat in Carlist wars was not as the blowthe so-called the bynegotiating soften managedto oligarchs Basque Again Liberal the finally abolished. were completely however, victory the of Liberals andwith was obvious lawthe of 21Julythe 1876, thelasted SecondCarlist in1872.Thistime, This situation to uprising ambiguous help alsogotadditional Basquethe of latter these Provinces powers. With the four provinces. the of systems the traditional whosupported werethose there also demanded a strong voices that were there Among Carlists black-and-white. wasitcompletely Nor painted. statesometimes was it as bleak as not and was abolitionsituation the that noticed be must it However, of the privileges, whileThe other provinces were not that lucky. among the Liberals for itself a new law of which negotiated andNavarre, BasqueProvinces three the between appeared acrucial rift exemptionmilitary from service budget here proper and remained. the In addition, Modification of fueros of Modification fueros was considered as a disruption of long traditions of the conciertos economicos conciertos and preserved it through future calamities. future andpreserved itthrough , the arrangements, according fueros 138 CEU eTD Collection possessoror Basque language, from 1888 and atthe 1883 to same studies of time foral the Basque history system,as a start of hisintonationalism, apprenticeship which included Lawstudies in Barcelona was it and Fatherland of day the as celebrated now is Arana of enlightenment of day This Basques” (Letamendia 1994,vol.1,p.136), because: territorial reference. The word used to refer by the Basques to themselves was themselves to Basques the by refer to used word The reference. territorial 52 Sunday,Easter “Euskal Herria Sabino convinced that changed. Basquehas it mythology his that Luis, brother, older during adiscussion on the familystrongly himselfCarlist wasand1882. Then aCarlist upto dedicated everything in a 1865, in born was He name. his to related is closely movement nationalist Basque AranaSabino is father the considered Basque nationalism of and the whole history the of man – SabinoArana, soon undertook this job. one and wholea coherent into be articulated to waited grievances The Bilbao. primarily, inviting significant ofimmigrants amounts fill to in places the work atfactories of, by of traditional fabric the weredestroying Basquesociety the processes industrialization agreementaddition,with Gellnerthe to and Gellner’s(see, e.g. theory 1983), Basque Provincesaccording to Frenchthe model,failing; were bitternessthe inhabitantsthe of of the aboutnationalism the itself. The attemptsconsequences of Liberals to centralizeremainingin Carlists aswell,gave asetting that favorable for developinggrounds of the the Spanish state and to unify it of for a refuge became this movement war, Carlist second At of end the the nationalism. this to close centralization already were movement this of ideas The provinces. four the of reintegration the was on its peak. In Euskal Herria means the land of Basque-speakers. In the Basque language at the time this was the only the was this time the at language Basque the In of Basque-speakers. land the means Herria Euskal of Spain, affairs butthe gaininto the power to demandinterfere to that nobody right the interferes lose into they theirsnot, (ibid.) are they if istrue, contrary the if… wereBasques Spanish, have they not rightwould the claim to if privileges; euskara . 52 was the fatherland of the euskaldun , meaning a 139 CEU eTD Collection was a freedom theages.throughout Asis inoften the nationalist conceptions of history, there alwaysfree,never subdued byanyforeign andconquerors guarding zealously their Spanish by “independentism”. crown, In new thethe Basques vision,were this thus, tothe Provinces of Basque the adherence idea i.e. negotiated the of the “pactism”, This changed conception the prevailing history,of Basque the substitutingso-called the independence” (in Letamendiap.137, 1994,vol.1, emphasis mine). customs that made possible the back and laws old all get way those only itsto wasthe purity, recuperation which the of building block of Aranianthe nationalism.Whatmuch more mattered was the lastdecade duringwritings the of 19 the itPutting simply, history wasthe conception that of Aranadevelopedthat through his Basque provinces will be finally intounited oneindependentstate. Basquethe established, race language and saved influences from foreign the and all the when in somewherepresent old the redemption thelawswillbe future, and re- of abolition the with laws ancient of loss the being point highest (their Leonese conquerors, with the aim to show “the show to aim the with conquerors, Leonese which peoplewas describingof the province “four glories wereof the historydefending of the fatherland”, their freedomfour medieval frombattles thein Castilian and these articles, collected in in entitled 1892 a compilation collected articles, these In from al.p.7). (dePabloet nationalism cultural separating threshold 1998, political study was a publicationwell as language, which, ofbefore series his turn he didof notarticles even speak. The endwith result which of this Arana stepped through the Golden Age in Basquethe history Middle(the in Ages) thedark past, the times Golden Age th century. History, however, was not the main , because distinctiveness of the Basques was Basques the of distinctiveness because , real history of Biscay and its antique Bizkaia: for its independence Bizkaia: for fueros race ) at the and 140 , he CEU eTD Collection effects of onthis thecontemporary politics in the region. matters more at present is the way Basqueregionalgovernment weaker than inthelatter. Tosolve the question, this though, and isnot pastmy Whattask here. independent and more units future administrative the wasof Catalonia, that than conceived greater much is still and was by the nationalist leaders and thefrom other groups in and around the region than what they had in common. The diversity of Basque regionbe said though that the choice was anand obvioushis group that influenced Arana Sabino theof development one personality the of– i.e. Basque there factor”, nationalism “human to wasthe the direction or more that movements two itthe took. Itcouldthat between difference madecultural Basques as a group distinct exclusion” (Conversi 1997, p.5). Itisquestionable how it wasmuch the“objective” circumstances of the which “focusesto tell what is “Basque”, so that the movement was bound to developmore an“antagonistic identity”, i.e. the one oninclusive way, aswhatcohesive, wasthe a “Catalan”in developed was movement never a question.Catalan stressed. To need the contrary, Arana that itwas movements much more nationalist problematic different two the to define one’s53 own group by negative comparison a worldview, acoherent thrive: movement to nationalist for a was needed that all creating to others, and by movement, puttingnationalist Basque the of ends and aims main the forward outlined work Arana’s addition, In an organization that had(Arana in de Pabloal.et forever” 1998,p.35-36) lost tois makelost, is it when race, these the of purity the endsdictionary, comegood and grammar true and language one of slogansthe of Biscay ifand language can be restoredif one hasagood be“[b]ecause him would acceptabletotheBasques, not raceisas purity the the of speak Catalan. to by This, them to according encouraging “Catalanizing” foreigners the of making amistake are Catalans werehearguesthat errors” “Catalan entitled article an in seen is well example, for This, exclusive. completely was nationalism andArana’s raceastheprimary remainedstrong the of Basqueness denominator party to a very small group of selected few thus impeding its chances in the elections. But numbersthe of the itrestricted be as unfeasible, to proved soon rule This organization. initially acceptedtothe oneswere whothe had all four Basque grandparents) surnamesfour only (i.e. with Basque all people promote Thus,only principles. the these genetic makeup.The PNV inestablished the 1895byArana was himself, supposed to benot to measured by only life, butprimarilytheir ways of by uniqueness the theirof InhisbookonBasque Catalanand nationalism, Daniele Conversi isemphasizing the same elements in 53 141 CEU eTD Collection of his closest aides and one of the most prominent missionaries Francisco Javier, isoften Javier, Francisco missionaries prominent most the of one and aides closest his of Ignatius Loyola, was of a Basque origin (his original name –Iñigo López), as well as one Order, the of founder the The factthat himself.join Order the to later thinking attended, he which of school the Jesuits the by influenced deeply was youth his in Arana Elorza, related to Catholicism with special affectionate ties to Jesuit Order. According toAntonio Jaungoikua etaLagizarra of the Church. role the – here be emphasized should worldview Aranian of element important Another The first cohabit radical independentists together. of the slogans(de Pablowhich1998, p.10), allowed boththemoderate, autonomistand the groups of new organization“nebulous formula of the complete restoration of the Fueros as its maximal aspiration” thatautonomists. inin it first Thus, 1906,when PNVappeared, the program of wasput the Arana created and independentists radicals it andmoderates, discourse: couldto inspiration the give was such a change. “real”the about the suspicion causeof added more to Aranawritten wasinprison while The ambiguity motivesexplained of fact articlea suddenshift the the position that such of and the was thus A year47). later Arana diedandlefthis followers somewhat Henever perplexed. came to the (Aranain 1998, p.46- country dePablowithin Spanishstate” BasqueCountry] [the the forefront independenceof thedemand requesthappiness“aspiringof autonomy, of of to forthe this the BasqueinHowever, 1902 Arana published anarticle inwhich he changed his from position the nationalist grammar of languagethe andfinally, party. political the territorial formulai.e. 7=1 or4+3=1, seven the provinces should make a up onestate; set of values to defend, the symbols (such as the flag, , for God and Old Laws. The whole movement was closely ikurriña and the anthem); the anthem); the and 142 CEU eTD Collection we have seen also in the Conservative version of the Spanish nationalism) has to be not to has nationalism) Spanish the of version Conservative in the also seen have we that “nationalism was a moral necessity, a duty of Christians” implying subordinationthe both of viewspolitical tothe religious ones, idea butalso the and the aim of politics (as Euskadi and (“ Euskadifor God” without which all the building would collapse. One of his slogans thus became: “We – for justbuildingideological his essential fundament, of blocks one setup, butthe of the not became it Arana for as emphasized, be should religion of role the hand, other the On will have their influence on the “armed organization” – ETA. itsthat and history throughout Arana, PNV, the of party will the extent characterize great a to Theseelements p.20). 1996, enemy”(Elorza our with confrontation of character the by discipline, “justified military isthe based on it; strict organization the to reconsider aimsgetback party is is– once within theprimary the noneedto cause established, there included aboutof diminishthe Loyola, these necessity the political to discussions itisThus, claimed ideas that Arana gotthe how toorganizeon his from project works the him: to According ETA that was Loyola.on July31,1959,whichisthethe dayof Ignatius constituted notices Joseba Zulaika fighters. of ETA that or crusade Franco’s of general forefront the marchedin who Carlists, of faith formsNavarrese –the different take could,course, of of by faith relatedtothat wasthus It Basques. spiritualthe sword defendingwarriors, cited in movement. examinations the Jesuits’of Basque nationalist is understanding ETAmen. (Zulaika1988,p.334-335) between themilitants and the patron saint. Ina profound sense, understandinghim connection intimate an betrays man, military Basque of prototype and Jesuits the … congruence between ETA’s birthday and the feast of Saint Ignatius, founder of Gu Euzkadirentzat taEuzkadiJaungoikoarentzat Gu Euzkadirentzat raison d’être 143 as ”) CEU eTD Collection organization of its own, Labor Unions, gastronomic and mountaineering societies, song societies, mountaineering and gastronomic Unions, Labor own, its of organization included which building”, “nation became party the of aim main the actually, wouldmake upfor lack the of of common denominators Basquethe culture. Thus, and national of developed would idealsnetwork organizationsgroups that promote and a the situation.was state. It moving independentistforth backand and autonomist according positions to And, not The party was still about place the ambiguous of Basquethe Provinces within Spanish the being ableadvance. to stand clearlyin not itcould in Provinces, forceNavarre major the Basque grew tobecome three the on the a member decades council the of first the In province. the 20 the of of politicalRamón joined Basque industrialist de laSota it;sameyear Aranathe himself was elected issues, Arana’sSabino party, the PNV,started the gain to strength in 1898, whenthegroup of party religion. to hostile workers, they(Conversi 1999,p.41andn.29in At p.48). same the most time, of being immigrants the were more muchgreater. religion official with the disaffection andthe less appreciated significantly attractedas by mostSocialism well,of though nominally the same as in the rest of the country, served as a stumbling block theand as religion the but integration, the for barrier similar natural a was learn to immigrants difficult notoriously ideologies, of but Spanishpeople,the as from also immigrants.a barrier Euskerabeing the camewhichReligion, as language, served not only as a simplewere distinctionfrom of the Basques from the rest the1997, p.154-155) regions people.Christianizebuta social the (Beriain aim wining– gaining elections, or power where religious practice was th century party the century 144 CEU eTD Collection voted favorably was In1933,p.14). of theBasque project1998, (dePabloBasque Statute provinces” in the referendum with in as an four embryoof state the internally the andorganizes vocation, totalizing the party-community the or movement mass of the“politico-social a as firmly threemore even itself provinces it established also Navarre, of exception with the again in three all Provinces, 1936 andthe the text itselfAt the time, the PNV was already itsat strongestit – won the elections of 1931, 1933 and was also Republic. warmed uptothe PNVitself the offer Basques the Catalans hadreceived (the of alreadyin autonomy to theirs and 1932) seemed to have overcome sides both mutual. However, be were mustit said, The feelings, character. clerical their animositythe as Parliamentthe leaders members awayof walked Republic.were on Its sideof the the forces that revolutionary of the Republicduring extended and anti-clerical the of suspicious PNVwas Catholic anddevotedly conservative the thediscussionwhich inits The totake dictatorship politics. againdeeply about road thetensions opened of the before.than following Republic wasestablished the endof The Second that Constitution,the when sothat cultural activities, endedin it dictatorship the surged upeven1931, stronger protestingunderground its andresumed During dictatorship, PNVwent de Rivera’s the Primo against different dictatorships through and repressions. its anti- its movementfrom a inception moreit survive and of thiselement than a party helped to political future, but with the same views on at least thepolitical preservation of its stanceculture.ambiguous that It maintaining was time same whichthe at events sports and festivals alloweddance and it to attract people with different views on the country’s 145 CEU eTD Collection choices, was one of the fiercest supporters of Franco’s crusade, Alava also opted Alava crusade,to back opted also supporters of Franco’s fiercest of the choices, wasone in its consequent Navarre, While well. as Basques the divided War Civil Spanish The The Civil War for. votes one evenwhat or but race, languagereligion, or the not remaining “Basqueness” Thisinto time p.123) our idea with determinants of one of significantthe persisted defined in “party terms” nationpolitical and consequently became (Ross and one.” 1991, to what culturally would constitute the Basque nation, the “nationhood” itself came “tobe The solution problemto the curious enough.was If much was there lackso of clarity as by conspicuous its absence. therace somuch bythe “pollute” and historical the heritage, personified did intermarriages language,speak the the not did cities The that. than complicated bemore to reality proved However, Basquenation. of the features all distinctive heritage historical language, andterritory were established standards:race,religion, the be clear,Aranawas in seemed everything to It only that was beingwriting created. that community imaginary new the to than Spain to related more themselves felt actually other Basques Numerous discourse. in nationalist Spanish the of participated creation the democracy after 1975.Asmentioned intellectuals wasbefore, numerous of Basque origin of in Spanish influencethe be nextperiod the of Warwereto great before Civil the used strategies political andthe ideas ishis due,becausethese developeddeath, after and Arana from inherited both nation, the on ideas the on note more one point this At already knocking on the doors. approved by the Spanish Parliamentin spring of 1936. Yet, at the time the Civil War was fueros was 146 CEU eTD Collection the the Basque Basque lore from times immemorial, the Spanish Kings55 came to troops. swearof Franco’s attack under determined the the tree of Gernika to protect 54 first of bombing all – the asacredGernika, Basques,the of of town events had meaning especiallystrong and long-term on Basqueeffects the consciousness: Two memory. collective in the scars significant left War Civil the in time, short very though Even exile. the to moved government Basque the and Bilbao into marched Franco of troops the inJune of Already 1937 year. existed only less than a This semi-state revolution. social no and was there powers its hereretained Church zone,the restof the Republican Contrary to policy.foreign publishingindependent money, state, its own military arrangingits and defenses even government. by Republican the controlled from territories the off cut thusremained Provinces Basque beginningthe and wartheRepublican of the two the loyal intoterritory was divided Already from Republic.remaining true remained to the rebellion, two the provinces the half half hours left 1654people dead (out of totalthe population of around 6000) and wholethe town in ruins. (anotherBasque town, Durango, was similarly attacked a couple of daysbefore), which, after two a and help Franco’s troops. Itwas one of the first systematic airstrikes against the civilian population in history surrenderedandthe BritishBasque fighters shipswereprepared to carry them from away the that by time the However, soldiers. the of lives save would and leave country the to leaders their political would allow Italians the for that and weapons away the would give They troops. peacewith Italian aseparate negotiate to they tried Republic. Therefore, After the fall of Bilbao,forces. Franco’s of aides Italian tothe Basque troops the Basques surrender of of Santoña wasanegotiated anditsThepact pact of consequences. Santoña were not very eager to continue fighting for the Gernika is the capital of Bizkaia and symbolic They only had access capital to Cantabria and Asturias, two small provinces thatof did not survive all much longer the Basque lands, because according to the fueros 54 They took forself-government Theycreating opportunity advancinga semi-this took . It was bombed on 26 of April 1937 by the German Condor Legion, which Hitler sent to 55 and the so-called 147 CEU eTD Collection author distinguishes 20 elements that characterize “war frame” in this experience inframe” this “war thatcharacterize distinguisheselements 20 author organizing asignificantpart of local experience beginning asfar of1980s.The the inevent 1988,p.34) BasqueAccordingmemory.Zulaika, (Zulaika historical to it was of the strongest pointsmentioned historical theCivil asone on War wasalso Spanishdiscourse, the In part the of historical memory. The Civil War thus became an “original” (Elorza 1996, p.31). villages” their in Right the with goodrelations who maintained order of people were “Nationalists explains, 57 which was actually version, old used an atthe using is time of here Beevor Civil “s”. War.to changed was spelling on the later however, “z”, with was word Basqueness forbidden. – the freedoms former lastBasque Provinces the remnants“traitor of weredeclaredprovinces”, The two the repression. Francoist from suffered together territories Republican as all the be forgotten could soon however, disagreements, loyalty.from These different completely something as itsinterpreted surrender alsodestroyin was Bilbaobefore to industry metallurgic the leaders nationalist of refusal The leaders. Republican the headache to gave constant Front Independent moves of different. somewhat probably, was, sideof Republic the the Viewon situation the of the Basques, such as refusal to help other parts of the Northern 56 writes: Beevor toprison. taken AsAnthony and Basque combatants the the port of Santander, Santander has alsofallen to Franco’s troops, the port was closed Actually, initial the repressionwas less harsh here than inother parts of Republicanterritories, as Elorza Euzkadi 2001, p.30) Spain through pure and simple (translation military conquest. in Woodworth forever.has nightmare Euskadi called Vizcaya fallen is defeated apieceof again … Spain,and united, free, great The hastriumphed. horrible andsinister is has byblood by army Bilbao… Bilbao a city been conquered … redeemed the still warwith at Franquistthe state. (Beevor 1982, p.170) guerrillas advanced in years advancedguerrillas later asa reason why Republicthe Euzkadi of It was this dishonouring of the articles of surrender which the Basque ETA was the name that Sabino Arana invented for the Basque Country. His initial spelling of the 57 The new Mayor of Bilbao, José Maria Areilza announced: Conciertos Economicos –abolished and expressions the of 56 was 148 CEU eTD Collection symbolizations of the Whenin bring the tensionsarise thestill political space,they upaccusations and adversary that refer analysisthe of Spanishhistoricalthe discourse, persistsalsoin BasqueCountry.the to the Civilin saw already we which War experience, political important most and the and primary the as War the dictatorship. In experienceCivil of the showthat to inbe order added could A coupleof examples the gudariak gara members will present itself new asthe present members will other”the (Beriainis italics author’s) 1997,p.162, Following created. tradition, this ETA “who turns, “who of a Basque soldier, a of a Basquesoldier, figureit haveBasques Warthat the and image Civil wonduring the ages,duringwas the Basque nationalism and SabinoAranato find four managed glorious battles that the in the Basque Country. While the Carlist Wars did give also CivilforThus, the thenational aunique War presented violence of cause experience an inspiration for the creation of canbe closure of consequently,discourse achieved. the physical complete the that elimination destruction of opposingthe chain and, the through is itonly and cause of the rightness eradicate the not war does at victory the historicaldiscussions of moral.but discourse,also notonly Spanish the political, Even notdo permit any deviances. In addition, constructions these are, aswesaw from the most radical form, where the chains two literallyare at war, where the rigid constructions through logicthe of equivalence. Itis, actually, thelogic of equivalence brought toits (Zulaikaframe This 1988,p.32-34) war resemblesclosely the construction discourse of areconstructed. discourses and arearranged social relations way the determining defensively (We are Basque soldiers) as its own. asits (WeareBasquesoldiers) gudari , through a struggle, through ( , whofights for freedomthe Euskadi of his as gudaris borroka-ekintza and adopt the war-time anthem war-time the adopt and ) to the violent negation of negation violent the to ) Patria Eusko and 149 CEU eTD Collection mention of it would resuscitate more the negative feelings towards Francoism than to the to Francoism than towards feelings negative more the it resuscitate would of mention the Franco so andhisfollowersthat by violenceexploited thoroughly wasalready vs etarra chains of equivalence, though on the republican side there was violence, but that insinuation of the PP being heirs Franco.to Here we can see the construction Francoistof the to than is stronger insult this to reaction the thus itself, negativity the forth brings buthave also a meaning symbolical double for the involved. parts Mentioning of ETA francoist chainsareconstructed: equivalential thetwo extreme tension of an circumstances in the how shows it hand, one the On play. double a conveys exchange The the ones who should construct the alternative politics for Euskal Herria.” (see p.50) (see Herria.” Euskal for politics alternative the construct should who ones the strategy together with the heirs of thosewho executed your grandfather. We, the ones who lost the war, are 58 Otegi Arnaldo of mentioned astatement Ialready Spanishhistorical the discourse on chapter expelled the president of the PP from the Hall. ( of Iturgaiz, insult aprotest of andafter minutes, bethe out that last the taken ordered Atutxa Juan María PNV, from the of Parliament the Speaker tothis, the In reaction ETA. to relation councilor’s the about same the insinuating latter the and Francoism” of heirs “legitimate PPthe former the calling the Iturgaiz, with BasquePPCarlos of the president the and Azkaraga Joseba government Basque in the Justice of Councilor the between prisons in BasqueCountry,the heatedatmosphere the inan resulted exchange ofinsults interesting provides ontheissue an debate example situation the During this. of of of the an “heir toFranco.” An exchange of remarks in the Basque Parliamentin the end of 2003 called beit directly would occasions War. other Civil violence On the during perpetrated To repeat it: “One cannot share the path to the resolution of democratic conflict, Mr. Zapatero, making a making Zapatero, Mr. conflict, of democratic resolution the to path the share cannot “One it: To repeat 58 , where the Popular Party is alluded to as an heir of one of the sides that versus etarra (member of ETA). Both of these refer to violence and repression, El País , 25 October 2003) , 25October 150 CEU eTD Collection of the Civil War interpretationof the Civil War. The best example here could be the works of Pío Moa (especially his works, however, oftenlack scientific rigorand political neutrality and actually revive the Francoist of violence onthe Republicanside during the Civil War, providing a kind of “revisionist history.” These 59 anti- strong Franco’s and changed enemies the started, War Cold the soon However, would also destroy the last citadel of Rightist extremism, which was then Franco’s Spain. allied powers the war endof the the thatat was expected It andNazism. Fascism fall of During WWII the they togetherworked with Alliedthe forces aiding bring to the about After the Civil War the Basque government and the leadership of the PNV went to exile. Birth ofETAto Transition situation. political the to according change well can and rigid that necessarily the statement of Otegithe also chains conveys of equivalence that of the creation logic of the to according goes the and frame war the of description Zulaika’s asattributions the theory of Laclau to one Civil the and Warin understood these (Muro2006) terms. simplified This confirms with the or Mouffeanother would side have are it. of a continuation mainly, Spanish, andthe between Basques the war the of notcontinuation However, as a situation of BasqueCountry the understanding the around of current the constructed is in Spanish) goes abbreviation as the (MLNV, Movement Liberation National of Diego so-called wholeMuro, the the and Accordingdiscourse Basque to Basques. the Spanish the warbetween Franco, butthe sidethe on of fighting wereactually Provinces fourof Basque the mentioned, two was as themselves, Basques a warbetween the not This way, we can see how repression helpsinsult. the“francoist” counter to change the past – the Civil War becomes violence, of that perpetrators On the other hand, the recent years have seen the appearance of numerous works which exploit the topic the exploit which works numerous of appearance the seen have years recent the hand, other the On ). 59 hence, ETA comes as ahandy weapon for the other side to Myths 151 CEU eTD Collection mostly emphasized notions in this new organization. 60 students established ajournal inAlready of acceptable. such 1952 agroup dictatorshipa stancewasnot created, 1994, vol.1 that p.249) defeatismthe 1950sinthe of combination with repression the of weakness by youths“world the For others. the inthe silence” (Letamendiagrowing of a considered for some, was culture national seenasstrengthening whatwas However, survival. madeproud, this cultural animportantresistance and strong pointin fightthe for were so Basques the of which distinctiveness nothingness that reduce to to attempts Dictatorship’s values andpassiveresistance. preservation cultural of dictatorship to leadership, which resigned itself itsto fate and shifted its attention from opposition to the After nearly years20 of wasstruggle, this last the blow Basque forthe political dictator. also whodiminishbut would hopesthose Alliedto of buried the thought powers the work signed between Franco and the USA that provided the country with funds for recovery allyCommunist madehimaIn1953an in stance newconflict. was this good agreement generations impatient with the cautious stance of in Seeing merits PNV. these the stanceof with cautious the impatient generations provide a more elaborated position and way of action, especially for the younger seemedexile in however, The new to hasestablished. underground and organization, the in both PNV the that aims the to close were new organization of the points ideological initial were the that culture Basque of preservation language and for The concern developed aroundthisgroup that periodical samethe name.took The p.51). 1996, of Basquenation” (Garmendia andthe past present the reflect critically Ekin means “to act” inBasque, while Ekin ekintza . 60 The aim of this publication was “to study and is “action”. Actioninstead of the words was one of the Ekin 152 , CEU eTD Collection violence inspiredby in processes the Algeria. Zutik how toachieve itand whatshould come after that was inunclear, thus, its official bulletin but liberation”, was“national it wanted Whatadopt. methods to the or goals ideological worldism. In 1961, when ETA celebrated nationalist discourse with of that incomingitsthe ideologies such as socialism and third- first Assembly Basque it traditional the of wasfusion the to still due were and interrelated unclear were changes these All about its for example, Jáuregui 1986, p.592-595) (see, project. inthenationalist toparticipate for immigrants the opening thepossibility politics. from away for Church the keeping itopted ideas. Secondly, socialist ETA adopted clerical, and PNVwasconservative the of all, First while discourse. nationalist Basque the to novelties some brought inception its from however, which, nationalism, this facemilitantwas of the ambivalence. It to less prone more independentist, one, radical At its inception ETA representedFreedom), ETA. one of the faces of the Basque nationalism – a more environment closely related to the Catholicism. and because of the fact that ETA itself as well asnumerous of its militants, had its origins inthe nationalist movement (being throughout Francoism the only bearerof nationalist ideas alongside family) 61 and foundinglatter aneworganization the group separated itselfits for ownyouth such However, organization a mergerwasshort-livedEGI. andin 1959 from EGI, taking give and leadership guidance the to lectures thegroup PNVinvited provide some the of with it a large part of the members of the ETAwas neverhostile to the Church, though, because ofthe intimately tied relationit with had the (Stand Up!) it was advocating both the non-violent methods a la Gandhi and 61 And thirdly, itchanged the criterion for Basqueness from race tolanguage thus Euskadi TaAskatasuna Euskadi (Basque Land and 153 CEU eTD Collection Basque nation. national and may struggle by the of adopt also liberation so doing become apartof the workers the liberation struggle, of make national the can part well genes of Basques, the be for the workers. might liberation national of that as alien, something is struggle worker But nationalism the for the same way as the solidarity which immigrantsworkers, numerous Thus, exploits 1981,p.189). former the (Jáuregui ideals, imprintedis bringingclass notin in originally situation Basque and Bizkaiaacapitalist that creating already in this changed norevolution classes.Industrial were as there the“class war”, wasno there proclaimedoppositeby medieval tothose inThus, the BasqueCountry, Spain. actually, always were which solidarity, of principles the on based in communities times medieval Theworkers. Basques, actually, spirit the possessed always Communism,of livingin based on bothestablish state to byarms, only a be liberated could of colonizing They Spain. power ethnic ages the medieval example), isbattles (the by again appear asan values, butnow subdued the i.e. its freedom through proudly defending nation,was which a declared Basques the distinct language,Krutwig, “Basque of influenced toagreatGerman origin”,extentby Fannon,Frantz and socialistmethods for this struggle in gainedorthodoxy status these assemblies. values well the Country as as inBasque struggle of the nature the ideason Krutwig’s place. of solidarityAssemblies of organization in whichthe stancethird-worldist of intensifiedETA took ofbecome the the In 1963-1964 these became Krutwig’spositions clearer: Ludwig Bible of the early ETA was published at this time and the II and III Vasconia , which was to 154 CEU eTD Collection already in 1966, ETA experienced its first schism.From inception the of organization, the However, it was not that easy to agree on what those aims are supposed to be. Thus, struggle: revolutionary the of ends and means possible only is the that and achieve to wants it what clearly statingand model, radically ages-old Jesuit the ETA was over taking Thus, the realities of the Basque Country have changed and so have the main actors. Now future of country. the aboutthe consideration an object while forin Basque ETA the Government exile leadershipof the and PNVprovidedthe for vehement “patrioticcreates division andconfusion society” Pabloet al. thewithin 1988,p.145), (de attacks.andliars in using“repulsive methods”(quoted For Jáuregui 1981, p.288). PNV,ETA the It wasfull organization, slanderers of respondedwith a Communist ETA declaring andlatter the now a party forces of colonizing the a collaborator havebecome to PNV the place. accused ETA took to benewly andestablished organization PNV betweenthe rupture sametime adefinite the At dismissed from further Revolutionary Warfare, written in 1964,it gave this principle a clear shape: quickly taken by quickly taken ETA as its primary was which action-reaction-action, of theory the proposed book the tactics, Concerning For us, as for a Crusader of the 10 in(quoted 2003,p.2).GEES intensity. increasing itself with ready torepeat is therefore cycle repression itpopulation,helps theminority sothat andprotects State; against the action-the managesinstead makeminority rebelliousness of panic spreadamong to the thatthe it suppose falls Finally, masses. andthat the on escape repression, minority the that to manages organized Suppose aggression. violently the repress forcing psychologicalrespond organization blows tothe it and State, the of to to a situationand minority material Suppose inwhichan strikes organized aims ( enemies. Consequently, we areintransigentin our idea, our truth and our essential exclusive truth, which norallows neither opposition doubt of any real virtual or La Insurrección enEuzkadi , p.31) th century, our truth is absolute truth, thatis, modus operandi modus . In its Theoretical Bases of 155 CEU eTD Collection subsequent death of his killer that the organization actually crossed the line. the crossed actually organization the that killer of his death subsequent Rubicon wascrossed. Rubicon This in inchanged 1968, when one day firstclaims its ETA andfirstmartyr. victim The than deeds. armed more words were ofETA struggle to the invitations In thebeginning, and Eibar (villageswith the inunsuccessful Basque Country), attempts 63 to derailbut itthe wastrains not in until1961, later the ondeath the more ofsuccessful bombs in Bolueta nationalism, especially the preservation of language; and finally, the finally, and language; of preservation the especially nationalism, culturalistas identifying atthemselves with revolutionary movementslarge; Leftist the ofEurope and one truth remained asin and truth one aforementioned groups was not as harsh as with the into 62 be “ formerto accusingthem the wereexpelled, upper hand took latter The twoof and the 1996,p.246). for Douglass Zulaika, example, (see, future the for etc. of this state, structure on the debates leave other the to and offered third-worldists, whosawBasque liberation movementas apart of anti-colonial struggle so-called the appeared: in During years early the organization. mainthe organization, of the three factions lack to schisms wererelated balancethe of between of discourse twoelements the these most of Therefore, the inideals itwas present. and nationalist Marxist between tension between culturalists and culturalists between Krutwig’s interpretations liberationforof Basque struggle forwere useful this fusion of Basque nationalism, reconcilingitself with PNV(Letamendiathe 1994,vol.1,p.308). “vastfamily” the backstance, to amore getting nationalist adopted Organization, hence, ETAalready made some sporadic attempts to show itself disposed to actually pursue the armed struggle The expelled members founder their own organization ETA-berri, new ETA, but soon changed its name its changed soon but ETA, new ETA-berri, organization own their founder members expelled The Komunistak , or the ones who accentuated traditional objectives of the Basque (the Communists) that was a clear definition of its ideological position. 63 obreristas And the reaction of And two inspiringthroughout was – the reaction people the of tercermundistas , i.e. supporters i.e.increasingly struggleof , worker the and supporters obreristas , thus, further tension between the two remaining Insurrection inEuskadi . Some of membersthe left organizationthe españolistas” Guardia Civil , i.e. lackeys of Spain. . tercermundistas 62 José Pardines and José Pardines , the , 156 CEU eTD Collection sentences to thirty years in prison. years thirty to sentences death immediate interfere the andchange himself hadto thatFranco pressure sostrong international and great so was decision atthe outrage Public sentences. received death which sixof defendants, the of condemnation its peakwith the The process reached petitions intellectualsnumerous countries, and wrote andinagainst Spain of favor ETA. place European mass inother took demonstrations wereattacked, Spanish embassies stop. wereimpossible to but protests the introduced, was of state exception Another Spain, with violent the police. confrontation with and throughout strikes demonstrations met was trial of the start The Manzanas. of in murder the implicated people the Sixteen, Burgos of so-called case started toexamine the military a court 1970, In December organization, but from then ETA was divided into two: ETA(V) and ETA(VI). refused toparticipate in VIAssembly.the expelled Both groups oneanother from the breakwasimminent militants issues asapowerful Another Basqueness. of group issues,these themselves consideringis that the movement toomuch on the concentrated clarify to Assembly VI the on call to decided They Assembly. Fifth the during division led to that ideology and strategy on questions raisingthe started again organization At samethe time schismexperienced another ETA of –a leadersthe of group the hundredsof exception of Basques. declaringand arresting state respondedwith State The torturer. sadistic as a known Manzanas, Meliton policeman the spiral Hence, 1996,p.357). which (Garmendia struggle” group, armed of practices anti-francoist violence attractstarted. great masses ETA of the revengedBasques and ETA is thestarting death to establish of theiritself as “themartyr only by killing a months the masses in memory of the dead the of memory in masses the months etarra (member of ETA) Txabi Etxebarrieta 157 CEU eTD Collection dedicated itself more to non-violent popular mobilization. ETA(m), which committed which ETA(m), mobilization. popular non-violent to more itself dedicated that of ETA(m)ETA or independence. The former took a name of ETA(pm) or ETA forceBasque military an forwas inspiringwith action even to through attempt stronger organization, otherthe newsituation the partof For the workingthe goalsclass. the of advance military action and try thus to and by political activity organization combining the future Franco, of death Blanco imminent and the Carrero ofof assassination thatwith the thought ETA shouldorganization’s ideology beand those who stressed more reconsidered.nationalist objectives. The former of the part movement worker accentuated who those between arose conflict They its the Again, splits. important of most the another, yet experienced In ayear ETA wanted to start. could of transition process change the popularitystructure and is believed again ETA’s raised Thisattack Blancowas traveling. Admiral Carrero heir Minister and of to be one of the reasons1973, when managed organization the toblow up carin the which Franco’s Prime why after the December 20 on which culminated its resumed armed activity, incontrast, deathETA(V), of dictator the League ( Revolutionary Communist ofit joining the itself remnants andtheorganization ETA(V) dissolved a yearlater, to back came who militants its of numerous lost ETA(VI) 1972 In ETA(V). of authority attacking and signedaletter of of accepting defendants ETA(VI) schismatics the Burgos 1971 the of ETA(V). the beginning In the to favorable more were getting clearly thescales However, with another. one inwar still factions were two the but popularity, The defendants of becametrial Burgos heroes,ETA was itson highestpeakof militar . ETA(pm) emerged stronger from this split, butit soon Liga Comunista Revolucionaria politico-militar ). and the latter 158 CEU eTD Collection and Classin the French Revolution book Hunt’s Lynn in be found can level same the at them keep and emotions contain to point and its end is associated with the emotional fatigue. Other important ideas about terror asa program Revolution 64 August an Anti-terrorist Decree was approved, by which the sentences for terrorist crimes Franco’s before death Months harsher. even got state the of the reaction the and continued police killings ETA’s was given specialprovinces andBizkaia wereputunder Gipuzkoa regime of emergency countless times. powers by the law passed two years the In thelast of dictatorship in was livedof radicalization. climate the in April and in Basque inall Country, thiswas havenumerousimplications. as Thetransition Spain to In November 1975,Francodies democracy and oftransition Inthe theprocess starts. to Transition andDemocracy level. same at the always “cause” tothe theemotional commitment to keep ameans used as is butalso enemy, external atthe only directed not becomes terror thus, revolution, French in the Like highest. its at excitement emotional the and alert of level who it. already with Violencesympathize playsanimportantrole in by a this keeping from ones the project this to allegiance itdemandsin complete that a sense deepening, be that said the project as of such ETAishegemonic, expansive,groups thus butalso by that could whichisadheredto wouldeveryone. be“onethere It disagreements, truth” no would demandthatthere be warframes in complete resulting equivalence Logic of 1995) DellaPorta (see communities. underground way of typical a rather in As itcould beseen from narrationthis schismsthe of organizationETA,of the developed members of ETA(pm). itself to the armed struggle soon got to its feet and lured away some more radical Catherine Kinzler and Hadi Rizk, etc Already one of the classical theorists of revolutions L.P. Edwards in his book claimed that terror appear in the societies where the public emotions have reached the highest the reached have emotions public the where societies the in appear terror that claimed (1984), the collection of essays collection the (1984), La République etlaTerreur The NaturalHistoryof 64 Politics, Culture , editedby 159 CEU eTD Collection supposed tobeendorsed and arguedfor by all organizationsthe some within the network, All in in all, 1975 ETA itsraised principal non-negotiable demands, which were entity. national environmenthave leave territory them the demandBasque Country.of Another united that the ETA’s and moderate atleast or regime of the forces repressive dissolve all the to time force was atthis with nationalists up surged that demand The indifferent. one no leaving one, into movement nationalist was theBasque of parts blend different all the to was movement pro-amnesty prison. The that of recognition in its asbefore werestill andmany it of members was persecuted of start transition the of out theas a hero of Basquesthe struggle against ETA came itsstate. by actions the the to reaction by repressive by the and ETA conditioned dictatorshipas a in the eyes of many, however,is firstdemands. way. other on hand,the The with Thedifferent came Basques, with itaccept this cameto rupture for radical beginning argued the at that parties even the made. The transition theat theonly centerones that was went supposed were completely Basques the why primary reasons is the of one fact this Letamendia, to According to beagainst a pacted the same. the remained essence way its one, while robes, its changed hasonly state the that the mild process and ofsmooth, transition part of ina society Basque the facts great was of interpretation 1996) The these Preston was being involvedmainly social (see,for useexample,a dire Reinares1999, force. protests of pacifying of ways werehardly their methods of and work theirdemocratic, Franco from inherited forces were police the place.addition, In took asthe transition newstate the days ten in benow could part held suchactivities take accusedto are raised people significantly, incommunicado , etc. (Letamendia, etc. vol.1,p.409). These 1994, laws passed onto 160 CEU eTD Collection elections of ETA(pm)1977, the had its in representatives coalition the of Basque Left general in first the Consequently, ETA(m)hadopinion. to acontrary ones related the processes, establisheddemocratic innewly was for participation part of enough state the positions: the ones related toETA(pm) will of show werethinking this good that the on KASin parts of their again for the split political prisoners, Suarez declared amnesty Adolfo of government transitional the When compromise. short-lived a was Alternative the again, However, elections. general first in the environment its of organizations KAS ( Alternative KAS made so-called five partof points These self-determination. Basque Left, especially meet, soas the of but The demandsthemselveswerehard the to organizations p.522) ( etc. four provinces, the of regime autonomy the establish immediately destiny,” and interests its over sovereignty full the with anationality “as Euskadi political of freedoms,of of of apparatuses dissolution of state, the recognition repressive of them would havebeen also by supported PNV.Itmoderate the raised demands of repressive apparatuses, primarily apparatuses, repressive the all of withdrawal parties, the all of legalization prisoners, political Basque the all The demands principal changed butthe somewhat ones the remained amnesty forsame: for theETA. was a anideataboo its that objectives, achieve more realistichere was PNV The support them. to front acommon create agree to not could themselves and more prone to collaboration with the Spanish parties in order to ) that set the preconditions for ETA ceasefire and for the participation of participation for the and ceasefire for ETA preconditions set the ) that Izquierda Abertzale Guardia Civil Guardia (literally, patriotic left), i.e. (literally, patriotic left), ETA’s environment , incorporation of Navarre and the right to Informe No.2 Alternativa 161 , CEU eTD Collection was frustrated by was frustrated of proceedings the first yearsthe of itdemocracy. As was mentioned, politics and strength of satisfy, hardly possible forcesthe to centerof of constellation the considering atthe Spanish Franco “old guard” and certain more totheBasquesadvantages of radical andthat the demands are Basque Left the army. However, evenbring might of transition in democratic process the participation that both the realizing the PNV strongest party in Basque politics. Italso had a wider, more realistic view of the situation, ETA’s military and thenotwithstanding, PNVstill strength political emerged asthe monopolized the position of the Basque Leftin the political arena. the PSOE to form the PSE-EE. ETA(m) remained again the sole violent actor and the HB itselfETA(pm)in disbanded 1982,the EEeventually merged with Basquedivision the of position.moderate more the to gradually Left, with EEshifting the of Basque the Batasuna environmentby achieving electoral visibility.Thus, coalition abroad called changing the to adapt to need the and demands its of fulfillment the attain to way the not was process parliamentary the that its ideas of confirmation the both in this saw ETA(m) high. was pretty elections in the electorate of Basque participation In addition, PNV. of stance the moderate to an and demands italternative the gavevisibility but created objectives, certain to itdomuchachieve Cortes its having couldnot partial atthe representative – only to one (quoted in Irvin1999, p.113). participate in the electoral game, to forces but apparently by certain without refusal the offering an alternative demonstrating solution gesture, to the symbolic people” amere to reduced was “[a]bstention Parliament), ETA(pm) reconsidered Spanish its position, the to claiming representative one nowsent that and it was vote the 6% ofthe wonright decision, (it forin elections fact, inthese had party the that success the After participation. this against was organization armed the by itself, elections the in participate 65 (EE – Actually, the situationwas more complicated. Infact, ETA(pm) political wing made decisionto Euskadiko Ezkerra Euskadiko (HB – Popular Unity) was formed. The HB was to become the principal actor ), the part of ETA(m) did not. 65 The success of the party was Herri 162 CEU eTD Collection Constitution.representatives of the PNV left the Hall before the finalThe vote the on the full proposing, was textit of that the amendments form the adopt to parties larger the making of the Spanish by mutual, apparently The sentiments lack becausefrustrated the were success of of state that the Constitution proposed was not the principles of the PNV and ours”, i.e. those of the government. ( between discord absolute “There existsan stated: officials the of as one question. Thus, was such an previousof out of understanding part, nature Spanishstate the of the in already mentioned was as hand, other the on parties, statist the For situation. ambiguous position whether as independenceto would be a preferredoption in such a in meanwhile an keeping the for apossiblepreconditions of exercise self-determination, keeping system foral and setting tradition the upwith of with provide the should beas possible, asvast of hadto autonomies the competences The times. case inmedieval Central authorities The PNVwas its between keepingthus traditions: relation Basqueandthe to Country the had to be horizontal, based on negotiation, as, supposedly,during constitutional Asprocess. Jordi Solé noted: was the shapewith shouldlike todo thattook Spanishlook nothing one hadalmost the state Finally, PNV’svision the Constitutionitselfof the and its of how the understanding rejected. were proposed it that amendments hundred a than more from two but all on PNVwasthe excluded elaboration from firstof the projectlaterthe of Constitution,the background of sovereignty the Euskadi.of 1985,p.103). (Solé …and topicindependence ambiguity same on the at the on time keepthejuridical obtain a “foral pact”,The leaders of PNVunderstood the constitutionalthe as process an opportunity to that is, a formula, which would allow them to maintain the El País , 21July 1978) 163 CEU eTD Collection from from for 74.6% voted andagainstthese Constitution 25.4% the vote, voters turned to registered were follows: 45%of Basquethe out Country the as an outright “no” as were the parties of radical right. In advocated environment of The parties for–abstention. ETA its voters propose thecourse to end the referendum results in the referendum on the Constitution came, the PNV did not have much doubt over what whocame referendum),if to can favorablerejection – vote be only 30% (taking the the Constitution, 75% of the Basques to show the acceptance ways in –ifoneneedsto two interpreted be well could numbers voted for (taking just anotherfor ambiguity,also these created be It againstthethe Spanish Constitution. to percentage of the voters showedthemselves This of became lorepolitical –the Basques Basque the quickly part in meanwhile the participation andwas 67.2% “yes”the votes 87.87%. Autonomous Region, future Basque of leftthe out Navarre was 69 68 settlement of the conflict. outcomes of the dialogue with ETA as the Navarese fear that their autonomy will be sacrificed for the Basque Autonomy stance and itsstill idea of distinctiveness is strong andstark. the rejection of any possibility of incorporationA to the goodpolitical outlook of the province remainsexample similar to this day: itspro-SpanishFrancoist old and the anti-Basque reason ofnationalistthat For saw guard possiblethe thisofFranco. incorporation to Navarre Basquethe for Autonomous Community outrage.as an force The could supportive ferociously be most the became seenand slogan in the recent debatesclaims. During the Civil Warit opted for the defense of religion and the onstate, following the theold Carlist possibleNavarre, thus, proud of ownits distinctive identity was neververy receptive of Basquethe nationalist samethe level Nationalism) as was stillstrong there. (see,less example, Blinkhorn or for more 1974,on p.596-599) remained it where Alava for province. (except the in provinces three other the popular in very receded which never was Carlism, nationalism Basque The Castile. and Aragon of neighbors southern speaking and the south almost purely Castilian. Furthermore, economically wasit always more related to its belongs to the Castilianplane. In addition, this divisionis also ethno-linguistic – with the northBasque- Geographically the province itself is divided into two – themountainous north and the south whichalready of the kingdoms of theinto Kingdom of latterCastile, the functioned asanindependent KingdomSpain incorporated before the 1512andwere asone former the While provinces. (whichBasque other three onset, the from the case From different a was itselfNavarre Francoists. the for and Navarese the for both at taboo a was thethis however, time Region, Basque was a joint venture of67 Castile Communities.and Aragon) afterwards.Emergency in Article 116 and a change of Articletext in 144,concerning constitutionthe of Autonomous 66 something that the PNV imagined, the Constitutional text failed includeto its proposals See One of the demands of both the PNV and the Basque Left was to have Navarre Withanexception of the notion that Civilincluded Liberties should not be restrained during the Stateinto of the future http://www.congreso.es/constitucion/constitucion/cronologia/cronologia.jsp?anio=1978 http://www1.euskadi.net/emaitzak/indice_c.htm 68 67 . In other parts of Spain etc. When the time for time When the etc. 69 164 66 , CEU eTD Collection 71 theirown considerations, not and thus, ETA from does not pressure sound the of as a plausiblebecause explanation. referendum the goto to not decided provinces Basque the in implied a rejection all of at vote the to since ballot the of secrecy the areas rural in destroyed had calls abstention Effectively, fear. (Preston 1993, p.146) and the levelof abstention itself “reflected, atleast in small villages, an element of would give the Additional Provision 1, which states that: “two sovereign (Letamendia The legalwills” 1994,p.301). grounds for sucha claim the between anagreement of is result a text the that appearance maintain the managed to sovereignty entities” autonomous the However,of p.300). it 1994,vol.2,(Letamendia not“original admit butit Autonomy instill any the Spanishstate), did the other gave themore Basques itthan thanto it rights autonomy – wasbetter nothing (actually, formed the mainlaw feelings newly lukewarm of the PNVhadprovinces. The towards governmentand thelegitimacy would significantly undermine of inthese Spain highly repetition understood the that of referendumon be situation the of Constitution the would damaging The Central worked hardGovernmentaccept topersuade the party statute,it the to to theLeft calling for abstention and the PNV for a favorablerelations vote. between the Basque Provinces and the Central received exactly in these rural areas by by the areas rural these in exactly received widespread that feeling much nothing haschanged during thetransition)percentage andthe ofhigh votes numerouspressure from the nationalist fringes. The second explanationis also faulty: the author himself mentions timeswith the Constitution, which was as much, if not more, based on the party’sown ideology as on the have some ground, theyboth lack credibility. The first one, because it overlooks the PNV’s own dissatisfaction the strong support enjoyed by ETA during the transition (as well as a pretty generated by extreme generated atmosphere fevered the “in because abstention beadvocate to chose PNV the to him, According campaign. ETA’s ofthe factors the are abstention of level actual the and PNV ofthe stance the both (1993) Preston 70 Statute “yes” tothe said those and have 95%of voters participated of Central government were seemingly more successful and the referendum as well – 58.9% forAutonomy was proposed the Statute referendum.negotiations Thistime the with voters). allregistered the of proportion See The level of abstention, obviously, can be interpreted in a number of different ways. For example, for example, For ways. of different a number in be interpreted can obviously, of abstention, level The http://www1.euskadi.net/emaitzak/indice_c.htm abertzales abertzale , the PNV did not want to be seento be in agreement with the government” parties’ instructions.” (Preston1993, p.150). While these interpretations abertzale 70 parties, especially the Furthermore, in just a year, the Basque Herri Batasuna 71 with Radical the with . That the voters the That . 165 CEU eTD Collection Parliament. by wasaccepted Spanish the gavefruitand Statute the Suárez Adolfo Minister Prime the and Garaikoetxea Carlos PNV the leader of the between negotiations personal finally, the however, p.303), vol.2,(see Letamendia 1994, articles of other Statute the this Provision and certain towards hadavery attitude negative The Central government obviously just give more credit to ETA’s claims that Euskadi was an occupied state. occupied was an Euskadi that claims ETA’s to credit more give just obviously would place. take Thiswould meanentry of armythe violence the territoryinto the and of Basquethe Provinces would parties and Basque other and PNV of the consent the without approved is Statute the if siege” of “state under region the declaring as such considered, were Basque the with ofdealing plans other though 73 72 ETA(m), the coup attempt was fake and only served to strengthen more the armed forces, The two parts anyone.provoke to not here,trying silent remains ThePNV Basquenationalists. the also of ETA areParliament making turn against their golpistas anyone who is consideredown interpretation of coupslowed frustrated of the downtheprocess of developmentautonomy attack – the to be an opponent of the BasicETA(m) continuedviolentactivities its and alwaysETA(pm) was weaker.In 1981 a Law, of events: At time same the autonomousthe community. of norms worked on designing the according institutionalization The PNV emergedstrongeststarted. in autonomy elections and 1980 to mainWith regulating arrangements in documents processof institutional the the place, The possibility of breaking the negotiations was not very appetizing for the government itself, even http://www.euskadi.net/autogobierno/estatu_i.htm of the legal system. legal the of of virtue theirhistory and whichmaybein updated with accordance stipulations the in them to as suchmayhaveaccrued that therights waive BasquePeople the that imply notdoes in Statute this system of established autonomy the of The acceptance (Letamendia 1994,vol.2,p.308). the as a Statute Pact of legality.myth new becomesthe thus thefounding autonomous nationalism, traditional the For Spanish. the for Suárez and nation Basque the for are Garaikoetxea Pact have the signed leadersthat national the wills, sovereign This way in the imaginary of the PNV the Statute appears as an act between the was seen as an attack against the Constitution and thus the members of the 73 According toLetamendia: According 72 166 CEU eTD Collection territories” i.e. the territorial entities with different “historical rights”, were to be treated. to were rights”, “historical different with entities i.e. territorial the territories” “historical so-called the way in the that ideas appeared of conflict another In addition, Basque people (Letamendia 1994,vol.3,p.80). use its demandfor Additional wills self-determinationthe 1 to Provision to and by asanegotiatedits pact sovereign the essence Statute” of “’regenerating’ exposing two distance gowithinlong to nationalism” marchof a one and the looking other forward to itas “a in the seeing one the Basquepolitics: of meaningof the Statute understandings vol.3,different(Letamendia However, thismoveup two p.66). 1994, brought attitudes “co-governance” to “resistance” had move to from PNV views, the politics and in party’s the theneed change the for supposed in environment the PNV.Thethe change One of the events that led to the adoption of the pact of Ajuria Enea, wasa schism within becamewhat called to “Basque the question”. agenda the of out taken have events subsequent the nor process Constitutional neither It couldbecause inneverfact transition that Güell alsoended, beargued, 1994, p.422). ETA (Ibarra of marginalization Ajuria seeming Eneaand the pactof the yearof 1988, the be this IbarraGüell, inCountry, shouldextended Basque period upto the according to While for the whole of Spain transition ended in 1982 with the election of Socialist Party, Lizarra to Enea Ajuria From yearrenounce violence), next ETA(pm) todisband. decided that organization members of the ofthe thereinsertion (making possible state of the part deal attemptstorestore dictatorship.the with future the a favorable Given policy on the to way only be the might text the of defense the that show Constitution the of protection for and the coup massive the against ETA(pm),the demonstrations according to 167 CEU eTD Collection http://www1.euskadi.net/emaitzak/datuak/indice_c.apl 74 more intense the of This was of period actions the even also GAL,which the undermines years of 3% more thanin17.47% votes, before. 2 Basque to the elections Parliament the parties.it Basque Inthe1986 electionsnationalisttraditional gained tothe Parliament regional government left the PNV and formed their own party moreof itsstance self-determination andof a the powerful peakin1986.The supporters supporting understandings between andthegroups them thesedifferent Tensions reached emphasis on Basquethe government. (see, Ross 1991) more for of provinces the powers curb institutionsthe and advanceto newregional wanting differently, things saw party the of part Another elections. provincial in the well very fared PNV the because grounds, pragmatic the on also but built, was sovereignty and nation Basque the of idea whole the which on fundament a as rights” “historical the itsaw it was mentioned, because, as grounds, –ontheideological territories” “historical One part of the PNV supported the continuation or even enhancement of the role of 42%). PNV received 23%, the The schism left PNVmuchthe EA away weaker –the EA took its 40%of around votes (the – 15%, while in the previous(Letamendia 1994,vol.3,p.80) election theradical joint result was nationalismwithin the mark of the Constitution. As Letamendia writes: EA “presented itself as a Basque Unity), exposingthan more positions radical butstill party, oldthe remaining without violence, that is, like a Herri Batasuna without ETA.” For these and further results of the Basque elections, see elections, Basque of the results further and these For 74 The crisis also strengthened HB, which takes away many votes coming from the Eusko Alkartasuna (EA – 168 CEU eTD Collection that: stating also of terrorism, matters in the government Central with the calls cooperation for the Statute, calling for its full implementation full its for calling Statute, the Parliament, except for HB.Basque Country It rejects any use of violence,is an called signed, where itwas condemns terrorism, glorifies known as known later Pact, The objectives. political any from violence separate to and ETA marginalize to inanattempt Euskadi of for pacification a pact PNVproposes the circumstances, moment, there still are 37 competences, the transfer of which is still in process. in still is of which transfer the competences, 37 are still there moment, 77 bomb. the deactivate to and people the listen, according to the police, though, the announcement came too late and it was not possible to evacuate and left numerous wounded. ETA claimed that it announced about the bomb, but the security forces did not 76 75 actions. less selective bloody, more inever engages andETA(m) votes more getting HBkeeps the meanwhile, the In Parliament. of the president was elected Eginguren Jesus Socialist the and Lehendakari the became Ardanza Antonio José PNV, this time the PNV is clearly on its autonomist side of theboth of parties scales).that were prone towork for the development of competencesA of representativeStatute (at of the and PNV, the PSE-PSOE the between be acoalition to appeared choice reasonable most the pointthe at however, considered, werebeing coalitions Different government. the PSOE was getting 23% of vote),the nor the nationalists had anecessary majority formto In this situation, none ofsympathies for ETA.the parties, neither raised which and community those nationalist radical within the state the of legitimacy of the state (the strongest state party Many competences that the state had to transfer to the Basque Autonomy were not achieved at the at achieved not were Autonomy Basque the to transfer to had state the that competences Many 19ofJune 1987attack ona supermarketCatalonia in the is bloodiest acts.Itclaimed ofETA’s 21lives At this point the implicationof security forces of Spain in the GAL is more rumored than proven. Pact of Ajuria Enea Ajuria of Pact and was signed by all the parties with representation in Basque in representation with parties the all by signed was and 75 , according to the name of the residence of Lehendakari Agreement for theNormalization of andPacification Agreement for 77 , bows down before the Constitution and Constitution the before down bows , 76 In these In 169 CEU eTD Collection 78 just the outerpatriot of the country, all the others becoming traitors and their democratic credentials are signs ofETA environment,distinction. signed it,the Pact,not onlyit became ETA.ETA a Assign all all of war on of as adeclaration by movement the is interpreted Ajuria and Enea The Pactof that the only other theETA remainedpolitical movement as events. future on the have importance acrucial wereto of that ETA strategy consequently a forcestrue except starts for the and blocks) violent and democratic between differentiation parties wasthe other for the ones belongingto talk to thechange of major MLNV(the the in discourse the also change saw the and 1995 the Pact about the the socialists within ETA andremained its environment marginalized, cooperationthe between PNVandthe the frame of Statute, The Pact of Ajuria Enea gaveframe forin political development Euskadi until 1997. continued. The years between signing of the others, on the other hand, the Pacthas a different meaning: of the PNV, who has finally showed its true face as a lackey of the powers in Madrid. For initisstartwith itnegotiations to theshowed asell-out government, addition, about that ETA interpreted this pact as an attempt to put it in a worse position before the http://www.euskadi.net/pakea/pacto_i.htm vol.3,p.135). 1994, Basques (Letamendia and“violent” “democratic” since 1979–between the offering were socialists which that, with it replace to and nationalists Spanish an nationalismsubstitute agreesto old between dichotomy Basqueand the frame asevidence serve thattraditional Basque statutory democracy, and will and for the support between the identification the crystallizes for Peace Agreement people. our for of self-government principlethe defense of democratic, peaceful their by them on conferred legitimacy the on based is ETA of rejection and political condemnation kindjustification parties’ inthissociety. Basque of The compensationmay in no case be understoodor as an attemptexchange to justify terrorism nor as Communitya condition, for the Country,of to theending developmentthe of the Statute,Basque or to the relations theof Autonomous in political into the theBasque problems theAgreement made any reference terrorist Country mayviolence, have with whichthe Communitylacks any of Navarre, 78 170 CEU eTD Collection 2001, p.186) Basque andotherpolitical (SánchezCuenca between themselves. forcesparties agree what the accept to state the on as apressure serve should attacks as these before, than p.76), but was also something new, as here we see a different 2003, (Mees ‘KASAlternative’” the version of updated as “an can beseen Alternative role of the attacks of ETA themselves (the internal arrangements of the future state) of future the arrangements internal (the themselves the state (thepeople, dividing the questionsinto also two groups as the onesbe to decided by ETA and territorialand Basque the government audiences: the totwo is directed text the because new, extension,giveis something is need Basque to the aword This to the people. there of anassertion etc.)would and do the thenegotiations ones negotiateinsistence on necessity somethe fundamental Of ETA to questions. course, with tothe Spanishsame be the with but one, first in the decided present was state that socialism the on emphasis the on without behalf of bythe Basques,the in butAlternative, forward KASwere putthe French the that a lesserone) Basquesextent (and to at least Democratica ( Alternative so-called Democratic the first, into place. The is put strategy andviolent a newpolitical in this development of after process Therefore, 1995 1999) the of [reappearance] the caused and clash social of politics the cultivated “has and movement the criminalize is Pact to working the Inaddition, unsolved. reason “Basqueproblem” why remains the diálogo 79 negotiations” ( “political See,Manifiesto deEuskadi taAskatasuna aEuskal Herria, 20 April 1995. ). The latter is apparently lacking in the other political forces and that is the ) of ETA, to a great extent reiterated the demands put on theSpanishstate on thedemands put extent reiterated a great to ETA, ) of civil confrontation negociación politica within Basque the society.” Vidales (López ) and the “will to dialogue” the “will ( ) and to 79 Therefore, the Democratic the Therefore, voluntad de Alternativa 171 CEU eTD Collection war with the Spanish state. From war with From 1998 both Spanishstate. the 1995 to assassinationsthe of politicians the in were Basques the that clearly show to andweredesigned society of the in thesegment fear feeling of instability, enormous violence created of acts street the with combination Also, such Cuenca 2001,p.182) have social atremendous and impactattacks in the police, but should extend military only not shouldto and strugglethe of armed the reach “theidea consequences that all the society and especially with the “socialization of suffering” or conflict” of by as “extension ETA denominated the politicians.” (Sánchezviolence was street the with politicians on the attacks selective of the This combination their headquarters areconstantly by their headquarters practicingattacked youths the movefirst is Ordóñez new in not touched, strategy. ThePNVpoliticiansbutthe this are PSOE.Theassassinationthe of January councilorthe 1995 of on 23 PPGregoriothe PPand –the main parties two the Spanish members of local attack the council to starting politicians, the forces to security from the its targets changed itself ETA In addition, in which(quoted violence. Mees2003,p.77), intensification meant street the the of also process” political the accelerate “to and phase” a newoffensive “pass to needto the denominated document the In form. more given politicized street violence, asaBasque designed politicized street so-called of the in Country Basque isapresence there the point, weakest its itself foundat organization andthe atthe timeleadership wascaptured ETA of The second, violence strategy Alreadyof has changed. also since 1992,when all the Oldartzen Report intifada . Since 1995, these events are kale borroka emphasized , Batasuna kale borroka . 172 , a CEU eTD Collection Basque nationalism, its understanding of the nation and the relation between the between relation the and nation the of understanding its nationalism, Basque in of wastooutlineof The thedevelopment the maintrends the purpose chapter this Conclusions developmentof Basquethe politics. impactthe on which had an enormous pactthat of signing of another Lizarra-Garazi, it togo ledeventually of the out The attempts to animpasse. reaches The situation topics of self-determination and dispersion policies, which are taboo for the statist parties. with end HB the to violence. with However, dialogue HBimpliesthe opening of the full sentence. On the other hand, the PNV as well as EA, are leaning towards negotiations reintegration of prisoners and cutting leaving the possibility of prison before serving the andchanges proposes in penitential the abandoningpolitics, the policies for the ETA of environment the completely marginalizing on solution”, “police on concentrates governing party of Spain, new directions: in different away are drifting incoalition The main parties force. the PP sees police1997) These tosurgeupwith alwaysmore tend discrepancies, aside, andmorepushed work as the only way to get rid of ETA, Pact of Lizarra and the truce of ETA. (Numbers from Sánchez Cuenca 2001, p.185) 1135, going downsomewhat in the1997 to 971 and later489 in1998, but this yearis already yearofa the ( environment.” ETA with the dialogue the or Navarre with Euskadi of relation self-determination, politics, like“penitential in matters the become apparent parties the between discrepancies the addition, In of Enea. Ajuria Pact the stability of the on impact have its in a certain environment and All organization the developments these violence. people to the 80 and the incidents of the In 1994 there In were of287 incidents the kale borroka kale borroka are rising exponentially rising are , in 1995 the number rises to 924 and in 1996 to 80 but so is the rejection of El País , 22February 173 CEU eTD Collection that is more open to the incorporation of different elements. of different incorporation to the ismore open that situation in Madrid, on the contrary, results in the adoption of a more autonomist position 2004, with the independentistmost positions, asit be from could seen situation betweenthe 2001 and uses. close mostMadrid stance around of Theaggressive the rigid, its evokes of ranks in government thatthe Madrid thediscourse ituses dependssignificantly on discourse the positions Contrary Spanishto the PNVisbefore, discussed parties the influenced muchmore by of other itself. party the within even varies understanding this actors hand, other the on in the establish PNVtries(1991), the its to of understanding Basquenation the as theonly wayone; it approaches beingfrom its inception touse a kindof “party-nation” expressionthe Chrisof Ross hand, one the On thediscourse. consistent athoroughly create to problems.impossibility in the results The as possible reach This within butas muchself-government Spanish state. ambiguity the rigidity of provinces (or at least theachieve independence of theseven the inclinedBasque to hand,all one sovereignist, four on the Spanish side);famousits for ambiguity. Since theparty inception the hadideology: aJanus-like on the on the other, autonomist,and tryingETA, can to be assessed. AsConcluding we this discussion,saw thethroughout essence of the discourse of the two main actors,this the PNV should in beeach itsother. andwhat nation) predicament world clash with the Basque chapter, the PNV’s discourse whetherisis there a (or ideason Basquenation what andnumerous the fragmented is creating a situation moremuch in oneand successful on all acceptable for nation,the establishing discourse not was nationalism where Asit from could Basque bethis discussion, actors. seen nationalist the political outlook of the Basque Country is extremely Plan Ibarretxe being bestthe example of this Themilderdiscourse. 174 CEU eTD Collection activities, they are criminals, but when they are sentenced, they are political prisoners, the violent their in engage they When criminals. “ordinary” the over treatment preferential the ones who time, same at the but discourse, political the outside of the to be relegated is to Violence commit the violentFinally, itself isin ETA adouble as understood first,way violent, then– Basque.as crimes periphery. of the those and authorities in the name central the between conflict the of manifestation is asita Basques, between the conflict of politicsconflict should be between givenisalsobut there a andlack of recognition, national the territorial arrangements the a the Basques issuesin of terms andtheSpanish becauseof between unsettled the conflict Basques the themselves.also an indication In thatfact,is It account. into be havetaken to a theperpetrators motives of the why principal reason political ETA solution is asto is the which isaconflict, the there because is violence, there is it that clear PNV, the For muchsituation a hassymptom to be sought.nation would develop results in a lessrigid discourse. Thereof isa a autonomist position, accepting the existing state as a political system in which the the Basque hand, other the On nations. two the connects that cord the cut to and well as Basques the other nation. The by because captured state analien state, the and nation other the chainrepresents another solution of this situationone chain hasasits nodal point divided the Basquenation independence for striving and then is to achieve itssovereignty main as chains principle inpolicy, party the creates where of equivalence the statehood adopting By another. in than case one in greater is for construction its of impermeability thethe and discourse that of rigidity the its discourse, of construction in the logics uses different While it is not plausible to assume that by adopting these different positions the PNV 175 CEU eTD Collection shows the repressive character of these states. Violence of ETA itself is mainly defensive. itself is mainly of Violence ETA of states. these character repressive the shows violencediscourse ismost prominentcomingfrom sidethe of states the and this violence in its Hence, Basquenation. the waytoliberate violence is only the states, totalitarian by isAsoccupyingforces the Basquenation, and which ETA. are represented these inside is there is Basque – there the conflict no Country between the justaconflict in two oppressingisThe states. understood mythical also Basque nation arather way, Basque Country the is there hand, one the On equivalence. of where chains the on based is clearly statements, seven provinces form ETA’s whichdiscourse, it in expresses its onecommuniqués, internal bulletins and single entity. etc. certain policies, on work them Onto persuading certain stance, toadopt actors the other, there are combined political political theexpressingurging position, communiqués the with its are actions has a by itagenda, “propagandapolitical the deed,” on concentrated showing thesplit times, organization numerous and to between violent causedthe political actions difficultyvery ofprominent, reconcilingwere activities political these dictatorship, the of time thethe during especially workSometimes, in the society these achievingpolitical actor in its own right. Its twoviolent activities were combined with the politicala ones. primarytrends. significance.If we talk about ETA, since the inception this organizationIn has tried to establish itself as a addition, This tensionbut motives the for itshouldbe into taken account. even whenbe education ETAmembers,etc.Violence forshouldpunished, imprisoned the programs it is visit university the relatives,imprisoned advocates theirforto families going the support from PNVduringthe the whole existence of Basqueautonomy,the monetary gives by presided over Basquegovernment, the Basque Therefore, prisoners. Lehendakaris 176 CEU eTD Collection to be more a symbol than a political actor. For the Basque nationalism: have isthey use choose way more dueto the forces appears political to them,other ETA While makesnot taken ininfluence statements faceETA valueand the their that are the rejected by many). (Douglass, Zulaika 1990,p.252) of his enemies) as that (aswell consciousness nationalist’s Basque of each apart becomes thereby by entering themost radical violenceETA’s and actualizes approach Basque separatist into goal the isindependence total andthat thisjustifies themeans.each Consequently, actor’s Basque thecrossing nationalism in represents for a conceptual of Rubicon which politicalsince ETA juncture, historical atthis structure as a much isa concept … ETA as calculation (if only to be 177 CEU eTD Collection anti-nationalist position. Estella, as Estella isthe name of the towninSpanish. Usage of thelatterdenomination often indicates an the and inLizarra place took Forum next of Ireland meeting of the part first because of Lizarra-Garazi, partdeclaration in the French81 Basque town of Garazi.visible Another in thename wayfor be later that will construction movesdiscourse that of and identity fields other and antagonist this thetreaty political is that of documentsfollowedhere,protagonist Ardanza.Thesetwo by anideaabout provide Plan actorsthe Pact give of meaningdiscussed. to the declarationThe Manifest will beand of1997-1998willbe of “dislocative”the presented effects events the of Forumof Lizarra. of Ermua will be byETA indefinite truce –the follow-up Lizarra and its of backgroundthe Declaration of the first document to be examinedIn order to show these myths arecreated. how newthe political elements and violence; on discourse the to in relation is used discourse historical of the how fields; discourse creationidentity fields are formed; how historicalin discourse is thisused in order to consolidate these chapter,frames of howtheconsistentreference; discursive frames andprotagonist andantagonist first of all, new of leads creation the to political discourse the of dislocation Here wecanseehow the the indiscussed section the campaign the of General the of 2004andElections the 11-M. is that discourse conservative Spanish imageof the mirror acertain creation, discourse more ground. The Declaration of Lizarra, thus, can serve With interpretations other gainedmuch Basque of truce, the the collapse Country. the to illustrate another sidein violence of of end the the of possibility the of and euphoria of feeling the from be divorced was accompanied by firstthe by “indefinite” truce ETA, its initial interpretation could not controversially interpretedAlready documents in atthe Basquethe politics.time As ofthe signingsigning, of the pact the Declaration of Lizarra became one of the most Lizarra is the Basque name of a town in Navarre where the treaty was signed. It is also referred to as a Chapter V. Declaration of Lizarra 81 andnational unity. There andbackagain 178 CEU eTD Collection beginning of yearbeginning of parties the managedtohave meetingsthe insist aswell as to on the In tensions 1997, the aroundAjuria the accumulated, Pact of and Enea even thoughinthe thechanges 1997-1998There: in Basquepolitics later andetc. Anoieta, Bergara at Batasuna substituted by substituted a series differentof proposals and ideas: the andis discourse nationalist the from disappears almost of Declaration Lizarra the actually, elections, 2001 After the blocks. of the politics the of showed culmination the which majorityreinforcedthe both rulingPNVin the of Basquethe parliamentand national inBasque elections tothe Parliament, the BasqueCountry unity – and2001 the of reconstitution the of idea the to led eventually which of interpretation the events thesignificant of some contained – that 1997 the between period the on concentrate Iwill Lizarra politics, pre-andpost- the intoit Basque dividing currentpolitics, the of milestone aprincipal as Declaration the see analysts political nationalist more A short note on the periodpolitics. of discussion is alsowith thedue short here.ends descriptionchapter The PNV. the of and PP Eventhe of those here: discussed be though will of ones theprincipal impact sometimes of the 2001 Autonomythe Two constructions. discourse respective in their new circumstances the accommodate elections on the Basque try to actors political the how and isrelated nation on discourse and violence on discourse how a large extent whichshowto document, Lizarra the ways ofinterpreting differentin Country two resulted in Basque the situation the breakdown the truce, of in After constructed again focusing are discursive frames documents. waythe at the the be of discussed, will ETA this truce to itself andrelated Lizarra of Declaration Next, the Plan Ibarretxe , proposals of 179 CEU eTD Collection the PNV and co-existence, the of PSEyears long werethe moreFor often new. rather is rivals ideas, than allies. “natural” many as (see, e.g.,alliance, Ross “natural” this 1991) However, 2004, p.144), one the representing both the nationalist andnon-nationalist sides of Basquethe society. 82 also had animportantimpact politicalthe on situation. Inthe beginning of monththe social atmosphere revulsion inthecountry, an enormous terrorism andviolence,butto The events of July 1997it.” (Mees2003,p.104) have a special importance problemthe violenceitsof for instead own benefit,political of findtrying to asolution to here.in administering interested only They“was government the that felt createdincreasingly nationalists both a differentpolicy,concerned with strengthening counter-terrorist the moderate PNVandother the Also, ofvotes. conquest while itself the party showed very beginningfrom the much PNV and at the same time showed the hegemony of the threatening thus inparty largest second BasqueCountry, the the into itself completely unscrupulous outturned tobe“absolute (Tusellp.144) disagreement.” ThePP 2004, transformeditself when it cameparties two the between agreement with time, passof this the Therefore, forgotten. soon to the and for the return of the heritage taken away from the region during the Civil War – were PNVmadebefor the Institutions requests Euskadi that European representedatthe – to rulingPNV, the inmuchreally Madrid heed party the didnot nationalists: theonly two the with agreements the signed had it if even However, so. do to nationalists peripheral govern not 1996. The its PPcouldownatthe timeneeded support of on the and in power Aznar Maríaof in to came José government Conservative the Besides, Madrid, for almostBasque Country adecadeaccumulated. disagreements The apart. drifting it already of were mainprotagonists the Pact, of the preservation between the Socialists and the PNV, which were ruling together the The PNV-PSE alliance is often seen as a “natural” government of the Basque Country (see, e.g., Tusell e.g., (see, Country Basque of the government a“natural” as seen often is alliance PNV-PSE The 82 180 CEU eTD Collection height. meter 1.5 only and diameter meters 1x2 small, very usually are and storage weapon the for beused also to fulfill, this was described as an “announced crime” or a “slow-motion crime” ( deadline waskilled.Asmade passedBlanco demandsorganization wereimpossible the heed pleashours not any requestsor and48 after ETA didthese demonstrations, of release his“colleagues”convince to councilor.the tried to Antxon Etxebeste), (Eugenio theorganization, of leaders thehistorical of one 83 Moderate nationalistsfor thefirst time condemned notonly killing,the butalso Batasuna was supposed toall at it in of interested opinions just the people liberation the agangthatwasnot forto be liberating.13 July 1997)thatformany meant ETAmoved that from being an fightingorganization Therefore, the reaction to death of Blanco was fierce. ( his of instrikea hungeractions protest own organization’s organization asked same; of one the imprisoned started membersof the ETA inCórdoba publiclysuch as insistedPatxi HB, of Zabaletamembers the Even sides. all from came live him let to demands (now the streets, the to a leader of anotheron partyBlancophysically impossible Demonstrations tomeet. for release the of millionsBlanco brought of toBasque the hours. Obviously, prisonersBasque Country within to such ademand 48 was be released,member of the town of Ermua, someOnly Miguel Angelten Blancoof days andtheforshocking the public large andbrought demonstrations against the organization.demanded after a formermove of Ortegaall themore ayearin for than Laramembers was placeheld the ofboth hewas images andthe in inhuman conditions police. Hewaskept released, of the Lara, aprisonOrtega employee kidnapped by 532 daysbefore,ETA wasfreed bythe ETA kidnapped a young PP council ETA usually underground ETA keptthe kidnapped hostages in its placehiding called 83 and left himself endhimthe ETA (at diefrom hunger)to were Izquierda AbertzaleIzquierda El País , 14 July 1997); and , 14July zulo . These . –Aralar) El País zulos 181 can , CEU eTD Collection the moderate nationalists with the radical ones and the popular mobilization mobilization against popular and with the nationalists radical ones the moderate the of identification close a rather appears there discourse their In ideologically). least PP (at July events, such as Forum of Ermua ( the after forth spring that organizations in the prevalent especially became interpretation governingthe party as a manifestation of revulsion against nationalism assuch. This politicians themselves Batasunaagainstits actuation for during July 1997, wasseen by one. The demonstrations against violence initial from the interpretation different a received soon “spiritErmua” of the However, and ETA, the revulsion of the society discourseand of liberation, the ETA did see that its actions brought up rejection in the society. “governmentand the Spanish opinion”public showed thateven locked inits rigid itself1997) thefact it in that was written Castilian tothe and Spanish directed ( employees), prison its losing about care not did it that showed actually strike wasjustfortunate which a before Lara of liberation the Ortega of Blanco and death the for be blamed to was (government text in the new substantially anything say not in Castilian was somethingSpanish, very that organizationunusual.though the Even did Even sawjustifyETA itself to obliged by killing the a writing communiqué inits entirety (Mees 2003, p.75) conflict.” the startworkinga solution to seriously policy-makers the on stop killing, to to and rejection of violencewas calledand, “spirit of Ermua,” as – a show of Ludgerextreme solidarity with the Meesvictims, an extreme crime continued againbringingwrites:millions to and streets the the situation gave what birth to “both a popular demand for ETA to justifying anything organization ( did. and tension enormous of days in these silent remaining for ETA of accomplice an as El País Foro deErmua) , 13July 1997) Demonstrations the against with more or less close ties to the El País , 24July 182 CEU eTD Collection prognostic framing and identity protagonist field and framing motivational the a with “identity fields.” Thus we have diagnostic framing and identity antagonist field, three to related are then that discourse intheir movements social by most are used that the problems and solutions to them. The frame analysis talks about three types of framing of Ermua defines ratherclearly identity protagonistthe andantagonistfields, pointsout couldbe evaluate useful thisto manifest. The movementsocial represented by Forum the etc.) al. Benford (Hunt 1988, et andSnow, hisThe framework of 1994; associates Snow project.” totalitarian its from benefit and promote protect, who those and ETA against forcefully and “peacefully fight also and voice” but the street, “not only recuperate the to fascism” and andfinally,“spirit of Ermua” should bestrengthened in fightorder to against the “Basque are acceptable with organization the agreements or no negotiations political therefore, democracy in the region. The only way out of this situation it, thisnecessary deterioration the unity way to against of and determination contributing is to act firmly against ETA, the Basque of representatives institutional and political citizens; the of liberties and rights democratic Country the all eradicate to tries which and Batasuna and areETA leaders whose Country collaborate in movement” is Basque the a“fascist asfollows: there beforward here put can relevant with thisManifest 1998) which ideas main outlines the of organization.the mainideas The fascistIn the beginning of Forum 1998, the Ermua publishedof amanifest, (Forum Ermua of movement in nationalism EA andgeneral. Basque the and don’tviolence tobeused start todiscredit rulingthe in Basquethe Country PNV, its partner act with the 183 CEU eTD Collection on, liberty and “lack of liberty in the Basque Country” become the central points ofthe points thecentral become BasqueCountry” inliberty liberty the of “lack andon, sacrificingpeace without for liberty.” it our (Forum of 1998) From Ermua Manifest then for“reach itis motivation to and the tothe “Basqueitself society” is The text directed of exigencies bethe ETA should made. on agreements no and arena parliamentary the outside place take can dialogue political no Second, project.” totalitarian its from benefit and it support who “those and ETA opposition to Basque in were already Country, groups “demandspacifist Basque the forms situation the new of fascism.” This there eventhough first, principles: onafewcore rests thus itself prognosis The situation. strategy should bethe based Basque on the civil Countryintellectuals who form rejectionthe new Forum of Ermua and share its diagnosis of the situation in and of also as the can beseen protagonist Ingeneral, the etc. “we believe,” we see“wereject,” the prognosis said, inbetter necessary. theformsverbs, isnot of pronouns of asinSpanishusage Thus or “whatnominated by hereis name,“we” or, not protagonist Secondly,appears as any only the is to be done”movement. fascistthis against firmness” are not“actingnecessary with to change who are working collaboratingthat with “those who support and give airfascism”to and who problem asis antagonists of andtherearealsoother “deterioration identified democracy” the general In thecoming points their of organizations environment. Batasuna and other ofETA and movement” by a“fascist is made attempt andthis liberties” essential most our and“threaten “seizeisto thedemocracy” an attempt manifest: there the of point first in the identified are field identity antagonist and diagnosis the all, of First present in the manifest. We field1994). canseeall elements et al., audience identity relation (Hunt these to 184 CEU eTD Collection reinforcing its positions lost after the break-up timethePNVwas with same while atthe smaller and wasgetting smaller of vote percentage the EA. The PNV itself, at the same form its in to during 90s, enough Parliament the a government, Basque the seats winingin nationalists.the againstwas close to addition,the mid-80s while the party In also impressedby demonstrationsthe of 1997and July the felt also windsblowingthe It is important to note here apriority. became manifestations also the position of the profitable in terms.electoral Thus, fight “Basque the against in fascism” its various Socialist Party. The Socialiststhe government were its own. The revulsion to violence and inETA could be used in orderthe to oust the PNV from BasqueThis situation was well exploited by ruling party the in Madrid, which made such ideas Country; PNVandits associates). form (the moderate its in thealso but allies), its and (ETA form radical its in only not attacks “fascist” as identified was on peripheralway all the Basque nationalism started losingits democratic credentials and eventually nationalismsor benefitfrom their “totalitarian project” and those who oppose any relation with it. This them forand liberty the and democracy,whomake those treaties with them and support were whoare against and those supporters who arecreated: are fascists andtheir those groups opposing asthetwo work, at logicequivalence of the we see again, Here, totalitarianism. and fascism with the identified becomes appearances moderate in itsand more We can see through this manifestorganization. how the Basque nationalism,pressure of ETA and, in addition to that, the lenience of the nationalist parties towards the both in its radicalRight’s on discourse “Basquethe problem.” Thislack ofliberty is due both to the form 185 CEU eTD Collection reinsertion has not risen and the control of the leadership was not really questioned. really not was leadership the of control the and risen not has reinsertion clear that this policy not achievingitswas goals: number the of “prisoner collective” so-called the of cohesion breaking of motive the with designed was policy this of Initially the organization. However,policy by thethe end members of 1990s itof According tothis issue political anddispersion to the agenda of policy. was the prisoners ETA already are dispersed throughout In There1997 the indications PNVbrought couldsuch that werecertain work. astrategy the prisons and politicalof credit for doing so. Spain and France.persuade to ethical substantial it and gain intheregion end the violence stopkilling, to organization the allow would that strength a as exploited be could ETA, the with complicity moral the thus and affinity ideological of the accusations in the of face the of party the it to preserve its position in the Basqueapproach was needed,Country. the one that could allow the party to play on its strengthsTherefore, and allow what worked as lose. A itdifferent of still terrorism would inthematters parties” a called “constitutionalist weakness so- the with together went it if even that realize PNV the made 1997, July in terrorism of rejection popular increasing time same the at and ETA to explicitly it connecting Izquierda Abertzale and driftingSuch is situation in the finds itselfwhich in Attacked by PNV the 1998. governmentthe away fromArdanza.Plan Testing ground? the Socialists,eradicated. the necessityPNV started the andthus constituted nationalism moderate the on attack the that threat time, sawthe itsto moverapprochement beyond the with previous the agreements so that the ETA terrorism is . The intensity of attacks of the certain circles against the PNV etarras choosing 186 CEU eTD Collection was insufficient. ( insufficient. was plan the that declared which theprisoners,” of “collective the and byBatasuna supported PSOE considering it an error and stupidity. ( bringingvictory to the organization, ( with PPdeclaring the Spanish parties, that plan the ETA and PNVwaslegitimizing the major from not haveit support finally two the This the – rejected did was proposal Lara,exactly prison policy. because of the Ortega keptasahostage time, ETA four prisons of the Basque Country and ten aroundit. Itshould be remembered that at the a proposed plan according which to Basquethe prisoners would be moved backinto the Thus, the(Mees 2003,p.104) PNV bytheparamilitaries.” inof terms de-escalation bringsomeETA measure likely was thus as aconfidence-building and response about to political sphere.Inaddition, “a in asMeeswrites, could shift penal beregardedby policy in also the doso couldpoints gain theto frequent, enditattempts demands towere great a As majorityones. political some and reasons humanitarian the with both done was This PNV. of the Basque citizens was opposed to the dispersion policy and the of the of is)policy cry itselfand theissue was (andstill common rallying were pretty apowerful dispersion against demonstrations the streets, of the more that issue was the before While the government. or remote prison, every suicide of a prisoner servessome to close road the on death every have.as Thus, to are allowed they that meetings min an example of the “repression” of and friends of the prisoners, as some of them have to travel over 4000 kilometers for a20 for serious strainsAt relatives the samethe created (Mees policy this time, 2003, p.103) Izquierda AbertzaleIzquierda El País , 14February 1997; , it moved now , political was “proper” tothe agenda by the El País , 25 May , 25 1997, El País El País , 5March 1997) Still, discussion the , 21February 1997) Neitherwas it El País 7 June 1997) and the 7June1997)and 187 CEU eTD Collection considered that the punishment was disproportionate to the crime. “collaborationthe for withan armed gang”,asentence was1999 revoked astheConstitutional in fines Court high and imprisonment years seven for sentenced were They Alternative.” “Democratic its advocating 84 varieties. and radical both moderate in their nationalists for Basque all itthe was aspace inmore toputitterms, general Or, (Mees2003,p.120) means.” peaceful and democratic by of self-determination infavor Basque between all those encounter andarea of social was seenas“apolitical blocks, but non-nationalist and nationalist between differences in1997 The newHBelected the Council of 1997 created. Directing opportunity to go out of theIn politicaladdition, isolation there seemed andparties. revulsion to be some that indications the eventsstand againsttheSpanish to together canhavesomepoints Basque parties common of thethat Julytwo these ETAthat showed and HB the with and PNV the together brought theissue prisoner the of HB would take an close to the from ideas born the was asitHowever, in Country. forces theBasque major political the asa certain between fordeadlock of the away search out third alsounderstood way was popularized byAnthony andGiddens the British LaborParty. Inthe Basque context,the especially difficulties Leftto overcome its of European shaped thethe attempts that way” “third as the the ideassuch with has clearconnections concept space.” The “third idea the of of the development be the could of possibility this of bestexamples the One is such collaboration actually possible. that thatsuggested signs Finally, were there organization. itselfparty input with the more prone to negotiations and the attempts to find a way out of the impasse that the The entire “old” leadership of the party was imprisoned at the time for showing a video of ETA IzquierdaAbertzale Oldartzen , its orientation was not as much towards overcoming the report and increasing dependence onthearmed andincreasing dependence report 84 appeared to be 188 CEU eTD Collection the struggle against the organization that took place over 30 years, has shown. Also, it placeis over 30years,has shown.Also, took organization that the strugglethe against that were outlined in the text: ETA cannot be defeated by the police ormilitary means, as premises certain bebasedon should of understanding a common creation the Secondly, means. what as phrase that to agreement isnothere but violence, Also, there is an agreementstruggle’” itsand that environmentwould be into integrated democratic the politics.” that there has to be a “dialogued interveningdone that“ETA wouldinto stop politics so-calledthe through ‘armed end” ( solution” ( solution” of the plan are to reach an agreementpress. (Mees 2003,p.111) The main points of planthe following:were the first, thegoals on what isthe to to filtering betheir to due theadvance in known endalready were resultplan the of contents the but of the “dialogued Ajuria Enea, of Pact at themeetingthe of was presented 17March on the 1998 space. It Country and could alsobe seen as a certain testing ground of the positionsin the political attempts to come up withIn such an environment, the a so-calledproject Plan Ardanza was born. It was the first of the for the political Basquenationalism the work. could solution forms of two the of between connection the that example best the was relations industrial violence in the Basquein spherethe front” “nationalist of formed acertain which This promotion appearances. its by common symbolic the promotion started the idea and toHB)accepted related LAB, and PNV the to related (ELA, unions trade nationalist two the when strength conflict. See, http://www.elkarri.org dialogue and agreement”, seeking to contribute withconcrete proposals to the solutionof the Basque searchfor the peaceful political solutionof the Basque conflict. It identifies itself as a “social movement for 85 Elkarri movement The peace Born in the environment of the MVLN in 1992, Elkarri rejected all violence and was dedicated to the salida dialogada ) of violence in the Basque Country and to see what can be 85 was the strongest promoter idea,it was promoter of butgained strongest the this final dialogado final ) of 189 CEU eTD Collection recognition of right to self-determination could be the initial condition for the initiation of initiation the for condition initial the be could self-determination to right of recognition the results.” contents of dialoguethe shouldbe “without initialthe conditions” “without limitsand of An examplequestion” of self-determination orFinally, what the contentsmodel of the dialogueof theis itself givenself-government should revolve in thisaround the respect:issue of “national is the “neither bestparties of the State level. Also, here: for thetheby local herethe bewould Spanishstate The represented actors. political various Basque Basques. Thesebe participants of dialogue the HB should process, thatrole. Theother shouldthe take in participate the not should nature of organization, itself, of the because the ETA peace. announces this ceasefire pronounces only Third, indefinite dialoguestart ceasefirean and wouldwhen the ETA not for some tactical reasons but as a show of commitment to Statute), butshould not take them as impassible ( limits placetake framework of within arrangements(the Constitution, the existing the the should a dialogue Such political representatives. the legitimate butbetween government, the and ETA between agreement the about not is talk the time, same the at and premise was that a political ETA and justify the “to infrontHB their people,”themselves of isneeded.Another own dialogue could only take as incentive”a “political allowing Accordingly, a becouldimagine. push interpreted that place with the cease-fireyears of suffering of and struggle”ETA for no reason. Thus, even a political defeat is difficult toitsees HBwouldvery the as“thirty what renounce expectthat suddenly not to plausible (also, obviously,in relation to Spain) (Plan Ardanza, p.6) a disagreement in the Basque is butthat of Basques, there the will popular authentic representingvanguard, the opinions over what we are and confrontationin which ofthe State-Euskadi,the role of ETA would play the what we want to be supposed is notthe of problem the center the that shouldbe accepted It límites infranqueables ). 190 CEU eTD Collection not as constructora ofBasque the nation, but as a representative of “region-state.”a (see,Ross 1991) giving way 90s to especially the recognition and 80s the in of the change to pluralitystarted of the Basque conception This society identity. Basque and consequentlyof the to representative the PNV’sthe role in it 86 PNVwas the slowly developing during 1990s the The plan was based both on the recognition forces. with political other resonate not the of the situation of Spanish.the Basque In addition, Country coming that from the initiativediscourse of one of theof leadersthe Basques,of the PNV,chains of difference. it But this wasnot the didcase. It built elements on of whichparticular historical had nothingIn tothat offer sense, for thosethen, who Basquepeople. the the wholeof the represent to pretensions seePlan themselves Ardanza would as thefunction democratic by creating includeall here and arenoclearthere protagonists be the antagonists could arguedthat a discourse forces. based iton sense, that In forBasques. the most suitable the models are political what of out that, The only one Country would that helpleft questions answerthe of what Basquethe identity is and coming out ofThe theresults. in main actors political Basque the ofconsensus of the plan is asasearch developed possible the to as processlimitations and conditions previous without dialogue would the of be ETAidea the note to important is also It themselves. Basques the between with theconflict of that its as of conflict the isanew ones significant definition most new. of the One completely are Others Ajuria Enea. of in Pact the established isalso which conflict” the to solution politicalin discourse.Some of “dialoguedthem appearalready previous the texts,e.g. Basque the significantly later shape would that elements certain we cansee In thistext (Plan Ardanza, p.7) nor process, the itcould be a excluded an priori as resulteventual of consensus.” the It was It already mentioned thatfrom itsinception, PNV the ideahad anof the being party-nation andthus 86 and on the lessons from the Northern the from lessons the on and 191 CEU eTD Collection violence and also that the Pact of Ajuria Enea has already outlived its Ajuria days.( Eneahasalready Pactof outlived the violence andalso that in to solution” really interested “dialogued the scene not parties the Spanish were on largest thetwo meant that politicians for thenationalist evenThis more. rejection rose parties the between tensions the and rejected Ardanza was thePlan arguments such With (see, Mees 2003,p.116) is on samelevel. it asifthey the from are put negotiations and are excluded ETA the state the both as and proposal, entire inthe state the of role is no there finally, And ETA. for require modification of the Constitution and the Statute, this would alsomean a victory agreement an search for meant to andthatthis reason was the military means by and be police the defeated surrender idea the Also, cannot that ETA was more which unacceptable. nationalism,” “peace for formula of the with working as proposal the saw the parties these all, of First idea. invalid an democrats.as well thePSOEsoon developedas asetof againstarguments plan the showed itas that Thirdly, ithard openlyattacktheBasque peace PP the Even though proposal, was to nationalism. if the end ofThe toughpolicies were against politically ETA andsoweretheattacks againstprofitable violencenationalism. and terrorism between connection the and violence of end the about ideas would had As own PPits the already, was mentioned actors. political bytheacceptable Spanish be to Plan the for enough not was however, documents, founding the to link This in the Constitution and the Statute. out,” butin so doing stay to within the constitutional framework and the rules established 87 conflict. of solution the the for search in the themselves actors armed the of non-participation the and dialogue for a condition as ceasefire of necessity the established which also peace process Irish On the impact of the Northern Ireland peace process on Plan Ardanza see Mees 2003, p.114. 2003, seeMees Ardanza Plan on process peace Ireland Northern of the impact Onthe 87 Also, the plan tried not only to attract Also, the ETA planit notand only a “way give tried to El País 192 , 5 CEU eTD Collection emphasis author’s) emphasis construct “weidea won’t alone that the to came eventually party isolation, political into Put self-determination. promoting of for the“construction nation,”meaningthe away of and clear a rather asan environment Here,the“thirdspace” ideaas (see,Mees2003,p.134) idea received aguideline. space” “third forHB’s search of anewinits before resulted acceptance mentioned strategy the 1998) position. The 1997 became for Batasuna the“ position. The 1997becamefor Batasuna report notonly givedidnot butactually brought anyfruits, party the ever worstto the the to in therelation used strategies the that clear itmomentwas already the At PNV. the approach itshad alsoto reasons with latter HB. The its contacts intensified and through be the cooperation Country the radicalnationalists could constructed with only failure of the place. between the After HBandthePNVtook the firstcontacts the endthe At1997, Plan of Ardanza, theDeclarationLizarra of andthetruceof ETA PNV came to the idea wasborn. of Lizarra Declaration that the peace this process could by bestarted in nationaliststhe themselves. As a resultof idea this the the Basque then peaceprocess, inthe interested starting level werenot parties state the If violence. elsewherelook incited PNVto the party, from governing the were often heard that nationalism for the possibilitiesstruggle, anti-terrorism peace, issues of the on parties the of disagreements The March 1998) to changecompletely the situation different and to solve readingthe problem ofof the conflict and the disqualifications of Euskal Herria Euskal annus horribilisannus ” (quoted in” (quoted Mees 2003, p.134, .” ( El País , 20September Oldartzen 193 CEU eTD Collection Constitution. ( Constitution. guidelines for thedeputies theobligation toswearof anoath allegiance tothe into toenter the before), 10years thePSEproposed this (work on started reform place.took During thevoting reform the guidelines of of the of BasqueParliamentthe PNV the and Socialists the between break same afinal the time At cooperation. possible 1998(20Septemberthe partiesagree onthe main two 1998)the managedto of points the As a result of 12 secret meetings between the PNV and the HB that took place throughout based, wasoutdated. between the “violent” and the “democrats” ( and “democrats” the “violent” the between distinction the thus and peace inthis bring serve to not did Ajuria Enea of Pact the that created a strong need for peacein order for nationalism survive;to and secondly, the idea and corner a tight into PNV the put that such as nationalism the on party governing approaching the HB. for seeing reasons started PNValso Bothas the 1997, summer the was createdduring that of these reasonsin thesituation possible only was forces political two between these were theencounter Yet, already mentioned: construction. in national partner potential the assault of the also new beingallies. This “lackey the PNVstopped way, the of andbecameSpain” a illegalize needed such.new party desperately the The as notonly but strategies, HB the madeto being certain moves were that some indications in were there was already prison, of entire the around environment also but militants ETA of heads the above only not large looming started terrorism pressured The on all fronts. the tough policies of towards Madridthe government Not only the HB could hardly construct hardly HBcould Not only the El País , 30 June 1998) The PNV refused to vote forvote , 30June this refusedof to 1998)ThePNV reform part Izquierda Abertzale Euskal Herria Euskal violentos y democratas . The ruling committee of of Batasuna ruling. The committee on its own, but it was also ) on which it) on was 194 CEU eTD Collection 89 process. peace possible and construction” “national on the eyes its had already PNV the and PNV the with staying in interested much too not were Socialists The changed. already withthe moderate nationalism (see, determination. In addition, there in asimilarwas situation wasalready when party a sector The the Basque Parliament resolution. votedthe of foracknowledgementagainst the the voted PNV partythe of that the right to fact self-the which was notwithstanding always government, the in favor of seeking consensus 88 in peace facilitated that factors the declaration, tothe According in PlanArdanza. appeared that tothose made weresimilar Reflections solution of Basqueconflict. the the thepeace process Basquethrough lens wasand secondpresented the for hadproposals Irish Northern the of reading the one, first the In parts. two contained document The of Lizarra. Declaration unions and civic organizations the Forum the members was proposed. On Basque 1998, during12 Septembermeeting founding conflict, the of of the forum – representativessimilarities of betweenthe nationalist thesee the to wassupposed which Forum Ireland, creation of a the of Friday agreement, two situations parties, and eventuallylaborThus,inspired by the developments of the Northern Irish conflict andfind the signing of Good ways of solution nationalism. theBasque for some positive results beexpected there could non-violence also to the At this time, it could probably be said that peace became an asset. Only in the situation of if even need definitely partners itwon. couldbemajority,made theparty expectations toreachtheabsolute would thus, The coming planned elections, forautumn the 1998,didnot look too promising; no was leftin the Basque together with EA,a necessarygovernment butwithout majority. With thismove of the Socialists, decidedleavePSE to Basquegovernment. the and, obviously, so did the HB. Because of this seeming agreement between the forces, the The only Spanish-wide party represented at the forum was IU. There were some reasons to think that the PSE would not fulfill its threat and would still participate in 89 El País signed a declaration that was later to receive name of a later to was that signed adeclaration 88 the necessity of an agreement became acute. The PNV , 1July 1998) However, moment, atthe situation the was 195 CEU eTD Collection Garazi%20Accord.pdf 90 reads: scenario, declaration the respecttothefuture word In of Basquepeople. the and global limitedwith “no agendas,” respecting plurality Basqueof the society and the beopen negotiations should These from side). government the but also from ETA, the mean not only (whichmight violence” of absence inall expressions of “permanent the negotiations and open dialogue, with no limiting conditions (like in Ardanza’s plan) and of through be process the is sought, to solution” a“political is accepted, After this Consequently,in the Basque Country as well it should be agreed that: self-determination. to right the of recognition fourth and island; the in traditions existing victory bybothover theadversary and governmentthe the IRA; for all third, respect the achievemilitary to of impossibility the second,acceptance forsolution; search political need to the and of conflict the nature political of acceptance first, were: Ireland Northern criticism of the ideas of the Spanish government. Thirdly, differently from from Ardanza’s the differently Thirdly, government. Spanish the criticism ideasof of the a certain wasalso which ETA, defeat militarily isto nopossibility there Ardanza) that in Plan the of already appeared this it echo (an claimed Secondly, determination). self- to right of recognition and traditions of acceptance as (such parties state the on of the Irish peace process as a model to setup As asantagonist. took document the of Firstall seeherethe state distinguished.we be followed closely, it put certain demandsIn this short but densealso document, the same way as before, several important ideas can be TheEnglishversionof text:Lizarra-Garazi the Accord. 1998in http://www.elkarri.org/en/pdf/Lizarra- sovereignty haveplace. could sovereignty responding traditionsthe to anddesires of citizensthe of achieveEuskal to Herria specific conditions,narrow or but itscenarios will make closed possiblecontain not will an open frameworkagreement where resolution The new formulas be political. necessarily in resolution whichSpainand seeFrance themselves must implicated.Its The Basque confrontation is an historical conflict of political origins and nature, 90 196 CEU eTD Collection territoriality, political agency and sovereignty, the solution of the conflict implies conflict the of solution the sovereignty, and agency political territoriality, main be of interpretation.in questions havingdiscussed are to mind that the However, in leavefreedom limitations” the scenarios” and “no theidea dialogue “open process– of would of clearly out is come this it defined what documents: not of that similar to other Basque nationalist organizations with Elkarri andAnd the IUin is addition. the prognosis in the text: the spaceforsignatures visible inthe clearly are most protagonists the Third, of the expressions of this element of historical discourse. see one Herewe unit. political one to belong should three provinces the i.e. that 7=1, the III, imaginary Basque the since its based inception was strongly political idea on the of dissatisfaction political with existing the arrangements. Asitwas in discussed Chapter have to questionssee at a discussion table, it is clear essential tothe seebeing thatThese themselvesthe essence. states conflict’s of the Spain constitute and Francethat issues” would “fundamental “territoriality, implicatedclaims it that in plan Ardanza’s the with similarities certain has also itself definition Its “historical roots.” with conflict is here of political that appears that adiagnosis Secondly, in who the should and states two the between conflict unresolved peace make process. usual the makingittone, to closer the decision,for theirhereidentity, thementioning of andFranceSpain givesthesaying a different It is and is at a aBasquesearch there root of a conflict which Basques, as aconflictbetween the also political an provided be to couldstatement there some idea Ardanza’s resonance situation the the of echo sovereignty” ofplan, there is a mentionto be thehere of the Spanish and French states. Even though in the Izquierda AbertzaleIzquierda Euskal Herria ’s arguments of the existence of an . 197 CEU eTD Collection forces saw that the institutions imposed on the Basque territories by the two states were states two by the territories Basque the on imposed institutions the sawthat forces society. theBasque more political The itonly divisions within was outdated, created “autonomism” of idea the that realized forces and political the started has phase” political Herria decision, ETA gives its reading of the situation. According to the organization, the its long announcingthe communiqué ceasefire.In anindefinite organization announced armed Declaration, the Lizarra signingof four the days here,after facts Stayingthe with proposal. In some interpretations it was even the one which promoted the process. of Lizarra in development the implicated also was ETA in process, the participate leastparamilitaries orat by approved actively not eventhoughitthem, thus, did by the imposed directly wereeither tactics and strategies the about political decisions inIRA, the BasqueCountry independencehas almost HB the no from and allthe ETA organization. (see,for example, Ortiz 1999) Contrary to the relation of Sinn Fein with the Northern in situation between the difference the of example asan well as Country, Basque the IrelandHB and the PNV. It isand often mentioned inas oneETA was not obliviousof of whatthe was going onbehind the principalclosed doors Euskadiin the offices of the obstacles to the peace place.” take could sovereignty in that forthe theHB Basqueis decisions over its future. Motivationtotally to respond to this call would be that itcitizens gives a chance in the “have aword” hasto which society, is Basque the text of the audience Finally, the todependent create state. idea advance the independent of an that framework on significantthe inarmed which changetheir desiresof the existing “to achieve political arrangements and could even be seen to is faced with a unique opportunity to advance towards sovereignty,“new advance a towards is as opportunity to facedwith a unique Euskal 198 CEU eTD Collection the political forces of the Basque Country took a wrong approach to the issue from issuefrom the the to approach took awrong Country Basque ofthe forces political the of two different autonomies that of the Basque Country with creation the inthe Basques moreinternalcreate managed divisions to Spanish state and of Navarre. Finally, some of the ofFranco, death the after addition, In states.” powerful of two domination under the diagnosis is in “the situation that which peopleour liveis –“Euskal grave” is Herria The tense. is still rather relation the whom butwith antagonists, the to converted are not that nationalists moderate other and ELA the EA, the PNV, the indicated: There is also another set of antagonists, whichBasques. most Spanishthe the others: the of and Frenchstates are oppressing enemies of the projectin asin this same are the communiqué presented antagonists the First, and audiences. of establish antagonists, protagonists WhatETA communiqué with this did wasalso clear to Euskal Communiqué 1998) Herria” would beacceptable. (ETA announcingtruce. of “enemies the with agreements no thus, behaving, are forces nationalist the how also but would ETA check, the that side is it state only the not addition, In intact. weapons activeit andthe itswould commandos keepingFrance sothat standprocess, guardof the of and Spain states stancesof the the by “preoccupied” was organization situation. The as euphoric this new not ofabout were some ETA communiqué the However, parts ceasefire. declare the this toadvance newconsensushelp and efforts tothesovereignty, decided the ETA to andself-determination”strengthen tosolve valuesin as the order conflict.Thus, to the “territoriality of by “all democrats” the acceptance basedonthe spacewas political the visible in thatwas Thebe newconsensus created. andnew ones neededto obsolete now Euskal Herria Euskal that is 199 CEU eTD Collection 2004, p.152). AznarMinister showeda“cautious belief” in the problem solving of (Tusell terrorism four negotiationsfavorably Basqueswere disposed towards with HB the and evenPrime of threeout wasgreat, truce the about euphoria the violence, the of leadout would really organization theintentions situation the andthatthe were some whodoubted of people The “poisonous” of notwithstanding points even announcementthe and though there sovereignty. the advance forare called to Country that Basque of the isparties audience thethe political Finally, and self-determination.” “territoriality accept the principles of is it necessary to in ademocracy create to in order that and is political conflict that realize will antagonists the when come will the solution arereiterated: Alternative Democratic such of earlierthe key as the Therefore, points documents, Basque-speaking.” end result of the solution to the problemsis rather simple: “Euskal Herria united, free and which westand vision general of would bethat sovereignty.” should The of what bethe in political that the frontindependence” of phase sure make and“weshouldstep towards identifiedin a followingmanner: The areevents opening apossibility “make to a decisive and stay on the road of sovereignty, not that of a “blind autonomism.” The prognosis is fulfill theirparties duties nationalist other well the how theprocess and keep observing development of the argument.presents in its communiqué. Theirfight for independence takesan important place in the ETA itself also Herria Euskal appears as a protagonist now “understood sterilitythe blindness and of divisivethis autonomism.” here, as it will afterparties thetransition. These use created “legal framework” tryingthe to beginning, or “the people” are the main protagonists of the imaginary scene that ETA that imaginary scene of the main “thepeople”protagonists arethe or Euskal Herria Euskal 200 , CEU eTD Collection significant. ( were construction” “national of the in direction taken the steps asthe ceasefire, the HB rose the most, but the PP also rose significantly. 20.13%, the HB now the EH received 17.91 and the PSE 17.6%. In comparisonwith the previous elections, 92 Blanco, ( place release the 1997for Miguel Ángel took could of inBilbaoof that rival ones the a forBasque inauguration the demonstration prisoners of newgovernment, week after the perspectives forof final bright. peace appeared On9 justachievement of January 1999, a grow andthe forces seemedto nationalist between lasted, thecooperation While truce the to End oftruce the 2001elections thenewgovernment. for guidelines Lizarrabecamethe articles of whose aim is to destroy Euskal Herria.” ( February. ( it Assembly (Udalbiltza)municipalities of and was established on 6 of Basque the to the advancement of sovereignty of sovereignty of advancement the to keep issued their nationalistparties to ETA urged the commitment which acommuniqué votes of the HB. At the time of difficultnegotiations for the forming of the government, therefore, the PNV formed minoritya government acceding powerto with the help of the fruit, negotiationsbut these negotiations no gave with PNV started socialiststhe votes from the PNV, the PP also went up, with PSE going down. 91 The (Tusell HB 2004, p.153). started fronts” ofthe “politics the that however, of1998showed, The coming elections The PNV received 28.01% of vote, the EA remaining at the 5.68%, the PP became the second force with At the time the party was calling itself EH – El País El País El País , 10 January 1999) two weeks later the PNV accepted the idea of the , 25 January 1999) ETA decided to announce that itannounce prolongs that to the , 25January 1999) ETA decided , 25February 1999) 91 has increased significantly its share, taking some of the Euskal Herria Euskal Herritarrok Euskal El País , 6November 1998)And,in fact, the and to “break agreements with those – Basque People. –Basque 92 After the elections, the 201 CEU eTD Collection of nation construction. ( construction. nation of process “guarding” the focused on occasions, only other to and, 1999) October contrary those negotiations (see, negotiations those initself in showed Spanish organization the uninterested Zurich, completely government the time with atthe contacts were there though Even self-determination. the towards keep their commitment to duringthe construction the time of ceasefire of the ETA Basque in In most addition, communiquésviolence.” its (Mees2003,p.146) of numerous written was warning nation the PNVand and to otherkeep nationalistadvancingpolitical and processasifitsingredient truce only its wastheaim was riddance only of parties to “the new it talked about that party the criticizing PNV tothe a letter sent ETA ceasefire, the itannounced after However, accept reservation. the to seemed ETA moment the At 2003, p.145) required this solution, agreements with parties other could in beborne mind.” (Mees moment, couldalways not be heededand “’if thus defensethe of Basquethe nation’ paramilitaries that this break with the state-level parties was a long-term goal that, at the the told EA the PNVand one: the last the concerning especially reservations, with certain but commitments, demanded these that document the signed parties Herria work towards the dissolution of existing ones; to work together with the friends of announcing endthe of truce in http://elkarri.org/pdf/comunicado_ETA_fin_tregua.pdf 93 essential goals: to create new institutions three assume EAto PNVandthe the demanded ETA agreement, Lizarra the of signing to represent all the parts of the favorably Already everythingbefore not thepeaceprocess. for worked However, This was expressed by ETA in its communiqué announcing the end of the truce. See, ETA communiqué ; and to end all cooperation with its enemies (e.g. the PP and the PSOE). El País El País 27August 1999, , 31Augustitself 1999)The government made El País , 28August1999, Euskal Herria Euskal El País 93 Euskal Both and , 25 202 CEU eTD Collection character When its processof up the utopian proposalsof a rather “national construction.” itsspeed increased pressure27 August1999) the organization nationalistthe block on to 1999, ( inAugust collapsed completely with government the After meetings the totally to the division between the two blocks now denominated “the constitutionalists” “the denominated now blocks two the between division the to totally in between “the andapparent gave 1997:thedivision the way violent” “the democrats” was already becoming The end that dynamics truceopened andthe the of enforced of truce (ETA construction end of context.” communiqué the announcing a newjuridico-political “adhering statutory the to of not totheinitiativesroute Moncloa and directed towards the on the nationalistDecember 1999. In the text, the organization put all the blamefor the end of the ceasefire announced initsit communiquéits thatwould activities restart starting from 3 the of parties, which apparently were sticking to the autonomist route, see parts, mediatebetween thetwo anylonger to this, refused press(after to the Bishop the asa for themeetingsmediator Uriarte name andleaking 1999) of October the Bishop the of 25 on Peñalva González (Belén negotiations in the government the of interlocutors the have an acceptance of the public. the of acceptance an have PNV had no legal grounds whatsoeverto do so and also because there was no chance forsuch Obviously, aproposalside). to French the and Spanish the on the (both PNV could territories Basque the all notin accept Parliament all-Basque the such a proposal, the success of which was unimaginable94 because the Arizkuren, Javier meetings (José imprisoningand hand, members other the on ETA prepared the Zurich some of the who BasqueCountry, the towards move of prisoners the a certain prison allowing policies, the negotiate to accepting hand, the on one organization, the passes towards contradictory There was ademand to break withall the institutional arrangements and to attempt to call forelections to El País ) 94 (Mees 2003, p.152) were not accepted, ETA decided to end the truce andendaccepted, not truce ETAdecided the were to (Mees2003,p.152) , 25October 1999). Kantauri was detained on 9 March 1999) or were even March 1999)or wasdetained on9 El País 203 CEU eTD Collection talk about terrorism and vice versa. vice and terrorism talk about a certainfrom nationalismachieved, now on,thetalk presupposes buton the extentto fully never is two the of identification complete The nationalism. and terrorism between is into attemptmetonymic Here the sliding. madetoforceminds the connection the guilty ones for continuing the violence break and butasituationthe of truce, of What we see here especially in the discourse of the PP is not a simple attempt to find the support theviolent.” ( who those with aims the “sharing is party the init, by remaining because Lizarra, the oxygen to ETA.” ( block “thesuch, because political isbasedgives Pactof Estella onwhich nationalist the as block” “nationalist of the defeat the only after come can of ETA defeat thatthe then and now every reiterating was Oreja Mayor Jaime Interior the of minister the example, For anti-nationalism. the to related was anti-terrorism the away, such In needed. constantly pointedwas and its propositions and agreement Lizarra for the to discredit meant complete when “the proof” of allfor toviolenceparties thestate Return The nationalistparties wereon here. a defensive nationalist being place. became common of betrayal accusations opponents; of the discrediting related to violence majorities;sufficient of discussion wasimportance questionsof the gave way to the mutual Parliament and government) could not function, because neither of the blocks could reach institutions (starting from afewquite municipalities, finishing with Basquethe –the p.155) democracy” (Mees2003, of therestoration since crisis “itssuffered deepest between which appeared to be wider than before. As a result, the Basque political system gap the blocks, of these Whatwas newtheimpermeability nationalists.” and “the El País El País , 15 June 2000) For the PSOE, the PNV should just PSOE,the the PNVshould For renounce , 15June2000) , 10December 2000) 204 CEU eTD Collection previous period, bringing them to their logical conclusion (or the most radical form) in form) campaignthe of 2001 Autonomy elections. radical most the (or conclusion logical their to them bringing period, previous changing crystallizing and itself aroundthenew themesthatwerebeing inthe developed was blocks Therhetoricboth political 13 May of was markedby clashes. 2001, greatest and the periodbetween the start of 2000 and the elections to the Basque Parliament of the start Thus, the uptheof newmillenniumbrought highesttensions between the blocks the showed itself interested in maintaining the “politics of the blocks.” coming under fierce attack from the side of the PP, ( from of PP, side the the attack fierce coming under back tothe previous arrangements andestablish to certain agreements with the PNV were from the PP. The attempts of the Thesocialists same topressure ease the tension that in ETAthe countryseemed and toto go be exercising on the PNV, the PSOE received nationalism. Basque radical the within hegemony the for struggle the in means ofthe one as here interpreted the gapespecially and blocks betweenthe fortifying ones, them. Spanish the and parties Also nationalist the in between ties the more even ETA tried to drag the PNV and the EA into its strategy. It could be argued that this act served to severe between the two blocks as wide as possible. (see, e.g. attempttokeepthe gap was theideas proposing organization an to takeon and thatthe PNV the pressuretowards be of one the to seemed of ceasefire breakdown the after ETA of strategy the general, In EA. the and PNV the against accusations of avalanche another 95 place negotiations thatthe took truce, with the PNVbefore andduring the To addthefuel in situation,to the Mayof leaked concerning 2000, ETA the documents See El País , 8 May the analysis, 8May 2000. In provided itis here, claimed that by these providing documents El País , 7 , May 2000, thedisclosure documents of the on thepartof ETA is El País El País , 5June 2000) , 3 March 2000) which , 3March also2000) which 95 forcing 205 CEU eTD Collection antinationalist Theyears constructions. 2000-2001saw thefortification of discoursethis victory of the party allowed it togovern on its own, it got back to the previous new the majorityin after electionsabsolute 2000 whenthesound theof Parliament, an had party the that support their through only was it because nationalists, peripheral levels. While in the firstnationalisms legislature as the of major The partAznar, was this of based onthehistorical discourse on peripheral the discourse Spanish enemies the PP couldof Spain. notdistinctions, without be any However,shades. too vocal it aboutreached themorebased theharsher blackandwhite became even the evenon discourse and rather unprecedentedthe general disillusionmentsign of the reaction againstnationalism as such.After the break down of the truce, amidst because were seenbythePPasa Blanco Ángel thedeath Miguel against of andlateron release ofthe for themobilizations massive the already mentioned, return was itAs discourse. antinationalist to violence,stronger and stronger adopting former the with PNV the and PP the between relations the the attacks on theendto violence. (seeTusell2004)At samethe time, was there a gradual deterioration of PNV government,the including Prime the Aznar, Minister seemed truce give to certain hopes Minister of Interior Jaime Mayor Oreja pronounced that it wasa trap-truce, for the rest of was achieved and there truce the declaration the After all,with agenda. of the much inthe center wasnot Lizarra were hopes thatLizarra the end with ofsuspicion. the organization parties at looked Declaration the “constitutionalist” of From so-called the However, beginning the during is thenear. time whenOnly“constitutionalist” front the thetruce of ETA was in placeMeanings ofLizarra1. Radicalization ofthe PP discoursethe andappropriation of 206 CEU eTD Collection organization and consequently, also “violent.” Here the distinction between between the “violent.” distinction Here the also andconsequently, organization goals as ETA, therefore, thinking went, the PNV is also on the same ground as the armed the same ground as the former. WithIt made the possible Lizarra, to establish the PNV connectionshowed that between it hasETA theand thesame PNV, to put the latter on role. Meeswrites: AsLudger important very In all these demonizations and accusations the Declaration of Lizarra seemed to play a Serbia and the leader of the PNV Arzalluz to Milosevic. ( himself Euskadi compared to Aznar 1933.” (Tusell ThePrime Minister 2004, p.237) Nazis and claimed that the PNV was “ready followto the path of the German Right of the PNV with all kinds of dictators aswas “somecommonplace. sort Oneof writerre-edition compareddemonized –for example, some of the journalists saw in their the book the leaderof of the PNVEH theto the Beelzebub.”and (Tusellthe embodiments 2004, p.237)On a level of discourse, thereComparison was a clear attemptlatter. the on to makeof concentrated connectionswas moment the at betweenthe attention the all of the PNVBasque, the as thegovernment worst evils new for the distasteful asmuch was in nationalism Catalan eventhough but, commonplace, the history.For reason, was nationalist of 2000) discrediting parties October majorthat the The PNV came to be purely 2000 has become to neutralize nationalisms. (see, e.g. neutralize nationalisms. (see, 2000 hasbecome to The major (and unhidden) aim of PPgovernmentthe when it assumed poweranew in the served as a best example and a perfect metaphor for the connection of this “axis of evil.” and around its theidentification consolidation of ETA Lizarrawith PNVinthe which Basques.non-nationalist (Mees 2003, p.163) against holocaust nationalist the or cleansing ethnic terrorism, to etymological an become has partout ‘Lizarra’ parties, constitutionalist the For for the description of nationalistimperialism, the selling-out of democracy El País El País , 1 May , 1May 2000; , 3May 2001) El País passé- , 30 207 CEU eTD Collection the PNV signed the LizarraDeclaration. PNVsigned the the ( dead. already the terrorists, gives “political coverage”ETA to and resurrected the organization that was for ground” serves asa“breeding latter becausebut the PNV, alsothe be defeated, to has when the “nationalist front” isfront” ( neutralized. when “nationalist the For example, Jaime Mayor Oreja claimed that the counter-terrorist politics can only work antinationalism. to wasalsoconnected antiterrorism mentioned, was as itIn such away, spokesmen of terrorism” (Vidal-Folch the and nationalism democratic the of alliance circumstantial a “ruthless but kind, supportive intellectuals, Lizarra cametosignify not apeace proposal anythingor of a ( chose “violent.” of side the the “democrats” insteadthe of with i.e.being sides,” changed June 2000,emphasisis mine)And “it nopossibility there to talk party because with the it if even ETA of ends the with itself “identifies Basquegovernment the that emphasized Minister the Prime occasion another At Euskadi since the move on the sovereignist path of the pact of Lizarra” ( Lizarra” of pact the of path sovereignist the on move since the Euskadi in happened that wrongs the “all for responsible was PNV the example, for Aznar, For 2001), that is,newincluding strengthening2001), that ETAoffensive, of the ends, same the share nationalists the All nationalism. and violence between aparadigmaticconnection created Lizarra of rejection aims. be to has also there violent, the against democrats the of side the on one put to enough not is means violent of rejection the that away in such is transformed it but present, still and violent waspresent the from isthat democrats the inception of Ajuria Eneapact the El País , 20 May 2000) In such a way, in the interpretations of the state parties andin the interpretations of state the , 20May2000)Insuchaway, the El País , 2 September 2000; 22 January All , 2September happenedbecause 2000; 2000) this 22 January , 2001) El País El says , 15 June 2000) It is not only ETA that not to share the means.”share ( the to not ergo , all the nationalists are violent. kale borroka kale El País and such. and El País , 12 May 208 , 9 CEU eTD Collection the time, with violence constantly dividing the society into at least two parts. The Civil The parts. two least at into society the dividing constantly violence with time, the situation “Wara warframe. Basqueframe” in through nothing Country new the was at a inviteblocks enough wasstrong between of theThe tension description as to two the of is IV,hereof connection. example victim such usage Chapter another dealing with connections part inthe equivalence moral chains of establish the PPto the served victim-connection between discourse on violence We 2001) already Royo, saw how asademocraticconsequence, the demand.” (Pérez and discourse on theGovernmenthas presented an partisan imperative strategy exclusively as amoral and,in nation in campaign the Thisduring morally its peak strategy reached right. position PPas representedby the of the Basque eviland Basquenationalism,politicalthe as ethically the in casethat of options, this electionsThis way, theof PPthe was( occasion. at one proclaimed Minister attempting2001, to where,linkattempts tofindlegitimatesuch “only servethecriminals,” a ground to asthe Prime ethics withas politicsPérezmiddlevictims andnoThe andinbetween. thosewhoarewith assassins the ground and Royo to show are with who those are there some assassins, the writes, and victims are there wasthat statements of the “thewere also used in orderwas becoming more andmore When interpreting important. Lizarra, as victimswell, to discredit the Basquevoice their and PP sphereof the influence ideological the to belong victim organizations nationalists. One victimsthe and this position gained more and more importance overtime. Most of the of the more common of a representative as itself presenting started PP The victims. of position the discourse: play role important appeared andwas intheconstruction political of an thiselement to In addition, as a result of the mobilizations of July 1997, another elementin the discourse El País , 2September 2000) 209 CEU eTD Collection Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa the “traitor provinces” “traitor justlike Bizkaia andGipuzkoathe War.( during theCivil Anasagasti be his consequentwith to Minister and actions Prime urged the declare Iñaki Parliament in the PNV speakerof the the highestpoints, were reaching year 2000 influencing politics. For example, when the clashes between the PP and the PNVin the War, times, aswasmentioned provided numerous aparadigmatic warframe which kept mostimportance. Even the timid cheers on the side of the Socialists for the change within having the were that PP the of interpretations the itand was by PP the was appropriated front” “constitutionalist The campaign. their not was it in general, but PP, the with forces combining views even uneasinessof or theirexpressed different of leaders PSOE the differnot of Some PP.(Tusellthe electoral p.237) the from of did campaign that 2004, with PPwith the purpose the of andpushing the PNVout of power consequently its made Basque thePSE During Parliament, analliance thecampaignof to elections the assaults. such to time to time from up summed also Socialists nationalism, Basque it was the one which was benefitingfrom the employment of the harsh attacks against the and Right in the present more were accusations and denominations these all though Even or one is with ETA. PP the by defended as forms current their in Constitution the and Statute the is with one either positions: two the to subordinated is Everything means. all by another one subdue be both mutually morallyare presentingexclusive, positionsgrounded attempting and to sides like appeared to two in Again,frame any chainthese a typical or war equivalental “constitutionalists.” and “nationalists” of denominations in the metaphorized were which chains, equivalental clear-cut making by discourse into woven were divisions these Later April 2000) El País , 26 210 CEU eTD Collection nationalism,” “family of the of schism within one a result nationalism, of is aspect one ETA just family if isas ETA, inETA the trouble, PNVis always itgiving hand and it a pulling up. same the to belongs it because behaves, it way the behaves PNV The family. the of myth also gave more force becauseLizarra though, is rather understandable, to partners” “political the This betrayal of another myth of the andrelations human rights principles. between ETAsignify betrayal. Betrayal andof the partners, but even more so, betrayal of all the the democratic PNV: the came“Spanish” Lizarra to parties, two the much against so which wasnow directed violence, ofitandof the return break the butespeciallyafter Even thetruce, during organizations. See, for example, for See, organizations. 96 in RosaDíez with Parliament a debate EA leader: European Socialists and went the PNVbetrayed the Lizarra, the With betrayal. the myths of Declaration: of the the together with ETA.was tobecome one Lizarra that meanings of the of has established one The PSE,though, For example, representativenationalism as such, the Socialist “middle position” was not avery viable option. of the on the governingby the party’s attacks and,on level,anda political assassinations PSE in the bothwas by voice.its bombs promoted Inthe highlypolarized that environmentETA’s raises it about what and when about careful be should who brother little a of position the in leftwas often PSOE party the and on of ruling the side the nottolerated PNVwere the There are quite a few examples of using the “nationalist family” metaphor to talk about all the nationalist ( go with the people insultwho us, with those people who arein favor of killing us. wine with those of HB.When our councilors go out of theirhouses protected, you drink youto with went bodyguards,leaving our were BasqueParliament] [the by you.youAt time when we We cheatedon betrayed … feltus. the We felt that El País , 2May 2001) 96 but to paraphrase the saying, “a family is is butparaphrase“a family saying,therefore, afamily family,”to the El País , 15April 2001. 211 CEU eTD Collection attacks against this force also became frequent. became also force this against attacks force and with state-level G the for blows their reserving members, its attack not did ETA created, being was force police this when against the PNV, the party had to reconsider its position both towards partyhadits HBand PNV,the the the against bothtowards position toreconsider after not among each only shouts organization,attack butalso against the the ETA autonomous Parliament(partially in and March in2000, then definitely 2000), September together with his ertzaina condemn the assassination of a socialist deputy of the Basque Parliament Fernando Buesa 98 organization. wining next elections because of the ETA behaviorand that itwas seenas a“family member” of the stay in powerand without itssupport it was ina minority in theParliament and with poorprospects of 97 democracy.”p.155) 2003, to commitment (Mees manifest anew radicals neededthe theirconvinced and to opportunity time only that beginning of 2000 it only suspended the with the EH,“aspact if he[the murder inthe first the of ETA Therefore, evenafter is up of agreements permanent. the break the see that to be unable seemed to It Lizarra. with the was created that discourse seriously thinkwas becoming in disinterested and process the pushingitto adirection nobody that could ETA that and last of not may truce the that taking,indications had it that fact the Notwithstanding the PNV Meanings ofLizarra 2.Search fornewdiscourse inthe PNV seemed to be unable sons.” “lost actions of of the because “family” to move from problemthe hereis theusage has that of it, beenmade exclude trying to entire the the lineunfittingfor denominating the PNVand ETA and relationshipthe between but two, the of family isof metaphorthe say completely not the that is to This nationalism. todefeathas PNVhelpsthe ETA and more for therefore, the radicallydefeat minded, to terrorism one A cynical interpretation could be thatthe PNV did not want to break with the HB because wantedit to Ertzaintza uardia Civil is the Basque autonomous police; Ertzaintza and other forces. However, in the mid-nineties, with the becoming more and more involved in the counter-terrorism operations, the operations, counter-terrorism the in involved more and more becoming 98 bodyguard also February 2000),but (22 leave decided to the ertziana isa memberof policethat force. Inthe beginning, 97 When Batasuna did not only fail to Ajuria Enea lehendakari agreement in agreement ] was 212 CEU eTD Collection national project together. ETA summed itself up to these hopes declaring that: “we have “we that: declaring hopes these to up itself summed ETA together. project national their create and their differences could overcome Basques the an that became example (Zubero“founding1998) Itthus Martínezand event.” asymbolic Montoya1999,p.109) in quoted of (Letamendia, Basquenational “cornerstone construction” future the reconstruida (“ home/house” meant a“reconstructed Lizarra environment Basquenationalist the In meaning. symbolic strong a had it strategy, political different a only not nationalists In addition,depend on the ETA keepingLizarra its word. agreementsovereignty, option. And the usefulness and possibility to implement this option did meantabandoned the ambiguity historically itson which was discourse based for one, and opted both for the party the get involved. 154-155), Tusell notreally to want PSEdidbutthe EH, PNV and forand in fact the best possibility formanyit seemed a government with the PSE, the PNV and the other socialistsBasque (after elections of 1998, the PNV still wanted to have a coalition with the PSOE thinking, but with theleave arms of instead couldstarting usingthemagain. be said It thatthiswas a wishful signing of Lizarra agreement,belief that ETA a on withwas discourse its based serious party the happen, well themight this that severinginindications had it though its commitment of ties to the withpeace processtheThe break of the truceand by ETA was eventuallyexperienced by the PNV as a dislocative will event. Even organization.the “constitutionalists” as invention an by in ETA, which PNVwasthe playing the game of bythe seen already was Lizarra this point, At agreement. Lizarra the towards ” see, Martínez Montoya 1999; Sáez de la Fuente Aldama 2004), it was a casa 213 CEU eTD Collection nothing else but a peace proposal.” See, proposal.” apeace but else nothing 99 meaning. no additional with peace proposal framework.” Even if there were voices to the contrary, Lizarra definitely was nota simple decision “Basque in the violence ondialogue relying and without lives happily together, everyone house”where abandon of a“reconstructed vision the to painful PNVitthe was Having inmind thissymbolic of meaning act, the itis difficult not understand to why for wholesome. in making it territorially territories a common these project, also signingincorporated The intogether. declaration the of French BasqueCountry the whereBasque andwas thefirstbecause this all unity last the came Spanish provinces the the symbolized still meeting this Cortes, Spanish bythe rejected waslater adopted Basque provinces Navarre) participated(including and even Statute the they though Statute of Estella. In this assembly the representatives mostof of the municipalities in the of ahostLizarra of all, Assembly the was Estella in1931,whichgavebirth of the to First meaning. hada symbolic clear places these selection of la 1999)The Sainz Granja Pied-de-Port, or Donibane-Garazi,in Basque, didescape not the eye of the observers. (De Jean- Saintlater on the and in itwas signed a Lizarra-Estella fact the that In addition, isolated house and in ruins, amaterial for demolition” ( “an is nationalism Basquethe that told Aznaronce for example, by it. Thus, presented by show ideashere disdain the politicalonly forces aswell,to to overlooked other the wasnot of for house of theBasquenationalism metaphor the the The importance own home the way we want it.” (ETA communiqué announcing truce) to demonstrate them that we have the necessity, right, will and ability to organize our The leader of the PNV Arzalluz once told that “to Lizarra one neither enters nor leaves, because it is it because leaves, nor enters neither one Lizarra “to that told once Arzalluz PNV of the leader The El País , 19 June 2000. 99 A dream national“Basque and A of the dream unity El País , 18March 2001) 214 CEU eTD Collection at all opportune for such declarations. More on the situation see, situation the on More declarations. such for opportune all at from the side of the “constitutionalist” parties that the PNV was suffering at the time, the moment was not incommon with ETA were lateron contested by the other speakers of the party. Having in mind the attacks 101 second by the official speaker of the party Joseba Egibar. See, 100 for moment. the “congealed” is implementation their but force,” in still are Lizarra of “objectives the that said that voices were On hand,there other the made it andobsolete. Lizarra” of “murdered ETA to deal with the situation. On the one hand, there were those who declared that the attacks reality as ever, were notcoming easily and therewere clashes within the party about how The solutions of what to do with interpretation than possiblethe political gains. this vision, when it becamein its important more even PNVwas the of creation the to clearalmost back went home” that that it is as far from Mallorca.” A statement which also shocked the Spanish political elite. the in“Spanish the independent Basque Country will as betreated forexample,now, in Germans xenophobe racist.( and a of aname him deserved statement This Country. Basque the in Rh negative the of prevalence higher a is there that mentioned he interview one in example, For language. correct” “politically properly the using The leader of the party was already notorious for making statements that would put the PNV in trouble, not party’sthe new program, which reconfirmed the PNV’sadherence totheidea of self- put into was also position pro-sovereignty and tothe agreement ideas of Lizarra the basic announcement of in endof the truce, the beginningthe line of 2000, this keeping tothe of was beto still referred toorforgotten,interred, put aside. On the onehand, right after the it overwhether itself, werediffering meaningthere opinions the of therefore, declaration of interpretations different were PNV there the within not? Even deador was Lizarra So the Lizarraagreement. keeping alive of necessity the indicating again case), PNV’s in the (non-violent strategies different but goals, in hadsimilar ETA, common with PNVhadthe alot well,declared that later too last years of the presidency of the party did not really seem to use his diplomatic skills The statements of Arzalluz (made during the interview for Der Spiegel) on the PNV having something having PNV on the Spiegel) Der for interview the during (made ofArzalluz statements The Thefirst ofopinionwas expressed PNV’s by the speaker atthe SpanishCortes Iñaki Anasagasti, the El País , 5November 2000). At the mentioned above interview also he claimed that 100 The then-leader of the PNV, Xabier Arzalluz, who in his 101 El País El País , 14 August, 14 2000. , 17 November2000. 215 CEU eTD Collection determination, but through peaceful means.( butthrough determination, to abandon itswouldmake life extremely fordifficult moderate the nationalists, trying push to party the democratic ina way such after the endthat its truce of attacks the it arranged alsobut PNV, the position to duringthetruce itscommuniqués all “armedthe notonly organization,”directed ETA and to optprojects canfor be discredited by the presencepolitical thethe how of violence.clearly showed that Now to the PNVreaction the sharedand radicalviolence a to goal return with ETA’s things. implementation complicating wasseriously violence presencebut of the tint, had asovereignist also Declaration PNV thatthe with Catalansigned in CiU 1998together and Galician BNG of its EA wasgovernmentas openly was theCatalanpro-independent, ERC. The Barcelona aliensomething not was sovereignty for Bid position. party’s the forreinterpret to necessity the the Spanishmeant secondone The ignored and political theviolence the because it keptto project. politicalsustain to was moreand difficult aswas mentioned, already though, The firstone, Lizarra. PNV’s the mark towards interpretationsconflictingposition would These two space,goals. similar) after didall, not seem to bethe willing in wasnopeace andwas definitely dead. There taken agreement this ETA Lizarra sense, PNV’s at all to give is itWhen in forms of violence.” of all “absence be peaceful had constructed to and also uppartner its own personal home home,” this “Basque the of of indicatedconstruction astart that only a declaration strugglein the for the impositions.Basque(maybe On another hand, Lizarra was also connected to the peace process,it was not the from be free house” which would construct the“Basque to attemptmeant the Lizarra El País , 14January 2000) Inthissense, 216 CEU eTD Collection contest of two candidates: himself and the BasquePP leader Jaime Mayor Oreja who was proposals.” In (Meesheaddition, 2003,p.161) turned the competition intoelectoral a against democrats terrorism triedbut practice to itby forward putting concrete a publicimage of an honest person whowouldnot only talk unity the about of the amidst the calumnies and attacks from all the sides. In such a way, he “managed createto a moderate keep tone to managed to Ibarretxe theLehendakari and especially The party wasoffered. forvictims the and support timecompassion same and atthe longer no not any which organization hasand represent project certainly does political as an itself was shown ETA “the democrats.” andthe violent of division the back to Batasuna will be acceptedaslong not asitdenouncedoes violencein such a way going in itself,as something beto strived for atall costs. It was declared clearly that no votes of albeit a significant one, was that the idea of national unity was already not seen as a good The only document. thusof keepingmodification Lizarra basicideas the respected, the is anysolution to the conflict; and that anydecision by taken be Basques shouldthe there if dialogue political be a to has there that rights; human defend would and violence ititrejects was alwayssaying: that thePNVsaidwhat Here, andby PPgovernment. the presented itself as an island of moderation in the sea of hysteria created both PNV the by werecalled, elections new and the dissolved was Parliament ETA Basque After the some radical in change but things, seeing alterationthe through of language the and tone. Thus, party the had find to its way from association.this The solution came not through enough. and PNVseemed ETA plausible the between making were parties “constitutionalist” the that connection the likethis, program. Seen 217 CEU eTD Collection produce more ( tension. produce to PSOE the with count not should it that and defeat that of lessons the learn should PP the declaredleader of PSOE that the loss the in elections the the after Already politics. much the fluteplaying of to searching PPandthe itsfor own started way in the Basque Now the politics of the blocks got milder. The PSOE understood that it does not gain – 102 temporarily loaned to the moderate nationalists. ( only were HBand the to belonged that the ones votes, “borrowed” were received PNV the votes the added that constantly but way, insuch a results the interpreted votingunderstood savethe PNVasacall forthe to initsignificantly only10%remained. 1998elections Many from 17%that got – the “constitutionalist”the parties veryonly slightly rose and Batasuna wentdown for votes by the votes while 6%, increased their who EA, the PNVand the of coalition the and gavevictory voted (79%) to number citizens again 2001, arecord Basque the of appeared that for manyfact people that such thefearsEven though the “constitutionalist” parties proclaimednationalistswere that nobody should be afraid of the valid. In the2001 elections elections would of the notMay 13,formmove)popular get tendedto too tough on former the aswell was notso(which popular). the government nationalism (which tended toequate andbeing a on with latter the terrorism tough was in the very not in thepopular BasqueCountry, Basque Country, it that there is a possibility showed surveys the for of theSome PP and the PSE another. one to to getcloser topower. much were parties ofthe percentages The Oreja. Mayor El País According to surveys, 34%ofBasques the wanted Ibarretxe as , 4July 2001) El País , 20 May 2001) The results of the elections showed that 102 among other things among other because probably he also El País Patria , 19 May 2001, on ETA , 19May position 2001, on Lehendakari . The HB and ETA, also , while only 6% preferred 218 CEU eTD Collection and the subsequent general elections of 14 of the elections general andsubsequent the be in seen analysisthe of eventsthe surrounding the Madrid bombings of in11-M 2004 The same reduction of tension was not the game the PP wanted to play and that can well dynamics in the Basque Country. Basque in the dynamics significantlylarge brought those different world atthat of 11Marchof andlater the 2004 first of the 11 September 2001, which created a general revulsion to terroristmeans in the itmorewas the events cornered.But morebeing and whichwas armedthe organization, environmentitself constantwas under pressure, it couldnot providemuch so for support managedgovernmentadvance in toAs significantly strugglethe ETA. against the p.301). By this favor of measure,eventhe havethough by wouldapproved it (Tusell others” the 2004, measure be Tusell,“havemuch pretty to themselves in showed according to parties themselves, and the constant andthe nationalist declared as pessimists asstrong the not was reaction the Batasuna, pressureinSpain. However, a year,when of finally sentence the Supreme Court outlawdid on the would giveevenmore grounds ETA’sto insufficienciesclaims the about of in democracy whole of thefears andtheoutlawing thatviolenceincrease banning, were there would against this IA, the PP implied outlawingBatasuna. peoplethe of majority Country inBasque The of were isnote importantinHere, it to also that Law was2002 thenewParty passed,which chapter. another in-between of the PP and the PNV. ( the PP at least in the tone of their declarations and to present themselves as some kind of distancefrom nowtried themselves to they government, nationalist critical the clearly of remained Socialists Even though PP. of the benefit prospects the only hardpolicies the El País , 18May 2001) th of March. This is, however, a topic of 219 CEU eTD Collection all the legal framework of the Spanish state). The then-ruling PP even went to such The wentto of PPeven legal then-ruling all Spanishstate). the framework the because it was created as “reform”a of the Statute of Gernika and nota pure rupture with government –the IU and was considered tobe completely insufficient by the HB (mainly block, but wasFrom the beginning, the plan was attacked fiercely by the parties of the “constitutionalist”not even Country surge upagain with all force. fully assumedold Basque by the inthe was best represented that anature associate state, of Spanish the nature “pacted” envisaged a of 1978 forthe of Spanish the Constitution Basquethe proposal that it mentioned was the PNV in “regimewith shouldbebased onthe Spain free In previousthe of the association.” parts the Basque relations the general, In in the region. state the of competences minimize the basically and Union European the at especially representations, foreign establish system; judicial also cannot be changed without the consent of the consent the without be changed cannot also 105 present the Basque IDs. during the court cases or on other occasions where the militants of the IA have to be identified, issuedso-called the Basque which do nothave IDs, they any power, butare legal often usedsymbolically.tend to E.g. 104 Euskadi.” See the text in: http://www.elcorreodigital.com/apoyos/documentos/planaprobado.pdf 103 to the French Basque contained such as establishing of proposals a certain “Basquecitizenship,” Country ( plan The independence. to advancement havemeantthe itwell could standards, Basqueshad the that under rights the of idea of recuperation PNVof the the traditional basedto was deeply proposal Ibarretxe Plan so-called the Statute, Basque position it The itsPNV changedit somewhatdiscourse, butmoredid the pro-independence stick to was advancing with the Lizarra declaration. The proposal to modify the According to the Spanish Constitution, no federations of autonomies can be created and their borders their and be created can ofautonomies federations no Constitution, Spanish the to According Such practices were already being implemented insome municipalities under the control of IA, which The official title of the document is“Proposal of the reform of the political Statute of the Community of fueros . Here we see this idea of the pact between the Spain Basque the Spain and between the idea pact of the weseethis . Here fueros Iparralde . However, interpreted in“modern” light of the the interpreted . However, Cortes ) andNavarre; to 103 . is the best example of this. This bold This this. of example best isthe 105 create a separate Basque aseparate create 104 create links create 220 CEU eTD Collection right in pointing out that those wereinvotes” back to the those “borrowedwhich that would go rightout pointing with such an elevated number of votes. In a sense, the leaders of Batasuna and ETA were the be that could explanations of the one all, of First be interpreted? failure could this How parts. good its inadvertising flaws than PNVwas the aboutthe plan convincing people the of that surveysthe of much adversaries beingthe showed plan moreat the were successful look did notconvincing majority even the to Basques.of the During discussion the time, presented as a personal project and a personalevenrejected much deliberations, without the thus, the Plan discussion. was During lunacy of the bitter rather was here and Ibarretxe of triumph The institutions. it Basque the within had still it power turned to a complete the andshowing unacceptable partiesbecame itcompletely state for the Plan,the as burying failurecompletely so by doing and project the for disposal its in six of out votes three in the Spanish giving charge proceedings, the of former took HBthat butthe nationalists, moderate Cortes, whereIn the thevoting plan ofwas the Plan Ibarretxe in the Basque Parliament, though, it was not the País case of convocation of a referendum) the law was passed with only votes of the PP forthe itsoutcry approval. of the opposition See,(it was hard to see how the Arbitrationwas related to the criminal penalties in additional articles into the Organic Law of Arbitrationthat was about to be approved inthe Senate. Despite Penal Code, a reform106 of which would need a greater majority in the Parliament, the party entered some Basque the targeting directly by interpreted as Thislaweverybody was for that. authorization forimprisonment anybody whowould without areferendum having declare proper promisedinclude that clause to in a change there order penalcode the lengths asto The change itself was made disregarding the normal procedures. Instead of attempting to reform the reform to of attempting Instead procedures. normal the disregarding made was itself change The , 4 December 2003. This law was revoked when the Socialists gained power in 2004. Lehendakari Lehendakari gave too much significance to the fact that he won the elections of 2001 . 106 Lehendakari . Its provisions . Its 221 El CEU eTD Collection documents already show the background of what is to come later. The Declaration of The Declaration iscome later. of to what background the show already documents These discourse. historical Basque the of elements on builds and tradition nationalist – Manifest of view of point Spanish-nationalist the explicitly rather describing one attention, particular Forum of Ermuadocuments weregiven two of Lizarra, Declaration the leading to path In discussingthe – and the of other,Lizarra also came tosignify completely different things for different people. which Declaration the Asaconsequence, tradition. nationalist Spanish the on Basque, another represents the based on one positions, divergent these of consolidation led the to experiment” more “Lizarra the The violence. ETA and situation Basque the Basque of interpretations different and a source of continuous controversy. This controversy made explicit two completely (Sáez dela Aldama for involved all forces Fuente 2004,p.171) intheBasque politics the reference” became “constant Lizarra a of Declaration the was signed, itmoment From the Conclusion saved it. have could had, have might it that merits other no forces, nationalist other of creation its in a participation without but community, nationalist the exclusively to (again) directed far, therefore, it was no too going was definitely this project parties “constitutionalist” the For of Statute Gernika. chance that they would support it, especiallyit in having accepted was mind as that still presented a modification the of it. This was a projectLehendakari that was the of project apersonal as presented often and designed was Plan Ibarretxe the point, governmentby isSecondly, nationaliststhe disappear. relatedtothe first would andthat the of loss possible of form a in nation the to threat the that moment the Batasuna . As the HB was not participating in its creation it would never have never would it creation in its participating not was HB the As . 222 CEU eTD Collection “normal and decent” people. decent” and “normal 107 made former the thePNV with ETA, of identification an almost came to on which later July 1997 andtherising association moderate the of nationalism with radical the one, of events The prism. different a through situation the at looked politicians nationalist The becomes nota matter of political opinion, but amoral choice of a “decent man.” ETA fighting of way its in PP the support to option the front, national Lizarra of end the and truce of collapse the With imperatives. moral include but division, political simple specifically during occasions, on seethem other again (wewill chains of equivalence The created the electoral campaignBatasuna did, it was still to be leftof out of the “democratic”2004, politics. as we alreadyeven know, if itare did not not just participate and, for ETAterrorism the a “breeding ground” providing later, asthe as muchaterrorist a in the terroristAs the PNV shared the ends of ETA (which the signing of Lizarra showed), it was almost actions achieved. nationalism sameness was between andperipheral imperfect)a (yetterrorism themselves or exaltbetween aims that are “democratic”them and those which are not. Through metonymic sliding, thedistinction the to way way gave ends and means between distinction the as front” “nationalist Therefore, Manifest of the Forum theof Ermua, but which was given “solid evidence” with the Lizarra. end of terrorismit the accomplice of the armed organization, something that was already brought upin the made and ETA as level same at the almost PNV the put it values, highest the in of betrayal Spain came the with assassins,” the “pact the of a symbol became Lizarra “constitutionalists” the For to be associatedformer. hadatothe similar tone truce of the collapse the after parties signing its and document the on attacks the and withlatter; the on significantly built itself Lizarra the demise of The current leader of the party Mariano Rajoy likes to emphasize that his party represents all the all represents party his that emphasize to likes Rajoy Mariano party of the leader current The 107 223 CEU eTD Collection 2004, the discourse of the PNV was a weak one, relying too much on the “good muchwill”“good of the tooon of relying PNVwasaweakone, the discourse 2004, the to its armed struggle. Likein discoursethe construction of PPbeforethe March the 14, ETA returned failed as has unity national of project the that clear became it once course the change to PNV the for difficult extremely it made however, symbolism, this All Basque nationalism. ( proclaimed, which had lasted for 160 years (since the Carlist wars), as the conflict, political the of the existence of affirmation the e.g. in theDeclaration, presented reunite the seven Basque lands into one. Also, one should not overlook the ideas Here, the symbolism of the places of signing the Declaration is important, as it seemed to peaceful dialogue. violenceby presencethe identities problems through and of of solvinga the their of home/house”a myth in which could Basques a “reconstructed all of the without live init, creation was embodied andthe meaning that all symbolic the birth Lizarra, with of had PNV and ideasETA because common This shared common they allowed the roots. the both where ideals and symbolism of realm the into politics, pragmatic the beyond encountered by beyondgoing the question inviolenceof and, casethe of PNV,alsothe For such a strategy to embryosucceed of what would later become an idea of the “peace without victors or losers.” common denominators an itslosing face,creating without violence from path of the away move which itcould had to be found by strategy exit the ETA triedoffer PNV achieve this,the scene. To from the disappear and theseto had violence ETA weresurvive, to nationalism the for in order that thought was It such. aware of the discrediting effects that the ETA violence had on the ideals of nationalism as El País , 23 June 2000) the roots of which went to the inception of to the which roots went , 23June2000)the the of Lehendakari Ibarretxe once Ibarretxe 224 CEU eTD Collection 108 sucharesult. could achieve forces political legitimate by of another one the exclusive nodal thatwerecompletely points the issuesaround clusteringthe of all political the victory of ETA. (see, e.g. Tusell 2000) However, itwouldnever have done italone. Only true the end, in the was, nationalisms assertive two the between ground a common find to impossibility the and politics Basque of the actors different the between This division (Meesnarrower.” 2003,p.155) became and fronts, narrower across established the cutting policy-making, transverse more rational, for space while the emotional, became extremely “Basque politics beingautonomous before come,yearsso that elections especiallystrong theof to 2001, end of truce as the “endhouse” with its return ofto violence. These accusationsthe from all sides and the imagerydream” of the “common of the project theentire killed betrayed and For the PNV,ETA independence. advanceBasque enough the to do not and did betrayedproject common the Thus, betrayal democratic politics. for the became one of leaveprepared ideasits was not own to andatthishad organization the space the the moment themes on the Lizarra The project success of dependedexclusively but of the keeping thetruce, onETA nationalist was lacking. what exactly this that will manywas indications even were ETA there when side. For ETA, the PNV See, Elso, 2000. OrMees, 2003. The author has a chapterentitled “The End of the Dream.” 108 were to prevail in the Basque politics in the 225 CEU eTD Collection took place.took of The abstracts speechesthese canbefoundin main the newspapers of the campaign between the 27 February i.e.and 10March 2004, before train the bombings politiciansanalysisthe of of the electoral party Iamusingthe ruling during speeches the Before starting the discussion, a note on the sources should be made. In this part of discourse. spaces of inthe dislocated newfinally, myths creation the of and, political discourse; agency, i.e. how much personalities of concrete politicians matter in transformation of the and between discreditstructure them all; to relation the violence inorder problem of historical discourse and discourselinking of the the violence; of problemsdiverse tothe between relation the case: this by exemplified be can before outlined points Many analyzed. discourse frames can be noted. And thirdly, the dislocative effects of the events of 11 March on this in of creation these the discourse usageof historical the beSecondly, realized. also al. identity fields can et frame the resonanceof possibility 1994)designed, the (Hunt of andantagonist protagonist andconsequently arecreated frames discursive coherent theway first, made apparent: canbe discourse of political the aspects case several as an illustration of variousthe involvedprocesses in“terrorism” creation. Thus, with this terrorism discourse may work for the creation example way the for a good as serve campaign can of elections 2004. This general of the identity of political actors ruling Party has andespecially itsduring for Popular during taken thecampaign reign the and also actors cannot be understoodThe turn that the March 11 attacks have given to the country and the positions of political without appreciating the discursive position that the then- Chapter VI. Electoral campaign of2004andtheevents of11-M 226 CEU eTD Collection (Convergència i Unió showed CiU acertain the of decline of 2003 The Catalonian 16November elections to Catalonia and even deeper totheinside of level Spanish national the politics. In (Tusell beginningthe 2004, p.157). of same2004, the be could process alsotransferred nationalismdemocratic terrorism, byassociating ETA primarily with thePNV growing. in Already first term the governmentthe of of Aznar theruling party identified tension between the governing party and the representatives of peripheral nationalists was As it was emphasized, during the entire second term of the government of the PP, the The background: discourse. inthe noted be can that change of amount the indicating thus andelections attacks between days three the being during came to that the events meaningof the positions consolidated already about provide of anexample appearances These of events. these effects dislocating the with dealt it was way see the occasions as well as the positions of the leaders of the party on the events will be used to addition to that,in And elections. the the of day the i.e. speeches March, of 14 the and March of 11 the between days made in the commission of the 11investigation of March – the effects andof the 11 Marchon attacks,other I am using the political rhetoric of diminishmight thebiasinbe that presentthe using such secondthe partof sources. For this to trying was I account into them of both taking by inclination, right center more a has 109 and in given speeches of and extracts abstracts was usingthe I this part, For country. democràtica de Catalunya While it is usually referred to as one party, the CiU is actually comprised of two – the El Mundo . As one of the newspapers has a more the center left leaning and the other leaning the and left thecenter more hasa newspapers the of . Asone Caso Carod and 109 ) coalition that ruled the region since the establishment of the UnióDemocràtica de Catalunya and the truce and for Catalonia . Convergència El País 227 CEU eTD Collection the information of the secret services with partisan ends. partisan with services secret ofthe information the terrorist fight. (See, anti- for ofthe example, proceedings the to detrimental being discontent, huge a services security the gave supposedly one that Central the Intelligence Agency the (CNI) providedto to Primethe Minister’s office. leak identical The ABC was in appeared that information The government. of the president the of residence 112 decisions. their in autonomy considerable and names proper having branches party regional 111 Catalonia. symbolthe ofCatalanpolitics,Jordi Pujol, retired 23after years of serving as anundisputed leader of became who of CiU leader the because also era new of a beginning the mark to meant were elections The http://www.elpais.es/comunes/2003/eleccionescataluna/index.html see: results election the On government. Catalan new the of outlook the determine to seats (31.17%), but gained 4seats less CiU.than Inthissituationwas it 16.47% upto ERCits the with and 23 from 38.05 to 30.93% and from 56 seats to 46). Catalan Socialist Party gained the majority of the votes cast 110 autonomy. strengthen the idea of the alliance of all nationalisms and, hence, the violent character of character violent the hence, and, nationalisms all of idea of alliance the the strengthen This informationitappeared in about press. the gave information the in of as country the politics anavalanche the caused initiative unrealistic a double weapongivepersuade the organization Thisrather up arms. personal initiative try to to to to the orPP: contacts with majorEven politicalthough agreed the moment parties already at the nonegotiations that ETA should be made, in(France). leadersthe of ETA Perpignan the leader ofmeeting with asecret had Lluis Carod-Rovira, Josep leader ERC, the of January the of the ERC decided notlast long. to On the 26 of January the newspaperundertake ABC has revealed that in the beginning a did however, euphoria, be hopelessThe region. anearly in seemed to what government regionalthe The Socialist government. coming Party wasespeciallyeuphoric about to Independentist ERC and (ICV),bringing the firstthe Catalonian Greens change about in second in the elections,in this situation was faster to make a coalition with the Leftist and secure it the government its on own. Catalonian Socialists (PSC) There were strong motives The Partido Socialistato Obrero Español functionssuggest more like a coalition than acentralized party with the that the information itself leaked from the Moncloa Palace, the party The comparedlost 7.12% the withprevious elections of got 10seats less1999 and (went down 110 The apparently immovable CiU still got the most votes, but not enough to enough not but votes, most the got still CiU immovable apparently The El País , 29January 2004) The general view was the that government used 112 first of all, it was helpful to 111 , aparty that came out 228 CEU eTD Collection announce the truce on the “honest, active and generous solidarity that the process of of the process the that solidarity generous active and the “honest, on truce the announce the necessity to fight for the self-determination of both of them and basing its decisionCountry to and Catalonia In its communiqué,ETA claimed PPpretended: struggles the what the inBasque that were the same, listingnot even dream”.2004) (Goytisolo the similarities Goytisolobetween wrote that “ETA gave the PP the such a New Year present about which it could the two peoples, party ( for ruling campaign the electoral weapon to use against the a gave italso it. Secondly, with bynegotiating organization the give airto that ones PSOE – the refusal of presidentall of them. The ERC and especially its leader became identified ofas “friends of ETA”, the that the Basque the that Catalonia. Actually, themaintained, -ETA itselfannouncement came tothe aid of the ruling party, announcing a partial truce for seemed to Carodfall soout well of intothe theCatalan handsbe seemed situation –with solved When calmingdownandto the the crisis wasalready ofgovernment, the PP, but the years. makingthe throughout coalition between demonize” (Tusell The Carod-case2004, p.138). justseemedtheprove to pointthe they were PSC and the ERC coincidesthat in fundamental ideas and whichthey not hesitate did vigorously to conglomerate, of sort some forms nationalists and “socialists that show to wanted party the power, to coming before already writes, As Tusell new. means no by was nationalists terrorist Pact.socialist Pasqual Maragall, to break with the ERCThe was presented as a breach of thesituation Anti- in which the PP lumped together the socialists and the Lehendakari Juan José Ibarretxe claimed that ETA was doing the El País , 19 February analyst19 February Juan , 2004) and an Generalitat of Catalonia, 229 CEU eTD Collection Valenciana, 19 February 2004) fromuniverse”nothing ofthe ofSpain vision beseen was new,ascould discussion the positioningas of guardians the Right the of “unity essence of its in of Spain destiny of is committed seriously tothe maintenance of unity and stability country.the of The that party only andthe together keeps country that force only PPasthe the of stance the and country, in the prevalent violence on discourse general the to both referring without announcement hadof inbe truce onthe explained world cannot political country the only It wasnot made riftETA,impactpossible. however,that this The the that of Spain as theERCwas enjoying in Catalonia. whole the in loyalty such on rely not could it for noted, observers most as position worse 114 important elements of the general institutional stability of the country. provided for the government exchange in to certainbenefits for Catalonia andwas actually one of the However, this support made part of strategya larger of CiU at the time, which consisted mainly of support example, for See, support of CiU the fornational parties in government. decline of the party in the 1996 and113 1999 elections is often explained by the rejection of the voters to the forcenationalist CiU (Tusell 2004, p.185). governments of the country had relyto on the parliamentary support of the major Catalan since the 1989, when situation political the ineconomic especially and thecountry, force traitors for the rest of Spain, adding this to the general mistrust of Catalonia because of its as became Catalans The Spain. restof andthe time, Catalonia this ariftbetween, create rupture, this time influencing the political sphere without ashot orabomb. Itmanaged to This way ETA for all the democratic political forces presented itself (again) as a force forof Catalonia)announcing truce of Communiquéliberation Catalan Basquefrom the received Country (ETA the people”. The Socialists themselves were accused to be accomplices of terrorism. (see terrorism. of beaccomplices to accused were themselves Socialists The Thissupport for centralthe governments, actually,was viewed not asfavorably in Catalonia.The http://www.elpais.es/comunes/2003/eleccionescataluna/escenario_electoral.html 113 Socialists themselves were put into an even 114 El País , Comunidad , 230 CEU eTD Collection 2004. País 115 ( organization of the bulletins One internal the of aware. was perfectly haveThe situationnot into any fallen better would typeother asETA of itself discourse, it extreme. to the put through Astime.itbeinidea government seen,thePP and also brought backthis could the wake of March elections. Itwas thus obvious thatit would notresist the temptation to in Socialists the them through and Nationalists Catalan the discredit to in order services usesecurity itself even disposed probably governmentshowed to however, the positive, is Theanswer terrorism? useof political no demanded that pact ofAnti-terrorist letter the to stick if would party ruling the itwas clearthat been have different situation Would the claims organization. the of for independentist the in more support thepopular region and consequently discontent betterhavewould through mandate not gotten ofthe it nextthe more party, promised the threatening of extent the to deteriorated of rule the PP the induring BasqueCountry 2004a) Asthepolitical situation the (Pradera better.” the logic” of worse, “the a “catastrophic to functions according ETA party. even accusing2004) asthe not so organizationmuch a military 2004,Editorial –see by Subirats analysts several was interpreted ceasefire, ofbutthe analysis of the political environmentas working of the country, this truce cana be interpretedpolitical (as it bomb.for capacity for of a good organization possesses Havinginmindthatthe usually purposes. There the were electoralvoices El País campaign of the ruling Basque 19February 2004. This was also expressed by some political analysts. See, forexample, Gil Calvo, 115 20 February 20February for possibility the 2004) argued using ceasefiresforof political the A statement, which might have had some truth in it. According to Javier Pradera, Lehendakari Juan José Ibarretxe accused ETA of “helping the electoral interests of PP”, see ofPP”, interests electoral the of“helping ETA accused José Ibarretxe Juan Lehendakari with andprison, presumably El País Zutabe, 19February no.100, see 231 El CEU eTD Collection complete the frame. the complete which the PP received anabsolute majority. Thistime, separatists could be added to the whole discourse to 116 prognostic andmotivational framing. Theseinturn tothree “identity relate fields” (Hunt diagnostic, aredistinguished: framing of types three research movements’ In the social shape of politicalthe field as such. the and to participants the of identity of creation tothe issues relates the of construction With the itself. discourse anti-terrorist andthe discourse general historical tothe beon related help of can further that discourse of campaign the elements different the in structuring descriptioneffective rulingin party Spain becan in explored manner.this The framing theory here can be of thisthe of campaign case,electoral issues.In specific certain concerningthese discourses framingsuch, aninvestigation be framingof can processes helpful in analyzingconcrete processeselections has started. Not so much useful for the investigation of a historical discourse as for general the electoral campaign the in thusThese thecircumstances which were it can be processes Framing seen how the bringworked to forth oldthe frames tothefront of politicalthe struggle. one violence between and connection the strongest, anotheris persistently events violent of memory As the events. is also not difficult to make.This connection was made even stronger by the presence of ETA Thisat the foreground of the way the historicalhistorical analogies, the spirit of thememory Civil War was revived. falsethe warning against seriously theanalysts were though Atpoint, this separatists. the “reds” of coalition the of frame War Civil historical the into neatly so falling was weapon use such againsta gratuitous their Furthermore, the opponents. whole situation The threat of coalition of “reds” frame was already used in the discourse of the year 2000 elections after 116 and 232 CEU eTD Collection terrorism, all the three in one way or another related to each other. in related to another way one or all three the terrorism, prosperity,national into threat to andthreat of threat groups: grouped the to three unity canbe elections. These the PPlost face hadthe would andcountry thatthe risks threats winwere allowed to elections. Thissituation depicted through identifyingwas a series of wouldif mostly adversary itissues the that create concerned situation government raised the this beidentified. can case, In map, major some topics problem Startingthe from opponent. the of image the shapes and in discourse the significant most are that issues the identifies both fieldthat a problem of creation and the asadversaries actors concrete of the identification the – framing diagnostic in the elements important two the at look can we PP, al.campaign of et the identity 2004 electoral fields.” Inthecase of (Hunt 1994,p.198) attributingblame, they also facilitate construction the both of protagonistand antagonist According to Hunt et al. the diagnostic framings “not only serve the obvious function of Diagnostic framingand the antagonist identity field andfinally theframe audience resonance. identity protagonistfield, subsequently movemotivationalto to on framing andthe an identity antagonistfield, moving then ontodiscuss prognosticthe framing and the analyzed usingthese notions, firstexamining the diagnostic framing andthecreation of be PP will party then-ruling the campaign of electoral the on, Further appeal.electoral the outcome of for the importance of deal hasagreat audience the of experiences personal frames the to of proposed the relation The bein can frame circumstances. the of “frame resonance” (Snow, Benford 1988) is important as it shows how successful any a notion that, addition to identities.antagonist In al. audience protagonist, and et 1994): 233 CEU eTD Collection are people who want todestroy Spain.” (Aznar, there because majority, needasolid “we for example: issue, the about whentalking tones The outgoingpresident of governmentthe often Aznar also used his apocalyptic usual of claimed( wasunity theSpain. mainissueof elections that forinterview the inexample, an inifFor main stake notthe one. issues elections, main of at was perceivedasone the the (Aznar, country.” of the for integrity the buta risk is analternative, not Carod-Rovira and Llamazares Zapatero, coalition have separatist (Rajoy, interests.” their own ideas, defend will them of each Spanish, putting the of interest general the defend not “will coalition at risk the unity of Spain,party would stem fromso two thatfactors: first“the of all, ittriplet will The instability infuturebe governmentcharacterize theeyesof wouldthat ruling the the a coalition andof the parts of this (Aznar, reach levels hasthe putof prosperity Spain in that atrisk to reached order its stability.” according to the outgoing to willrelated belostThus, general instability the that the hadthePP power. inplace president of the governmentsometimes directly formerto the related rule PSOE(1982-1996) the of Aznar, “it cost a lotwhile this threat, However, prosperity. this reached to threat was the ofthen, elections, work to waste of money and corruption.” Rajoy, 118 of PP. rule of the points other at greater much good orvery those good who and saw bad orvery it as bad versus (25.2 24.5%), a difference, whichwas 117 favorably. was usually evaluated situation economic the and significantly advanced PP the of rule the during economy The One of such direct references – that the adversaries of the PP will “return Spain to the unemployment, the to Spain “return will PP the of adversaries the that – references direct such of One Barometer CIS of October 2003 showed the difference of 0.7% between those who saw the situation as El Mundo , 3March 2004) El Mundo El País 117 El País El País , 3 March 2004) This threat to the unity of unity to the country the of threat , 3March2004)This What the party in governmentinvoked for coming the , 8 March 2004) Secondly, some of the parties in this , 10 March 2004. one of the leaders of the party Javier Arenas El País , 2March 2004) El País , 25 February February , 25 2004) 118 , more often was 234 CEU eTD Collection adversary altogether. Thus, from the beginning of the campaign, the statement is made: statement the campaign, the of from beginning the Thus, altogether. adversary apolitical itas wasnegating PSOE of the importance diminish the way to Another (Rajoy, himadversary, often referring to dressedas a“mister inblack with apolka-dot tie” his of name the mentioned rarely Rajoy, Mariano government, the of presidency the PPto of the candidate the of campaign, days in the first the map.Thus, political from created the disappear completely would Party Socialist in that away this reality an was madetotransform attempt 2004, the Intheelectoral of campaign government). the Socialist Party and its candidateis PP in atlook caseof the to usualadversary the Therefore, of country. the government for the post of the Primeor Minister the (president PSOE of the – The general electionsin in Spain usually determine which of the two largestcoalition parties – the PP vote for the Law on Parties or the banning of Batasuna.” (Rajoy, with otherMarch 2004) or smaller parties or on its own will form the terrorists nor those who want to make agreements with terrorists” (Aznar, terrorists” with want tomake agreements who those nor terrorists with the makehe agreements would never Pact, antiterrorist tothe was committed by policy terror against talking with terrorists;” (Aznar, state the doaway with want to that those with broken ties nothas he because rule Spain qualifiedis sphere, promptingRodríguez not as“José suchstatements Luis Zapatero to inlarge this loomed of Carod, course Caseof struggle. anti-terrorist the PSOEto the campaign,in identity antagonist the fieldassociated with got lack the of commitment of Finally, the topic of threat of terrorism (of ETA), the most prominently present in the El País , 28 February 2004) or just February “that (Rajoy,2004) or , 28 other.” “Some of those that go in the same coalition with ZP [Zapatero] did not El Mundo El País El País , 2March 2004) “ifhe , 5March 2004) , 1 March 2004) , 1March El Mundo 235 , 3 CEU eTD Collection the ERC and the PNV: “the movie of breakup … is already written. Its scriptwriter is scriptwriter Its is written. “the ERCand … movie breakup of PNV: the already the forfor of one example, is leadersof party,the the behindboth ETA Jaime Mayor Oreja, Thus, absence–ETA. inits even PPwaspresent of inthe discourse the which “member” another through coalition in the place honorary its take also could PNV the addition, reinforce the idea of the threat to the unity of Spain by evoking the evoking by Spain of unity the to threat the of idea the reinforce difficult to prove, soBasque PNV that it was often leftred-separatist aside. At the timesthreat. frame the of reinforce the added, to IUwasalso the coherence, sakeof the For Rovira. when Other it was actors used, alsoit didcommonlyMost mentioned, the was,ascouldERC and leader bepresumed, its Carod- received their place wereplaced pedestal.the on actors in the coalition, from sceneand other suchthe way disappeared That PSOE the Socialists. of the partners” as the discuss “coalition to moved the on leaders party of Popular meeting the electoral every in almost anti-terrorism, or model the such the state of aseconomy, matters, substantial was weak and have inthe not anyelectoral did Claimingprograms thatZapatero its leader. and Party Socialist the nullify of importance movethe wasmadeto the Instead, adversary. a useful electoral not was PSOE claim, the credible makea this To Spain. the campaign. Thisidea echoed the notion of what the elections were about –the unity of meetingmost bythesubsequent of with Carod ETAwasthe extensive putinto use during The ideabehind,influencedof shapedalreadyby but outcome elections Catalan the the March 9, leaving the party little time to elaborate more profoundly about this. governing coalition, a statement that was quickly takenby the PP. However, the statement was made on 119 is (Rajoy, adversary a coalition.” electoral My its leader. of course, Neither, PSOE. the not is adversary “My electoral At a certain point the leader of the IU, Gaspar Llamazares claimed that the PNV could make part of the 119 , even though the ties between this party and the PSOE were much more much were PSOE the and party this between ties the though even , El País , 1March 2004) Plan Ibarretxe 236 . In CEU eTD Collection rule of the PP and the presence in the public space of the so-called the of space public the in presence the and PP of the rule 120 is hegemony acreation “basedof on a metaphorical unity” (TorfingIn 1999,p.113). The finalof development this p.141). result (Laclau, Mouffe 1985, “hegemonic project” meanings and this is importantone of in mostprocesses the expansion the of a between elements of the can bediscourse achievedby sliding metonymical the of Let’s look now in more detail at how these different elements were linked. An association violence, an association were ETA clearly plays the most prominent role. not have such could country, the unity of the threatto theme –the Another great its prosperity. to threat a serious inand the the country instability of institutional future between the clearconnection prominence even a its own, in making on case this – littleaccentuated PSOE economy the was the if it was managementof not possible bad tothe attributed and couldbe seen separately problem that associatedthe elements in a nearly “metaphorical with unity”, to use the expression of Torfing.the The only As itcan be lead seen,all toETA,which is(and problem) actor unitesroads one all that possibility of way: following in the themselves between connected To sum it up, kill Spanish and Catalans.”in (Trillo, Minister of Defense, the discourseallies of the PSOE sat together with ofthe same assassinsthe thatconnecting, this put time associating the the PSOE, the PP ERCbomb and ETA: “Itis an indignity of thatHipercor the during to ETAelectoral and the maincampaign, actors theare actorsETA, the are PNV and the ERC.” Ibarretxe and plan Carod plan Rovira, plans; that of“two are twoconsists ofETA simultaneous scenario plans the just that with appeared distinct it formats” speech, his (ibid.).continued Oreja Mayor As stronger. even demonization this made parties, main by the independence Basque the towards move be a MayorOreja, El País , 28 February 2004. The PNV intensively demonized throughout the years of the ETA = ERC = PSOE = IU ś PNV El País Plan Ibarretxe , 7March 2004) 120 Or another way of , that was considered to 237 CEU eTD Collection graphical form inas diagram 1. comes clearlythrough into the light. problemERC. Toadd to this the antiterrorism and of problem much fullwe getapretty as picture, Theof “lack association ofnaturally, commitment with thebetweenunity,toto stabilitytheseparatismto the and, with is thus Next threat threatthe associated certainthe antiterrorism” actorsthese progress. economic to threat the with be associated to come country that the of stability the embodyelements thethis threatthreat can – of primarily beETA put theinto PNV anda the (Rajoy, incapable of 2004)arriving or “The same asto happens an agreement to them with the model of ofwhat Spain, they they are wantcompletely to do with the economy.” exchanges. See, Eco 1986. Eco See, exchanges. condensation is involved with the process of displacement, so is metaphorinvolved withthese metonymic metonymic substitutionis no different from the processFreud called “displacement.” And just as 121 basic rules of coexistencestate”. and The with two theelements prosperity of “vision the of lack Socialists’ the with associated directly was reached prosperity most ofoften Spain” went (Aznar, handamong them. in Thus,hand: for example, “Zapaterothe economic future of unity creates a strong inaway that associated oftheproblemsare differentelements the iscountry playingand the threat to the with the how the of cansee rulingthe party, one discourse intheelectoral thisLooking process at becomenodal capturingallin andpoints a elements other the containing discourse. the meanings these then sliding, metonymic the through areanother to element one from displaced condensed followingform:first meaningis the hegemony words, into other the creation the takes of one or few elements of the discourse that as a result, Umberto Eco writes in the same vein about the relations of metonymy and metaphor: “This type of El País , 27 February 2004) The threat to the model of the state andto the threatto themodel state the February of 2004) Thethreat , 27 El País , 2 March 238 121 CEU eTD Collection the “privilegedthe fix signifiers meaningofa that chain” signifying the Mouffe (Laclau, the PP during the electoral campaign? According to Laclau and Mouffe, nodal points are Let’s elaborate on that. Why is it ETA that becomes the nodal pointin the discourse of nodal pointin the discourse, providing a metaphor for all the ills of the country. the of position it thatoccupied the was ETA thePP, of campaign 2004 the of electoral threat unity to the Spain.inthe of discourse the during Therefore, constructed the and of separatism anembodiment haslong become In addition, since ETA government. if youthat forvote not thePP,you do vote takingforin ETA part Spanish the PSOE pacts with the ERC which the the link Taking the of associations: organization. “terrorist” the and adversary the pacts with ETA, the underlying between aconnection antiterrorism toand provides lackcommitment and of separatism message seems connection isto themost important here. both It links thetwosets of problemsthe – be problems these with are associated that actors the also but problems the only as not Furthermore, are noted, ETA comes to play an evenDiverse interests more Separatism, threat tounity important role. The ERC Threat toprosperity Diagram 1 Instability COALITION Threat of (ETA) terrorism Lack of commitment of Lack to antiterrorism to 239 CEU eTD Collection to the economic problems of the rule of the PSOE were limited in their frequency. their in limited were PSOE ofthe rule the of problems economic the to mainly throughinsisting onthis threat as a consequence of the institutional instability. The direct remarks 122 discussedAshere. itself wasrelatedtothe diagnosis futurethe (what happenif will the As it could be imagined, the prognostic frame followed closely the diagnostic frame Protagonist identityfield, prognosticandmotivational frame presentthe andthediscourse ones itself fullness. anearly gained hegemonic frames and thelinkwasmadebetween historical violence Through evokingthe ETA’s meaningmuch stronger when with continuousassociated violencethe of present. the of coalition of “reds and separatists” that resuscitated collective memory of the pastThis got experience a also gave life to the discursive frames taken from the Civil War. The idea violence. of ETA’s experience tothe connected most was powerfully of country the existence entiredemocratic the during separatism of experience of asthe ETA, metaphor under the be subsumed could also unity national the to threat the of that – topic significant another but organization, the to connection clearest hadthe frame antiterrorism” the to commitment “Lack of ETA. imageof the in instability was condensed and of danger organization experience general the and the in discourse. of ETA the signifier master of presence the without imaginable is hardly above, discussion from the elements of electoral discourse diverse the of of association theAn sliding. ruling metonymic through party meanings of into displacement the a single unity, as it could be seen in of as thefinal result element one meaning acondensation the of unity,” “metaphoric the create to otherwise, put it to or, field” in “discursive floatthe that elements bycapturing acoherence diverse the discourse the increate isto their1985, p.112), role “Threat to prosperity”frame may have alife of its own, however, itwas related to the other problems 122 The actors received their identity through connecting them to 240 CEU eTD Collection would sellvery expensively the agreement with Rajoy”,see Prego 2004b. majority rule of thePP, the party governmentin alienated its potential supporters to suchextent that “they electoral program, though, was seenalso a differentin light by political analysts. Afterthe absolute argument that this way the party will not be conditioned by anybody wouldand be able to fulfill its 123 and especially in the second mandate, these equivalential chains were further elaborated confrontation marked the style of leadershipthe of party the itsthroughout years in power of politics the mentioned, was it As chains. equivalential paradigmatically almost two a resulted parts create hegemonicinto spheretwo in through dividing social discourse the final shape of the discourse the one canenvision Accordingly, ETA. of demise seeking the struggle and antiterrorist of to the committed truly force political partysole the and Constitution the of country, duringthe of unity the electoral the dobefore, itself guardianof party campaign. the asunique positions used to The samewayasit The attempt to continues Economic progress again once majority absolute with a different sign in front of them. Thus, if the coalition is defeated and the party gains coalition not wins) presentproblems,to the ideas these prognostic just the frame followed Stability defended Diagram 2 solved (see diagram 2). policies will be as strong as before and even the territorial problems of the country will be The coalitionof the adversaries was juxtaposed to the absolute majority government of the party. The Coalition defeated, PP won elections Territorial solvedproblems 123 , the economic progress will continue, anti-terrorist will continue, progress economic , the Anti-terrorist policies as strong asbefore leading to the final demise of ETA 241 CEU eTD Collection already from the previous discussion, such as the relation between separatism and separatism between relation asthe such discussion, previous from the already posture of the party itself as a positive “hero”. Some of these elements could be perceived is the how serious and them between and associations the threats arethe credible how does resonate, frame the how andBenford, in Snow of terms people, or the of experience How strong this motivationFrame resonance would be depends on how clearlyin valid for electoral more1977 werestill decades later. than campaign two these ideas relateback Bunkerused ideasFrancoist that hardly the gounnoticed, general can the elections to the for of PP the of andcampaign the rhetoric the statements betweenthese The similarity newspaper to the experience more this related time heritage, probably ofhistorical parts ideas,These alsoreproduced of transitionPaís oneconomic policy,the has a program, has clearthe and ideaspolicy part and knows anti-terrorist “the in what that it one has only is the to do.”that (Rajoy,of government the for vote the Right.being For a patriot example, of the Constitution with assassins”, with not “victims the PPmeansbeing voting the can beimagined: also the and beingfar a partright protection of Constitution.the Thus, motivational the framing and audiencethe identity of the saviors of Spain.with One would its concernssocialists and to relatethe and nationalists forall peripheral the side one of on include these to campaign actors electoral the the during to the ETA,victims and on the other side have theof PP terrorism, commitment to antiterrorism and the was conquered for the Spaniards” (quoted theSpaniards”was conqueredfor in (quoted EdlesDesfor 1998,p.62) as to the destiny of Spain and her well-being that with so much sacrifice and effort concern make who game with a without those politics of dangerous opportunism we pact do Spanish Nor people. andthe Spain of with the enemies We pact don’t , 4March 2004) El Alcázar wrote before the first free general beforefree firstelections: wrote the general 242 El CEU eTD Collection some damage to the PP itself. ( strengthen ERCandof of position the thatCatalan the producingthe Socialists while 4 the on newspapers This however, numerous others.position, alienated The insurveys published the major center, but was able to collect the votes of the traditional Right (Tusell 2004, p.190). way moved thatfrom party the the away it to”, was always returned on further because “could butcoldalso andcalculated, have beenspontaneous, Suchaposture nationalists”. “wrapped itself up in national flagthe and the Constitution, usingits artillery against the party sense that the in 2000 a frame of that followed theof actually The campaign 2004 campaign, soon giving way to the usual confrontational tactics. the of days first in the only followed was however, choice, This opponent. the about during the years of PPwouldthe have sufficed inaddition adiscrete to in tone talking well was doing economy that the on theaccent latter, achieve To the 2004a) (Prego move.” not do they “that was needed PP the what and elections of day the on homes get of their trying them around was evolvingout the strategy therefore, to PSOE the of voters, Leftist the are voting the from absentees the that calculation the on based Some analysts argued that the strategies of the two parties discourse. electoral caseof analyzed the the concerning the elections were insee met What howarethese Benfordnow isthus 1988,p.208). weneedto conditions (Snow, fidelity narrative and commensurability experiential credibility, empirical have has to frame the be fulfilled, to have threeconditions resonate, a frame to For society. parts of the different inthe sameway the “resonate” not did frames these obviously, However, violence. th of March showed that the constant attacks on Carod Rovira just El Mundo , 4 March 2004) The attempt to holdthe to to on attempt, 4March 2004) The 243 CEU eTD Collection Barcelona;” ( Barcelona;” would “should inhave attack the Carod be that satisfied taken inMadrid, not place more against the leader of the ERC – the minister of Interior, Ángel Acebes claiming that charged once Theruling debate. party aheated political prompted naturally,event, soon prepared by minivanETA, a with 536 kilograms of explosives headingtoMadrid. The be detained, curiously,Cuenca” (Joseba in the Azkarraga, Basquefor councilor Justice in The questionwas thus raised how “the minivancould cross without any problems half of the peninsula to February when the minivan was intercepted saw heavy snowfalls making most of the roads difficult to pass. 124 obscure. discourse of the PP the into neatly andfell too them, to according in Catalonia, truce announced the after Madrid in addition to that, This time the theother side of the political struggle struck back:circumstances ideathe of ETA attackingin ofMinister, as he hasthe notbroken the pact with ERC. arrest Prime be the cannot wereZapatero that insisting again once pretty government the of president On the 28 commando of ETA in Cañaveras (Cuenca province). importance –thearrestof a particular happened electoral the gains that campaign during event sense, one this it In have otherwise. washardly to a way there frames that earlier their potential allies in the Socialist Party. and The ETA connectionnationalists fittedperipheral the so against neatly charge into to the temptation resist to unable was party andthe over during the campaign Still,took group. of confrontation generalstyle the Makingthis group. some changesin havenot therhetoric would this seriously alienated During 8years in PPalready the office, itself a reputed as defender of values the dear to behavior. this of explanation full the provide hardly can Right” “traditional of votes There were some factors in the arrest that were somewhat suspicious: first of all, the last weekend of 124 th Thus, Juan Carlos Rodríguez Ibarra, one of the Socialistleaders, the president of February the February of El Mundo , 1 March 2004) and against the PSOE – with the outgoing Guardia Civil Guardia intercepts the so-called “caravan of death” of “caravan theso-called intercepts El Mundo El 244 , 2 CEU eTD Collection positions were weakening because of that. ( that. becauseof wereweakening positions its contrary, the on for theruling party, anyfruits reaping casewasnot and Carod the discourse antiterrorist of the overuse constant the wasthat perception general was. The struggle ruling than the party antiterrorist tothe Party was muchless committed Socialist the that or PP for the except forces, political all the permeated organization the that imply really not did as itwas of ETA beinggreat threat the However, Basque organization. that will later on be used to a great extent to justify the attribution of March 11 to the problem by 37.3% of the respondents, second only to unemployment (57.6%). to suggest that the empirical credibility and experiential commensurability of these suggest of commensurability and experiential empirical the to that credibility “obsession” for organizing a significant attack inattack “obsession” organizing for Madrid asignificant ( had acertain andinaddition duringcampaigns electoral organization the often erupted problems be of Terrorism oneof perceivedto country, the wasstill greatest threat. the of ETA importance theperceived undermined say such to This isnot that statements evendid achievetruce if foronly Catalonia. be such to with not idea all,a badthing. After ETA heldit,Carod appeared aspopular leader in particular,its with ERC the and nationalists peripheral the on attacks the haveActually, 2004) March divided the political sphere to such an extent that negotiation 125 raised. of eyebrows a lot left of events, turn was also arrested,arrived its police driverthe declaredwhen and neither himselfaccident an to be had a memberboard, of on ETA. Afterthis incidentfirearms the not minivanexplosives and its driver neither of had that car first themthe road, offering slippery the of Because police. ofthe lists the yetin not were that people any the i.e. of ETA, “legals” called resistance, so- the by driven were car the and van the both clear, was road the whether check to both supposed was that car declaring another by preceded was minivan The themselves. arrests the concerned question to second The 2004). beMarch members of ETA. Such a that people start to doubt the operations of such onterrorismextent an to discourse accused the PPof the overusing of Extremadura, Forexample, inthe survey of Instituto OpinaInstituto of 2004,6 Marchthe terrorism was considered greatest El Mundo Guardia Civil , 4 March , 4March Which is 2004) probably and the police. ( El País 1 March 2004), a fact 1March 2004), El Mundo 245 , 3 125 CEU eTD Collection example, the example, For element. credibility empirical certain a had country the of unity the to threat The make to frame element a resonate. is anecessary worldview) that created with the consistent madebefore, statements party’s with the consistent wereperfectly declarations (i.e.the element fidelity” “narrative a had discourse of system whole the that claimed be thus can It worldview. party’s better, sometimes worse, but already proveditself to be an indispensablesometimes part of work, did the narrative This in office. years its throughout employed narrative otherwise than by reference tothe general style ofleadershipin the Popular Party and the The continuous use despite of its limitedthis discourse be utility hardly could explained overuse of the antiterrorist discourse in the campaign. by the repulsed somewhat were getting people the that or high really wasnot statements need to keep here to the chronological keephere tothechronological needorder. to decisions of people.Thiselementthe actually stronger after got elections,the we but inthe influence hadany ithardly situation that from current the distant was so event strong. The invocation of the Civil War frames had a certain resonance, but that particular Experiential very of of however,commensurability notelementdiscourse, part this was in elections and 2001Basque the in of 2004 elections.the campaign the both voters nationalists the mobilized PNV the on attacks the as same The mechanisms. strengthened the position ERCinCataloniathe of switching on defensive the gain much in prominence mindsthe of people the restof the of country the and only Carod’s separatist.party was alsoviewed suspicion,but with questionthe itself didnot in commonly present and asindependentist plan publicwas space.This perceived Plan Ibarretxe , though not much very during, though the campaign was debated 246 CEU eTD Collection the Constitution,the for the defeat of terrorism”,by alsothis clearly insinuating the manifestation day,organize the next the 12of March slogan the “With with victims, with 10 am, MaríaThe Aznar,at of to decided José president of Governmentthe Spain, attacks. ETAorganizedthese that timeat that thought everybody that point the to example an as PP the by used often later was statement This ( pages” last their writing “are terrorists the and that claimed attacks the morning condemned 9.30 that at Ibarretxe Juan José Basque journalists, the appear before leader to firstpolitical massacre. The for the was responsible whodoubt to nobody seemed events the after hours firstthe leaving,Spain, asitwill be known 192peopleafterwards, dead and injured. thousands In in attack inMadrid the largestterrorist of result environs inthetrains of explosions of a series day that 7.45 pieces. 7.34and Between thisto shatter scheme to threatened investigation subsequent the concretely, more and, March of 11 of events the However, Experience ofdislocation.From11-Mto 14-M mattered most for the people making the claim of the PP a pretty strong one. make the future with the Socialists look more dubious. Truly, these two elements struggle to in and antiterrorist economics party onitsthe achievements capitalize could viewed PSOEin the were not astrustworthy, organization here the with connections the strong pillar buildwhich on to whole the discourse. And attempts though the toimplicate a it making aspects credibility empirical the and commensurability experiential an had Thus, the narrative fidelity madehistorical largediscourse. of a the part extent to lines whichthemselves office, the of the whole structure To sum it thePPyears wasfollowingbasicup, thediscourse linesoutlined in throughout was high enough. The threat of ETA El País , 12 March implying March ETA. 2004) clearly , 12 Lehendakari 247 CEU eTD Collection the Basquethe separatists, leaving many somewhat perplexed. of ETA inMadrid”). On the other hand, in his official declarations there was no mentionor even allusion heading to of the special edition of the of newspaperthe attacks, calling them personally from to communicate the this “Terrorist(the head of massacrepoliticians in Madrid”and the heads to of “Thethe mainmassacre media he insisted that there should126 be no doubt about the authorship “unfortunately hemedia time 13.15, that this time indicated the appearedtotalk to at attacks which it never did with those of ETA. However, when the minister of Interior first of director in (as the country capital of the the commando there were certain elements that did not match. First of all, that meant ETA had a trains.the On otherthe hand, this and puzzled is what investigators most the of case,the bombsput on 2003even was preparedto Christmas of large andduringthe proportions thinking –as was mentioned before,was ETA produce an trying to attack in Madrid of associative the on based was here government the of judgment The bombs. the planted authorshipETA. of resistance.” (Otegi resistance.” “Arab andhave in musta work been beimplicated of they cannot attacks the ETA that 10.30 March wherethe up:already on claimedat spokesman 11, the piling of Batasuna insist continuedon suggesting this different authorship facts evenwhen the to authorship attacks of wasauthor the insisted ETA,government the notwithstanding, basingexperts the of doubts initial These its claims not so muchthemselves obviously soughtas high as numberpossible of deaths. on the facts,attacks the and powerful extremely were used butexplosives the bombs, the about onannounce the likelihood. It complete change of strategy on the part of organization: there was no usual phone call to in Valdivielso, quoted López Santiago now” right in resignations handour canall “if it ETA we was colleagues, The The behaviorof president of thegovernment isinteresting in this sense: inthe private talks with the 126 El País At that point there isno evidence whatsoever as whoto could have El País , 12 March Batasuna, 12March 2004) Furthermore, condemnedthe ,13 March 2005). Second, meantwouldhave Second, a that ,13 March 2005). El País Guardia Civil decided to change the main the change to decided asserted to his asserted to 248 CEU eTD Collection be the discourse be partythat thediscourse during itsconstructed in term and office especially for the should explanations first the of One behavior? a such of explanations be the should What still insisted, “ETA should be line”.priority Interior of Minister the were arrested, Al Qaeda to ties supposed with citizens Moroccan investigation. Indian of before anhour just on 13 March,two Saturday andthree Thus, path main the as ETA having on insisted still government the direction, a different to out pointing started facts While colors. the in picture stronger painted the just events Further demonstration was alsoa demonstration against government. the ifwas, but it werealreadywas not(and there more itthe believing people was not), it what was was ETA, demonstration if it Therefore, government. forthe responsibilities issue of knowing the truthwith the Constitution”), about but themore “who perpetrators was the author?”demonstrationmuch became so not implied one the bygovernment (“withThis victims,the question was notof a simplethe attacks. It also implied certain warwhich nobody wanted” (Ordaz, 2004) point is that if finally it appears to be Al Qaeda, the responsibility will be that of Aznar forgetting us into a mani[festation] isagainst ETA oragainst PP? I don’t understand anything” Hisfriend’s response was“The 128 attacks. the with do to nothing had they that claim used was not the usual of ETA. Finally, ETA itself called the Basque television andthe newspaper inside was found among the things of the victims. Deactivating the bomb it appeared that the dynamite messagebased Londonto a newspaper. Duringthe night 12asports-bag between with11 and bomb the Abu Hafs Brigades, alMasri a group linked toAl Qaeda, claimed responsibility for the attack sending the found inthe morning of 11 127 way,different pointing out indications were During the time the demonstration leading to Friday,of moreMarch, 12of andmore maintained until the night from 13 to 14 of March. claim ETA were just aguesswork. as “the principal lineinvestigation” of idea be will ETA succeeded inachievingits objective” whenall evidence hehadthe tosupportthis For example, Pablo Ordaz quotes one of the participants in the demonstration asking his friends “but this “but friends his asking demonstration the in participants of the one quotes Ordaz Pablo example, For A minivan, which contained detonators, the rests of dynamite and the cassette with verses of Koran, was th next to the station of Alcalá de Henares. In the evening a group calling itself calling a group evening In the Henares. de of Alcalá station the to next 127 so that the main slogan of the 128 Gara 249 to CEU eTD Collection over, the families were told they could not openthe coffins, it was claimed that no DNA tests exist when parliamentary investigation. Secondly, almost all the dead soldiers were badly identified and, whengiven all, there were numerous complaints about the state of the aircraft, informationthat was concealedfrom the than US inthe warof Afghanistan,but it also revealed incidents of mismanagement of information. First offrom deployment in Afghanistan. As a result of this tragedy Spain lost nearly a double numberof soldiers Yak-42The catastrophe on 26 of May 2003 inTrabzon, Turkey, costlives to 62 Spanishsoldiers returning (France and Portugal), see “Diario del desastre” in deldesastre” see“Diario Portugal), and (France wasit argued that fuel getsconsolidated, to the contrary of informationthe provided by countriesother was argued that the tanker would not sink, then that there would be no oil slick, later, when the tankeroil expanded sank to threaten greater and greater territory), there was bada management of information –first it employedonly in was morearmy the than 2weekscrisis, whole after the catastrophe beduring to and the supposed help were of they otherwhere countries not were was ministers denied (the while crisis thethe all the northern cost of Spain, especially hitting the Galiciancoast. In additionto the bad management of insisting that there largely was was no problem government crisis and the there will wayduring be the all no oil slick.Chernobyl, Soon after it appearedcatastrophe that ecological the oil contaminatedgreatest 130 seriously has more to do with the ruling party’s constructed discourse than with the factual reality. pointed not only the in direction have of could ETA, butbombings also Madrid that of ofthe Al Qaeda, thatprecedents the there latterwere Therefore, not attack. taken Casablanca committed that group recover the recover the Islamic militants. In addition, some of the communiqués of Al Qaeda talked about the necessity to 129 manner:as the such less satisfactory than managedin a government which the also crises, other that the in to addition However, terrorism. of Islamist threat tothe lack of in attention and war Iraq the course, all,of direction of the Islamist terrorism,brought out some skeletons from the cupboard. First of leading March, eventsof morein theinvestigation the of Furthermore, and a 11 more scheme. fitinjustfact not This the didanywhere effect. dislocative had aserious attacks the sense, 11-Mandthat factdid the perpetrate that especially the group the “domestic” not In Islamism. radical of in form the threat of type for adifferent initplace no was there The construction was so closed in itself (as we saw, all the pathwaysleading to ETA) that element. particular much one that on too itdepended as weak, wasconsiderably discourse sense thecreated that In society. facing Spanish main threat the as ETA of threat the heavily on relied this part, discourse inAshave theprevious we saw campaign. electoral Sinking of the oil tanker The attack against House of Spain in Casablanca, on May 16 2003 showed that Spain was in the eye of Al AndaluzAl . The three Moroccans arrested already on Saturday after the attacks had links to the Prestige next to the coast of Galicia on 19 of November 2002, created a El País Prestige 3 December2002 and Tusell 2004, 324-328. and the and Yak-42 catastrophes 130 and 250 129 CEU eTD Collection that getting into such a war would only worsen the relations with the Arab countries. Arab the with relations the worsen only would war a such into getting that the war against terrorism. The commonthe opinion war, was bythat MarchSpain was the not threatenedwar was byrejected Iraq in131 any way byof Prestige. and case in the 91% happened that same the and government, 86% thought that this they warexisted, etc. The politicalwill responsibilities bringthat the opposition demanded wereno washed away advancesby the in war gowas reallyconsiderable to unpopularity the to decision the of places andits influence for internalthe ispolitics minimal” (Tusell In 2004, p.335). fact, other in than relevance less have policy foreign of questions the Spain, “In war, this considerations have seem According beenTusell, to to overlooked. enteringabout talking as well, these in Iraq, war of case Inthe politicians. for the Spanish of threat assessments Foreign policy decisions did not have serious prominence in considerations and ambition of Aznar, that the Spanish people have topay. of attention was that the by many supplemented againstthewar.Theidea11-Mwas putmore slogans that in center the was a bill for the photo which governmental the banner “with victims, with Constitution the …” was of Azores, i.e. for the probably expressed in the clearestway inpersonal inin12 demonstration March the Barcelona, more to the direction of Islamic radicalism brought out this issue to the forefront. It was public viewed it negatively.generally very investigation The 11-M pointingof more and andit warbeforeMultitudinous the demonstrations started the were taking place against not. did that ones the and war the in participated which ones the both countries The opposition to the war in Iraq in Spanish society was one of the highest among all the the last days before the elections were the war in Iraq and the suppression of truth. great prominence two themestook in alsoremembered.Hence, the that destruction was manipulation. Naturally, the worldwide prominent case of Iraqi outright weapons not if of mass information the of mismanagement of suspicion general a was there where In January In showed2003, 61% acomplete rejection, 24% support onthe conditionthat UN the accepted 131 , but the 251 CEU eTD Collection and 134 133 the Parliamentand …what said he did not he do and what he did,did not say”(Tusell 2004, p.338). 132 “amakingfor in2003. pactwith death” could notfavor the ruling party at all,it gavemore ground for those who were accusing it constructions. Obviously, the connection between these bloody events and the war in Iraq incorporate inhardly authorshipthe a way its of afundamentalist group to discursive war in Iraq came to the blame,Islamic radicalism that wasto of upindications With piling 11-M and attacks the front of the public opinion.accusations of the government in the spheres of territorial and antiterrorist policy).But for the government spendway by oppose (which hadto opposition the considerablethe to trying time there was question the by of was completely eluded and party in used a limited ruling Iraq the only foreign policy Duringarea was right. the campaignfor general the elections of 2004, the in decision much intothe too consideration nottake publicwill the that government the of calculation the moment the at Probably, government. the for punishment any acts the of ingovernment sothat sphere, municipalthis next the didnot showelections muchput on too emphasis not does public the itseemed that war, againstthe sentiments the fact and without a possibilitygovernment did notbother try makingmore it acceptable. The in wasfrontpublic put of of appeal. management of information occurred also before in such cases as cases in such before also occurred information of management perception thethat governmentis hiding information. ageneral information created management of government’s the sothat opinion escape public calculation fornot the didfavor party’s reelection. This chances did For example, “Until Monday [after elections] the truth for them is of no avail” in Ordaz, 2004. Ordaz, in avail” of no is them for truth the elections] [after Monday “Until example, For Ignasi Guardans, one of leadersthe of CiU,quoted in Tusell 2004, p.338. opinion public the from hands his washed “completely Aznar moment, a certain after writes, Tusell As Yak-42 . This timeatmanipulation an attempt was even more perceivable. In addition 133 Furthermore, the initial idea that it was ETA was it that idea initial the Furthermore, 132 However, after the initial upsurge of the 134 As was mentioned, such a bad a such mentioned, Aswas Prestige catastrophe 252 CEU eTD Collection 2000 elections. See also: Hidalgo, 2004 and 2004 the between participation in difference the to proportional directly was surveys ofthe predictions the to compared PSOE by the achieved votes of the percentage increased the and predicted previously than would come out to vote and wouldabsentees vote potential Socialists. the that – Thus, March the 11 of participation attacks the in before the electionsalready PPfeared wasthe muchwhat higherwas happened the 1982 elections which gave absolute majority to the PSOE). It could be argued that what actually gained 43.27%and participationthe thePP 37.81% with to77.22% (second rising highest, loweronly than principal of points discourse.the preparedfor Theanswer all questionsthe to related authorship of Al Qaeda hadmeaning noin its scheme of reasoning, going against the time to incorporate theseWith theevents attacks into takingits discursive victory for socialists.unexpected) the place only constructions. 3 days before from governmentthe andof givinga(largely party theruling ousting Spain, power the To elections,put it bluntly, manipulation was electionsgaining the 14-M upperhand.Therefore, broughtachangethe in rulingthe party had lies and open of government and the accusing 11 attacks March with war in the Iraq no of discourse its opponents, (unspoken) however, the newthese circumstances, itsThe makehard clingruling tried to previous party in to and discourse itworkableto 42% for the PP and 38% for136 the PSOE,disclose the information came also from the side of the politicians. parties the all Furthermore, resurfaced. war the could against PSOE of the position intransigent the and hardlyIraq in war keep their opinionpromiseswas getting “street” more the and more importantHowever, at the same events. time of the and the links between meaning the protest political the about against in talk to such renounced and meetings electoral a tense situation, so 135 that the demands for government to times ETA and only 5 times Al Qaeda in his appearances. ( apologize or had ministeralludingthe SpanishInterior for 59 to governmentthis); of UNtoinclude declaration on change appeal of ETA (later prepared name the the the to to argue for the authorship them for embassies the to writing foreign affairs of minister as such occasions were there of ETA and exercise diplomatic factsathand, serious without culpabilities suchthe mentionedas declaring factors, to pressure in relation to that, A week before the elections the surveys showed about 4% difference between the two parties (predicting parties two the between difference 4% about showed surveys the elections the before week A their cancelled parties the all and events the to given be would meaning political no that agreed was It Instituto Opina 136 6 March 2004). On 14 March though, the PSOE El País , 28July 2004) 135 linking 253 CEU eTD Collection want to “divertjust attention ofterrorism use from of electoral the PP ones the who accuse who gave ones the ETA that the stage”claiming ( campaign electoral the during tragedyforthis is unacceptable” ( intoxicationby miserablethe people orderin to divert attentionfrom the real goals and the ones responsible 137 of subjects. the finally for ordering organization the the reversing image apositive created paradoxically, the government, the attacks perpetrated that ETA (Editorial struggle”. antiterrorist the to immobility constitutional related “PP government that hasbeennoted It party. of duringthe rule the were elaborated that discourse violence the itsto relation and historical discourse of the aspects used allthe terrorism” of demise the for Constitution the with and victims “with sense: in this telling assassination Miguel Angel of Blanco. use asif ofAznar 11Marchit the the ruling to tried government The attacks was party. completely both peripheralthe nationalists and the socialists ended in turning againstthe discreditwould eventually asthat campaign a “promising” whatstarted Therefore, issue. from “real” attention the divert attempt to the and “intoxication” war in Iraq wasused also toanswer questions the of Islamicthe connection: as ETA was not 140 to of PP. leaders present be towards directed were “assassins” blamed) was139 of of Lizarra. Declaration on the possible138 reaction against the Autonomy. The PP government victims” became“assassins,” of “thevoice of instead as acting ruling the party “moral order”: reversed thecreated thus attacks The system. Constitutional the of outside the from only not and country the of outsidefrom the coming of work inface newtype of the didthreat not discourse the of aspects All these suffering. their and will victims’ of the exponent singular as a acting 2005) Inaddition,mentioned aswas before, it toappropriatetried voicethe of victimsthe Forexample, Acebes talking about the claims of Otegi that ETA has no implicationin the attacks: “any General fear in the Basque Country and to the lesser extent in Catalonia During the Friday,(before 12 of March demonstrations it was in Barcelona, getting but also in the Basqueclear Country, that the shouts example, for See, El País , 13 March 2005. On the impact of the assassination of Blanco, see the chapter El País 139 and more:by insistingeven all against itthat odds was , 12March2004). The wasminister usingnearly wordssame the 138 The slogan chosen for the manifestation is for manifestation the Thechosen slogan El País , 1 March 2004) 140 It is a telling fact that 137 El País , 6March 254 CEU eTD Collection movie on ETA. on movie levels the day before elections; even the public televisionRTVE changed its evening program to show a (Ekaizer, 2004).Furthermore, thismanipulationwas more more and obvious extremely reaching high anotherthat ETAcaused the massacre, without any thatproof” caused the ruling party’s fallfrompower 142 votes. ofthe 18.8% only receiving 9.46%, falling PP the with spectacular most the was elections two the between difference the 141 done have not would guys (“our it”). organization the towards attitude favorable somewhat the with combined government the against backlash a caused on direction other insist the to pointing Continuing started facts the when ETA regions. two in these treatment harsher even for grounds provide would magnitude could besaid with firmnessa considerable is party the that bemuchwould so not what However, speculation. of matter a only now is reality, their deny to trying not and managed toincorporate factsthe (showing Al authorship the of itsQaeda) to discourse also after. but March, 14of the only before not itself fortifying prominence What gained thisone second would have been the outcome of the elections had the government directed against the Basque clearly referendums” of“illegal convocations for sentence aprison include to Code Penal of change already showed no hesitation inadopting harsh measures against peripheralthe nationalists (such the as deception. nationalisms to the worldview based on two completely differentissues: war in Iraq and and integrity coming“reds tothe from of the peripheral separatists” the and state frames created before of thenthe ruling party. The possibility of Alauthorship of seriously disrupted Qaeda the shifting attentionp.148) This is visibleclearly in situation the between 11 and 14 of March in discourse the from the historical by –whichdomesticated is structure therefore (Torfing discursive the 1999, disrupted.” ways framesin other or symbolized, represented, be cannot that of events, of set a or event thean coalitions of the ruling party. In the definition of dislocation readwe that it “refers to the emergence of To conclude, events the of March 11had aserious dislocative effect on discoursethe of andBasque Country Catalonia. party the lost most spectacularly in which it regions the tried soharddemonize to – According to Ernesto Ekaizer, it is to a big extent “one lie, that of the [weapons] of mass destruction Catalonia In on the party received 7.26%only 15.53% falling elections, from last Basque inthe the Country 142 In the end it appeared that the government’s frame did not “resonate” and “resonate” not did frame government’s the that appeared it end the In Lehendakari 141 Juan José Ibarretxe), it was feared that the attacks of such a 255 CEU eTD Collection prevalentin the political space. Three events had beto domesticated here – accusations of myth, a readingDiscourse ofof the thePP after eventscompletely14 or wouldof provideMarch a very partial reading of the situation.was veryof much11 space on suturing dislocated the work manage to they will whether concentrated determine mainly to 14 Marchon creating suchthat a would be different from the accepted by (almost) all the society, way of looking at the world. See Laclau myth1991.neutralizes these dislocations completely becomesand a “social imaginary,” anunquestionable, 144 heaven, at least it would fall only it to the purgatory. majority absolute the having one could second the in govern, to order in parties moreminor other of support the on or less do what143 it pleased. Furthermore, the surveys predicted that even if it did not stay in imaginary.” “social a into and myths,lensesmay subsequently viewing whichprovide events which forevolve the discourse by theory, new canbesutured space,accordingcreating to The dislocated found itself to be a villain of the antiterrorist struggle. party the terrorism against fight the of forefront in the being of Instead responsibilities. foresightand for political lack of demands and of accusations truth manipulation, hiding of it deal the After all,was thePPwhohadto accusations the loosingwith party. asthe oneas shattered of the was not worldview andits general credibility but citizens, claimeditthat had means gainedby power andthecowardliness terrorist of Spanish the in theby foreign especially influencedpopular press The was statements the PSOE also abrupt. too just was heaven from fall whose PP the for not especially March, 11 the The general elections resulted in a change in government, but have notclosed the issue of Dealing withdislocation dislocation after the hectic days of 11 to 14 March. conditioned by these events as it still is. Now we can look how it dealt with this Myths create “a new objectivity by means of rearticulation of the dislocated elements.” A successful elements.” dislocated of the ofrearticulation means by objectivity new “a create Myths Tusell (2004) calls the two legislatures of the PP “purgatory” and “heaven”, in the first one it had to rely 144 Myths, like frames have their resonance aspects, which 256 143 CEU eTD Collection Spanish soil and the wholethe fight on attacks againstbe no will Islamicthere radicalismthat fact the was somewhat in confidence wrongly excessive was directed.there that admitted addition absurd.” was it inefficacious, (Cortes generales.nor Sesión 18 Novembernúm. 31, 2004,p.31) The chief officers ofsecurity forcesefficacious, in “neither was Asturias in mine Conchita the from attacks areas of investigationof Islamic terrorism as well asthat of stealing dynamite that was laterused in the 145 the by shattered violently so was that party the of discourse the of integrity of recreation Solving another. had issues,these things, other clearimplications among for the toone closely both related andelections, manipulation issues:more political concerned commission. the in respondents byother services security the and party the of integrity the on attack an be to taken not was it but criticism, such any accept to in refused party the Acebes) of Interior former Minister the (mainly hardliners US a parliamentary commission of went inwrong what preventing thisfrom happening Septemberinwas (after 11attacks the also created to investigate investigation place demandedcertain magnitude of couldtake attacks the itselfsuch that the facts and acts). The fact The well. as discourse party’s the in and consequently of party the of opponents the side the on both attention least – received the lack foresight –the of of factors these First events. the after circumstances thatled to these events and the acts of authorities as well as political forces of the parliamentary commissionfollowing during and mostJosé María thework clearly exposed theelections was Aznar) that was created to assess the its leaders honorary visible inthe (and especially president, speeches party of political events of 11 March, the much is Thisreadingbecause pretty lost play of of others. an unfair were the elections dealtwith in a following manner:there was lackno foresight, of no manipulation and the were and losslack of foresight Thesefactors manipulation, of the elections. political of The former secretary of the state for security even admitted that actuation of security services in certain in services of security actuation that admitted even security for state ofthe secretary former The 145 The main fight main The 257 CEU eTD Collection States “terrorists have wonon 11 M” ( Qaeda and ETA outsideis of Spain, among numerous notexamples,Moscow in he claimed that the relationshipdiscarded betweenAl by146 the police ( its the theMarch and implications: 11 to leaderinrelation the of discourse the represent March,but with the turn of electoral outcome on the 14 especially of outside Spain made government alotthe speeches While of of inupper hand the ex-president party. the has the still which and theone, dislocation todeal with theof situation of attempts the one influence party.show within They hasconsiderable the Aznar,whostill José María government the of president former the by expressed clearly most still are ideas These benow from freesuch an influence. can government no and won have terrorists the that another and lied never government closely interconnected: in ideas March thefollowing two 14. Thus were of the reiterated party the actuation the PP in the elections,onediscourse said of the party is as valid the as before.that Finally,citizens itwould mean,essentially, in nothing that haschanged would politicalthe situation and the showETA that by not voting wastheof Spain stillthe elections, would confirm that ETA was and still ismade the source of all the problems. This thea mistake, focusestablishing such a connection would also confirm the validity of party’s discourse before a questionof attention party,the reputation of the torestoring addition another.In in way or was implicated one that was often ETA demonstrate that meantto and of 11 March attacks the after information of management the The claim wasmanipulation there that no orlying involved in governmental the the political enemies and prove consistency of other elements of the discourse. forrecreate reason keepingof had forefront of events the They ETA to at 11-14 March. The former president of the government proposed his view on almost any occasion he had of talking had he occasion any almost on view his proposed government of the president former The 146 claiming terroriststhe have wonnotsomuch by 11of the El País , 22September2004). El País 19October2004), lectures giving the United in th , there are two instances that best instances that two are there , 258 CEU eTD Collection elections by organizing the protests in front of the headquarters of the party of infront party throughout the headquarters of the elections protests byorganizing the forunjustly events the and governmentbeforethe disrupting the dayof the reflection so, they were well prepared touse the attacks for electoral purposes, were lying, accusing “others”those being the Socialists and the independent media of gavebut were“others there disposal “in disinformation,” (p.50) (p.18),who time” real detain hard to all of authors the and attacks the provided alltheinformation ititshad at was working government the happened, event the After started. war the before already The warin hadimportanceIraq noin because they being attacks, the prepared were occasions,33, see:36) p.13, fourleaston at phraserepeated (the overtheelectoral result.” toturn also possible, but as victims of number great as causing of intention the had only not terrorists “The have make to “intellectual an attack. decided theirmysterious author” organizations and moment, found no connections between the two organizations. two the between connections no found moment, 147 Generales. núm. Sesión 2004, p.6) 34,29November (Cortes fact.” is Al and ETA an“incontestable is between Qaeda connection it the that Because all the terrorisms are the same and in the end have connections between them, so núm. Generales.29 Novemberp.13) Sesión far awaymountains.” (Cortes 2004, 34, the or deserts in for remote be searched “shouldn’t that intellectual authors the are there but Islamists), are (which the attacks of authors material the are only about we know inmanner: what afollowing reconstituted could be interpretation Aznar’s events the of account of eventsthe between 11 and 14March 2004. issued FAES, the that overbyAznar,give athinkpresided 30March tank the on 2005 to of appearance infront Commission March the and11 of 29,2004) the video (November Actually this “incontestable” fact was greatly contested by the investigation itself, which, to the 147 Therefore, these two these Therefore, Cadena SER . Even more . Even 259 CEU eTD Collection buried in the quicklime. The investigation connected these deaths to the GAL, to the to GAL, the to deaths these connected investigation The quicklime. the in buried ETA militants whose bodies with149 the protestors.” signsthe between of conspirators (Tusell 2004, p.324) torture political find to trying for andobsession and murder investigation wereindependent found and responsibility any someof accepting denial by “… years characterized was government of the after behavior their death Gipuzkoa and the Socialist government itself. previous acts of the government, as Tusell writes describing the crisis of those demonstrations on which the whole discourse on PPthe were soon 11-Mgivenpriority above anything else of that happenedwas between11 and14of centered. itwasMarch, of headquarters front in This protests The went happening. in were linethey when with the manifestations these condemning not initiative of one of the protestors, informationThe it about these gatherings waswas transmitted through mobile SMS.blamedWhile it waspersonal a on the PSOE. The leaderin Madrid, but of also in Barcelonathe party and other cities withadmitted the slogans “before his going to voteerror we want the truth.” in 148 fall intoplaces,right same the wayitwould bedemonstrated thethat governmentnever would pieces other can bedemonstrated, if that isETA. of Obviously, involvement the turns still discourse whole the which around idea The “conspiracy”. of caption the under into thediscourse 14 Marchentered were 11 2004 to eventsof unfortunate Therefore, the discovered. itself investigation the factsthat the consider not wedo when even less credible, party number of false analogies, like those of ETA’s engagement that made the claims of the between of period be11 and 14of saw March the should judged.However, March also a background againstwhich involvementthe of Socialistsin between events the 11 and 14 assassination.” any cover revoked as haveuse like Aznar claimingwell, hands,quicklime “we clean wedidnot to between the PSOE and the GAL. AfterAfterin thedefeat 1993 elections, the PPpushed hardfor investigation of ties the the defeat in 2004, wanted. they that elementsgovernment in the change the getting of this rhetoric are country. (FAES 2005) mindfor any blaming in the strategy theof government Onpotential the Islamist attack 14 March, then, the Spain. terrorists have attained their objectives, Aznar in the Congress of PP, quoted in Pradera, 2004b. The reference was made to the murder of two On Saturday, 13 March, there were around 5000 people gathering in front of the headquarters of the PP 148 TheFAESsuggestZapaterowentevenhas further that video to longhadin ago 149 This resuscitation of the GAL was supposed to be a Prestige , in this case as well, the Guardia Civil 260 of CEU eTD Collection was a move made to implicate the Socialists in the robbery of the explosives inAsturias, time etc.submitted to the public sphere. Whenthe “intellectual authorship” of ETA did not seem to work, there 151 change. Iraq and actually did not care warin thatthe in much about interest no who had is inthe government, terrorists the e.g. – but still flawed were seeking beseriously to the electoral seems facts of the explanation the for presented logic the and grounded not completely and fetched far somewhat is same the are terrorisms the 150 elections: before the time some wrote Elorza Antonio country in the analysts political leading the of one As moveparty on. finallyconnections waswronged, andestablishingthat astheRighteous canthe itself present. is still parties andthe terrorists between and terrorists the between connection some find to need The planned. earlier that is why there is a need is yetknown according party, not to the andbe is revealed, hidden waiting to somewhere to have the parliamentary Aznarin truth, The of commission. speeches the the leaders welcomed moderate commission villain.working longer It thanis electionsthus and, seemingly, this is the only strategy it came up with in order not to look as a a telling factit back its former thatshape. All the whilenot the party isonly tryingappeal within theto party ranks.make They suture the dislocated spacessense of the discoursethe and give of its loss hard-linersof the isvisible, pretty arguments fallacy these logical well of as of the party, as factual While (FAES2005) pressure.” “antidemocratic the of aresultindeedas won but also Socialists itsand that government the against a conspiracy wasindeed attacks the after place lied andevenhada transcendental thatwhat knowledge aboutthis involvement, took There are all kinds of theories that explain these connections within the PP and that are from time to time from are that and PP the within connections these explain that oftheories kinds all are There all that idea whole the and events the in of ETA implication any found never investigation the all, After years.” (Elorza 2004) years.” (Elorza four was inthelast temptation properly authoritarian excessive speaking. The reflection from opposition can restore the PP to a condition of a of a period havenotwithstanding, only center-rightpolitical relief … the to Aznarretiring party 151 The idea seems to be that only finding these 150 the ideas have a lot of lot a have ideas the 261 CEU eTD Collection Elders of Zion” Pradera 2004c) of style of the board by secret a governed International Terrorist ofaPlanetary existence the defending start should PP ofthe president honorary (“the groups terrorist different the between ties the about speculate 152 internationals” “terrorist conspiracies, of realism magic a them to adding and ideas previous the to placenotseem does take to the and only filling inthedislocatedof isway spaces sticking process this Yet, one. old of from the ashes the emerges if anewdiscourse overcome, by 14 of created March is 11to isthe ifthedislocation only that However, possible construction of the particular electoral discourse, which is based on the elements of the of elements the on based is which discourse, electoral particular the of construction were outlined. chaptersomethe which havebeen general madepoints, visible in discussion above, the First of of introduction the In made. be all, can conclusions several above, said been has what From what is illustratedConclusions by the above discussion trapped in its old constructions. is the logic beenis party still have missedandmessage, the opportunity however, that seems to of The lossleadershipchangeopportunity elections of was of the change and the a good to butprogressively,in more andmakes more radical ititstones Royo (Pérez own.” 2005) so that the PP “not only keeps anchored in the political discourse of José MaríaAznar, be and gettingstronger, stronger to seems this strategy Furthermore, 2005) (Gallego-Díaz betime to unable take upperhand,the to thethat is so party leftwith “only strategy.”the Mariano Rajoy. However, the more moderate leader of party the by mainly sector current the moderate represented more Acebes and sector has shown itself throughout party the of secretary general and Aznar president honorary bythe liners represented all this faces,” (Gallego-Díaz has “two writes, The PP,asSoledad Gallego-Díaz This was the idea mockingly raised in several papers discussing José María Aznar’s propensity to propensity Aznar’s José María discussing papers several in raised mockingly idea the was This 152 and claims.“everyone againstus” 2004) the hard- 2004)the 262 CEU eTD Collection however, when the discourse on violence substitutes all the other issues present in the issues present all other the substitutes onviolence discourse the when however, that much,matter would not of attacks the authorship cases,other the supposedly, performedactors, as bydifferentwe saw onMarch 11 andthefollowing days. Insome acts, different to significance give to equipped badly was it element, one on exclusively This constructionconvincingitself and others itsof righteousness. p.16) The discussion above showsthePPbecominglike a“discourse community,” of discourse, 1997, intertwine”(Apter logical moral and the myth,the the logical basis for projection, though, a well as and ofnarrative, ingredients as violence of acts “By treating claims, as Apter appearedwhich through negation of the self allows theto identity rulingof bethe self to be constructed.a weak Also,party, moveone. thethe Basedcoalitionorganizationsignify instability,prosperity to threat increased of threat and terrorism. evenbolderan In almostcomes to became as an adversary in the associatedelections is replaced by a coalition and the coalition itself comes to to symbolize withParty Socialist Thus, weseehowthe element. one issues into the of all as acondensation ETA. Inthe the “constitutive thenodal whichmetonymic in slidingcreates point, appears through discoursediscourse that turn of theIn formeraddition, outside,” Spains.” “two frames of historical the the recreate “reds separatists” of and coalition the a force,form existing the nation and the unity of to the of threat mainly it are ideas Those century. took was a were not thoroughnew, but made part of historical discourse of the Right throughout almost entirerelationdescribe opponents the frame to issue and were used to the that main and elements the of identity issues mundane than in concerns.Both interestthis identitywith issues state the the historicalhistorical discourse and and in whichviolence the problems addressed have more to do with the state 263 CEU eTD Collection or another be linked to it, are put to the outside of the political by space and putit, ofthepolitical outside relocating are anotherbelinked tothe to or way can inone that actors it, other the with are associated orthat addresses actor the that it violence With touches. theissues and,that everything as violent asaresult, discredits saysbeviolent.judged Consequently, doesor seenan to ascomes that everything actor serves in defining and redefining what violence is. Notthe acts, but the actors come beto fact that no “actual” violence was taking place.is It a good example howof the discourse inin spite of sphere, the political made the electoral 2004 was campaign present of the during itself. Violence andsphere political of the shape actors the between political the relations the country, life of the political the influence can organization “terrorist” example inwas the how canserveMarch 14.This the of punished elections asagood of incriminate organization the attempt March11events to and reaction continuous to the in its ThePPgovernment shattered. deeply were credentials its democratic scandal that GAL the into implicated deeply so was government Socialist The Spain. of governments It is ironic theories. conspiratorial the on based much so that ETA has by only playedmythsentering regarding the mythshave that 11-M, dubious weightas they are a part place takes adjustment the while its centrality, retains still ETA discourse. the reforming in discreditingby place take not does attempt this However, discourse. inthe dislocation with the almostdeal to events, these accommodate to is an attempt then, 11, March the see after we What all of the democraticfor dealing with them. issues and different discursiveconfigurations problems,also atstake different different field,itspolitical becomes importance Different means overwhelming. authorship 264 CEU eTD Collection easier to rectify what they do than what they say. (Pérez Royo 2005) action thefuture actor to comply.As Royofor politicianscompelling writes, is Pérez it the limits to sets discourse the created, once that true is itequally However, will. actor’s it on the depend to adherence continuous material) and available from readily created March 11 ismore of the same.is It true that the creation of the discourse (even when itis we seeafter what and dislocation the despite been not achieved has this change see that can be used both for changing and for reaffirmation of the structure. In the case of PP, we itbutis clearfreedom also freedom dislocations (Laclau1990,p.44), this that that exists elements byvoluntary of the created usage were frames themselves common The trademarks. available blocks, werehis terms ortheequivalential logic of constructions of hegemonic two in a large extent by itsthe president José María Aznar. The confrontational tactics of thinking in historical PP the of strategies The discourse? the consciousdiscourse. choice and The last question andaddressed hereis between structure agency. relation the how much How much a structural As obligation assenseless. events the Laclau determines the themforms writes,to the ofoutside, the the conflict is dismissed asit nonexistent, is the actorsbecause as unreliable and of throughout itsin years officehave been to throughout determined 265 CEU eTD Collection violence became part of the general struggle to hegemonize the discourse, even, as could presence the andhow wascreated discourse historical the how we saw the paper Throughout of (ETA) violence and between evil.andgood moral the choices moral was the dimension represent but divisions, political arenotbasedon neutral constructed given meaningeveryone whowithin brings thelogic “warframes”, of where the violence forth equivalence, often presence of is not it.with Attemptschoiceus is againstof democratic todifferent logics us.to be employeddomesticate in the attemptpolitical tohegemonizeFinally, discourse and it is the are needs. There their own to according discourse inthe elements different these actors connect the to equivalentialwhich howto choose actors democratic the of Secondly, constructions. discourse their respective them tofor discourse givehistorical in the available elements the take do priority.chains actors political democratic thatHowever, are investigation wehaveas follows:first, Thus, conclusions from this are seen that the elements, allows us understand the terrorist and violence provide itwith meaning. of combination these the and,through civilization), of (culture, country discourse the in historical thatarepresent elements the on discursive builds butinthe avacuum, without analyzing the discourse and, second, that the discourse on terrorism is notcreated system political onthe terrorism of impact assess the we cannot that first, assumptions: this endeavorwith two have started lifesystem. Spanish I the political political and Spanish the on impact its into inquiry an make to and Country Basque the and Spain The aim of this thesis was to examine how terrorism had been constructed in the case of Conclusions 266 CEU eTD Collection terrorism, butDiscourse based on logicthe of difference mightit notbe a panacea for solving the issue of is clear “Basque” andthat the other, which is “violent.” violence into because it parts – even has todivide moreETA of one two complicated which is comes to playidentity a ofmuch the actor by representingmore the creates which outside” the“constitutive becomes eventually violence discourse a importantpure alternative to it. For the PNVrole the also use violencesituation tobuild awall between themselves and the other inactors. In the Socialistis they but respect, in this different somewhat is PSOE the and PNV the of discourse The which itis pitied. Spanish represents violence state which is agglutinating the community and against the environment, its and ETA for Similarly world. (hostile) the all from itself on closed community” whosetruths are non-negotiableimpossiblenegate and and to which is from power.party the oust to In conspiracy great this one into Socialists sense,ruling and nationalists peripheral the PP came close to creatingconstruction identity, of but,on contrary,the reinforcedit by linking ETA, Al Qaeda, what Apter calls a “discourseby the March 11 attacks and their aftermath did notencourage the party reconsiderto this produced inthis discourse dislocation The in country. the actors political all almostother includeand PSOE 2004 this comes electoral the to of the campaign entirety. During saw in discussion,the violence isnot only but alsoETA, peripheral the nationalism inits aswe ForthePP,for example, frontier attacks. of these the by locating easily established All violence this comes from outsidethe and boundaries the community of the are thus identity of actors. all the partof the anecessary became be seen from the discourse of the PP, its essential element. In such a way, violence 267 CEU eTD Collection freedom isfreedom lost and an changeto opportunity of thecourse isevents neglected. The fantastic forms) rather take if (even sometimes they constructions oldof the discursive reaffirmation that is a resultopportunitythis However, well. as ofactors political dealingdemocratic the of focus the be should This withto changethe dislocation. becomes possible. reversal of trend the the discourse Thus,causes of the phenomenonthe and putlittle too emphasis on these special moments when the momenthas rarely of the emergence been of terrorism. attempted.facilitate that conditions in thestructural of i.e.moments on changes the change, possible In fact, a of moments many these on attention their focus studies researchers scholarly the It that necessary of isterrorism more define often in mustpointgreat bementioned,namely, if that we wish find a to cure for terrorism,itis detail the the important of the another this context, In 1991,p.39) dislocation. (Laclau emergence of human agency andspace that is openedwhen discourse intocrisisthe enters with the as Laclau is there for intervention of However, writes, the the a space investigations. Discourses comes in. actors is of wherethe importance logic the Here political of the expansion through difference. are structures, from discourse the tothe confrontational the construction equivalence chainsof of change to will is political then, isnecessary, What is an not option. course, of societies, and be only physicalthe in achievedthrough of annihilation “enemy,”which the democratic the logic of equivalence demands eradicationstudies of the conflicting chain and this eradication can politics if itis into entered discourse thecenturies-old through frames (civil)of war.The of discourse are based on structural 268 CEU eTD Collection to expand it to such an extent that it would make alternative discourses completely discourses itwouldmake alternative that such an extent expand itto to in it toodiverseachieve to a complete hegemonic project. There is, however, a possibility itis that and alwaysan society is neverreality.complex attempt too The people and the According to Laclau and Mouffe, one of the characteristics of hegemonicthe discourse is won. of hasclearly logic equivalence the cases, other many in as Here, them. between abyss the bridge to possibility any without worldviews robust intheir own themenclosed camps,of each two the between divided and wasseen somethingas alienandhostile The bytheothers. society remained strongly idealsof their only resonated thesupporters sides,with discourse both on However, this rallying from points their solid historical legacy create to discourse. and coherent wereusingthestrongest front” “national ofthe Basque and opponents proponents Both Lizarra. of Declaration the of adoption the to leading events the of discussions expand theit other parts of to dividedthe We society. sawthis most in clearly the nationalism;same all justideas violencebe allendin up seemboiling the limbo, all to down to reaffirmationthe the of reconfigure that existedthe elements throughoutwithin the discourse, at least not managing two tocenturies of the construction of itself, but especially its especially but itself, true about the Spanish is This inthediscourses. findcommon to andpoints part anattempt excluding other the political actors, spaceby of a social apart of go easyway conquering the to a temptation to resist and also the isis determination needed What Basque, case. be the haveto necessarily not does this that I argue and it is true of parts of terrorism. essential perpetuation about ETA of one the intact its meaning becomes keep to and violence domesticate to attempt alter ego alter – Batasuna. So far, the projects created to eradicate to created projects far,the So Batasuna. – 269 CEU eTD Collection evil. politicalinvolve and decisions, choosing inbetween theystruggle sides eternal the good neutral the not are be made to choices The morality. of in robes the aredressed choices political Here,through compassion appeal the options. to with victims, political the saw how the hegemonizingisaggressive and identifying discourse evilwith good the anintellectual create We in leadership moral also but society. the effort to and political, mean all toachieve only It mustnot be of hegemony that discourse stressed attempts an for the democratic political actors, as we saw happen with the PP. main the of elements production discourse fornot only theterrorist organization,also but constantly worldthe reproduce (TaussigViolence, 1987,p.100,107) becomes thus, oneof helping violence “theform becomes and life” real to violence discursive of produces the Here, society. entire the fearitentangle of the and of violence threat violence, where “cultureterror” of inacertain results and sense threat of a greater politics, produces in emotionality of level the heightens violence anti-state of presence the Here, form. goals, but rather as those of verythe survival of the political community in its (perfected) and interests of asthose anymore seen not are issues where the latter; the former against and tosupportthe moralimperatives the between evil good as equivalence with a conflict logic the of to according is created discourse where situation, inthe achievable hardly However, what is achievable through the pragmatic politics and the reasoned approach, is of difference. a state of affairs, and can this only be done by expanding discourse the logicthrough the achievesuch to of discourse democratic istask the it authors, the According to marginal. 270 CEU eTD Collection Italy, the in policies, state the towards too-lenient as theyregarded which PNV, old youth the with Similarly to the situation in Spain, where ETA was born out of the dissatisfaction of the assimilating Marxist concepts intoits framework” (Bellamy, Schecter 1993, p.137). tradition, political Italian the of language the employed also Gramsci ideas mature constant in Thus, thought. “outing as Gramsci’s Bellamy and note, Schecter forward his is Italians” “making of idea – the Risorgimento of discourse historical just-established fromthe of reconsideration rose thus, the Gramsci’s discourse, p.1). alternative 1993, Schecter (Bellamy, foundation” popular a truly on be might reconstructed State Italian the “how on reflected on further and nation” unified culturally or a politically being from Antonio Gramsci, for Marxistthought, ofthe figures key the of One either. endeavor successful completely example,a not was considered nation” “Italian the forging that true also is it Spanish, the of that than stronger that “despite legal unification, Italy was far While itis true that the myths and heroes of were brought by violent discourse organization. that alternative the the Risorgimento) in created idea of (the Italy historical discourse wereobserved: the construction discourse position in the politicaldiscredit andCommunistbeginning,in party, to helped toquestion theits latter the system. Here,did ideologicalan betweenthe organization in connection Spain, terrorist and the the same as in Rosse theBrigate Spanish case, three beanalysis situations can appliedtoother aswell. example,inFor where the Italy, levels of In this work particular attention was paid tothe case of Spain,but the same framework of Brigate Rosse caused caused muchhavoc in as much 1970sand the as received attention as ETA , then the creation of the alternative discourse and, finally, the changes in changes the finally, and, discourse alternative the of creation the , then sprang from the same dissatisfaction with the old Communist Risorgimento made Italian nationalism much nationalism Italian made 271 CEU eTD Collection by itself is not violent and should not be held responsible for the works of some “lost some of works the for responsible be held not should and violent not is itself by thatIslam leavingviolent outsidedifference, onlythe politicalthe space.Statements of chainsof through democratic the terror on thediscourse hegemonize to attempts modestthe also and civilization Western Other ofthe great the as wasestablished Islam If we look at the events themselves and their construction,inquiry. we can see, for example, how for objectof this the serve asabackground andwould writers clerics fundamentalist of works the in reinterpretation radical its while examination, in the element important be an would Islam of history alternative the Then discourse. historical the for basis a provide might world Islamic the and West the between rivalry ancient The discourse. in new a events these domesticate to attempts different andthe attacks, 11th September violence of the Islamic fundamentalists, especially its discursive constructions after the In addition, situationthe in of terms andgood evil enough.was prominent (see Wagner Pacifici 1986) it is possible of presentation andthe impact, had asignificant moral discourse the outside. However, to transferof difference, this where here, initially chainsthe through in which constructed was equivalence, alogic of ended framework only the violent discourse The subculture. Communist peaceful andthe violent the between fordistinction were theleft toanalysis occupyviolent any actionsfrom thedissociation fast their spaceto led ofandorganizations of terrorist the with theit even associating constitutivecurrent the entire by party Communist the discredit to attempts initial The Spain. in ideologythan way different of the in it political play in a but the although system, rolea alsoused significant came to radicals as well position Violence “fascist”the state. towards became partof identity the group, this of as to attempts to draw a 272 CEU eTD Collection process. leasta smallI hope,provides this at community contribution such. to as This work, political the and system political the life, political the on impact true its showing necessaryis it atrend, such reverse to way be a not might there though even Thus, itself. forfortify scientificterrorism becoming “global governance” (Crelinsten is2007), it likely spreadandto communitycounter- the with fact, In disappear. to likely not is discourse this bombs, fundamentalist to analyzediscourse and for criticizemore security has been Western general provides. partof the Terrorism historical discourse than a century. its Starting that elements the the it best onewhich could the bewinswields and, inthis added, case, format, with anarchist primarily,interpretation of the events. Not the most powerful, but the most persuasive interpretationattacks and byendingitcan beissueno atall, depending on configuration the of politicalthe forces and their with the issueitsecurity, of bean issue,can be apolitical can Terrorism discourse. within certain conclude, socialTo other asall eventually, receivesmeaningonly terrorism, phenomena, future projects. for the are all milestones These, however, youallegiance not allow us)and (if with arenot against us, you do any deviations. are with here are the “war frames,” and war frames, as could be remembered, demand the full wearedealing what After all, of thelogic difference. morethan itself easily establishes equivalence logic the of discourse, political Spanish the inof case the as wesaw time, however, through interacting are construction waysdifferentdiscourse of two these sons,” soon gave way to the historical rhetoric of the Crusades. 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