ISSN 2303-5005 UDK 330.101 E-SIEN 2303-5013
ýASOPIS ZA EKONOMSKU TEORIJU I ANALIZU ECONOMIC THEORY AND ANALYSIS JOURNAL
Godina 5, Broj 1, Jun 2017. Volume 5, No.1, June 2017.
TEMATSKI BROJ 9,17(51$&,21$/1,1$8ý1,6,032=,-80 6$95(0(12326/29$1-(,',*,7$/1,5$=92- THEMATIC NUMBER 9,17(51$7,21$/6&,(17,),&6<0326,80 02'(51%86,1(66$1'',*,7$/'(9(/230(17
organizator suorganizator organizer Co-organizer ECONOMIC THEORY AND ANALYSIS JOURNAL
IZDAVAČ: “OIKOS INSTITUT” d.o.o. Bijeljina ZA IZADAVAČA: Prof. dr Zoran Mastilo Direktor
GLAVNI I ODGOVORNI UREDNIK: Prof. dr Petar Đukić UREDNIK: Radmila Petrović Ana Pantić
UREDNIŠTVO: BIH: Šefkija dr Berberović, emeritus; Kadrija dr Hodžic; Branko dr Krsmanović; Aleksandra dr Stojanović; Marko dr Šarčević; Goran dr Popović; Hamid dr Alibašić; Nikola dr Gluhović; Cviko dr Jekić; Zoran dr Mastilo; Radmila dr Čičković; Armina dr Hubana; Srdjan dr Lalić; Nenad dr Lalić; Drago dr Vuković; Rajko dr Radović MEĐUNARODNO UREDNIŠTVO: Rusija: Oleg dr Roy, Ludmila N. dr Ivanova; Liliya dr Kiyanova; Perpelkin dr Viacheslav; Sjedinjene Američke Države: Tom dr Gillpatrick; Leland dr Buddress; Roofa dr Galeshi; Španija: Elena dr De la Poza; Italija: Ubaldo dr Comite; Svedska: Christer dr Thörnqvist; India: Manjih dr Das; Ray dr Titus; Rumunija: Alexandru dr Nedelea; Tajland: Napat dr Harnpornchai; Fidži: Ranasinghe dr Amaradasa; Albanija: Elez dr Osmanović; Brilanda dr Bushati; Fatbardha dr Molla Bequiri; Elidiana dr Bashi; Slovačka: Ivan dr Brezina; Makedonija: Predrag dr Trpeski; Hrvatska: Dragoljub dr Stojanov; Lorena dr Škuflić; Crna Gora: Boban dr Melović; Milivoje dr Radović; Rade dr Ratković; Ana dr Tripković dr Marković; Ivo dr Županović; Darko dr Lacmanović; Ana dr Stranjančević; Iva dr Bulatović; Srbija: Marko dr Sekulović; Gojko dr Rikalović; Nenad dr Vunjak; Petar dr Vrgović; Go- rdana dr Kokeza; Božidar dr Stavric; ; Kristijan dr Ristić; Slovenija: Andrej dr Raspor; Marjana dr Merkač; Iran: Gholamreza dr Jandaghi; Japan: Taro dr Abe; Poljska: Andrejz dr Niemiec; Alžir: Kherchi Ishak; Ukraina: Olha dr Komelina; Bjelorusija: Oksana dr Koshulko; Sri Lanka: Ahamed dr Labbe; Mohamed dr Aslam.;
TEHNIČKI UREDNIK I GRAFIČKI DIZAJN: Grafički studio “Piksel” Bijeljina
LEKTOR ZA SRPSKI JEZIK: Prof. dr Cvijetin Ristanović Nataša Gašić, profesor
PREVOD NA ENGLESKI JEZIK: Nemanja Jovanović
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PUBLISHED BY: “OIKOS INSTITUT” d.o.o. Bijeljina FOR THE PUBLISHER: Prof. dr Zoran Mastilo Direktor
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Prof. dr Petar Đukić
EDITOR: Radmila Petrović Ana Pantić
EDITORIAL BOARD: BIH: Šefkija dr Berberović, emeritus; Kadrija dr Hodžic; Branko dr Krsmanović; Aleksandra dr Stojanović; Marko dr Šarčević; Goran dr Popović; Hamid dr Alibašić; Nikola dr Gluhović; Cviko dr Jekić; Zoran dr Mastilo; Radmila dr Čičković; Armina dr Hubana; Srdjan dr Lalić; Nenad dr Lalić; Drago dr Vuković; Rajko dr Radović
INTERNATIONAL BOARD: Russia: Oleg dr Roy, Ludmila N. dr Ivanova; Liliya dr Kiyanova; Perpelkin dr Viacheslav; USA: Tom dr Gillpatrick; Leland dr Buddress; Roofa dr Galeshi; Spain: Elena dr De la Poza; Italy: Ubaldo dr Comite; Sweden: Christer dr Thörnqvist; India: Manjih dr Das; Ray dr Titus; Romania: Alexandru dr Nedelea; Tailand: Napat dr Harnpornchai; Fiji: Ranasinghe dr Amaradasa; Albania: Elez dr Osmanović; Brilanda dr Bushati; Fat- bardha dr Molla Bequiri; Elidiana dr Bashi; Slovakia: Ivan dr Brezina; Macedonia: Predrag dr Trpeski; Croatia: Dragoljub dr Stojanov; Lorena dr Škuflić; Montenegro: Boban dr Melović; Milivoje dr Radović; Rade dr Ratković; Ana dr Tripković dr Marković; Ivo dr Županović; Darko dr Lac- manović; Ana dr Stranjančević; Iva dr Bulatović; Serbia: Marko dr Sekulović; Gojko dr Rikalović; Nenad dr Vunjak; Petar dr Vrgović; Gordana dr Kokeza; Božidar dr Stavric; ; Kristijan dr Ristić; Slovenia: Andrej dr Raspor; Marjana dr Merkač; Iran: Gholamreza dr Jandaghi; Japan: Taro dr Abe; Poland: Andrejz dr Niemiec; Algeria: Kherchi Ishak; Ukraina: Olha dr Komelina; Belorussia: Oksana dr Koshulko; Sri Lanka: Ahamed dr Labbe; Mohamed dr Aslam.;
TECHNICAL EDITOR AND GRAPHIC DESIGN: Graphic studio “Piksel” Bijeljina
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Weƚar uŬiđ 5-13 KUDA IDE DANAŠNJI SVIJET? WHAT IS THIS WORLD COMING TO?
Jean-François Rougé 15-36 THE GLOBAR TAX WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE
DiůenŬo
Deriŵ ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ 73-94 E>/dZ/adZhZ Wh>//^ZW^ ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ 95-107 &/^> EdZ>/d/KEͳtKZ> yW Z/ E EKhZWZd/ Daria WoƉoǀiđ 109-126 dhZ/^d/<s>KZ//:^ danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē 127-138 DK >K&KE^hD Z ,s/KhZͳ& D/E/E ,z'/ E Doŵir >anjareǀiđ 139-152 hd/:dhZ/DE/sKdEh^Z /Eh INFLUENCE OF TOURISM ON THE ENVIRONMENT ^ǀũeƚůana sranũeƓ 153-166 PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU PRESENCE OF CORPORATE FRAUDS AT A GLOBAL LEVEL hWhd^dsK hdKR 167-170 /E^dRhd/KE^ FKR hd,KR^ 3 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 KUDA IDE DANAŠNJI SVIJET? WHAT IS THIS WORLD COMING TO? 3HWDUÒXNLÉ Univerzitet u Beogradu, Tehnološko-Metalurški fakultet Beograd, 5HSXEOLND6UELMD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Belgrade,5HSXEOLFRI6HUELD 8YRGQLN (GLWRULDO Više nema dileme. Odgovor na pitanje There are no more dilemmas. The answer to postavljeno u naslovu ovog uvodnika ne the question asked in the title of this editorial moåe Eiti samo ekonomski. 0oåemo cannot Ee purel\ economic. :e ma\ demon- poka]ati koliko Koüemo progno]iraniK strate as man\ forecasted trends or indicators trendova i demonstrirati koliko nam volja of the status and trends of the gloEal and local noviK poka]atelja stanja i kretanja gloEalniK economies as we would like – we will fail in i lokalniK ekonomija jedno neüemo uspjeti one mission to separate the supposedl\ inde- da odvojimo navodno nezavisna ekonomska pendent economic trends, development and kretanja, razvojne i tehnološke tokove, od technological trends from the issues of ter- pitanja terorizma, promjene klime, vojno- rorism, climate change, militar\-strategic, so- strateških, socijalnih i drugih faktora opšteg cial and other factors of the overall risk to the rizika po opstanak svijeta. 7eroristiþki survival of the world. Terrorist shock caused šok sa masakrom djece na 0anþester E\ the massacre of children in the 0anchester Areni 22. maja 2017. godine ponovo Arena on 22 0a\ 2017, once again dominat- dominantno pomijera paånju ka terorizmu, ed shifted the attention to terrorism as one of kao jednom od najveüih iskušenja novog the greatest temptations of the new millenni- milenijuma. 6ve zvuþnije Äzveckanje um. ,ncreasingl\ louder ³saEer rattling´, this oruåjem´, ovaj put u demonstraciji odnosa time to demonstrate the relationship Eetween izmeÿu 6everne .oreje i 6A', eskalacija 1orth .orea and the 8nited 6tates as well as zategnutosti sa 5usijom, mogli Ei da se the escalation of tensions with Russia, could smatraju opasnim znacima zaoštravanja Ee considered as dangerous signs of tighten- gloEalnih vojno-strateških kontroverzi. ing gloEal militar\-strategic controvers\. 5 ECONOMICS */2%$/1,(.21206.,32.$=(7(/-,, */2%$/(&2120,&,1',&$7256$1' 5,=,&, 5,6.6 .ada je rijeþ o izgledima svjetske privrede, 6peaking aEout the prospects of the world najveüi Eroj dosadašnjih uvodnika þasopisa econom\, most of the former editorials of ³Oikos (conomics´, poþinjali smo na ovaj ³Oikos (conomics´ journal we Eegan in one ili onaj naþin izreþenom konstatacijom da je or another wa\ E\ the statement that ³the onl\ Äizvjesno samo to da je i dalje sve neizvjesno´. thing that is certain is that ever\thing is still 8prkos þinjenici da se oþekuje da se stopa uncertain.´ 'espite the fact that it is e[pected gloEalnog rasta poveüa sa ,1 u 201. that the gloEal growth rate increases from .1 godini þak na , u 2017, odnosno , in 201 up to . in 2017 and . in 201, it u 201. godini preostaju Erojne i þini se sve seems that numerous oEstructions to stronger veüe Earijere za snaåniji oporavak i povoljniji recover\ and more favouraEle Ealance of risks Ealans rizika u svjetskoj privredi. ,zvještaji in the world econom\ still remain. Reports on o gloEalnoj privredi govore da Äekonomska the gloEal econom\ suggest that ³economic aktivnost jaþa´, uz donekle Äredukovan activit\ is stronger,´ with somewhat ³reduced deÀatorni pritisak´ i nešto izraåeniji deÀationar\ pressure´ and more prominent Äoptimizam na ¿nansijskim tråištima´. To ³optimism in the ¿nancial markets.´ These are su neki od pojedinaþnih indikatora napretka. some of the individual indicators of progress. 0eÿutim, preostaje mnoštvo preteüih +owever, plent\ of threatening factors faktora od uticaja na neposrednu Euduünost affecting the immediate future of the world svjetske ekonomije pre svega strukturne econom\ still remain mainl\ structural neprilagoÿenosti za odråiv i snaåniji maladjustment for sustainaEle and stronger oporavak. One, kaåe se u izvještajima, recover\. According to the reports, the\ naroþito u srednjem roku, prijete da postanu threaten to Eecome dif¿cult insurmountaEle teško premostivi izazovi. Tako, otprilike, challenges, particularl\ in the mid-term, izgleda, ekonomsko oErazloåenje osnovnih 6uch is the economic rationale of underl\ing tokova i kratka geo-ekonomska slika svijeta Àows and short geo-economic picture of the predoþena u najnovijem 6aopštenju 00)-a, world presented in the latest Communication puElikovanom 1. aprila 2017. godine. from the ,0), puElished on 1 April 2017. :orld (conomic Outlook, April 2017 :orld (conomic Outlook, April 2017 *aining 0omentum . 0eÿutim, mnoge tamne *aining 0omentum . +owever, man\ sjenke nadvijaju se nad pomenutom slikom. dark shadows lurk over such perspective. 0,.6129,+,67$5,+5,=,.$2367$1.$ 0,;2)2/'$1'1(:6859,9$/5,6.6 ÄOpstanak´ nije više prejaka rijeþ. 3od ³6urvival´ is not too strong a word an\ more. njim podrazumijevamo , prije svega ,t implies, aEove all, normal and peaceful co normalnu i mirnu ko egzistenciju ljudi i e[istence of humans and other wildlife on ostalog åivog svijeta za =emlji, u skladu (arth, in accordance with its fundamental laws. sa njenim osnovnim zakonima. Opstanku 6urvival is threatened E\ current and future prijete sadašnje i Euduüe okolnosti, koje circumstances, which lead to increasingl\ dovode do sve teåih uslova za åivot. Te severe life conditions. These changes are promjene uzrokuju ljudi i priroda, što caused E\ humans and nature, as Eoth through ekonomsko- tehnološkom aktivnošüu, što their economic and technological activities, poveüanjem populacionog pritiska, kao increase of population pressure, as well as i geofiziþkim i klimatskim promjenama, E\ geoph\sical and climatic changes that are koje su rezultat ÄpoEune´ same =emlje. the result of ³reEellion´ of the (arth itself. 1e treEa zaEoraviti da je veü 2002. godine :e should not forget that as earl\ as 2002 a samo nekoliko þasova dijelilo svijet od few hours shared the world of mutual nuclear 6 ECONOMICS meÿusoEnog nuklearnog napada izmeÿu attack Eetween ,ndia and 3akistan. Of¿cial Indije i 3akistana. =vaniþne procjene estimates are that the impact of the ¿rst strike govore da Ei veü taj prvi udar uzrokovao would cause minimum seven million victims Ear sedam miliona trenutih i dvostruko immediatel\ and twice as man\ deaths of više odloåenih smrti, manje-više neduånih more or less innocent people, over a period ljudi. 8prkos svemu, u današnjem svijetu of time. 1evertheless, in toda\¶s world, there sve više se govori o novom svjetskom ratu are more and more discussions aEout the kao produktu starih i novih kontroverzi, new world war as the product of old and new i kao o neþemu manje-više normalnom. controversies, and as something that is normal, 1uklearni arsenal üe, prema pojedinim more-or-less. The nuclear arsenal, according neopreznim najavama, Eiti upotreEljen, po to some careless announcements, shall Ee svim raspoloåivim ciljevima - to je reþenica used on all availaEle targets – it is a phrase koja podsjeüa na Äfilozofiju terorizma´. that reminds of the ³philosoph\ of terrorism´. 8 vrijeme nastanka ovog teksta krajem At the time of writing this article end of 0a\ maja 2017. godine Sjeverna .oreja, 2017 1orth .orea, after numerous attempts, upornim proEama uspjela je da lansira managed to launch a new long-range Eallistic novu Ealistiþku raketu dugog dometa zEog missile which is wh\ the *7 reacted with a þega su reagovali oštrim upozorenjima strong warning on one hand, and a somewhat *7 sa jedne strane, kao i nešto Elaåim milder statements from Russia on the other. saopštenjima Rusija sa druge. Svakako Certainl\, the most concerned aEout such su zEog toga najzaErinutiji, Japan i juåna actions are -apan and 6outh .orea, which is .oreja, pa se grþevito dråe kooperacije wh\ the\ cling to their cooperation with the sa SA' koje, sa jedne strane Sjevernu 8nited 6tates which, on one side, imposes .oreju izlaåu sve teåim sankcijama, a increasingl\ dif¿cult sanctions onto 1orth sa druge gomilaju nove vojne potencijale .orea, and on the other accumulates new u zoni zapadnog 3acifika. 1e treEa militar\ groups in the area of the western 3aci¿c. zaEoraviti da, Ear koliko je poznato, oko :e should not forget that, as far as it is known 1 zemalja u svijetu raspolaåe nuklearnim to the puElic, aEout 1 countries in the world oruåjem, i da je njegovu meÿunarodnu have nuclear weapons, and that its international liferaciju sve teåe kontrolisati. suppl\ is increasingl\ dif¿cult to control. 3oznato je da su SA', uglavnom javno ,t is well known that the 8nited 6tates mostl\ intervenisale u gotovo svim geostrateški puElicl\ intervened in almost all important vaånim kriznim åarištima i lokalnim geostrategic crisis areas of the world and ratovima svijeta, faktiþki od 'rugog in local wars, ever since the 6econd :orld svjetskog rata do sada. 0eÿutim, poznata :ar to toda\. +owever, another fact that je takoÿe i ruska upletenost u sve veüi is well known is the Russian involvement Eroj gloEalnih vojnih intervencija tokom in an increasing numEer of gloEal militar\ 3utinove patnaestogodišnje ere, sa jasnim interventions of the 1-\ear long 3utin era, indicijama da se cilja na oEnovu poloåaja i with clear indications of the main oEjective uticaja supersile kakav je nekada imao SSSR. Eeing the restoration of the position and .ineska, priliþno arogantna Äinvesticiona´ inÀuence of the superpower which once was politika u Juånom i Istoþnom kineskom moru the 6oviet 8nion. Chinese, rather arrogant pokazuju takoÿe novo lice jedne gloEalne ³investment´ polic\ in the 6outh and (ast supersile. Njeno ponašanje pri izgradnji China 6ea also shows a new face of a gloEal Eaza na vlasniþki spornim ostrvima u superpower. ,ts Eehavior in Euilding Eases on Istoþnom i Juånom kineskom moru, uprkos the disputed islands in (ast and 6outh China protivljenju Japana, Indonezije, 0alezije, Sea, despite opposition from Japan, Indonesia, )ilipina, podsjeüa na neka loša minula 0ala\sia, the 3hilippines, reminnds of some vremena zauzimanja sveg raspoloåivog poor past times of taking up all the availaEle prostora, uoþi odsudne preraspodjele. space on the eve of crucial redistriEution. 7 ECONOMICS .onaþno (rdoganov ekstremizam i osionost )inall\, (rdogan¶s e[tremism and arrogance mnogih drugih nacionalnih lidera manjeg of man\ other national leaders of smaller kaliEra govore o tome da se populizam, caliEer show that the populism, e[tremism ekstremizam i izolacionizam, nameüu sve and isolationism, impose themselves as više kao opšteprihvatljiv oErazac ponašanja more generall\ accepted form of Eehavior of vodeüih politiþara u velikom dijelu svijeta. leading politicians in a large part of the world. 'a li je stanje u toj mjeri zaErinjavajuüe ili Is the situation so grave or is it merel\ a conceit" je to tek samo uoErazilja" 3o svemu sudeüi, %\ all accounts, ever since the Second :orld moåda još nikada nakon 'rugog svetskog :ar, never have the gloEal contradictions Eeen rata gloEalne protivrjeþnosti se nisu u toj concentrated as toda\, when it sometimes mjeri nagomilale kao danas, kada se ponekad seems that the e[it is nowhere to Ee found. þini, da je izlaz Eezizgledan. 8 vrijeme At the time of completion of this editorial, it dovršavanja ovog uvodnika kao da su sve is as if all the cards have Eeen dealt, with no karte na stolu, a ništa više ne izgleda povoljno. option looking remotel\ favouraEle, at all. 7(525,=$0(.675(0,=$0,=2/$ 7(5525,60(;75(0,60,62/$7,21,60 &,21,=$08863218 ʒ217+(5,6( Trampov skorašnji Eoravak u Saudijskoj Trump¶s recent visit to Saudi AraEia, AraEiji, Izraelu, Briselu, Vatikanu, Israel, Brussels, Vatican, to the G7 nakon toga na sastanku G7 na Siciliji, za meeting in Sicil\, leaves an impression of soEom ostavlja utisak prioriteta jednog priorit\ of a primaril\ pragmatic goal like prvenstveno pragmatiþkog cilja kao što arranging arms shipments, measured in of je ugovaranje isporuke oruåja, mjerene hundreds of Eillions of dollars, as well as a vrijednostima stotina milijardi dolara, kao demonstration of arrogance in international i demonstracije arogancije u meÿunarodnoj and world politics. This, according to his i svjetskoj politici. Ta, po njegovom testimon\ ³ver\, ver\ successful tour´ has kazivanju Äveoma, veoma uspjela turneja´ not \ielded to the ³pressure´ for the 8S nije popustila pod Äpritiscima´ da SA' to support the 3aris agreement on climate podråe 3ariski sporazum o klimatskim change. Other si[ leaders within the G7 as promjenama. Ostalih šet lidera u okviru well as the 3ope )rancis personall\, had G7 kao i papa )ranja liþno, veoma su se tried intensivel\ to inÀuence the American trudili da utiþu, da ameriþki predsjednik president, at least declarativel\, to support Ear deklarativno pristane da podråi Eilo šta an\ of the ³Climate Actions´, Eut the od Äakcije za klimu´, ali je Tramp ostao Trump remained unfaltering. On parting, seEi dosljedan. Na rastanku je poruþio da he said that, upon his return to the 8nited üe, nakon što se vrati u SA', odluþiti da States, he should decide whether his countr\ li üe se njegova zemlja pridruåiti 3ariskom would join the 3aris peace Accords of 201. mirovnom sporazumu iz 201. godine. Should we Ee reminded that a multitude TreEa li podsjeüati da je veü van snage u SA' of dif¿cult-to-estaElish environmental stavljeno mnoštvo s mukom ustanovljenih standards have alread\ Eeen put out of power ekoloških standrada. Veü u feEruaru 2017. in the 8nited States" In )eEruar\ 2017, a godine suspendovana je odredEu da se provision that the waste rocks and materials jalovina iz rudnika ne smije istovarati from the mines shall not Ee unloaded into u korita rijeka i vraüena moguünost da riverEeds and that option of leasing federal se federalno zemljište zakupljuje u cilju land for the purpose of e[cavation of coal iskopavanja uglja. Tramp je izjavio has Eeen reinstated. Trump said of course naravno više puta da se åivotna sredina more than once that the environment can Ee najEolje moåe oþuvati novom strategijom preserved Eest with the new strateg\ which koja ÄoEezEjeÿuje ljudima posao´ i ³provides people with joEs´ and declared 8 ECONOMICS definisao kraj Äratovanja protiv uglja´. Na de¿ned the end of ³the war against coal.´ stranu þinjenica da meÿu ovim Trampovim Apart from the fact that there was nothing Äargumentima´ nema ništa novo, i da su new among these Trump¶s ³arguments´, teorijski pokušavali da oErazloåe i neki and that some ultra-liEeral economists, ultraliEeralni ekonomisti, kao što je Eivši such as former Czech 3resident Vaclav þeški predsjednik Vaclav .laus, na primjer. .laus, for e[ample are alread\ tr\ing to 3rioritet sloEodnog tråišnog razvoja u justif\ their actions in theor\. The priorit\ odnosu na mjere gloEalne zaštite klime, of free market development in relation to i Eilo kakve Äograniþavajuüe´ odnosno the measures of gloEal climate protection Änametnute´ zajedniþke ekonomske and kind of ³restrictive´ and ³imposed´ akcije, princip je koji ima izvjesnu common economic actions, is a principle ekonomsku logiku, ali je definitivno da which does have a certain economic logic, on podstiþe ekonomski nacionalizam, Eut it is certain that it encourages economic protekcionizam i izolacionizam kojim nationalism, protectionism and isolationism mnogi današnji nacional-populistiþki which man\ of toda\¶s national-populist lideri pokušavaju da se Eolje sporazumiju leaders are using to ¿nd common language sa sadašnjim i Euduüim Eiraþima. with their current and future voters. 3rotekcionizam, definitivno u pojedinim 3rotectionism, can de¿nitel\, in some momentima moåe donijeti ekonomske moments, Ering economic Eene¿ts to koristi pojedinim sektorima nacionalne individual sectors of the national econom\, or ekonomije, ili pak slojevima poslodavaca, to classes of emplo\ers, workers, companies. radnika, kompanija. 0eÿutim, na duåe However, in the long run, it is devastating, staze, on je poguEan, prije svega po particularl\ to the less developed and weak manje razvijene i slaEe ekonomije, þiju economies, whose ef¿cienc\ it ³kills´. Thus, efikasnost ÄuEija´. Tako je, na primjer, od for e[ample, the 8S introduced to Canada, strane SA' prema .anadi, tradicionalnom its traditional partner, a ver\ restrictive partneru, uvedena veoma restriktivna quotas and tariffs on imports of sawn timEer, kvota i carina na uvoz rezane graÿe a sve for the purpose of protecting American radi zaštite ameriþkih kompanija, þija je companies, whose production cost is higher proizvodna cena viša od kanadske. Time than the Canadian. This should Eene¿t üe domaüe kompanije koje snaEdijevaju local companies that suppl\ the population stanovništvo i graÿevinarstvo drvnom and construction with timEer, as well as graÿom, kako vlasnici i menadåeri tako their owners, managers and a part of the i deo radništva, priEaviti seEi odreÿene working class. However, the consumers will Eenefite, ali üe potrošaþi, definitivno Eiti de¿nitel\ have to take the toll. However, na šteti. 0eÿutim, toga üe postati svjesni the\ will Eecome aware of that sometime nešto kasnije, kada se pokaåe guEitak later, when the loss of competitiveness konkurentnosti nacionalne privrede. of the national econom\ is shown. */2%$/1$,5(*,21$/1$(.2120,-$ 6867$,1$%,/,7<7(672)*/2%$/$1' 1$,63,782'5ij,9267, 5(*,21$/(&2120,&6 0oåda je od svega najgore to što nacional- 3erhaps worst of all is the fact that the populizam i ekstremizam prijete da prerastu national-populism and e[tremism threaten to u protekcionizam. A kad se jednom ustanovi, escalate into protectionism. Once estaElished, protekcionizmu nigde kraja. 3ovampirenje protectionism shall have no end. Resurrection protekcionizma i izolacionizma, podstiþu of protectionism and isolationism, encourage sa svoje strane ekstremizam u meÿusoEnim e[tremism on its part in the mutual relations odnosima društvenih klasa, nacija, pa i rasa of social classes, nations, and even races, i takoÿe podsjeüaju na aveti iz prošlosti. and also reminiscent of the ghosts of the 9 ECONOMICS 3ojedine nove Äideologije´ veoma past. Some new ³ideologies´ ver\ much podsjeüaju na svijet iz tridesetih godina ;; remind us of the world from the 1 0s. No vijeka. .ako god da se stvari posmatraju, matter how the situation is perceived, from od mnoštva nepoznanica koje igraju Eitnu a variet\ of unknown factors that pla\ an ulogu u današnjoj gloEalnoj ekonomiji important role in toda\¶s gloEal econom\ þini se da su najveüi izazovi oni politiþki. it seems that the Eiggest challenges are Sredinom 2017.godine kada se ovaj Eroj those political ones. In mid-2017, when this þasopisa pojavljuje pred þitaocem, novi journal issue appears Eefore the reader, new nesporazumi i åarišta u svijetu, postavljaju misunderstandings and hot spots in the world se kao prijetnje za elementarne uslove shall emerge as a threat to the Easic conditions odråive i normalne ekonomske saradnje. of sustainaEle and normal economic Ipak, tri kljuþna izazova koji ostaju kao cooperation. However, three ke\ challenges Äcementirani´ gotovo nerješivi proElemi that remain as solid, almost unsolvaEle gloEalnog svijeta su terorizam, klimatske proElems of the gloEal world are terrorism, promjene i migracije stanovništva. climate change and population migration. Sve ostalo samo je refleksija ovih Eaziþnih (ver\thing else is just a reÀection of these izazova, koji oEiljeåavaju i drugu deceniju Easic challenges that mark the second decade ;;I stoljeüa. Sve je izgledalo drugaþije, of the ;;I centur\. (ver\thing looked so moåda samo do prije 11. septemEra 2001. different just Eefore 11 SeptemEer 2001. godine. Od tada se nacije nekako ponovo Since then, the nations somehow started to zatvaraju u seEe, a mnoge nove strane se Eecome secluded, and man\ new partiessides sukoEljavaju, tako da gloEalna zajednica ¿nd themselves in conÀict, so that the gloEal skreüe u svojevrsnu involuiciju. 8mjesto communit\ turns into a kind of involution. saradnje i otvaranja podiåu se zidovi, Instead of cooperation and opening towards milioni ljudi napuštaju sa zaveåljajima u one another, walls are raised, millions of rukama svoj zaviþaj i kreüu prema svijetu people leave their homes with small Eundles of u kome Ei lakše mogli da naÿu mirno their world in their hands and move towards a mjesto pod suncem, Eolju priliku za rad, world where the\ would Ee aEle to ¿nd a quiet zaradu i miran i EezEjedan åivot. 3ri place under the sun, a Eetter opportunit\ for tome se ne moåe reüi da je ijedno mjesto work, earn for living and for peaceful and safe u današnjem svijetu potpuno EezEjedno life. At the same time, it cannot Ee said that an\ od terorizma, da se i ne govori o zaštiti place in toda\¶s world is completel\ safe from od promjene klime, praüene ekstremnim terrorism, not even mentioning protection vremenskim neprilikama, sušama, from climate change, accompanied E\ e[treme poplavama i klizištima. Izolacionizam weather, droughts, Àoods and landslides. i ekonomski nacionalizam mogu da Isolationism and economic nationalism ma\ donesu privremenu korist, ali dugoroþno Ering temporar\ Eene¿ts, Eut speaking in the gledajuüi, od kratkotrajnih Eenefita se ne long term, short-term Eene¿ts cannot Ee the moåe napredovati. 0eÿunarodna sloEodna propellants for advancement. International razmjena, saradnja i interakcije ostaju kao free trade, cooperation and interaction remain temeljna pretpostavka gloEalnog napretka. as the fundamental premise of gloEal progress. ,0$02/,61$*('$321292=$+7,-( +$9(:(7+(675(1*7+72$6.)25 9$0263$63/$1(7(" 5(6&8(2)7+(3/$1(721&($*$,1 'ovršetak ovog uvodnika poklapa se Completing this editorial somehow coincides nekako sa . junom, Svjetskim danom with the th June, :orld da\ of environmental zaštite åivotne sredine. TreEa imati protection. It should Ee noted that millions of u vidu da su se ljudi širom svijeta, u people around the world, Eack in 1 70, Eefore milionima , još davne 1970. godine prije the emergence of the Internet, managed to 10 ECONOMICS pojave interneta, uspjeli organizovati i organize and to get out into the streets of the istovremeno izaüi na ulice svojih gradova i cities and states requesting from mankind to save dråava da zahtijevaju od þovjeþanstva spas the planet (arth. The request was then e[tended planete =emlje. Onda je zahtjev proširen onto the issues and proElems of the so-called. na pitanja i proEleme tzv. odråivog razvoja sustainaEle development - 8N Conference in - .onferencije O8N u Riju 1992.godine. Rio in 1992. The momentum did not stop there, Na tome se nije stalo, jer je na red došla as it was followed E\ an anal\sis of certain analiza pojedinih sektora odråivog razvoja, sectors of sustainaEle development, in particular naroþito uþinci energetike, saoEraüaja, regarding the effects of power generation, industrije, pa i åivota u gradovima. transport, industr\, and even life in cities. 'anašnjoj 3laneti je potreEna cjelovita Toda\¶s 3lanet needs comprehensive protection zaštita i redefinicija univerzalnih åivotnih and rede¿nition of universal life values, that vrijednosti koje su neupitne, kako za are unquestionaEle, Eoth for the present and for sadašnje, tako i za Euduüe generacije. future generations. The concept of sustainaEle 3ojam odråivog razvoja proširen je development was e[panded to estaElish equiliErium na uspostavljanje ravnoteåe u prirodi in nature, ecos\stems, societ\ and econom\, so i ekosistemima, društvu i ekonomiji, that we can talk aEout a unique sustainaEilit\, if tako da se moåe govoriti o jedinstvenoj the things are moving towards the right direction. odråivosti, ako stvari idu u doErom pravcu. 'a\s Eefore us contain Ering ever more risk, with 'ani pred nama sadråe sve više rizika, a the world Eeing in fear that the\ will increase, Eoth svijet je u strahu da üe se oni poveüavati, in terms of their intensit\, urgenc\ and frequenc\. kako prema intenzitetu, urgentnosti, However, e[perience shows that risks can and tako i prema uþestalosti. 0eÿutim, should Ee managed. The potential environmental iskustva pokazuju da se rizicima moåe i disaster, no matter to what e[tent it ma\ represent mora upravljati. 3otencijalna ekološka the product of climate change itself or of dail\ katastrofa, Eez oEzira u kojoj mjeri je human activities, requires responsiEle Eehaviour produkt klimatskih promjena po seEi, ili veü of people in production and consumption, i same dnevne ljudske aktivnosti, zahtijeva the econom\, technolog\, culture, and it can odgovorno ponašanje ljudi u proizvodnji Ee controlled or avoided. (nvironmental and i potrošnji, ekonomiji, tehnologiji, kulturi, social pressures, including climate change risk moåe se kontrolisati, ili izEjeüi. (kološki can Ee minimized E\ a good econom\ and i socijalni pritisci, pa i riziþne klimatske favouraEle technological inÀuence of people promjene mogu se umanjiti doErom on the planet, primaril\ through changing ekonomijom i povoljnijim tehnološkim standards and consumer haEits, education, uticajem ljudi na planeti, prije svega kroz the impact of science, knowledge and culture. promjenu standarda i navika potrošaþa, )ortunatel\, toda\ there is a numEer of factors oErazovanje, uticaj nauke, znanja i kulture. that could stop the gloEal catastrophe, whether it 'anas, sva sreüa, djeluje više faktora koji was militar\-political or ecological. The general Ei mogli da zaustave gloEalnu katastrofu, level of knowledge on the major dangers is much Eilo onu vojno-politiþku ili ekološku. Opšti higher than ever Eefore, as well as information nivo znanja o velikim opasnostima mnogo networking of people. The elections in )rance je viši negoli nekada, kao i informativna and the Netherlands failed to Ering victor\ of umreåenost ljudi. Na izEorima u Holandiji the e[treme right parties which would further i )rancuskoj nije došlo do poEjede raise isolationist awareness and intolerance. ekstremne desnice, koja Ei dalje podizala Of course, the entire process requires far more izolacionistiþku svest i netoleranciju. commitment and coordination of the measures Sve naravno, zahtijeva daleko više doEre of productive gloEalization and a formation of a koordinacije i posveüenosti mjerama consistent multicultural and inclusive communit\ produktivne gloEalizacije i jedne dosljedno of nations around the world. It should Ee Eorne multikuturne i inkluzivne zajednice naroda in mind that the technological progress which 11 ECONOMICS širom svijeta. 3ri tome treEa imati u vidu protects and preserves the nature and heritage, da su tehnološki progres koji štiti i þuva economic development that does not endanger prirodu i nasljeÿe, privredni razvoj koji humans and higher level of emplo\ment are a ne ugroåava ljude i viša zaposlenost kind of guarantee the sustainaEilit\ of gloEal svojevrsna garancija odråivosti gloEalnog progress and life. It is favouraEle that the napretka i åivota. 3ovoljna je okolnost (uropean 8nion and the countries of (urope to što (vropska unija i zemlje (vrope insist, more than others, on a permanent u veüoj mjeri od ostalih insistiraju na environmental sustainaEilit\ and qualit\ ³smart trajnoj ekološkoj odråivosti, i kvalitetnom inclusive and sustainaEle´ growth. Such growth Äpametnom inkluzivnom i odråivom´ has dif¿culties in its own staEilization, Eoth in rastu. Takav rast nikako da se ustali, kako the (8 and in the region of Southeast (urope. u (8, tako i u regionu Jugoistoþne (vrope. After all, for such occurrence to take place, certain Izvjesne prilike za to treEa i generisati. favouraEle opportunities should Ee generated. 6758.7851(3520(1(129$35,/,.$ 6758&785$/&+$1*(6ʒ$1(:23 =$5(*,21 325781,7<)257+(5(*,21 (vropa, meÿutim, u cjelini zaostaje (urope as a whole, however, lags Eehind za tokovima ostvarenih strukturnih the actual trends of structural changes Eut promjena pa i za ostvarenim stopama also Eehind the achieved growth rates rasta SA' i ostalih zemalja O(C'. in the 8S and other O(C' countries. 0eÿutim, zemlje Jugoistoþne (vrope, However, the countries of South (astern koje su prije svega u fokusu analize ovog (urope S(( , which are primaril\ in the þasopisa imaju potencijal za Eråi rast od focus of the anal\sis of this journal have ostatka (vrope. To se moåe vidjeti prema the potential to grow faster than the rest of prognoziranim i ostvarenim stopama rasta (urope. This can Ee seen E\ the forecasted tokom posljednje þetiri godine. /ogiþno and actual growth rates over the last four je da se, usljed niåe polazne osnove, \ears. It is logical that, due to lower Easeline, stope rasta u gotovo svim ovim zemljama the rate of growth in almost all of these uErzavaju i da su više, od ostalih. Tokom countries is faster and higher than of others. posljednje dvije godine u prosjeku iznosi In the last two \ears, the growth averages Elizu , dok je za euro regiju prosjeþna close to , while the average growth rate stopa rasta iznosila 1,7 TaEela 1 . for the euro region was 1.7 TaEle 1 . .ljuþna Elokada za trajan i Eråi rast ostaju Structural changes are the ke\ Earrier for strukturne promjene, koje Ei uþinile constant and faster growth that would make ekonomije ovih zemalja efikasnijima. the economies of these countries much more 0oglo Ei se tome dodati da rast u ef¿cient. One might add that the growth in veüini zemalja ovog regiona ostaje na most countries of the region remains at the nivou stopa rasta svjetske privrede. level of the growth rate of the world econom\. To nije dovoljno, uzimajuüi u oEzir It is not enough, taking into account the prethodno potonuüe, i nikako nema smisla previous deterioration, and certainl\ does not govoriti o Äzadovoljavajuüim stopama´. make sense to talk aEout ³satisfactor\ rates´. 12 ECONOMICS Tabela 1. Stope rasta BDP zemalja Table 1*URZWKUDWHRI*'3RI6RXWK(DVW -XJRLVWþRQH(YURSHVSRULQDSUHGDN (XURSHFRXQWULHVVORZSURJUHVV Country 2013 2014 2015 2016 Pros. 2013-16 Pros.2016-17 Albania 2.3 2.5 3.3 3.6 2.4 2.5 Bosnia and 2.4 1.1 3 2 1.8 2.1 Herzegovina Serbia 2.6 -1.8 0.8 2.7 0.4 3.4 Croatia -1.1 -0.4 1.6 2.6 -0.7 2.6 FYROM 1.9 3.7 3.1 2.1 2.8 3.1 Montenegro 3.5 1.8 3.4 2.7 2.7 3.1 Romania 3.5 3 3.7 5.2 3.2 4.5 Euro region -0.3 1.1 2 1.7 0.4 1.9 =emlje Jugoistoþne (vrope moraüe još S(( countries will have to do plent\ of work dosta da porade na strukturnim promjenama, regarding their structural changes, particularl\ naroþito kada je sudEina javnih preduzeüa when it comes to the fate of the puElic companies. u pitanju. Tu su i drugi proElemi fisklanog There are also other proElems )iscal imEalance, deEalansa, zaposlenost u javnim sluåEama, emplo\ment in the puElic service, corruption, korupcija, ogromni troškovi dråave. enormous costs of the state. A comforting fact 8tješna þinjenica je to što je potencijal is that the growth potential in the mid- and rasta u srednjem i dugom roku u evropskim long-term in (uropean countries that are still zemljama koji su još u reformama viši u reforming is higher than in the rest of (urope odnosu na ostatak (vrope i što je destinacija and that the destination of these countries u ovim zemljama relativno povoljna za is relativel\ favouraEle for foreign direct strane direktne investicije. 3okazalo se investments. It turned out that more than half da je od prirasta prošlogodišnjeg iznosa of the latest \ear¶s increment of the amount of stranih direktnih investicija u (vropi, foreign direct investment in (urope was reserved više od polovine rezervisano za zemlje u for the reforming countries. The prerequisite reformi. 3retpostavka za poveüanje oEima for increasing the volume of these investments tih investicija je usaglašavanje propisa i is the harmonization of regulations and joint zajedniþki nastup zemalja na investicionom participation of countries in the investment tråištu. To znaþi da je usaglašavanje uslova market. This means that the harmonization of the na osnovu zajedniþke investicione politike conditions on the Easis of a common investment garancija šireg tråišta i veüeg ekonomskog polic\ guarantees a Eroader market and greater potencijala. (fikasnije rješavanje economic potential. (f¿cient resolution of meÿusoEnih nesuglasica i reforme ostaju mutual disagreements and reforms remain kljuþni kamen spoticanja ali i neiskorišteni the ke\ stumEling Elock Eut also an untapped potencijal za odråiv i kvalitetan rast potential for sustainaEle and qualitative growth i razvoj regiona Jugoistoþne (vrope. and development of the Southeast (urope region. Beograd, maj 2017.godine Belgrade, 0a\ 2017 Prof. dr Petar Ĉukiü 13 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE -HDQ)UDQ©RLV5RXJ« Agence Universitaire pour la Francophonie & Ecole Supérieure de la Francophonie pour lȇAdPinistration et le ManagePent, Soȴa%XOJDULD 2ULJLQDOVFLHQWLȴFSDSHU DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0009, UDK 336.21/.26(4-672EU) 2ULJLQDOVFLHQWLȴFSDSHU territory1 ³ ,Q WKH WD[ DUHD D FRXQWU\ PD\ $%675$&7 FODLP WKDW DOO WKH LQFRPH HDUQ E\ D FLWL]HQ It is often said that globalization is just a new RU D FRPSDQ\ LQFRUSRUDWHG LQ WKDW FRXQWU\ form of war between nations an economic LV VXEMHFW WR WD[DWLRQ EHFDXVH RI WKH OHJDO war. It is also a ta[ war ¿scal policies are a FRQQHFWLRQ WR WKDW FRXQWU\´ 'OERNBERG central point of the competition for territories¶ 2001 By the way, ¿scal policy is a true choice which shape deeply the kind of attractiveness RO8Ge et CHOPOV 2016 . 2 But the global ta[ war is not only another society in which we live. GAFREY 2004 form of interstates conÀict it is also a brand new kind of war between global ¿rms and As long as business was mainly local and state to share the burden of civil society. people did not move, the geographical The aim of this paper is to clarify what link the territoriality of ta[ation was not a is at stake in this war to be able to ¿ght it. problem. It began to be one with the huge growth of international trade in the XIX°3. .eywords Ta[ systems, ta[ policies, Then good and wealth began to move ta[ havens, ta[ treaties, global ¿rms, through the newly sat national borders. Then ¿scal equity, ¿scal incentives, harmful the brand new international institution the ta[ competition, rulings, ¿scal lobbying, Société des Nations sized the central question treaty shopping creative accounting. of double ta[ation that was considered as a brake on international trade e[pansion. Since, The power to impose ta[es is at the very limitation of double ta[ation tanks to thousand center of the core conception of any kind of international treaties works properly and is of power CO//IAR' et MONTIA/O8; no more the greatest problem of international 2007 BRENNAN et B8CHANAN 1980 . ta[ law. Nowadays, what is at stake is the art, Through the history of civilizations, the wealthiest individuals and corporations, put only things that have changed are the on escaping any ta[ation ME/OT 2004 . For the brightest of them, the medium ta[ tare may persons who have the ability to impose 4 ta[es the way ta[es are de¿ned and their be as low as 0,05 and the ¿scal war between amount 'O:E// 1965 MARTINE= et states and global ¿rms seems to be of¿cially declared ´$SSOHYVWKH(8LVWKHELJJHVWWD[ Alii 1989 . Fiscal policies are always the 5 result of ¿erce ¿ght of power A8MANN et EDWWOHLQKLVWRU\´ title The Times of /ondon . .8R= 1977 . Nevertheless, it¶s possible to say that the emergence of ta[ation is linked As presented by states, things are clear global to the constitution of modern states. In fact, ¿rms are ³the bad guy´ and states,³the poor, ta[es are an integral part of the control of any powerless victims´ View from the position 1.It is the reasonwhyta[lawismainlybased on the principle of territoriality. 2.That iswhy ta[es are always sat the very center of everypoliticalcampaign for an election. 3.As soon as 1927, Ma[ /AMO8CHE wrote an Essay on the territoriality of ta[es. 'ouble ta[ation and ta[evasion in international law. 4. It isspecially the fact of APP/E corp. In Ireland 2015 Source CNN https www.youtube.comwatch"v 7rwrA.OJFE4 5. http time.com4472500apple-eu-irish-ta[-bill 15 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE of global ¿rms, they ³always comply the to any physical place or just past through law´, if regulators are unhappy, ³they have physical territory without entering the legal to begin by changing the law´ In fact, both territory and most of the value is based on of those af¿rmations are quite abusive. All rights intellectual property , not on goods. began in the seventies when states began States do not really know how to deal with to deregulate. Multinational, then global this new reality. They still don¶t want to admit corporations ¿rst used, then abused of this that they have to set global rules and global new freedom to optimize their ta[ bill. ta[ institutions to cope with global ¿rms. As long as they follow the law, it was it is still, their right, even their duty according to The result of this war is obvious many FRIE'MAN 1970 for which ³WKH VRFLDO global ¿rms are wealthiest that most of the UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RI EXVLQHVV LV WR LQFUHDVH LWV states8, reducing drastically their freedom SUR¿W´ to escape undue ta[ation ³sRORQJDW to the auto determination of their policies. LWVWD\VZLWKLQWKHUXOHVRIWKHJDPHZKLFKLV Maybe still more dramatic O[fam just reveal WRVD\HQJDJHLQRSHQDQGIUHHFRPSHWLWLRQ that the height 8 wealthiest persons of the ZLWKRXW GHFHSWLRQ DQG IUDXG´ FRIE'MAN world are richest that three milliards si[ 1970 . But rules of the game have changed hundred thousand 3 600 000 000 of human dramatically since the deregulations of the beings OXFAM 2017 . This paper aims to 70¶6. Nowadays states are weak Politic understand the bases of this global ta[ war in vanishes GeNeRE8X 2008 , and global order to help to create the weapons to ¿[ it. It ¿rms are clever to escape or arrogant enough will ¿rst e[plain the guilty attitude of states, to refuse any kind of ta[ation .ER=NER et which allow, or even encourage the aggressive CHO'I.OFF 2016 . The war is declared7. ¿scal planning, they condemn. Once the But that is not the all story. As the ¿scal ³cake´ game of states put in light, it will be possible is reducing, states are rushing in a harmful to analyze the cynical game of global ¿rms, ta[ competition to attract the biggest part which is threatening the stability of most of of it. That is the way global ta[ war began. our societies PI.ETTY 2013 J. STIG/IT= In practice, the situation is more comple[, due 2006 too many of them forgot that the ensure to the dematerialization of most of the trade. the smooth running of the society, the social Ta[es used to be based on material wealth cohesion is essential. J. STIG/IT= 2003, 348 land and real property ¿rst, then goods and shares. Even the ta[ation of work was quite 7+(+<32&5,7,&$/*$0(2)7+(67$7(6 simple in the industrialized world it was chained to the territoriality of the machines or ³/¶pFRQRPLHjSRXUREMHWG¶DOOHUDXGHOjGHV the of¿ces. The huge spreading of information DSSDUHQFHV(OOHHVWODOHQWLOOHTXLIDoRQQHOH and communication technologies in the last UHJDUGTXHQRXVSRUWRQVVXUOHPRQGHHWQRXV 20 years changed the rules of the game. SHUPHWGHUHJDUGHUDXGHOjGXPLURLU´9 Today, many works are not linked to a de¿ned TIRO/E 2016, 20 territory many transactions are not linked States spend a lot of energy to e[plain to their 6. Speci¿cally, the J. STIG/IT= 2016 deregulation of ¿nance has been a destabilizing mistake J. STIG/IT= 2003 7. According to GeNeRE8X, 2008 Competitionisorganized to constitute a social activity. Competitioninducerules, which are accepted and respected by competitors, otherwise, itis not competition but war. :aris a rivalry, which allowseverymeans to win. free translation, p31 . This paperwilldemonstratethatmeansused in the ¿scal game looks likethose of war, not of competition 8 For a visual presentation of the facts RENO8 2009 9 Free translation The aim of economics is to go beyond appearances. It is the lenses, which form the way we are looking to the world, and allows us to look beyond the mirror. 16 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS populations that they are doing everything On the other hand, ³virtuous states´, mainly they are able to do to ¿ght ¿scal optimization. those of the OEC', which try to police They seem to defend offensively their power international ta[ law, use to ¿ght a more or to ta[, mainly since the great ¿nancial crash les hidden ¿scal war that may be described of 2008 deprive them of huge ¿scal incomes through two face the ³visible´ war of the and push them to spend great amount of ³harmful ta[ competition´ and the war of the money to preserve their bank and their social shadows consisting in manipulating ¿scal systems JONES et TEMO8RI 2016, 237 . or accounting law to bargain ¿scal equity. Each meeting of the OEC' is, since that time, the time for them to reaf¿rm the importance of ta[es and their willingness to enforce them ʚ5(1(*$'(ʛ67$7(6 7+()5(('20 without e[emptions. In November 2012, 72%$5*$,1629(5(,*17< G20¶s meeting unambiguously urges ³the QHHG WR SUHYHQW ¿VFDO EDVH HURVLRQ DQG Even if bargaining of sovereignty is not the SUR¿W VKLIWLQJ´. 8nfortunately behind the e[clusive privilege of ta[ havens 11,it is their strength of the af¿rmations, the reality is more trademark =8CMAN 2013 . Bargaining nuanced. GeNeRE8X 2008 As says Jean of sovereignty consist mainly in changing TIRO/E, we have to take a look beyond those the natural law that may apply to something appearances on the other side of the mirror. or somebody. That¶s quite simple due to There, in the ³dark side of the mirror´ the freedom of movement, transactions things are less cute. If everybody agrees to and people, which apply since the 1970¶. tell that a fair society has to be based also Often abusing of this freedom, juridical on fair ta[es 'RE=ET 2011 , the reality operations are placed under the law of is mostly that unfair ta[es10 are creating a complaisant states only in order to offset divided society at the border of the rupture. the constraints of the original regulation. In practice, it seems that most of the states That¶s the reason why one also calls them enter a ¿scal competition to the bottom, to ³renegade´ states E'EN et .8'R/E attract foreign direct investment or wealthy 2005 that SITG/IT= 2016 qualify of people. :here distinction between ta[ ³GDUNVLGHRIJOREDOL]DWLRQ´. Ta[ havens are havens and harmful ta[ competition practiced accused, not without very good reasons, to by ³virtuous´ states used to be drawn the scourge of the age. To sum up, one may OEC', 1998, p. 20 , the borders among reproached them to dry out the ¿scal base those practices are entering a shadows area. Ta[ havens are violently condemned for a of the ³virtuous states´ PA/AN, MARPHY decade or so, butInvestments into offshore et CHAVAGNE8X 2009 to be deprived ¿nancial centers are at historically high levels of any kind of morality PERROT 2016 and they account for an increasing share of to practice money laundering on large scale the global F'I Àows. 8NCTA' 2013 The MIH8 2012 PEI//ON 2004 « and last, following sections will try to e[plain that but not least, to have been a major cause contradiction. It may be ¿nd in the fact that of the ¿nancial crisis of 2008 and made it most ta[ havens have been created by great worse PICCIOTTO 2009 . All that has been states to do what is otherwise incorrect e[tensively analyzed, and will not holds our to do bargaining the sovereignty and attention here.The point that will be insisted openly breaking commonly accepted laws. on is that ta[ heavens have largely been 10 'E/SO/, /¶injustice ¿scale ou l¶abus de bien commun 2016 . Fr Prélqvements obligatoires sur les revenus primaires en 2010, Source TAXIPP 0.1. BO=IO, et al. 2012 11 For e[ample, in 2011, Great Britain changed its ta[ law to attract wealthy people. :hen it used to take ¿ve years to obtain the status of permanent resident and its huge ta[ advantages for foreigners, the delay has been shortened to three yeas for people who will come in England with at least three million pounds and to two years for the owners of more than ten million pounds CHAVAGNE8X 2011 or Italy 2017 '8MONT 2017 17 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE created by ³virtuous´ states to do things in a imagine people foolish enough to invest way that greatness and honorability reprove money or rights of property, where they may Then it will be possible to analyze the main be at state, like in so many corrupt countries tools they offer to circumvent ta[ation. thought the world. So governance quality ³H[HUW DW OHDVW DV SRZHUIXO DQ HIIHFW RQ WD[ ʚ5(1(*$'(ʛ67$7(6 $1$5772 KDYHQVVWDWXV´ until being a casualty of this (6&$3(727+('87<2)9,578( statute 'HARMAPA/A et HINES 2006 . :hatever democratic or monarchic, the In practice, ta[ havens serve three main core principle of great nations is virtueand purposesmorally dif¿cult to follow in the principle of monarchies is honor. ³virtuous states´ They provide a location SIMONNOT 1998, 68 . for holding passive investments ³money Then, integrity, or at least an image of bo[es´ They provide a location where integrity, is priceless for them. That prohibits ³paper´ pro¿ts can be booked and they them to do openly many things what moral enable the affairs of ta[payers, particularly could reprove. By the way, it highlights their bank accounts, to be effectively the importance of the competition between shielded from scrutiny by ta[ authorities law systems J. RO8Ge 2013 common of other countries16. OEC', 1998, p. 22 law, which ³JHQHUDWLQJ ORRSKROHV WKDW ZHUH The geographical pro[imity of most of ta[ XVHG WR GHYHORS WDZ KDYHQV´, and Civil havens from the main trade and ¿nancial law reputed wrongly as less ³business´ centers of the world is there to con¿rm the friendly12 PA/AN, MARPHY et close links between ³virtuous and renegade´ CHAVAGNE8X 2009 . The problem states. And at the question ³why do offshore began when necessity or greed urge ta[ havens still e[ist"´ posed by the BBC on them to do what they should not 30 July 201517 the best response is probably Far from being purely philosophical, those that ³no major state´ really wants them to be principles may e[plain why great states eradicated « maybe due to their mastering invented ta[ havens 8nited .ingdom ¿rst in the art of grey. them to be eradicated18 « during the XIX° century13 MARA 2015 . maybe due to their mastering in the art of grey. Since, they have prospered without cutting their close links with their motherland14. ³A ʚ5(1(*$'(ʛ67$7(6 $1$572)*5(< WD[KDYHQZKLFKLVDGHSHQGHQF\EHQH¿WVDW QRFRVWWRLWVHOIIURPWKHGLSORPDWLF¿QDQFLDO In spite their virtuous af¿rmations, DQGRWKHULQIUDVWUXFWXUHSURYLVLRQVSURYLGHG questioning the true position of big states E\WKHKRPHFRXQWU\´15 OEC', 1998, p. 25 . aboutthe question of ta[ heavens19 is a duty That maybe e[plain why there are almost no big states seem schizophrenic in one hand poorly governed ta[ havens 'HARMAPA/A they condemn them violently, mainly at et HINES 2006 . For the matter, how to the end of each G20 comities since 2009, 12Even if Switzerland and the Netherlands, both CMEs, have a civil law system and are arguably ta[ havens themselves. It is well known that the latter is an attractive destination for some German MNEs JONES et TEMO8RI 2016, 241 13The preeminent role of 8. in the birth and development of ta[ havensinclude the size of the British Empire and its central role in the industrial revolution the dominance of commercial and ¿nancial elites positioned in the City of /ondon the development of the Euromarket in the 1950s and ¿nally the widespread use of common versus civil law in the 8nited .ingdom and across its colonial outposts. PA/AN, MARPHY et CHAVAGNE8X 2009 14Seven out of the 8.s fourteen overseas territories can be regarded as ta[ havens Bermuda, Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands, Gibraltar, Turks and Caicos, Anguilla and Montserrat. But in addition to these locations, it is also important to consider the Crown 'ependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man and the former colony of Hong .ong. PA/AN, MARPHY et CHAVAGNE8X 2009 15The authors precise that © ta[ havens score very well on cross-country measure of governance quality that include measure of voice an accountability, political stability, governance effectiveness, rule of law and control of corruption 16The lack of effective e[change of information is one of the key factors in identifying a ta[ haven since it limits the access by ta[ authorities to the information required for the correct and timely application of ta[ laws. OEC', 1998 17http www.bbc.comnewsbusiness-33628020 In the ne[t part of this study, the responsibility of states regarding to this lack of willingness will be e[plained and nuanced. 18In the ne[t part of this study, the responsibility of states regarding to this lack of willingness will be e[plained and nuanced. 19OEC' it has identi¿ed four key features which make a country a ta[ haven ³no or low ta[es, lack of effective e[change of information, lack of transparency, and no requirement of substantial activity´ and set up an of¿cial list 18 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS in the other hand they use them indecently an indirect use of ta[ heavens by state owed It is not important to stress here the attacks ¿rms. For e[ample, /e Figaro, one of the that G20¶ nations strikes against renegade leading newspapers in France reported that states at the end of each meeting it is largely Electricité 'e France E'F , owned j 84 documented in the press or through the by the French State, seems to use three ta[ publications of OEC'. More interesting is to heavens to localize its pro¿ts GO//A 2014 . put in light the fact that those same nations at How is-it possible for a :hite .night of the least tolerate ta[ heavens, or worst use them. war against aggressive ta[ planning and ta[ heaven to do that" May we consider that The ¿rst argument is logically implacable. there are two weights, two measures one Financial giants, ta[ havens are economical for the states one for their citizen" That and political dwarfs. There is no way for such will be unacceptable in democracies « territories to be able to ignore the commune So, here again, the best e[planation is that willingness great states, mainly the one of of¿cial condemnation of ta[ heaven may 8nited States and European 8nion their be more a principle that a real willingness. worst auto proclaimed enemies =8CMAN 2013 . As a matter of facts, when the 8nited- This argument is reinforced by the fact that States want to impose their law, they use to leading ¿rms of big states, hugely use ta[ do it whatever the questionability, or even heavens in their activities ¿rst of all, the one the doubtfulness of the legality, in from of the in the banking and ¿nance industry. It is so commonly accepted international law, of the strange to see bank breaking ethic regulation legal procedure they use to reach their aim. be severely sanctioned, when the same banks Not even China would be able to ignore a breaking ta[ heaven ban, are immune of any common position of 8SA and E8 so how reproach« is it possible to e[plain that, for e[ample, In fact, beyond the low level of ta[ation, British virgin islands are able to achieve the the greatest interest of ta[ haven is to create feat to survive against the willingness of areas of shadow mainly thought two juridical G20¶ countries" Only one answer is there mechanisms acceptable to understand this miracle in spite of their of¿cial declarations, big states are -85,',&$/23$&,7< less determined that they af¿rm, to wipe out ta[ heavens /aw usually wants the owner of things or :orst, they seem to use them. Here, the rights to be identi¿ed for at least tree reasons purpose is not to speculate about doubtful knowing who to ta[ knowing who to sue, operations initiate by states, but to question in case of problem responsibility and knowing who to protect in case of litigation 20Or International Business Corporations IBC 19 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE about the rights at stakes. That is e[actly what ta[ optimizations and, of course, of all the grey ta[ havens make impossible.Juridical opacity economics. The efforts of OEC' to ¿ght against challenges those aims, mainly the ¿scal one. seems to become effective it is disappearing By disconnecting ownership from the thing in many countries usually considered as ta[ owned, it is a way to divert moral personality havens likeSwiss Austria OEC' 2007 and from its juridical nature FO8M'JEM 2011 . we also see the ¿rst large scale international It is constitute by a set of rules imagined to common investigation in march 2017. separate the ¿nancial earnings from juridical Nevertheless, bank secrecy stay a major point risks. This aim may be reach by many ways of quali¿cation of ta[ haven that survives and may be sophisticated. But commonly, mainly because big states still tolerate it. it consists to create an intermediary moral Trough this ¿rst section, it is now clear that personality, itself controlled by a representative ta[ havens have generally been created of the anonymous owners shell companies20 by big state to serve their interests and that C8T8JAR et 'IENER 1998 Anstalt G/OS they survive mostly because of the lack of 1984 and trusts BE//E-ANTOINE 2013 . effective willingness of greats nations to Pro¿t made are then not ta[ed locally at the eradicate tem. In a second step, it will be name of the companies or their representatives demonstrated that those same big states and the real bene¿ciary of the sums stays in are no so virtuous that they use to say. the shadows of the ta[ havens. ʚ9,578286ʛ67$7(6 7+()5(('20 %$1.6(&5(&</$:6 72%$5*$,1),6&$/(48,7< As a principle, banking information¶s about Equity is a main concern in democracies their clients is not public21. /egitimate bank CAI//ON, /ASCO8MES, BARTHES, secrecy may be de¿ne as a duty, for people 2014 . In particular, ¿scal equity23 ´2QHRIWKH who are working in a bank, whatever their PRVWLPSRUWDQWDWWULEXWHRIDQ\UHVSRQVLEOHWD[ statute, to keep con¿dential,information¶s V\VWHPLVHTXLW\$QHIIHFWLYHWD[V\VWHPPXVW they know about their clients or about third QRWRQO\EHHTXLWDEOHLWPXVWEHSHUFHLYHGWR parties22. To infringe this duty may e[pose EH HTXLWDEOH´ SCO/ARO 2006, 126 This banker to professional, civil and criminal particular link between ³ta[ burden´ and prosecutions. /ASSERRE CAP'EVI//E ³contributive capacity´ of ta[payer, whatever 2015 In fact, the problem occurs only when physical or moral persons, has beenstated for bank secrecy is diverted from it purpose of the ¿rst time in the ³'éclaration des droits protecting bank customers to become a way de l¶Hommeet du citoyen´ 1789, Art 13 of fraud or of committing crime so mainly and universalized in 1948, by the 8niversal when opposed to ta[ or custom authorities 'eclaration of human rights24. Often granted in their legal missions. NeE/ 2000 by constitutions, this principle is fundamental Even if the absence of requirement to provide in democracies25 because it contributes to annual account may preclude access to data make society for two reasons CAI//e 2010 . required for an analyses of economic effects First, it empowered the citizen as a member of a regime OEC' 1998, 18 , bank secrecy is of a particular society26. Second, it is the base the angular stone of aggressive ta[ planning, of the indispensible agreement to the ta[ation. 21Bank secrecy¶s principle is written in most of the world legislations. 22/egally, this duty is dual a civil duty of © discretion ª and a professional duty to keep the professional secrecy. Il est conseillé au professionnel de se © construire une demeure d¶o rien ne transpire au dehors de ce qui se fait j l¶intérieur ª Recommandation de /éon Battista Alberti citée par R. Farhat, /e secret bancaire étude de droit comparé, /G'J, 1980, p. 19. 23 C/ERC 2010 'E/A/AN'E 2001 24See R. M8RPHY 2014 25On the importance of ¿scal equity for economy and society, see RO8Ge,2016 REBE// 1998 26:hich is gradually disappearing in most of the states, mainly due to the lake of equity of most ta[ systems BARI/ARI 2007 BARI/ARI 2000 CRO8Y-CHANE/ 2014 20 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS burdens on ta[ authorities and ta[payers. So, the second stage of this analyze will /ong time ago, OEC' draw up the aims to throw light onarrangements, main techniques of harmful ta[ ³virtuous´ states use to practice against ¿scal competition between states nearly equity Harmful ta[ competition, ¿rst. Then, two decades later, the situation barely the imaginations most of the states may deploy evolved«maybeis it worst today to blow ¿nally up every notion of ¿scal equity. Obviously, those techniques constitute archetypes. In practice, most states use a mi[ of them to create an optimal 7+(+$50)8/7$;&203(7,7,21 ta[ offer. In the worst cases, it is often $*2/'(13$7+2)7+(/(*$/7$; combined with a strategic management of 237,0,=$7,21 ta[ civil servants aiming at moving away the most qualified ones from the most Ta[ optimization is often allowed, even sensitive briefs.As soon as 1998, OEC' favored by states laws. It create hence an warned also against the fact that those incentive for other states to enter a ta[ practices ³HQFRXUDJH FRUUXSWLRQ DQG competition to protect their fiscal income, GLVFULPLQDWRU\ WUHDWPHQWV HVSHFLDOO\ and so on« RO8Ge CHOPOV, LIQRWGLVFORVHG´³$VSHFLILFH[DPSOHRI 2016 Harmful ta[ competition refers to WKLV LVVXH LV ZKHUH WKH WD[ DXWKRULWLHV ta[ practices which affects the location GHOLEHUDWHO\ DGRSW D OD[ DXGLW SROLF\ of financial or other service activities, DV DQ LPSOLFLW LQFHQWLYH WR WD[SD\HUV erodes the ta[ base of others countries, QRW WR FRPSO\ ZLWK WKH WD[ ODZV 6XFK distort trade or investment patterns and EHKDYLRU PD\ JLYH WKHVH WD[SD\HUV undermines the fairness, neutrality and D FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJH´ p.29 broad social acceptance of ta[ systems In practice, it is impossible and generally OEC', 1998, p. 8 The damages will not be interesting to draw an of harmful ta[ practices are perfectly e[haustive list of the practices, we identified OEC', 1998, p.16 distorting denounce27. /et us concentrate on the financial and, indirectly, real investment most common and most important ones flows undermining the integrity and In practice, it is impossible and fairness of ta[ structures discouraging will not be interesting to draw an compliance by all ta[payers re-shaping e[haustive list of the practices, we the desired level and mi[ of ta[es and denounce27. /et us concentrate on the public spending causing undesired shifts most common and most important ones of part of the ta[ burden to less mobile All those practices are perfectly known ta[ bases, such as labour, property and documented for thirty years, firstly and consumption andIncreasing the though OEC' ³special reports´. But administrative costs and compliance as efficient they may be, they are 27To go further on the question see RO8Ge J. , 2016 21 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE still not enough and it is possible to money to sustain or attract economic activity. identify much perverse fiscal practices. This simple fact hurts deeply ¿scal neutrality and may be a source of corruption 'E/SO/, 7+(,0$*,1$7,212)/$:722%/,7 2014 . Nevertheless, it may eventually be (5$7(),6&$/(48,7< understand when done for social purpose. It is much more disputable when this money A good ta[ system has to be fair and neutral. is given directly or not, to the bene¿t of Fair, it has to share out the burden of public ³for pro¿t´ entities. Generally presented spending between all citizens neutral it asef¿cient tools of economic policy, to shape should not favor or put at unfair disadvantage investment, preserve or increase employment, any human activity. Fair and neutral, it stimulate demand or offer, OEC' reports purposes have to be ¿nancing fair and the harmful consequences of the main type neutral spending SIMONNOT 1998, 402 . of negative ta[ations the subsidies and the 'espite its huge importance, cotemporary corporate ta[ incentive. ta[ laws essentially ignore ¿scal equity. The constitutional ta[ precept ³to each one S8BSI'IES are current payments by the according to its contributive capacity´ became, general government or European 8nion since a long time, ³to each one according its institutions to resident producers that are not power to obtain ¿scal bene¿ts´. Hence, states required to be reimbursed30. According to the compete with imagination to pervert their ta[ de¿nition given by Eurostat31, the overriding 28 systems in order attract people or activities goal is to inÀuence levels of production that politicians think to be good for the or prices, or to compensate producers for common good«or for themselves RO8Ge et production costs. A ¿rst problem with CHOPOV 2016 subsidies is that it is in contradiction with the Means to put at stake ¿scal equity only limited core philosophy of the neo-liberal paradigm by the imagination of civil servant that draw that most governments of big nations follow. them29, so it is impossible to be e[haustive. A second one, much more critical, is pointed So, let us concentrate on particularly used out by M. A.ASA.A, OEC' deputy techniques. secretary general © 6XEVLGLHVRIWHQLQWURGXFH 7+(1(*$7,9(7$;$7,21 HFRQRPLF HQYLURQPHQWDO DQG VRFLDO GLVWRUWLRQV ZLWK XQLQWHQGHG FRQVHTXHQFHV Negative ta[ation occurs when states ortheir 7KH\ DUH H[SHQVLYH IRU JRYHUQPHQWV DQG administrative sub-entities, give ta[payer 28For e[ample, Portugal just decided an e[oneration of ta[es on revenues for 10 years for everyone who comes to live in the country. '8MONT 2017 . Italia is changing its ta[ system for the same reasons in march 2017. England of the bre[it and 8SA under the new presidency are taking the same way. 29For e[ample ta[ concessions, soft loans, or even equity participation« 30Nature of subventions RO8Ge et CHOPOV, 2016 Sometimes, subsidies are granted through an administratively ¿[ed price of supplying for e[ample © le tarifboni¿e ª of eolitic electricity 'E/SO/ 2014 or an adminitrativelly ¿[ed price of sale Medicines in France 31http ec.europa.eueurostatstatistics-e[plainedinde[.phpGlossary Subsidies 22 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS PD\ QRW DFKLHYH WKHLU REMHFWLYHV ZKLOH DOVR though ¿scal e[onerations or reductions. As LQGXFLQJ KDUPIXO HQYLURQPHQWDO DQG VRFLDO seen below, they may have a huge impact RXWFRPHV´ « © *RYHUQPHQW VXSSRUW IRU on economic decision and may constitute a FHUWDLQ VHFWRUV DQG HFRQRPLF DFWLYLWLHV DUH massive distortion of competition¶s fairness. SHUYDVLYHLQ2(&'FRXQWULHVDQGDPRQJWKH Even thought, those states¶ actions may be PRVWSRZHUIXOSXEOLFSROLF\LQVWUXPHQWVQRZ less detrimental of ¿scal fairness than the LQ XVH ª OEC' 2007, 7 . One may not be ³laisser faire´ in bookkeeping regulation. clearer Subsidization of industrial activities distorts the allocation of scarce resources, is a 7+(%22..((3,1*5(*8/$7,21 burden on government ¿nance and generates friction in international trade OEC', FOR' Rigor of bookkeeping is essential to preserve et S8Y.ER 1990 . 'espite those decisive ¿scal equity but many loopholes characterize critics, subsidies are largely used around the unfortunately accounting regulations and world,worst they seem to increase, as showed accounting rigor is far from being enforced byy the mapp below32 And according to their huge negative side by law. J. STIG/IT= 2003 J. STIG/IT= effect, it may be proposed that the reason to 2003 . Hence, bookkeeping regulation 33 use subsidies is to ¿ght the global ta[ war . is the heart of ta[ optimization.There is CORPORATE TAX INCENTIVE sare also generally no need to fraud, but to master denounced by OEC', mainly those related to accounting to escape ta[es. And when mastering F'I OEC', 2001 . Contrary to the subsidies, technic is not enough, then imagination incentives generally not paid directly, but take the power to save still more ta[es. 32http data.worldbank.orgindicatorGC.XPN.TRFT.CN"end 2014 locations FR start 2014 view map 33Even if it is a main concern for this topic, we deliberately e[clude the link between subsidies and corruption. For an e[emple © /e Service cen- tral de prévention de la corruption souligne dans son rapport d¶activité 2013 que © /e développement de l¶activité éolienne semble s¶accompag- ner de nombreu[ cas de prise illégale d¶intérrts impliquant des élus locau[ ª. Ceu[-ci dé¿nissent les zones de développement éolien ou autorisent les permis de construire de telle faoon qu¶ils puissent valoriser leurs propres terrains, avec des pro¿ts substantiels j la clé. /e rapport du SCPC alertes sur les risques d¶© atteintes j la probité beaucoup plus graves comme celui de la corruption ª. http fr.irefeurope.org/e-vent-des-subven- tions-et-de-la-corruption,a3129 23 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE MASTERING OF THE TECHNIC. The provisions in general thoseof bad debts, Accounting technics are a fabulous way to in particular, are at least a very common way to minimize ta[ legally and more or less fairly . It adjust the ¿nancial result of corporations to tailor is impossible here to describe all the way open ta[es« by law. The most famous are probably This list is far from being e[haustive. The point The Deductibility of interest payments. 'ebt here is to insist on the fact that all those technics is a normal way of ¿nancing ¿rms. Then, it are economically legitimate but that they are also seems perfectly normal that interests paid on commonly used to minimize ta[ation in an unfair the debt need to conduct activity which will way. Of course, that is much less reprehensible that creative accounting. generate pro¿ts, then ta[es may be considered as an accounting charge and so be deductible. CREATIVE ACCOUNTING. Identi¿ed in The problem emerge when global ¿rms, despite 1986 by GRIFFITHS, creative accounting is since a huge amount of casch reserves, signi¿cantly very common35. It consists in using the Àe[ibility increase their debt level, at home in order to within accounting to manage the measurement mitigate their corporate ta[ via deducting interest and presentation of the accounts so that they serve payments when, at the same time, pro¿t are the interests of preparers M. JONES 2010 It is 34 registred in ta[ haven subsidiaries « therefore within the limits of law,it follows accounting HQKDQFLQJWKHYDOXHRIWKH¿UPDQGSRWHQWLDOO\ standards, and thus it obeys the law butnot its FUHDWLQJDWHPSRUDU\ERRVWLQVKDUHSULFHDQG essence. JAMESON 1988 .For e[ample a ¿rm FUHDWLQJ D OXFUDWLYH LPSDFW RQ HPSOR\HH VWRFN may use Ta[ shelters 36 Emission of ta[ e[empt RSWLRQV ª JONES et TEMO8RI 2016, 241 bonds 37 or the buyback of its own shares38« The evaluation of the assets is also a main To manipulate accounting ¿gures, accounting question of a fair accounting. It is in fact very professionals, use many technics, which aims to dif¿cult to determine the actual value of an asset, create a misinterpretation of ¿nancial information or even of a debt. Traditionally, in Europe, it was for stakeholders. Accounting scandals spreading based on the principle of prudance. But , with the all over the globe, are there to prove that adoption of IFRS, Europe joint the anglosa[on way accounting numbers may be easily manipulated to estimate the vaalue of things by ³the market´. so as to deceive and defraud M. JONES 2010 In A main caracteristic of this kind of valuation is the ¿gure below '8R-e-SHA:AR et 4AISAR its volatility and its subjectivity when there is no 2015, 149 draw up the divers ways creative 39 market of reference which is often tha situation. accounting may be used to escape ta[es. So, it is quite simple to ¿[ subjective depreciations Clearly, ¿scal equity is at stake despite the core or appreciations of asssets to reach ¿scal targets principle of accounting. So is it with some FREE'MAN 2008 fashionable ta[ systems. 34Even if the pro¿ts accumulated in ta[ havens subsidiaries may later be used as a strategic weapon, in order to be able to shift capital rapidly across the other subsidiaries. A/TSH8/ER et GR8BERT 2003 HINES et H8BBAR' 1990 35Since, many technics complete the palette JONES 2010 Aggressive accounting « It is the use of accounting rules and regulations to deliver a particular set of ¿nancial results. It involves a deliberate choice of accounting ¿gures, which will have more to do whit achieving a speci¿c managerial objective, rather than representing a true and fair view. Earning management academic term for aggressive accounting Impression management is not fraudulent. It is normally more associated with the presentational aspects of reporting accounting narratives, graphs photographs to inÀuence ¿nancial reports in favor of management. Pro¿t smoothing as stock market rewards companies that produce steady pro¿ts and penalize those with erratic pro¿ts, pro¿t smoothing is the use of various technics to smooth pro¿ts. 36 8S General Accounting Of¿ce de¿nes abusive shelters to be « very complicated transactions promoted by corporations and wealthy individuals to e[ploit ta[ loopholes and provide large, unintended bene¿ts ª 2003, 1 Those shelters are a huge source of ta[ looses. Studies documented a growing gap between the book income reported on public corporations µ¿nancial statements and the ta[ income of corporations after ta[ retreatment. 'ESAI 2003 MAN=ON et P/ES.O 2001 BAN.MAN 2004 37States and local governments use to ¿nance their needs of money byissuing bonds. Sometimes the interests on those bonds are ta[ e[empted to attract investors or special categories of investors. Ta[-e[empt bonds are an opportunity to shelter income to ta[ation. Because the bonds are most valuable to ta[payers with high marginal ta[ rate, they offend the equity of ta[ation by reducing the progressivity of the ta[¶ burden by income class. 38:hen a ¿rm buybacks its own shares, the ta[ on value added realized by shareholders is generally much less that the ta[es they will pay on dividends PI.ETTY 2013, 280 39'e¿nitions from http www.investopedia.comterms Earnings management is the use of accounting techniques to produce ¿nancial reports that present an overly positive view of a company¶s business activities and ¿nancial position. Many accounting rules and principles require company management to make judgments. Earnings management 24 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS ³renegade´ and ³virtuous´ states fades in from )5207+()/$77$;6<67(0672 of the manipulations of their ta[ law usually 7+(81,48(7$;6<67(0 practiced by the last one. The abdication of great states ¿nds no e[cuses, but may partially The impact of Àat ta[ systems on ¿scal equity be e[plained by the cynical game some global has already been demonstrated, previously enterprises play. RO8Ge et CHOPOV 2016 . A new version, even more inequitable has just been created, 7+(&<1,&$/*$0(2)0$1<*/2%$/ in March 2017, by Italy, which just invent the (17(535,6(6 inclusive ta[ system for wealthiest. Progressivity of ta[es has been erase for the pro¿t of a unique ³/¶pFRQRPLHHVWDXVHUYLFHGXELHQFRPPXQ amount of ta[es, whatever the amount of income HOOH D SRXU REMHW GH UHQGUH OH PRQGH or wealth, of 100 000 euros. PHLOOHXU´40 7,52/( * This precept seems totally away from many * * global ¿rms which purpose seems only to The panorama captured by this section is not make money for money today and whatever equivoque states are ¿ghting a sel¿sh and the price. Concerning ¿scal topics, even if he 41 pitiless war between themselves to attract is violently criticized , PI.ETTY 2013, 800 wealth whatever the pettiness and consequences speaks of ³¿VFDOVHFHVVLRQRIWKHZHDOWKLHVW´ for public good. Even the border between on this point, he seems not to abuse. The situation seems obvious ³%LJJ WHFKQRORJLFDOJ takes advantage of how accounting rules are applied and creates ¿nancial statements that inÀate earnings, revenue or total assets. ª :indow dressing « :indow dressing is a strategy used by mutual fund and other portfolio managers near the year or quarter end to improve the appearance of a fund¶s performance before presenting it to clients or shareholders. To window dress, the fund manager sells stocks with large losses and purchases high-Àying stocks near the end of the quarter. These securities are then reported as part of the fund¶s holdings. ª window dress, the fund manager sells stocks with large losses and purchases high-Àying stocks near the end of the quarter. These securities are then reported as part of the fund¶s holdings. ª Income smoothing « The use of accounting techniques to level out net income Àuctuations from one period to the ne[t. Companies indulge in this practice because investors are generally willing to pay a premium for stocks with steady and predictable earnings streams, compared with stocks whose earnings are subject to wild Àuctuations. A big bath is an accounting term de¿ned by a management team¶s strategy of manipulating a company¶s income statement to make poor results look even worse to make future results better. It is often implemented in a bad year for a company to enhance the ne[t year¶s earnings in an arti¿cial manner. ª 40Free translations Economy aims at the common good its object is to construct a better world. 41Capital in the XXI° century is quali¿ed of ³intellectual fraud´ by many researchers in economics and management. /ECA8SIN, 'E/SO/ et MARTIN 2015 42In 2012, President OBAMA, in his « President¶s Framework for Business Ta[ Reform ª, pointed out that « empirical evidence suggested that the income shifting behavior by multinational corporations is a signi¿cant concern that should be addressed through ta[ reform ª 43Some economists nevertheless consider that ta[ing corporations is not only a bad thing, but also unfair MARTIN 2016 Firms earning bear a double ta[ation pro¿ts of the ¿rm and incomes of shareholders ta[ are also bad for employment and workers and for economic growth« 44In the competition between « civil law ª and « common law ª, the procedural nature of the common law makes the compliance to the strict letter of the law, the norm when civil law may also more easily use the spirit of the law, to enforce principles. J. RO8Ge 2013 25 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ¿UPV DUH DV D SULQFLSOH RSSRVHG WR WD[HV ZKDW LV SURYRNLQJ WKH UXLQ RI 6WDWHV´42 7+(9,57826,7<,1(6&$/$7,1* B. M8RPHY 2012 43 .Their lawyers and +$50)8/7$;&203(7,7,21 accountant have developed a true art, of escaping ta[es, without breaking openly the Harmful ta[ competition has been analyzed law MA/GORE 2016 44 :hen auditioned in the previous chapter, but it is interesting by senatorial or representative commissions to insist here on the technics used by global for their aggressive ta[ practices, their CEO ¿rms to keep pressure on ta[ systems to create used to be ³very surprised to be treated as Hypercompetition between them. Two of accused of some crime´. They generally them are particularly used ¿rst, global ¿rms conclude their audition telling something like like to choose their law then they generally we always follow the law if you disagree with discus the effective application of those laws our practices change the law. The cynicism is directly with ta[ authorities. at its peak No, in fact not. Cynicism may be still higher. $6.,//72$%86(75($7,(61(7:25.6 Because if there is few doubts that, in the light of the public live, global ¿rms use to follow The world, and particularly the world of the law, or even seem to be socially international business, is supposed to live in an responsible 'AVIS, et al. 2016 , in environment of freedom. That¶s a wonderful the shadow of the business, they use to thing for which we have to care about. But freedom has a particularly fundamental circumvent it.First, they routinelymultiply corollary responsibility. :hen this last one arti¿cial streams of goods or money without disappears freedom may easily become any economic justi¿cation, but to escape chaos where only the law of the stronger is ta[es PI.ETTY 2013, 307 it is one of the the one enforced.To smooth that ¿erce law, main reasons why 60 of all international 45 treaties are the way states use to limit their trade never sees the market to take place own power to facilitate e[changes with other in internal ¿rm transaction. And curiously, nations. But, far from favoring this way to transfer pricing has become one of the most live together, ³&RXQWULHVWKDWKDYHLQWURGXFHG problematic topic of international ta[ law UHJLPHV FRQVWLWXWLQJ KDUPIXO WD[ FRPSHWLWLRQ 46 and particularly in ta[ evasion law ... But RIWHQ YLHZ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKHLU QHWZRUN 47 it will not be the subject here . Even more RIWD[FRQYHQWLRQVDVDQDVVHWWKDWIDFLOLWDWHV global ¿rm are keen to manipulate states, or DQG HQFRXUDJHV WKH XVH RI WKHVH UHJLPHV E\ international organization, like European UHVLGHQWV RI WKLUG FRXQWULHV´ OEC' 1998, 8nion, to obtain what they want. Hence,after 47 Abusing of their freedom, global ¿rm creating it, theyturn out to be e[pert in the hence use to put states laws in competition, art of stimulating Hypercompetition between to abolish as many ¿scal constraints as national ta[ systems RO8Ge et CHOPOV possible. As point out by OEC',³DQH[WHQVLYH 2016 . WUHDW\ QHWZRUN PD\ RSHQ XS WKH EHQH¿WV RI KDUPIXOSUHIHUHQWLDOWD[UHJLPHVRIIHUHGE\WKH To understand those hidden practices, the present WUHDW\FRXQWU\WRDEURDGHUDUUD\RIFRXQWULHV section will ¿rst, insist on the ways global ¿rms WKDQZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHWKHFDVH2QHRIWKH put national ta[ systems in competition RO8Ge PRWLYDWLRQVIRUH[WHQGLQJWKHWUHDW\QHWZRUNLQ et CHOPOV 2016 . Then,it will demonstrate, VRPHFRXQWULHVPD\EHWRHQKDQFHWKHEHQH¿WV how they ¿ght to shape lawsthey eventually RI KDUPIXO SUHIHUHQWLDO WD[ UHJLPHV´ OEC' tailored. 1998, 33 45Neoclassical theory of the market may be criticized but the market has also virtues as a meeting point for an offer and a demand it puts in light many useful information essential for ta[ purpose prices and quantities« :ithout market the shadows of the internal transactions was certainly a progress when the ¿rm was integrated and small enough COASE 1997 it is a danger with global network ¿rms. 46³Transfer pricing allows an MNE to minimise its corporate ta[ liability by setting appropriate prices for intra¿rm trade and offers the ability to defer ta[ation into the future.´ JONES et TEMO8RI 2016, 238 SI..A et :I//MOT, The dark side of transfer pricing, 2010 47See RO8Ge et CHOPOV, 2016 ARMSTRONG 1998 BOYRIE, PAR. and ='ANO:IC= 2005 OEC', 2001 OEC', 1979 R8GMAN 1985 26 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS OEC' identi¿es ³WUHDW\ DEXVH DQG LQ The more ta[ systems are comple[, the more SDUWLFXODU WUHDW\ VKRSSLQJ DV RQH RI WKH ta[ rulings may be ³vital´ SCO/ARO 2006, PRVW LPSRUWDQW VRXUFH RI %DVH (URVLRQ DQG 130 . Hence, OEC'¶s work demonstrates that 3UR¿W6KLIWLQJFRQFHUQ´ OEC' 2015 Hence, ³WKHUH KDV EHHQ D WUHQG IURP WR for nearly forty years now48, one of the most DPRQJ 2(&' FRXQWULHV WR DGRSW DGYDQFHG ef¿cient ways to optimize its ta[ation is the WD[ UXOLQJV UHJLPHV « in practice, 34 allowance, given to ta[payers by states to member countries have adopted ta[ rulings50 choose their law. ³7D[SD\HUVHQJDJHGLQWUHDW\ ´ A/ARIE, et al. 2014 that seemto be VKRSSLQJ DQG RWKHU WUHDW\ DEXVH VWUDWHJLHV considered as ³best practices´ to follow and XQGHUPLQHWD[VRYHUHLJQW\E\FODLPLQJWUHDW\ encourage ta[ administrations to adopt biding EHQH¿WVLQVLWXDWLRQVZKHUHWKHVHEHQH¿WVZHUH rulings regimes.There are commonly two QRWLQWHQGHGWREHJUDQWHGWKHUHE\GHSULYLQJ sorts of ta[ rulings51 FRXQWULHVRIWD[UHYHQXHV´ OEC' 2015 Still - « Public ruling ª or « revenue ruling ª more disturbing is the fact that, in the absence of reciprocity and procedural fairness the fact is issued by the legitimate ta[ authority, at its by a country not to collaborate with other in own discretion to provide the public with its such e matter is a very important aspect for opinion on the way in which ta[ law applies to encouraging ta[ evasion. OEC' 1998, 51 a person or a class of persons, in relation to an arrangement or class of arrangements. Public Of course, since it has been identi¿ed like rulings are generally published. a source of unfair practices, more and more - « Private ruling ª are issued by the internal laws and treaties include anti-abuse legitimate ta[ authority only upon the application provisions, including a minimum standard by a ta[payer. The authority is generally obliged to counter treaty shopping. The remaining to issue private ruling upon request and these question is why is treaty shopping still in rulings apply inly to the applicant ta[payer. common use" One answer may be that many It provides him the authority¶s opinion on the states, despite their international engagement application of ta[law to a speci¿c arrangement to do it, do not really look for enforcing their that ta[ payer has entered into or proposes to own law, due to the pressure they suffer to enter into. SCO/ARO 2006 become ¿scally attractive. This phenomenon Ta[ rulings have been created with two is reinforced by the global corporations habit purposes JAMES et :A//SCH8T=.Y to negotiate their ta[ burden with public 1995 authorities before engaging in F'I. - To promote certainty52 for ta[payer and thereby reduce their risks and opportunity costs53. $7$/(17721(*27,$7(7+( - To make the ta[ systems ³fDLUHUEHFDXVH $33/,&$7,212)7+(&+26(1/$: WD[SD\HUZLOOEHDEOHWRREMHFWSULYDWHUXOLQJV DQGKDYHWKHPDWWHUUHYLHZHGE\DQLQGHSHQGHQW Politicians and ta[ practitioners often claim WULEXQDO RU FRXUW´ SCO/ARO 2006, 113 that ta[ uncertainty, justify the possibility Fostering uncertainty on the part of ta[payer for¿rms to request fee-based advance ta[ may increase their level of compliance and then rulings ATRs to mitigate it49. 'I//ER, et be advantageous for the revenue authorities54. al. 2016 A/ARIE, et al. 2014 . A third advantage supposed of rulings is that 48This concern is not new. At the end of the 1980¶, treaty shopping was already an up to date question. 49The factors to consider before to apply for ta[ rulings are the possibility of an unfavorable ruling the length if time needed to obtain the rulings the risk of revenue querying issues not anticipated by the ta[payer and unconnected to the transaction for which a ruling was sought.Source BE/= 1967-68 508. has no formal system of advance rulings but Her Majesty Revenue Custom provides an e[tensive clearance service for business ta[payers. 51In France ta[ ruling is named « rescrit ¿scal ª by the law of July 8, 1987, which created it. COIN, '8RAN' et /IEB 2010 52The authors precise that this reÀects the basic tenet of Adam SMITH¶s principle of Certainty in « An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations ª 53Ta[ authorities are bound by a ruling unless the facts were incorrectly described. ³The basic concept underlying ta[ rulings systems is that ta[payers are entitled to know how to calculate their liability for ta[ before or at the time of entering into a transaction rather than learning the ta[ outcome only after the transaction is completed.´ A/ARIE, et al. 2014, 366-367 54 /OG8E 2007 SCOTCHMER et S/EMRO' 1989 According to A/ARIE, et al. 2014, 367 , « The economic intuition behind these arguments is that risk adverse ta[payers will err in the side of caution and perhaps over-comply with strategically uncertain ta[ law. ª 27 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE they are an important source of information to be able to convince regulators, sometimes for governments. A/ARIE, et al. 2014, 368 even the entire society, that they are the only one to understand their business enough, to 'espite those legitimate arguments, rulings regulate it. Hence, auto regulation should are under cautions du to the abuses revealed be the rule the law the e[ception. In a among others by the case E8 vs APP/E perfect world, it could be right. In the world in fall 2016. For e[ample, when a global of greediness of global ¿rms it is a plain ¿rm approach simultaneously several nonsense commonly accepted. governments to consider a foreign direct investment, ruling may be use to negotiate ³7KH JHQHULF WHUP VRIW ODZ FRYHUV D ZLGH an abusively low, predetermined level of UDQJH RI LQVWUXPHQWV RI GLIIHUHQW QDWXUH ta[ation in order to attract the future activities. DQG IXQFWLRQV WKDW PDNH LW YHU\ GLI¿FXOW WR By allowing specially negotiated privileges FRQWDLQ LW ZLWKLQ D VLQJOH IRUPXOD ,WV RQO\ to very powerful clever corporations, some FRPPRQIHDWXUHLVWKDWLWLVLQZULWWHQIRUP states pervert a system that otherwise may EXWWKHRWKHUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDUHYDULDEOHDQG be bene¿c ³2XUUHVXOWVDOVRKROGZKHQWKH QHJRWLDEOH DQG WKH\ FRQVWLWXWH DQ ³LQ¿QLWH WD[DXWKRULW\PD[LPL]HVVRFLDOZHDOWKLQVWHDG YDULHW\´6RWKHWHUPHQFRPSDVVHVVRIWUXOHV RI LWV UHYHQXHV 5HJXODWRU\ FKDQJHV LQ $75 WKDW DUH LQFOXGHG LQ WUHDWLHV QRQELQGLQJ RU UHTXLUHPHQWVPLJKWVHUYHDVDQDWXUDOTXDVL YROXQWDU\ UHVROXWLRQV UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV H[SHULPHQW IRU DQ HPSLULFDO VWXG\ RI RXU FRGHVRIFRQGXFWDQGVWDQGDUGV´ FAJAR'O SUHGLFWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ LQYHVWPHQW GHFLVLRQV´ 2014 . 'I//ER, et al. 2016 . The problem then become one of unfairness of the ¿scal Two technics are usually used to accomplish treatment due to your capacity of negotiating this e[ploit. As long as it is possible, ¿rms many recent scandals tend to show that it is promote auto regulation, e[cluding states a huge one. But such a bargaining skill is not from process but to enforce its results. The the only way to tailor ¿scal regulation. masterpiece of this art is the accounting regulations. And when, due to the abuses of 7+(+,''(17$/(172)7$,/25,1* freedom, the masquerade is over, the genius 7+(/$: is to convince regulator to endorse only ³not In this section, the question that will be treated binding´ regulations. is ³how to be sure to get the best law to sue its own interests"´ The answers proposed by 7+($%86(62)6(/)5(*8/$7,216 global ¿rm are both simple and very ef¿cient make them ourselves ³Rules´ may legally be set down precisely, by Chocking" Maybe, but to legal ways have the one who have to follow them ³standards´, been developed to bypass the obstacle of ³codes of conduct´³voluntary resolution´ or the democratic rule that wants the law to be even more evasive ´nonbinding resolutions´ decided by the representative of people for or ³recommendations´. RA'E//I 2003 , the common good. The ¿rst one is to convince the legislator that he is not really concerned The argument in favor of auto regulation by the matter the self-regulation will be is right the more a matter is technical and more ef¿cient. The second, when this ¿rst evolving, the less law is the adapted tool to way is close is to prepare the law, to let to the regulate it. The time of the law is obviously legislator the ³freedom´ to approve it. not the time of business even less the one of ¿nance OST 1999 Problems begin when, 7+($572)'(9(/23,1*62)7/$: in our society most of the global business is comple[, volatile and international. It On of the greatest virtuosity of global ¿rm is 28 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS questions about the relevance of states lawsas will be enlighten how global ¿rm manipulate a tool of regulation. Further, it question about states ¿scal laws to neutralize them to the the place of any democratic tool to regulate ma[imum. economics« but that is a larger question. In fact, the method is quite simple. First, global ¿rms use to ¿nance politicians runs Here, we just want to insist about the dangers what is far from being neutral on the their of self regulation and particularly, as long level f ta[ation. Second, they use to propose as ta[es are concerned, of the brightest their laws to politicians who often vote them one accounting. The place is missing to without great resistance it is usually called here, so the reader will be invited to reread lobbying. At least, global ¿rms comply at ³the roaring nineties´ and especially the minimum to the law, they shaped. chapters four and ¿ve J. STIG/IT= 2003 But, soft law is not only self-regulation, 7+(,03$&72)),1$1&,$/6833257 it is also non binding public regulation. 7232/,7,&$/&$03$,*16 If anybody wondered why big and global 7+(/,0,762)121%,1',1*38%/,& ¿rms use to ¿nance politicians of diverse 5(*8/$7,216 wings during their run to the power, the answer is simple it worth the spending Very E[cept concerning the 8nited States of few academic literature document this point, America, which has the power to enforce fortunately recently, CHIRIN.O :I/SON universally their domestic law, it is important 2010 , have made a very interesting study to remind here that law is territorial and on the impact of allowing American ¿rms to global ¿rms are a-territorial. No international subsidies political campaign. institution but the :ord Trade Organization The authors linked business campaign dared to use its inÀuence power" to ¿[ contribution to ta[ rate ³ EXVLQHVVFDPSDLJQ internationally biding norms. FRQWULEXWLRQV PD\ GLUHFWO\ LQÀXHQFH EXVLQHVV WD[ UDWHV DV ZHOO DV LQGLUHFWO\ VKDSH WD[ Regarding ¿scal concerns, OEC' then used FRPSHWLWLRQDQGHQKDQFHRUUHWDUGWKHPRELOLW\ for decades to ¿ght ¿scal abuses with incentive RIFDSLWDODFURVVMXULVGLFWLRQVª P. 968 /et us weapons ³guidelines´ or ³recommendation´ e[amine the conclusions of this paper ³%DVHG or ³codes of conducts´. One can think that RQ D SDQHO RI 86 VWDWHV DQG XQLTXH GDWD things are changing with the ³Base Erosion RQ EXVLQHVV FDPSDLJQ FRQWULEXWLRQV RXU Pro¿t Shifting´ BEPS , at least conceived to HPSLULFDOZRUNXQFRYHUVIRXUNH\UHVXOWV be aenforceable tool of action OEC' 2015 . )LUVWZHGRFXPHQWDVLJQL¿FDQWGLUHFW HIIHFWRIEXVLQHVVFRQWULEXWLRQVRQWD[SROLF\ Future will tell us the effectiveness of this new 6HFRQGWKHVHHVWLPDWHVLPSO\WKDWWKH international regulation55. But to secure their HFRQRPLF YDOXH RI D EXVLQHVV FDPSDLJQ ta[ immunity, global ¿rms are also master FRQWULEXWLRQLQWHUPVRIORZHUVWDWHFRUSRUDWH in the art of draining the ¿scal burden out of WD[HVLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\ their horizon. 7KLUGWKHVORSHRIWKHUHDFWLRQIXQFWLRQ EHWZHHQWD[SROLF\LQDJLYHQVWDWHDQGWKHWD[ 7+($572)'5$,1,1*$1<5(6,'8$/ SROLFLHV RI LWV FRPSHWLWLYH VWDWHV LV QHJDWLYH &21675$,17)5207+(/$: DQGWKLVVORSHLVUREXVWWRLQFOXGLQJEXVLQHVV FDPSDLJQ FRQWULEXWLRQV LQ WKH HFRQRPHWULF In this section, the cynicism wills rich its HTXDWLRQ. apogee. Through a tree steps demonstration, it )RXUWKZHKLJKOLJKWWKHVHQVLWLYLW\RI 55The ¿rst successes of this new regulation have to be notice global ¿rm have to report bene¿ts country by country for the ¿rst time in 2016. But it is possible to worry about the future of BEPS, when we look at the ta[ reforms in achievement in the 8SA of President TR8MP and in the England of Bre[it« 56This negative slope reÀects a reaction to an inÀow of capital due to an increase in capital ta[es in neighboring jurisdictions that creates an increase in capital ta[es in neighboring jurisdictions that creates an opportunity for residents to maintain the current level of public services at a lower ta[ rate negative income elasticity for public goods compels residents to act on this opportunity. 29 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE WKHHPSLULFDOUHVXOWVWRVWDWHHIIHFWV57´ is not corruption58, but a power relationship Impressive as the title of the paper induce, between a ¿rm or a group who knows e[actly it seems to be possible to buy its level of what are their sel¿sh interests, and civil ta[ation That even in a low corrupted country, servants who have to de¿ne a ³common and even in the absence of close collusion interest´ of the populations they serve which between economic and political power. /et is quite impossible with less and less means us imagine what may really be when elected of action and of independent sources of people are big business owners or chiefs of information, due to the politics of budget ma¿as« But it is still not enough To be restrictions everywhere around the globe. If absolutely con¿dent to minimize ta[ation, the ³the literaturedoes not provide very consistent best way for global ¿rms is to tailor the ¿scal answers aboutwhy some organizations lobby law to their aims and it works perfectly well. and others do not´ BRASHER and /O:ERY 2006 , the gain of lobbying is nevertheless 7+( +$%,7 72 7$,/25 7+( /$: 72 perfectly documented Ta[ bene¿ts may take 7+(,51(('6 the form of direct ta[ savings from e[clusions, deductions and credits, or indirect ta[ savings The proverb tells, ³WREHVXUHWKDWWKLQJVDUH from strategies that e[ploit loopholes in the GRQHSURSHUO\GRLW\RXUVHOI´. And that is just ta[ law. MEA'E JA 2015, 28 . In practice, what global ¿rms use to do. They pay their research and development intensity, return on specialists to write the law that serve their assets, capital intensity and ta[ depreciation interests, and propose the te[t to authorities. schedules tailored to speci¿c types of capital That is called lobbying, and it is perfectly equipment serve as potential channels legal, even recommended, like in the statutes through which politicians could manipulate of European community. /awmaker use the ta[ code to favor ¿rms that lobby. ³:e to count on lobbyists to prepare technical e[pect the ta[ treatment of ¿rms that lobby to law ³$ SROLWLFDO FOLPDWH WKDW HQFRXUDJHV be more responsive towards accruing bene¿ts WD[ OREE\LQJ LV RQH ZKHUH SROLF\PDNHUV DUH along these channels than ¿rms that do not ZLOOLQJWRIRUJRUHYHQXHE\H[SDQGLQJWKHVHW lobby´. RICHTER, SAMPHANTHARA. RIWD[SUHIHUHQFHV$FOLPDWHWKDWQHFHVVLWDWHV and TIMMONS 2009 WD[OREE\LQJLVRQHZKHUHSROLF\PDNHUVVHHN However, whatever the technical means used, WR LQFUHDVH UHYHQXH E\ FXUWDLOLQJ WKH VHW RI and even if the battle for political inÀuence WD[SUHIHUHQFHV7KHVHFOLPDWHVZKLFKRIWHQ does not distort the ta[ structure, what is FRH[LVWFUHDWHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUVWUDWHJLFWD[ doubtful, lobbying is cause of inef¿ciencies OREE\LQJ E\ ¿UPV VHHNLQJ QHZ WD[ EHQH¿WV BR8SCO S 2014 . But the global ¿rms¶ RU FRPSHO ¿UPV WR HQJDJH LQ GHIHQVLYH WD[ efforts to escape marginal ta[es do not stop OREE\LQJ WR SUHVHUYH H[LVWLQJ WD[ EHQH¿WV´ there. MEA'E JA 2015 7+(0,1,0$/&203/,$1&(727+( /$:7+(<6+$3(' /obbying may be described as³a negotiation among several interestedparties rather than an Even with ta[ law tailored, and its e[change of dollars for speci¿clegislation´ application negotiated with ta[ authorities or RICHTER, SAMPHANTHARA. and directly with governments, the last weapon TIMMONS 2009 . It is so kind to those authors used by global ¿rm to minimize effective to sterilize the phenomenon through this ta[ burden paid is compliance. RO8Ge ³politically correct´ de¿nition. No, lobbying CHOPOV 2016 largely discussed that 57In fact, the frontier between lobbying and corruption is perfectly de¿ned even if hazy. As the e[ample of M. BARROSO, in 2016, shows, the problem is much more one of conÀict of interest. See also A/ET 2017 58In fact, the frontier between lobbying and corruption is perfectly de¿ned even if hazy. As the e[ample of M. BARROSO, in 2016, shows, the problem is much more one of conÀict of interest. See also A/ET 2017 30 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS question and it is enough to remind here The aim of this section was to confront the that applied at minimum, on the sole basis af¿rmations of many global companies¶ CEO, of the letter of the ¿scal te[t, the level of according to which, they always follow the compliance is often everything but fair. law even if defendable this af¿rmation has to be nuanced« At least many of them do * not follow the essence, the spirit of ta[ law. * * 31 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE &21&/86,21 At the end of this study, it may be quite easy to willingness, despite the practices described conclude on a pessimistic note. If, according above. Secondly, the civil society, tanks to to OEC' 1998,20 , ³gOREDOL]DWLRQ KDV KDG the Internet and the TIC, and notably through D SRVLWLYH HIIHFW RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WD[ the combats of Transparency International V\VWHPV EHLQJ IRU LQVWDQFH WKH GULYLQJ IRUFH and O[fam, is no more silent. Putting in EHKLQG WD[ UHIRUPV ZKLFK KDYH IRFXVHG RQ light more and more abuses and non-ethic EDVH EURDGHQLQJ DQG UDWH UHGXFWLRQV WKHUHE\ comportments, it action may hugely change PLQLPL]LQJ WD[ LQGXFHG GLVWRUWLRQV´. It also usual practices, making them unbearable. awaked many e[tremely powerful demons met during this work.Facing some very A quick way to make things easier organized, clever and sometimes manipulative may be to include international ta[ ¿rms, mastering in the art of preserving their law in the competencies of the :orld interests, states seem to be at least schizophrenic. Trade Organization. The reasons are obvious Ta[es, commerce and finance Nevertheless, the worst is never written. are ine[orably linked :TO is the only The situation progresses in from of our international organization which have the eyes, which make its evolution hard to effective power to enforce its regulation :TO has a court used to fi[ contentious OEC', through its brand new BEPS¶s, issues between states :TO e[ists, it does anticipate but let place to optimism.Firstly, not necessitate creating a new organization may ¿nally have an effective tool through random of a new multilateral treaty. to ¿ght aggressive ta[ planning. The global ta[ war needs a global This framework include more than 100 answer. The way will be hard and long country, which is e[ceptional and seems, but it is the only mean to preserve the for once, to show the strength of states¶ society in from of its risks of implosion. 32 Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE ECONOMICS /LWHUDWXUH 1. A/ARIE, B., .. 'ATT, SAYER A., 14. BR8SCO S, CO/OMBO /, and G :EE.S. ³$GYDQFH WD[ UXOLQJV LQ GA/MARINI8. SHUVSHFWLYHV D FULWLFDO DQG FRPSDUDWLYH ³7D[GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQOREE\LQJ DQG ZHOIDUH´ DQDO\VLV´ 1HZ =HODQG -RXUQDO RI WD[DWLRQ 6RFLDO&KRLVH :HIDUH ODZDQGSROLF\'HFHPEHU 15. CAI//e, A. ³4XHOV IRQGHPHQWV SRXU 2. A/ET, C ³/D GpPRFUDWLH PLQpH SDU OHV XQH ¿VFDOLWp pTXLWDEOH"´ $OWHUQDWLYHV FRQÀLWVG¶LQWpUrWV´$OWHUQDWLYHVpFRQRPLTXHV eFRQRPLTXHV-XLO$RXW6HSW 0DUV 16. CAI//ON, M., P. /ASCO8MES, and Y. 3. A/TSH8/ER, R., and H. GR8BERT. BARTHES. $JLU GDQV XQ PRQGH LQFHUWDLQ ³5HSDWULDWLRQ WD[HV UHSDWULDWLRQ VWUDWHJLHV 3DULV 6HXLO(G3RLQW(VVDLV DQGPXOWLQDWLRQDO¿QDQFLDOSROLF\´-RXUQDO 17. CHAVAGNE8X, C. ³&RPPHQW OH RI3XEOLF(FRQRPLFV 5R\DXPH8QL GHYLHQW XQ SDULV ¿VFDO´ 4. ARMSTRONG, MA. “The potitila $OWHUQDWLYHV(FRQRPLTXHV0DUV HFRQRP\ RI LQWHUQDWLRQDO WUDQVIHU SULFLQJ 18. CHIRIN.O, RS, and 'J :I/SON. 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BOYRIE, ME de, SJ PAR., and J. ³8QH EUqYH KLVWRLUH GH O¶LPS{W´ 5HJDUGV ='ANO:IC=. ³(VWLPDWLQJ WKH PDJQLWXGH FURLVpVVXUO¶pFRQRPLH RI FDSLWDO ÀLJKW GXH WR DEQRUPDO SULFLQJ LQ 24. CRO8Y-CHANE/ ( GH ³/H LQWHUQDWLRQDO WUDGH 7KH 5XVVLD86$ FDVH´ FRQVHQWHPHQW j O¶LPS{W´ 3RXYRLUV $FFRXQWLQJ)RUXP 11. BO=IO, A., R. 'A8VERGNE, B. C8T8JAR, C., and P. 'IENER /D VRFLpWp FABRE, J. GO8PI//E, and O. MES/IN. pFUDQ (VVDL VXU VD QRWLRQ HW VRQ UpJLPH )LVFDOLWp HW UHGLVWULEXWLRQ HQ )UDQFH MXULGLTXH3DULV /*'- 0DUV,QVWLWXWGHVSROLWLTXHVSXEOLTXHV 25. 'AVIS, A., '. G8ENTHER, /. 3DULV :::LSSHX .R8/C, and BM :I//IAMS. ³'RVRFLDOO\ 12. BRASHER, H, and ' /O:ERY. “The UHVSRQVLEOH ¿UPV SD\ PRUH WD[HV "´ 7KH FRUSRUDWH FRQWH[W RI OREE\LQJ DFWLYLW\´ DFFRXQWLQJUHYLHZ %XVLQHVVDQG3ROLWLFV '(/$/$1'( 1 /HV JUDQGHV EDWDLOOHV 13. BRENNAN, G., and JM. B8CHANAN. GH O¶LPS{W &RQVHQWHPHQW HW UpVLVWDQFHV GH 7KH SRZHU WR WD[ $QDO\WLF IRXQGDWLRQ RI D jQRVMRXUV3DULV 6HXLO ¿VFDO FRQVWLWXWLRQ &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ 27. 'E/SO/, JP. ³/H YHQW GHV VXEYHQWLRQV 3UHVV HW GH OD FRUUXSWLRQ´ ,QVWLWXW GH 5HFKHUFKHV 33 ECONOMICS Jean-François Rougé - THE GLOBAR WAR: THE EU’S APPLE TAX CASE (FRQRPLTXHV HW ¿QDQFLqUHV 2FWREUH 40. FREE'MAN, J. %H\RQG %RXQGDULHV KWWS IULUHIHXURSHRUJ/HYHQWGHV 'HYHORSLQJDSSURDFKHVWRWD[DYRLGDQFHDQG VXEYHQWLRQVHWGHODFRUUXSWLRQD WD[ ULVN PDQDJHPHQW 2[IRUG 8. 2[IRUG /¶LQMXVWLFH ¿VFDOH RX O¶DEXV GH ELHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ &HQWHU IRU EXVLQHVV WD[DWLRQ FRPPXQ3DULV 'HVFOpHGH%URXZHU 29. 'ESAI, MA. ³7KH GLYHUJHQFH EHWZHHQ 41. FRIE'MAN, M.³7KHUHVSRQVDELOLW\RI ERRNLQFRPHDQGWD[LQFRPH´7D[SROLF\DQG %XVLQHVVLVWRLQFUHDVHLWVSUR¿W´1HZ 36 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 UTICAJ PROŠIRENJA EVROPSKE UNIJE NA SPOLJNU 75*29,18,5$=92-129,+Î/$1,&$ ,03$&7 2) 7+( (1/$5*(0(17 2) 7+( (8523($1 81,21 21 7+( )25(,*1 75$'($1''(9(/230(172)7+(1(:0(0%(56 0LOHQNR.UDMLģQLN Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci, Ekonomski fakultet Banja Luka, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD University in Banja Luka, Economic faculty Banja Luka, %RVQD+HUFHJRYLQD $OHNVDQGUDĿXWLÉ Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci, Ekonomski fakultet Banja Luka, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD University in Banja Luka, Economic faculty Banja Luka, %RVQD+HUFHJRYLQD 2UJLQDOQLQDXÏQLUDG DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0010, UDK 339.56.055:336.6(4-672EU) 2ULJLQDOVFLHQWLȴFSDSHU 5(=,0( 6800$5< -HGQD RG QDMYDåQLMLK NDUDNWHULVWLND SURFHVD OQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKH JOREDOL]DFLMHMHVWYDUDQMHUD]OLþLWLKUHJLRQDO SURFHVVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQLVWKHFUHDWLRQRIGLIIHU QLK HNRQRPVNLK LQWHJUDFLMD 1DMUD]YLMHQLMD HQW UHJLRQDO HFRQRPLF LQWHJUDWLRQV 7KH PRVW UHJLRQDOQDHNRQRPVNDLQWHJUDFLMDXVYLMHWXMH GHYHORSHGUHJLRQDOHFRQRPLFLQWHJUDWLRQLQWKH (YURSVNDXQLMD(YURSVNDXQLMDMHRGRVQLY ZRUOGLVWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ6LQFHLWZDVIRXQG DQMDNDGDVXãHVW]HPDOMDRVQLYDþDIRUPLUDOL ZKHQVL[IRXQGHUFRXQWULHVFUHDWHGWKHIUHHWUDGH ]RQXVORERGQHWUJRYLQH]DXJDOMLþHOLNSURã DUHDIRUFRDODQGVWHHO(XURSHDQ8QLRQSDVVHG ODVYHID]HUD]YRMDHNRQRPVNRJLQWHJULVDQMD DOO WKH SKDVHV RI GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH HFRQRP SUHNR FDULQVNH XQLMH L ]DMHGQLþNRJ WUåLãWD LF LQWHJUDWLRQ WKURXJK WKH FXVWRPV XQLRQ DQG GRHNRQRPVNHLPRQHWDUQHXQLMH.UR]ãHVW FRPPRQPDUNHWWRWKHHFRQRPLFDQGPRQHWDU\ NUXJRYD SURãLUHQMD (YURSVND XQLMD MH SRVW XQLRQ7KURXJKWKHVL[ZDYHVRIHQODUJHPHQW(X DOD LQWHJUDFLMD ]HPDOMD þODQLFD VD SUHNR URSHDQ8QLRQKDVEHFRPHWKHLQWHJUDWLRQRI PLOLRQD VWDQRYQLND 6YDNR SURãLUHQMH FRXQWULHVZLWKRYHUPLOOLRQKDELWDQWV(YHU\ RYH UHJLRQDOQH LQWHJUDFLMH LPDOR MH XWLFDM HQODUJHPHQWRIWKLVUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQKDGDQ QD HNRQRPVNX SR]LFLMX L UD]YRM NDNR VWDULK LPSDFWRQWKHHFRQRPLFSRVLWLRQDQGWKHGHYHO WDNRLQRYLKþODQLFD1DMYHüHSRYHüDQMHEUR RSPHQW RI ERWK WKH ROG DQG WKH QHZ PHPEHUV 7KHELJJHVWLQFUHDVHLQWKHQXPEHURIPHPEHUV MDþODQLFDGRQLMHORMHSHWRYHOLNRSURãLUHQMH EURXJKWWKHWKELJHQODUJHPHQWRIWKH(XURSHDQ (YURSVNHXQLMHNDGDVHEURM]HPDOMDþODQLFD 8QLRQZKHQWKHQXPEHURIWKHPHPEHUFRXQ SRYHüDRXNXSQR]DGYDQDHVW]HPDOMDSUYR]D WULHVLQFUHDVHGLQWRWDOIRUFRXQWULHV¿UVWIRU GHVHWDNDVQLMHMRã]DGYLMH]HPOMH DQGWKHQIRUPRUH (IHNWL RYRJ SURãLUHQMD (YURSVNH XQLMH QD 7KHHIIHFWVRIWKLVHQODUJHPHQWRQIRUPHUVRYLHW ELYãH VRFLMDOLVWLþNH ]HPOMH SRVHEQR VX LQWH FRXQWULHVDUHVSHFLDOO\LQWHUHVWLQJQRWRQO\EH UHVDQWQLNDNR]ERJEURMDQRYLKþODQLFDWDNR FDXVH RI WKH QXPEHU RI WKH QHZ PHPEHUV EXW L]ERJþLQMHQLFHGDVXRYH]HPOMHXSURFHVX DOVR EHFDXVH RI WKH IDFW WKDW WKHVH FRXQWULHV SULGUXåLYDQMD SURãOH L WUDQ]LFLRQL SURFHV ND GXULQJWKHMRLQLQJKDYHDOVRSDVVWKHSURFHVVRI WUåLãQRMHNRQRPLML WKHWUDQVLWLRQWRWKHPDUNHWHFRQRP\ &LOMRYRJUDGDMHLVSLWLYDQMHHIHNDWDSURãLUHQ 7KHDLPRIWKLVZRUNLVWRH[DPLQHWKHHIIHFWVRI MD(YURSVNHXQLMHQDVSROMQXWUJRYLQXQRYLK WKHHQODUJHPHQWRQWKHIRUHLJQWUDGHRIWKHQHZ þODQLFDWHXWLFDMSURPMHQDXVSROMQRMWUJRYLQL PHPEHUVDQGWKHHIIHFWVRIWKHFKDQJHVLQIRU QD HNRQRPVNL UD]YRM RYLK ]DPDOMD $QDOL]D HLJQWUDGHRQWKHHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVH HIHNDWDXODVNDX(YURSVNXXQLMXPRåHELWLLQH FRXQWULHV7KHDQDO\VLVRIWKHHIIHFWVRIMRLQLQJ UHVDQWQD]D]HPOMHNRMHQDVWRMHGDXEXGXüQR WKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQFRXOGEHLQWHUHVWLQJIRUWKH VWLSRVWDQXþODQLFHRYHHNRQRPVNHUHJLRQDOQH FRXQWULHV ZKLFK VWULYH WR EHFRPH PHPEHUV RI LQWHJUDFLMH WKLVHFRQRPLFUHJLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ .ljuþne rijeþi Evropska unija,proširenje, .eywords European 8nion, enlargement, new nove þlanice, spoljna trgovina, privredni rast members, foreign trade, economic growth. 37 DiůenŬo 892' ,1752'8&7,21 Evropska unija je najrazvijenija regionalna The European 8nion is the most developed ekonomska integracija i najjaþa trgovinska regional integration and the most powerful sila svijeta. Od svog osnivanja 1957. go- trade force in the world. Since its foundation, dine do danas proširivala se na nove zemlje in 1957, It has been enlarged upon new mem- þlanice šest puta. Nakon šezdeset godina bers si[ times. After 60 years of growth and rasta i razvoja Evropska unija je pred prvim development, the European 8nion is facing procesom razdruåivanja, jer je odluku o the ¿rst process of disintegration, because of izlasku iz 8nije donijela Velika Britanija. the 8. decision to leave the 8nion. All the Sva proširenja Evropske unije mogu se 8nion enlargements can be divided in two svrstati u dvije grupe. Prvu grupu þine groups. The ¿rst group refers to the enlarge- proširenja na kapitalistiþke zemlje koje su ments on the capitalist countries which al- veü imale demokratski politiþki sistem i ready had the democratic political system and tråišnu ekonomiju. the market economy. Generalno, prva þetiri kruga proširenja In general, ¿rst four waves of enlargement in- su obuhvatala zemlje koje su veü tada bile cluded the countries which were already fair- relativno ekonomski stabilne, demokrats- ly economically stable, democratically devel- ki razvijene i u velikoj mjeri prilagoÿene oped, and largely adpated to the legislation of zakonodavstvu E8 sa izuzetkom mediter- the E8 e[ecpt the Mediterranean countries anskih zemalja Grþke, âpanije i Portuga- Greece, Spain and Portugal .:ith this group la .Sa ovom grupom proširenja Evropska of enlargement the E8 had 15 members. unija je imala 15 þlanica. The second group of enlargements refers 'rugu grupu proširenja þine peto i šesto to the 5th and the 6th waves which include proširenje koje obuhvata bivše socijalis- former Soviet countries e[cept Cyprus and tiþke zemlje sa izuzetkom .ipra i Malte , Malta during the ful¿lling of the conditions koje su u ispunjavanju uslova za þlanst- for the membership they went through a pe- vo prošle kroz period tranzicije uvodeüi riod of transition introducing the democratic demokratski politiþki sistem i tråišnu political system and the market economy as ekonomiju kao osnovne okvire svog ekon- the basic frames of its economic and social omskog i društvenog razvoja. Neke od development. Some of them were new coun- njih su bile i novoformirane dråave nas- tries formed after the disintegration of bigger tale raspadom veüih dråava SSSR, ýeho- countries 8SSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugo- slovaþke i Jugoslavije . slavia . Svako proširenje regionalne ekonomske Every enlargement of the regional economic integracije nosi sa sobom statiþke i din- integration brings static and dynamic eco- amiþke ekonomske efekte, koji se prije nomic effects, which are primarily reÀected svega ogledaju u stvaranju i skretanju tr- in trade creation and trade diversion, in the govine, te u promjeni privredne strukture i change of the economic structure and growth ekonomskom rastu i razvoju novih þlanica. and in developing of the new members. 8 ovom radu üemo analizarati uticaj ev- In this work we will analyze the impact of the ropskih integracija na kretanje spoljne tr- European integration on the foreign trade, i.e. govine, odnosno uvoza, izvoza i spoljno- on the import, e[port and the trade balance trgovinskog bilansa u zemljama koje su u of the countries which became members of okviru petog i najveüeg proširenja postale the E8 within the 5th and the biggest enlarge- þlanice Evropske unije. Pored toga predmet ment. Therewith the object of the analysis is analize je uticaj poveüanja izvoza na ekon- the impact of the increase of e[port on the omski rast novih þlanica. economic growth of the new members. 38 DiůenŬo 3(72352ę,5(1-( 7+( ),)7+ (1/$5*(0(17 2) 7+( (95236.(81,-( (8523($181,21 Evropska unija predstavlja integraciju 28 The European 8nion represents an integration zemalja na ekonomskom i politiþkom nivou, of 28 countries on the economic and political koja je otvorena za sve zainteresovane zemlje level, which is open to all countries that koje åele postati njene punopravne þlanice. are interested in becoming full members Pristupanje uniji je povezano sa ispunjenjem The access to the 8nion is connected to kriterijuma iz .openhagena Savjet Evrope u the ful¿llment of the Copenhagen criteria .openhagenu, 1993 . Stabilna demokratija, Council of Europe in Copenhagen, 1993. vladavina zakona, poštovanje ljudskih prava, Stable democracy, rule of law, respect for uz dovoljno razvijenu tråišnu ekonomiju human rights, with enough developed market koja moåe prihvatiti uslove konkurencije economy that can accept the conditions of the jedinstvenog tråišta i ispuniti uslove single market and accomplish the convergence konvergencije provjeru vrši Savjet Evrope , criteria controlled by Council of Europe , predstavljaju kljuþne kriterijume za sticanje represent the key conditions to get the status statusa þlana =ajednice Popoviü, 2009. of a member of the 8nion. Popoviü, 2009. Prvi koraci u formiranju Evropske unije poþeli The ¿rst phases of the European 8nion su potpisivanjem sporazuma iz Pariza 1951. creation started with the signing of the godine kada je osnovana Evropska zajednica Treaty of Paris in 1951, when the European za ugalj i þelik, koju su þinile Njemaþka, Coal and Steel Community were founded Francuska, Italija, Belgija, Holandija i by German, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland /uksemburg.Ove zemlje su sporazumom and /u[embourg. :ith the Treaty of Rome u Rimu 1957. godine osnovale Evropsku in 1957 these countries created the European ekonomsku zajednicu. Takoÿe, osnovana je Economic Community. Also was created i Evropska zajednica za atomsku energiju European Atomic Energy Community – – Euroatom. Ove dvije zajednice su kasnije Euratom. These two communities were later spojene u Evropsku zajednicu, koja danas merged in the European Community, which postoji pod imenom Evropska unija. Prvo e[ists today under the name of European proširenje bilo je 1973. godine kada su 8nion. The ¿rst enlargement is dated to 1973, 'anska, Irska i Velika Britanija postale þlanice. when 'enmark, Ireland and Great Britain Grþka je postala þlanica 1981. godine. Treüe became members. Greece joined in 1981. proširenje predstavljalo je ukljuþenje âpanije The third enlargement included Spain and i Portugala 1986. godine, a þetvrto kada su Portugal in 1986. The fourth was in 1995, Austrija, Finska i âvedska 1995. godine when Austria, Finland and Sweden became postale þlanice današnje Evropske unije. members of the European 8nion. Najveüe proširenje E8 se desilo 2004. The biggest enlargement dates back to godine kada je osam bivših komunistiþkih 2004, when 8 former communistic countries zemalja ýeška, Estonija, Maÿarska, /atvija, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, /atvia, /itvanija, Poljska, Slovaþka i Slovenija, /ithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia , zajedno sa .iprom i Maltom ušlo u E8.Peto together with Cyprus and Malta, joined the proširenje je završeno 2007. godine, kada E8. The ¿fth enlargement came to an end in su þlanice E8 postale Rumuija i Bugarska. 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria became Posljednje proširenje Evropske unije se members. The last enlargement was in July desilo 1. jula 2013. kada je Hrvatska postala 2013, as Croatia became a member. þlanica. The European 8nion sees the enlargement Evropska unija proces proširenja vidi kao process as a chance to foster stability and moguünost za promovisanje stabilnosti i prosperity in Europe. Some authors believe prosperiteta u Evropi. Neki autori smatraju da that the enlargement process helped different je proces proširenja tokom godina pomogao 39 DiůenŬo 40 DiůenŬo ()(.7,352ę,5(1-$5(*,21$/1,+ ())(&762)7+((1/$5*(0(172)7+( (.21206.,+,17(*5$&,-$ 5(*,21$/(&2120,&,17(*5$7,216 Efekti regionalnih ekonomskih integracija The effects of the regional economic integrations mogu biti statiþki i dinamiþki. Statiþki can be static and dynamic. Static effects are efekti se ogledaju u stvaranju i skretanju reÀected in trade creation and trade diversion. trgovine. Stvaranje trgovine Tradecreation Trade creation means substitution of the podrazumijeva zamjenu domaüe proizvodnje domestic production in one of the state members u jednoj od zemalja þlanica regionalne by cheaper import of the same products from integracije jeftinijim uvozom istovrsnih the other state member of the integration. proizvoda iz druge zemlje þlanice integracije (Bijeliü, 2008 . Trade creation happens when the Bjeliü, 2008 .Stvaranje trgovine se dogaÿa producers in one member state ¿nds that they kada proizvoÿaþi u jednoj zemlji þlanici can e[port more from and import more in other ustanove da mogu više uvoziti iz, i izvoziti state member due to customs abolition, because u drugu zemlju þlanicu usljed eliminisanja in accordance with general market principles, carina, jer im je, u skladu sa opštim tråišnim the merchandise is more competitive after the principima, roba konkurentnija nakon ukidanja abolition of barriers to trade. trgovinskih barijera. On the other hand, trade diversion means Sa druge strane, skretanje trgovine (Trade substitution of the products import, with lower diversion podrazumijeva zamjenu uvoza costs from outside the regional economic proizvoda niåim troškovima izvan regionalne integration, by the import of products with the ekonomske integracije, uvozom proizvoda higher costs inside the integration. This is due to višim troškovima unutar integracije. Ovo je the preferential trade treatment of the member moguüe zbog preferencijalnog trgovinskog states of the regional economic integration. tretmana zemalja þlanica regionalne Trade diversion itself decreases prosperity since ekonomske integracije. Skretanje trgovine it replaces more effective production with the samo po sebi smanjuje blagostanje jer less one. (Bjeliü, 2008. e¿kasniju proizvodnju zamjenjuje manje The effects of trade creation and diversion e¿kasnom proizvodnjom. (Bjeliü, 2008 . represent static bene¿ts or loses for an economic Efekti stvaranja i skretanja trgovine integration, what depends if are bigger the predstavljaju statiþke koristi ili gubitke od bene¿ts from trade creation or loses from trade ekonomske integracije, u zavisnosti od toga diversion. da li su veüe koristi od stvaranja trgovine ili The main effect of the regional trade liberalization gubici od njenog skretanja. is the relocation of the resources (.ovaþeviü, Glavni efekat regionalne trgovinske 2000 . It is in the interest of the members of liberalizacije je realokacija resursa (.ovaþeviü, regional integrations to achieve as many as 2000 . 8 interesu zemalja þlanica regionalnih possible bene¿ts coming from the joint of these integracija je da ostvare što je moguüe više integrations, which affect the improvement of koristi od pristupanja tim integracijama, a a whole economic environment. If the analysis one se ogledaju u poboljšanju cjelokupnog originates from this point of view, then we privrednog ambijenta. Ako se analiza vrši sa can talk about dynamic effects of the regional ovog aspekta onda se govori o dinamiþkim integrations i.e. its long term bene¿ts for the efektima regionalnih integracija, odnosno member states economies of scale, increase njihovim dugoroþnim koristima po zemlje of competition, effects of e[change ratio, what þlanice ekonomiji obima, rast konkurencije, contributes to a bigger and faster technological efekti odnosa razmjene što sve doprinosi change, the spread of producing technics on veüoj i bråoj tehnološkoj promjeni, širenju a single market and progress of a domestic produktivnih tehnika u okviru zajedniþkog economy as a whole. tråišta i napretku nacionalne privrede u cjelini. Economies of scale is one of the most Ekonomija obima je jedan od najvaånijih important dynamic effects of regional economic 41 DiůenŬo ()(.7,352ę,5(1-$(95236.( ())(&762)7+((8(1/$5*(0(17 81,-(1$632/-1875*29,18129,+ 217+()25(,*175$'(2)7+( Î/$1,&$ 1(:0(0%(56 Spoljna tragovina je veoma vaåna za Evropsku Foreign trade is very important for the European uniju odnosno za njene þlanice. Evropska 8nion, i.e. for its members. European 8nion is unija je najveüa trgovinska sila svijeta the biggest trade force in the world (Vukmirica, (Vukmirica, âpiriü, 2005 . Sve zemlje koje su Spiric, 2005. All the countries which joined se do sada prikljuþile Evropskoj uniji imale su the European 8nion up to now had positive pozitivne efekte na spoljnu trgovinu, mada su effects on the foreign trade, although these ti efekti imali razliþit intenzitet kod razliþitih effects had different intensity from country zemalja. Takoÿe, raspodjela ukupnih efekata to country. Moreover, the distribution of the na spoljnotrgovinsku razmjenu izmeÿu starih i total effects on the foreign e[change between novih þlanica, kao i izmeÿu velikih i razvijenih old and new members, and between the big- u odnosu na male i manje razvijene zemalje developed and small-less developed countries, bila je razliþita.(.rajišnik. .rþmar, 2017 . is different (.rajisnik, .rcmar, 2017 . Pozitivni efekti prikljuþenja Evropskoj uniji Positive effects of joining the European 8nion na spoljnu trgovinu novih þlanica ogledaju on the foreign trade of the new members is can se u poveüanju spoljnotrgovinske razmjene, be appreciated in the increase of the foreign posebno rastu izvoza, što je prvo imalo kao e[change, especially in the increase of e[port, posljedicu smanjenje spoljnotrgovinskog what determined the decrease of trade de¿cit, de¿cita a nakon toga i ostvarivanje su¿cita u and after that achieving surplus in the foreign razmjeni sa inostranstvom. e[change. Tabela 1. Table 1. 6SROMQDWUJRYLQD %'3 QRYLKþODQLFD(8 )RUHLJQWUDGH *'3 RIWKHQHZPHPEHUV 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Cyprus 114.81 114.94 112.92 110.94 112.45 111.13 99.18 101.00 102.49 101.39 99.18 108.10 Czech 95.33 114.05 122.28 127.84 130.66 124.56 113.74 129.25 139.29 148.10 148.69 160.39 Republic Estonia 123.42 130.93 136.94 137.16 135.31 137.58 116.71 143.87 170.04 175.79 170.74 166.84 Hungary 117.17 124.01 128.59 150.36 156.54 159.56 146.06 159.89 168.91 167.97 169.93 170.37 Latvia 84.80 93.22 100.78 100.76 96.16 91.82 86.52 107.42 120.64 126.16 121.71 118.91 Lithuania 100.55 101.82 115.02 121.59 113.91 125.85 105.56 132.69 152.68 162.55 166.89 163.40 Malta 157.37 159.01 156.72 177.51 180.79 177.06 157.79 172.95 182.51 182.51 182.51 182.51 Poland 69.44 71.82 70.79 78.30 80.95 81.51 75.91 82.76 88.03 90.31 90.30 93.74 Slovenia 126.07 139.94 148.73 166.38 168.20 163.72 136.69 154.40 171.54 179.90 181.37 179.69 Slovakia 102.11 111.38 119.80 129.44 136.49 134.14 112.62 127.09 138.84 142.11 143.37 145.47 Bulgaria 79.28 93.29 99.87 111.29 122.61 124.27 93.12 110.20 123.67 129.62 134.53 131.09 Romania 76.51 80.21 75.93 76.05 72.59 67.12 61.15 70.74 79.26 79.73 80.15 82.17 Izvor: Autor na osnovu podataka http:// Source: Author based on the data from http:// databank.worldbank.org databank.worldbank.org/ The analysis highlights that all the countries Analize pokazuju da su sve zemlje (osim (e[cept Cyprus had a continuous and .ipra nakon ulaska u þlanstvo Evropske constant increase of the share of the foreign 43 DiůenŬo Analiza pokazuje da se otvorenost privreda The analysis points out that the economic opening zemalja petog proširenja, mjerena uþešüem of the ¿fth enlargement, measured by the share spoljne trgovine u B'P-u, kao i koe¿cijent of the foreign trade in the G'P, as a coef¿cient izvoza znatno razlikuju od zemlje do zemlje. of e[port, is substantially different from country Efekat stvaranja trgovine nastao proširenjem to country. The effect of trade creation made by Evropske unije pozitivno je uticao na the European 8nion enlargement fostered the poveüanje izvoza novih þlanica. increase of e[port of the new members. Tabela 2. Table 2 ,]YR]UREDLXVOXJD %'3D ([SRUWRIJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHV *'3 Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Cyprus 58,17 57,40 56,19 53,99 53,82 50,18 47,34 47,71 49,54 49,73 50,83 55,43 Czech Rep 47,06 57,43 62,31 65,29 66,55 63,36 58,81 66,18 71,62 76,53 77,25 83,62 Estonia 57,46 61,53 65,92 63,51 63,22 66,82 60,84 75,12 87,93 88,39 86,09 84,73 Hungary 56,60 60,02 63,15 74,63 78,61 79,96 75,06 82,62 87,53 87,42 88,76 89,25 Latvia 36,13 38,87 43,15 40,03 38,55 39,46 42,45 52,98 57,83 60,87 59,40 58,02 Lithuania 47,40 53,92 55,69 50,42 57,14 51,94 65,40 75,06 81,71 84,07 81,76 Malta 78,83 78,41 76,81 86,49 89,22 87,78 78,78 88,18 93,61 93.63 93.51 93.70 Poland 33,39 34,64 34,92 38,20 38,82 38,32 37,58 40,47 43,14 45,05 46,09 47,45 Slovenia 50,90 54,97 59,58 64,70 67,60 66,11 57,24 64,32 70,42 73,25 74,69 76,80 Slovakia 62,09 68,61 72,07 81,19 83,54 80,44 67,64 76,49 85,32 91,80 92,95 91,93 Romania 32,28 29,30 30,43 30,60 35,42 40,03 40,00 41,98 41,13 Bulgaria 48,00 53,31 53,62 43,79 55,14 63,64 64,60 68,39 67,90 Izvor: Autor na osnovu podataka http://data- Source: Author based on the data from http:// bank.worldbank.org databank.worldbank.org/ 44 DiůenŬo Nakon 2010. godine dolazi do rasta uþešüa After 2010, the share of e[port in the G'P izvoza u B'P-u u svim zemljama.8koliko increased in all countries. If we take a look posmatramo 2014. godinu, odnosno 10 at 2014, i.e., ten years after the integration in godina nakon integracije u E8, vidjeüemo the E8, we can see that in all countries there da je u svim zemljama došlo do znaþajnog was a signi¿cant increase of the share of rasta uþešüa izvoza u B'P-u, osim na .ipru, 45 DiůenŬo Tabela 3. Table 3. 6SROMQRWUJRYLQVNLELODQV %'3D %DODQFHRIWUDGH *'3 Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Cyprus 1,53 -0,12 -0,54 -2,96 -4,81 -10,78 -4,50 -5,57 -3,42 -1,93 2,48 2,76 ýzech -1.2 0.81 2.35 2.74 2.45 2.17 3.88 3.10 3.95 4.95 5.81 6.85 Republic Estonia -8.50 -7.88 -5.10 -10.15 -8.88 -3.93 4.96 6.36 5.82 1.00 1.44 2.62 Hungary -3.97 -3.96 -2.29 -1.11 0.70 0.35 4.06 5.36 6.16 6.86 7.59 7,27 Latvia -12.55 -15.47 -14.47 -20.70 -19.07 -12.89 -1.61 -1.46 -4.98 -4.41 -2.92 -2.86 Lithuania -7.08 -7.02 -7.18 -10.20 -13.08 -11.57 -1.68 -1.88 -2.55 0.86 1.25 0.12 Malta 0.30 -2.19 -3.09 -4.53 -2.36 -1.50 -0.23 3.42 4.71 3.41 3.41 3.42 Poland -2.65 -2.54 -0.94 -1.90 -3.30 -4.87 -0.75 -1.81 -1.76 -0.21 1.89 1,28 Slovenia -0.32 -1.44 -0.64 -0.05 -1.30 -1.93 1.87 1.55 1.10 4.39 6.01 8.14 Slovakia -1.89 -2.73 -4.59 -3.99 -1.12 -2.84 -1.41 -1.42 -0.89 3.70 4.54 4.18 Romania -12.01 -13.89 -13.04 -6.04 -5.73 -5.33 -5.16 -0.56 0.09 Bulgaria -17.46 -19.16 -20.16 -8.56 -2.79 0.98 -2.84 -0.58 -0.71 Izvor: Autor na osnovu podataka http:// Source: Author based on the data from http:// databank.worldbank.org databank.worldbank.org/ 8 godini prije ulaska u E8, sve zemlje 'uring the year before the joining the E8, all the petog proširenja suimale deficit spoljne countries of the ¿fth enlargement had a de¿cit trgovine, osim Malte i .ipra. Najveüi of balance of trade e[cept Malta and Cyprus. deficit imale su Bugarska i /atvija, The biggest de¿cit was registered by Bulgaria -17,46 i -12,55, respektivno, a and /atvia -17,46 and -12,55, respectively, najmanji Slovenija i ýeška, -0,32 i the smallest by Slovenia and Czech Republic -1,2. -0,32 and -1,2. 46 DiůenŬo 632/-1275*29,16.,%,/$16 %$/$1&(2)75$'( 'eset godina nakon ulaska u E8, sve zemlje Ten years after joining the E8, all the biljeåe poboljšanje spoljnotrgovinskog bilansa. countries improved their balance of trade. Sve zemlje u 2014. godini imaju su¿cit spoljne All the countries in 2014 had a surplus of trgovine, osim /atvije i Bugarskje koje balance of trade, e[cept /atvia and Bulgaria, imaju de¿cite od -2,86 i -0,71 B'P-a which had de¿cits of -2,86 and – 0,71 respektivno. Treba imati u vidu da je /atvija of G'P respectively. However, we must u 2004. godini imala de¿cit od -15,47 consider that /atvia, in 2004, had a de¿cit of B'P-a, tako da je i ona u toku deset godina -15,47 of G'P, so it also had a signi¿cant þlanstva u E8 ostvarila znaþajno smanjenje decrease of de¿cit of the balance of trade spoljnotrgovinskog de¿cita. 8 godini ulaska during ten years of membership in E8. u E8, Rumunija i Bugarska imale su de¿cite 'uring the year in which they joined the E8, spoljne trgovine u iznosu od -13,9 i -19,1 Romania and Bulgaria had de¿cits of balance B'P-a.8 2014. godini Rumunija je ostvarila of trade of -13.9 and -19.1 of G'P. In su¿cit u iznosu od 0,09 G'P-a, dok je 2014 Romania had a surplus of 0,09 of Bugarska imala de¿cit spoljne trgovine od G'P, meanwhile Bulgaria had a de¿cit of -0,7, što predstavlja znaþajno smanjenje -0,7, which is a signi¿cant decrease of de¿cita u odnosu na 2007. godinu. de¿cit compared to 2007. Ovim pozitivnim promjenama je svakako These positive changes were fostered by pogodovao efekat stvaranja trgovine i porast the effect of trade creation and the increase intraregionalne razmjene izmeÿu zemalja of the intraregional e[change between the þlanica 8nije. countries members of the 8nion. 47 DiůenŬo 87,&$-329(È$1-$,=92=$1$ ,03$&72)7+((;3257,1&5($6( (.21206.,5$67129,+Î/$1,&$ 217+((&2120,&*52:7+2)1(: (95236.(81,-( 0(0%(562)(8523($181,21 Na temu uticaja spoljne trgovine na ekonomski A lot of studies have been made about the impact razvoj uraÿeno je dosta analiza. Mnoge of the foreign trade on the economic growth. ukazuju da spoljna trgovina ima pozitivan Most of them show that foreign trade has a pos- uticaj na ekonomski rast (Nikoliü, 2005 . itive impact on the economic growth (Nikolic, Ovo je posebno istaknuto kod uticaja izvoza 2005 . This is speci¿cally highlighted by the im- na rast proizvodnje i nacionalnog dohotka pact of the e[port on the increase of production (.rajišnik, Tomaš, 2014 . Izvoz uzrokuje and national income (.rajisnik, Tomas, 2014 . poveüanje proizvodnje veüe od one koja je The increase of production caused by e[port is plasirana u inostranstvo, što se odreÿuje preko bigger than the production that is placed abroad, spoljnotrgovinskog multiplikatora (Maklup, which is de¿ned through the foreign trade multi- 1950 . plier (Machlup, 1950 . Sve nove þlanice petog proširenja Evropske All new members of the ¿fth enlargement of the unije su imale znaþajne stope rasta B'P-a , osim European 8nion had signi¿cant growth rates of u periodu glavnog udara svjetske ekonomske the G'P, e[cept in the period of the main impact krize kada je došlo do smanjenja stopa. of the economic crisis, when the rates decline *UD¿N Graph 3 6SROMQRWUJRYLQVNLELODQV %DODQFHRIWUDGH .umulativne stope rasta B'P-a po stanovniku The cumulative growth rates of the G'P per capita u posmatranom periodu su se kretale od 35,2 in the observed period went from 35,2 in Cyprus u .ipru do 188,2 u /itvaniji. Veüi broj to 188,2 in /ithuania. A lot of new members zemalja novih þlanica kao što su ýeška, like Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, Poland, Slovenija, Maÿarska, Poljska, /atvija su imale /atvia had cumulative growth rates higher than kumulativne stope rasta veüe od 100 za 48 DiůenŬo što znaþi da poveüanje izvoza za jednu which means that the increase of the e[port for jedinicu utiþe na rast B'P-a za 0,37 jedinica. one unit impacts the growth of G'P for 0,37 units. 8 ovom dijelu je prikazana i statistiþka In this part we can also appreciate the statistical znaþajnost zbirnog regresionog rezultata signi¿cance of the collective regressive result pomoüu F testa. Rezultat testa pokazuje using the F test. The test result shows rated ocijenjenu znaþajnost 2, što je znatno importance of 2, which is signi¿cantly below ispod graniþne prihvatljivosti od 5, te se the limit of 5 for this reason we can conclude moåe zakljuþiti da je porast izvoza znaþajan that the e[port increase is important for the trend za kretanje B'P po stanovniku za nove of the G'P per capita of the new members of the þlanice Evropske unije. European 8nion. Tabela 5 Table 5 3RYHüDQMH L]YR]D L %'3D X SHULRGX 5HVXOWVRIWKHUHJUHVVLRQDQDO\VLV*'3 GHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH ([SRUW LQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH Regression statistics Cumulative regression result Coefficient of correlation r 0.65 Coefficient of determinationr² 0.42 Correctedr² 0.36 Standard error 44.7 Number of observations 12 Statistiþka znaþajnost i vrijednost parametara Statistical signi¿cance and the value of u modelu parameters in the model Parameter Standard error T- Stat Prob. (F statistic) Constant 29.99 31.05 0.96 0.36 Export 0.37 0.14 2.68 0.02 Rezultati jednostavne linearne regresije The result of the simple linear regression show ukazuju da izvoz novih þlanica E8 ima that the e[port of the new members of the E8 has pozitivno i statistiþki znaþajno dejstvo na a positive and statistical signi¿cant impact on the kretanje B'P-a po stanovniku za period od trend of the G'P per capita in the period from 2003. do 2014. godine. 2003 to 2014. 50 DiůenŬo =$./-8Î$. &21&/86,216 Evropska unija je regionalna ekonomska The European 8nion is the regional economic integracija najvišeg oblika integrisanja u integration with the higher form of integration svijetu. =bog toga, promjene koje se dešavaju in the world. 'ue to that, changes that happen unutar ove integracije imaju znaþajne efekte inside this integration have signi¿cant effects on na zemlje þlanice, stare i nove, ali i na druge the member countries, new ones and old ones, zemlje, koje su ekonomski povezane sa njom. and on the other countries as well, which are 'anašnja Evropska unija, koja ima 28 economically connected with it. zemalja þlanica, je od osnivanja, kada je Nowadays European 8nion, with 28 member imala šest þlanica, doåivjela šest proširenja countries since its creation (when it had six na nove þlanice. Proces proširenja je imao members , passed through six enlargements kao posljedicu statiþke i dinamiþke efekte upon the new members. The enlargement ekonomskih integracija. Ti efekti, koji su se process consequently had static and dynamic veoma jasno vidjeli kroz proces stvaranja i effects of the economic integrations. Those skretanja trgovine, znaþajno su uticali na effects, which were clearly observed through spoljnotrgovinske tokove, a posljediþno i na the process of trade creation and diversion, ukupan ekonomski razvoj zemalja þlanica. signi¿cantly impacted the foreign trade, and Sve zemlje koje su postale þlanice Evropske consequently the whole economic development unije u postupku petog, velikog proširenja of the member countries as well. imale su pozitivne efekte na njihovu spoljnu All the countries that became members of the trgovinu i ekonomski rast. Pozitivni efekti European 8nion during the ¿fth big enlargement prikljuþenja Evropskoj uniji na spoljnu had positive effects on their foreign trade and trgovinu novih þlanica ogledaju se u economic growth. Positive effects of becoming poveüanju spoljnotrgovinske razmjene, member of the European 8nion can be observed posebno rastu izvoza, što je prvo imalo in the increase of the foreign exchange, especially posljedicu smanjenje spoljnotrgovinskog in the increase of export, which ¿rstly had the de¿cita, a nakon toga i ostvarivanje su¿cita decrease of the de¿cit of the balance of trade u razmjeni sa inostranstvom.'eset godina and then the achievement of the surplus in the nakon ulaska u E8, sve nove þlanice biljeåe exchange with foreign countries. Ten years after poboljšanje spoljnotrgovinskog bilansa, joining the E8 the new members impro- ved osim /itvanije i Bugarske koje su ostale u their balance of trade, except /ithuania and zoni, istina niskog de¿cita spoljnotrgovinske Bulgaria which remained in the area of a low razmjene. de¿cit of trade balance. Rast spoljne trgovine, posebno izvoza, imao The growth of foreign trade, especially of the je pozitivan uticaj na ekonomski rast zemalja export, had a positive impact on the economic þlanica koje su se prukljuþile Evropskoj uniji growth of member countries which joined the tokom petog proširenja. Ekonometrijska i European 8nion during the ¿fth enlargement. statsistiþka analiza pokazuju da je poveüanje Econometric and statistic analysis show that the izvoza novih þlanica E8 imalo pozitivno i export increase of the new members of the E8 statistiþki znaþajno dejstvo na porast B'P-a had a positive and statistical signi¿cant effect po stanovniku za period od 2003. do 2014. on the growth of the G'P per capita during the godine. period from 2003 to 2014. 51 DiůenŬo /LWHUDWXUD /LWHUDWXUH 1. .ovaþeviü, P. (XUR L VYHWVND 1. .ovaþeviü, P. (XUR DQG ZRUOG SULYUHGD %HRJUDG ,QVWLWXW ]D VSROMQX HFRQRP\ %HRJUDG ,QVWLWXW ]D VSROMQX WUJRYLQX WUJRYLQX 2. .rajišnik, M Tomaš, '. 8WLFDM 2. .rajišnik, M Tomaš, '. ,PSDFW VSROMQH WUJRYLQH QD HNRQRPVNL UDVW RIWKHIRUHLJQWUDGHRQWKHHFRQRPLFJURZWK 5HSXEOLNH 6USVNH $FWD (FRQRPLRFD RI 5HSXEOLF RI 6SUVND $FWD (FRQRPLRFD 3. .rajišnik, M. 6SROMQD WUJRYLQD 3. .rajišnik, M. )RUHLJQ WUDGH ± SROLWLND L SRVORYDQMH %DQMD /XND ± SROLF\ DQG PDQDJHPHQW %DQMD /XND (NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW (NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW 4. .rugman, P Obstfeld, M. 4. .rugman, P. Obstfeld, M. ,QWHUQDWLRQDO (FRQRPLFV 7KHRU\ DQG ,QWHUQDWLRQDO(FRQRPLFV 7KHRU\DQG3ROLF\ 3ROLF\1HZ-HUVH\ 3UHQWLFH+DOO 1HZ-HUVH\ 3UHQWLFH+DOO 5. Maklup, F. (1950 . ,QWHUQDWLRQDO7UDGH 5. Maklup, F. ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 7UDGH DQG WKH 1DWLRQDO ,QFRPH 0XOWLSOLHU DQG WKH 1DWLRQDO ,QFRPH 0XOWLSOLHU 3KLODGHOSKLD 7KH%ODNLVWRQ&RPSDQ\ 3KLODGHOSKLD 7KH%ODNLVWRQ&RPSDQ\ 6. Nikoliü, G. 8WLFDM VSROMQH 1LNROLü* ,PSDFWRIIRUHLJQWUDGH WUJRYLQH QD HNRQRPVNL UDVW(NRQRPVNL RQHFRQRPLFJURZWK(NRQRPVNLDQDOL DQDOL 7. Popoviü, G. (NRQRPLMD(YURSVNH 7. Popoviü, G. (FRQRP\RI(XURSHDQ XQLMH ,VWRþQR 1RYR 6DUDMHYR =DYRG ]D 8QLRQ ,VWRþQR 1RYR 6DUDMHYR =DYRG ]D XGåEHQLNHLQDVWDYQDVUHGVWYD XGåEHQLNHLQDVWDYQDVUHGVWYD 8. Popoviü, G. (NRQRPLMD(YURSVNH 8. Popoviü, G. (FRQRP\RI(XURSHDQ XQLMH%DQMD/XND (NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW 8QLRQ%DQMD/XND (NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW 9. Vukmirica, V, âpiriü, N. 9. Vukmirica, V., âpiriü, N. (YURSVND (YURSVNDLHYURD]LMVNDXQLMD LHYURD]LMVNDXQLMD 10. Vukmirica, V âpiriü, N. 10. Vukmirica, V. âpiriü, N. (NRQRPVND L PRQHWDUQD LQWHJUDFLMD (FRQRPLFDQGPRQHWDU\LQWHJUDWLRQRI(XURSH (YURSH%DQMD/XND(NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW %DQMD/XND(NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW 11. :orld Bank (2016 . :RUOG %DQN 11. :orld Bank :RUOG%DQNQDWLRQDO QDWLRQDO DFFRXQWV GDWD DQG 2(&' DFFRXQWVGDWDDQG2(&'1DWLRQDO$FFRXQWV 1DWLRQDO$FFRXQWVGDWDILOHV>'DWDILOHV@ GDWD ¿OHV >'DWD ¿OHV@ 'RVWXSQR QD KWWS 'RVWXSQR QD KWWS GDWDEDQNZRUOGEDQN GDWDEDQNZRUOGEDQNRUJ org 52 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 120,1$/1$,5($/1$.219(5*(1&,-$.$2'(7(50,1$17(35,'58Ŀ,9$1-$ EVROPSKOJ MONETARNOJ UNIJI 120,1$/$1'5($/&219(5*(1&($6$'(7(50,1$17)25-2,1,1*7+((8 ROPEAN MONETARY UNION 0HULP.DVXPRYLÉ Ekonomski fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla, %RVQLDDQG+H]HJRYLQD (UQD+HULF Ekonomski fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla, %RVQLDDQG+H]HJRYLQD 3UHJOHGQLÏODQDN DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0011, UDK 338.23:336.74(4-672EU) 5HYLHZSDSHU 5(=,0( 6800$5< Tematski okvir ovog rada je nominalna The thematic framework of this work is the nominal i realna konvergencija kao determinante and real convergence as a determinant for joining the pridruåivanja Evropskoj monetarnoj uniji. European monetary union. The focus of the work is Teåište rada je dokazati da ispunjavanje to prove that realising the criteria of the convergence kriterija konvergencije utiþe na stabilnost affects the stability of the European monetary union, Evropske monetarne unije, odnosno da je that is, that the cause of destabilisation is exactly the uzrok destabilizacije upravo to što pojedine fact that certain member nations have not realised zemlje þlanice nisu ispunile zadate kriterije the assigned convergence criteria. The ¿nancial konvergencije. Finansijska integracija je integration is an important question because it vaåno pitanje jer doprinosi ekonomskom contributes to the economic growth affecting free rastu utiþuüi na slobodnu razmjenu sa ciljem exchange with the goal of a more ef¿cient allocation e¿kasnije alokacije kapitala, rezultat je of capital it is the result of the economic theory and ekonomske teorije i empirijskog istraåivanja. the empirical research. Introducing the Euro as a 8voÿenje eura kao jedinstvenog sredstva single payment method while losing the monetary plaüanja, te gubitak monetarnog suvereniteta sovereignty of the countries which have accepted dråava koje su ga prihvatile, glavni su it is the main reason for forming the European razlozi formiranja Evropske centralne banke. Central Bank. The mission of the European Central =adatak Evropske centralne banke je da Bank is to de¿ne and conduct a single monetary de¿niše i sprovodi jedinstvenu monetarnu policy within the Eurozone. Because of the already politiku u Evrozoni.8pravo zbog navedenog, mentioned facts, the challenges of conducting the analizirani su izazovi sprovoÿenja ¿skalne ¿scal policy within the Eurozone as well as the politike unutar Evrozone kao i kljuþni aspekti key aspects of the monetary uni¿cation of Europe monetarnog ujedinjenja Evrope.Rezultati have been analysed. The results of this analysis ove analize treba da pokaåe stabilnost EM8 should point out the stability of the EM8 by the stepenom konvergencije zemalja þlanica convergence degree of the member nations from a jedinstvenog monetarnog podruþja. single monetary area. 892' ,1752'8&7,21 Razlog formiranja Evropske unije (E8 jeste The reason for forming the European 8nion(E8 moguünost kompariranja svjetskim silama, a is the possibility of comparing to the world powers cilj joj je integracija svih zemalja okruåenja. with the aim to integrate all the surrounding Svako proširenje E8 sa sobom nosi brojne countries. Every expansion of the E8 carries many izazove, dinamiku politika i donošenja challenges, policy dynamics and reaching decisions odluka, voÿenja zajedniþke monetarne of governing the common monetary policy. It is politike. Neophodno je na adekvatan naþin necessary to achieve real, structural and nominal 53 Deriŵ 87(0(/-(1-(%(1(),&,-(, )281'$7,21%(1(),76$1'(; 752ę.29,021(7$51(,17(*5$&,-( 3(16(62)021(7$5<,17(*5$7,21 Razlog formiranja E8 jeste moguünost The reason for forming the European 8nion (E8 is kompariranja svijetskim silama, a cilj joj je the possibility of comparing to the world powers with integracija svih zemalja okruåenja. Snaåan the aim to integrate all the surrounding countries. A poticaj ujedinjenja stizao je i od strane Sjedinjenih strong stimulus for uni¿cation came from the 8SA. Ameriþkih 'råava. 8 periodu od 1948 - 1952. In the period between 1948 and 1952 the 8SA spent Godine SA' je potrošila 15 milijardi dolara. 15 billion >Jovanoviü (2006 pg. 4-5@. Also, the >Jovanoviü (2006 str. 4-5@. Takoÿer, zadatak aim was to ¿nd a way for two previous opponents je bio pronaüi naþin kako üe nekada velike Germany and France to live in peace. In the span of protivnice Njemaþka i Francuska åivjeti u miru. about 80 years they were at war three times. From 8 roku od 80-tak godina ratovale su tri puta.Od the mere beginning of the integration it was enabled 54 Deriŵ %(1(),&,-(,752ę.29, 7+(%(1(),76$1'(;3(16(62) )250,5$1-$021(7$51(81,-( )250,1*7+(021(7$5<81,21 'akle, udruåivanje u ekonomsku a posebno Therefore, joining the economic and especially the monetarnu uniju dolazi do proširivanja monetary union creates a widening of the market tråišta, a time i obima razmjene proizvoda as well as the widening of the exchange volume of i usluga. Shodno tome, formira se takva products and services. In accordance with that, such struktura trgovine gdje potrošaþi kupuju a trading structure was formed where the consumers proizvode i koriste usluge nezavisno od buy products and use the services regardless of the nacionalnih granica. To znaþi da ako national border. That means that if we observe two posmatramo dvije dråave koje proizvode countries which produce the same product, the istu vrstu proizvoda, potrošaþi üe kupovati consumers will buy the products regardless of the proizvode nezavisno od zemlje u kojoj su country in which the products were produced. In proizvedeni. 8 ovom sluþaju šok traånje this case the shock of demand will have the same üe imati karakteristike simetriþnog šoka, characteristic of a symmetrical shock which means što znaþi da üe na isti naþin pogaÿati obje that it will affect both countries in the same way. zemlje. Odnos izmeÿu obima ekonomskih The relation between the volumes of economic integracija i pojave asimetriþnih šokova integrations and occurrence of the asymmetric predstavljen je na grafikonu 1. shock is presented in graph 1. Na apcisi je predstavljen stepen The X-axis shows the degree of trading integration integracije trgovine izmeÿu dråava, a na between the countries, and the Y-axis shows ordinati razliþit stepen kretanja output-a the different degrees of the output movement i zaposlenosti izmeÿu dråava koje su and employment between the countries which kandidati za ulazak u monetarnu uniju. are candidates for joining the monetary union. Sa poveüanjem stepena ekonomske :ith the increase of the degree of economic integracije izmeÿu dråava moguünost integration between the countries the possibility of pojave asimetriþnih šokova traånje se the occurrence of asymmetric shocks of demand smanjuje što pokazuje kriva nagnuta decreases which is shown by the axis inclined na dole. Evropska komisija je dala dva downward. The European commission has given zakljuþka o ovom pitanju >Furtula, two conclusions on this matter >Furtula, Markoviü Markoviü (2010 str. 44@. (2010 pg. 44@. 55 Deriŵ Divergence Trading integration ,]YRU 'H*UDXZH3 (NRQRPLMDPRQHWDUQH 6RXUFH 'H*UDXZH3 (NRQRPLMDPRQHWDUQH XQLMH SUHY /MLOMDQD /XþLü ,]GDYDþND NQMLåDUQLFD XQLMHSUHY/MLOMDQD/XþLü,]GDYDþNDNQMLåDUQLFD=RUDQD =RUDQD6WRMDQRYLüD6UHPVNL.DUORYFLVWU 6WRMDQRYLüD6UHPVNL.DUORYFLSJ Prvi zakljuþak je da monetarno ujedinjenje The ¿rst conclusion is that the monetary utiþe na proširivanje obima trgovinske uni¿cation affects the widening volume of the razmjene i korelaciju ekonomskih aktivnosti. trading exchange and the correlation of economic Isto istraåivanje dalje navodi da proširivanjem activities. The same research further states that by ekonomskih integracija dolazi do smanjivanja widening economic integrations we experience a pojave asimetriþnih šokova. 'rugi zakljuþak decrease in the occurrence of asymmetric shocks. je da üe snaga ekonomskih integracija uticati The second conclusion is that the strength of na nemoguünost korištenja deviznih kurseva economic integrations will affect the inability of nacionalnih valuta u apsorbovanju šokova using the exchange rates of national currencies in traånje. S druge strane, Paul .rugman je absorbing the shocks of demand. On the other hand, izloåio suprotan stav u odnosu na zakljuþke Paul .rugman has presented an opposite view in Evropske komisije. Njegov zakljuþak je relation to the conclusions of the European comity. da trgovaþke integracije vode ka veüem His conclusion is that the trading integrations lead koncentrisanju regionalnih aktivnosti.8 to a bigger concentration of regional activities. In ovom sluþaju kriva koja pokazuje moguünost this case the axis that shows the possible occurrence nastanka asimetriþnih šokova predstavljena of asymmetric shocks was presented as a rising je kao uzlazna linija. Izloåenost asimetriþnim line. Exposure to asymmetric shocks increases šokovima se poveüava upravo zbog porasta because of the growth of economic integration ekonomske integracije koja vodi do veüe which leads to a bigger output specialisation. It specijalizacije output-a. Bitno je da postoje is important that there are existing mechanisms mehanizmi koji üe ublaåiti negativane which soften the negative effects of the asymmetric efekte asimetriþnog šoka i koji üe sniziti shock and which will lower the entrance expenses troškove ulaska u monetarnu uniju. =akljuþak to the monetary union. .rugman¶s conclusion is .rugmana predstavljen je gra¿konom 2. presented in graph 2. 56 Deriŵ Divergence Trading integration ,]YRU 'H *UDXZH 3 (NRQRPLMD 6RXUFH 'H *UDXZH 3 (NRQRPLMD PRQHWDUQH XQLMH SUHY /MLOMDQD /XþLü PRQHWDUQH XQLMH SUHY /MLOMDQD /XþLü ,]GDYDþND NQMLåDUQLFD =RUDQD 6WRMDQRYLüD ,]GDYDþND NQMLåDUQLFD =RUDQD6WRMDQRYLüD 6UHPVNL.DUORYFLVWU 6UHPVNL.DUORYFLSJ Troškovi ulaska u EM8 su >Furtula, The expenses of entering the EM8 are >Furtula, Markoviü (2010 str. 49@ razlike u ciljevima Markoviü (2010 pg. 49@ goal differences in u pogledu inÀacije i zaposlenosti, razlike terms of inÀation and employment, differences u institucionalnom organizovanju tråišta in institutionalised organising of the labour rada, razlike u stopama privrednog rasta, market, differences in rates of economic growth, razlike u ¿skalnim sistemima i gubitak differences in ¿scal systems and the loss of emisione dobiti. Osim troškova ulaska u seigniorage. Besides the entrance expenses to the monetarnu uniju tu su i brojne koristi koje monetary union there are many other bene¿ts se teško mogu izmjeriti i teško se moåe which can hardly be measured and their character shvatiti njihov karakter i znaþaj..oristi and importance cannot easily be understood. The od jedinstvene valute ispoljavaju se na bene¿ts of a single currency are manifested on a mikro nivou u smislu poveüanja e¿kasnosti micro level in the sense of increasing the effective privreÿivanja preduzeüa a to su koristi od economy of companies and they are bene¿ts eliminisanja transakcionih troškova, korist of eliminating transaction expenses, bene¿ts of od eliminisanja neizvjesnosti deviznog kursa, eliminating the suspense of the exchange rate, koristi od meÿunarodne valute. Odnos koristi bene¿ts of the international currency. The ration od monetarne unije i otvorenosti dråava between the monetary union and the openness of predstavljeno je narednim gra¿konom 3. the countries is presented in the following graph Na apcisi je predstavljena otvorenost dråave 3. The X-axis represents the openness of the prema njenim potencijalnim partnerima iz countries towards their potential partners in the monetarne unije, a na ordinate su date koristi. monetary union, while the Y-axis represents the 'obici od monetarne unije se poveüavaju given bene¿ts. The gains from the monetary union sa rastuüom otvorenošüu prema ostalim increase with the growing openness towards other partnerima u uniji. .riva koja pokazuje ovaj partners in the union. The curve which shows this odnos predstavljena je kao uzlazna linija. relation is presented as a rising line. 57 Deriŵ Benefit (% BDP) Trading (% BDP) ,]YRU 'H*UDXZH3 (NRQRPLMDPRQHWDUQH 6RXUFH 'H*UDXYH3 (FRQRPLFVRIPRQHWDU\ XQLMH SUHY /MLOMDQD /XþLü ,]GDYDþND NQMLåDUQLFD XQLRQ SUHY /MLOMDQD /XFLF =RUDQD 6WRMDQRYLF =RUDQD6WRMDQRYLüD6UHPVNL.DUORYFLVWU 3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH6UHPVNL.DUORYFLS Prema Prokopijeviüu koristi monetarne According to Prokopijeviü the bene¿ts of the integracije su ³VLJXUQLMH L SRYROMQLMH monetary integration are ³safer and favourable RNUXåHQMH ãLUHQMH WHULWRULMH EH] ELWQLMH surrounding, spreading of the theory without SURPMHQH SUDYLOD ILUPH (8 GRELMDMX a signi¿cant change of rules, companies of the QRYD WUåLãWD SRYHüDYD VH NRQNXUHQFLMD E8 get new markets, the competition increases, SRYHüDYDQMH]RQHHXUDMHIWLQLMHGRELMDQMH increase of the Euro zone, cheaper availability QHNLK UHVXUVD SUHJRYDUDþND VQDJD 8QLMH of certain resources, the negotiating power of QDVSROMDãQMHPSODQXMHYHüDSRYHüDYDMX the 8nion on the outer plan becomes bigger, VH EXGåHWL IRQGRYL 8QLMH´6 GUXJH VWUDQH the budget funds of the 8nion increase.´ On NDR WURãNRYH QDYRGL ³QHWR ± L]GDWDN ]D the other hand, as expenses he mentions the MDYQH ILQDQVLMH ]HPDOMD (8 SURãLUHQMHP following ³net – outlay for the public ¿nances (8 UDVWX UL]LFL VWDULK þODQLFD SR SLWDQMX of the E8 countries, with the expansion of the SROLWLþNH HNRQRPVNH L GUXJLK VLJXUQRVWL E8 the risks of the old members regarding the PDQMH NRQNXUHQWQH JUDQH L]JXELüH VYRMH political, economic and other safeties increase, WUåLãWHYHüLWUDQVDNFLRQLWURãNRYLRGORåLüH smaller competitive branches will lose their VH LOL üH ELWL RVODEOMHQH SRWUHEQH UHIRUPH market, larger transactional expenses, needed YH]DQH ]D OLEHUDOL]DFLMX SULYUHGH ]HPOMD reforms connected to the economic liberalisation (8 SRYHüDQMH NULPLQDOD VLYH HNRQRPLMH of the E8 countries will be delayed or weakened, QH]DNRQLWRJ ]DSRãOMDYDQMD NRUXSFLMH increase in the crime rate, grey economy, illegal LWG´ Ekonomske efekte proširenja E8 je employment, corruption, etc.´ The E8 has de¿ned obradila u posebnom tekstu ³The economic the economic effect of enlargement in a separate impact of enlargement´. text ³The economic impact of enlargement´. (95236.$ 021(7$51$ 81,-$ (8523($1021(7$5<81,21$6 .$2237,0$/129$/871232'58Î-( $1237,0$/&855(1&<$5($ Optimalno valutno podruþje (OVP de¿nira An optimal currency area (OVP is de¿ned as an se kao optimalno geografsko podruþje optimal geographical area of a single currency jedinstvene valute ili grupe valuta þiji or group of currencies whose rates are ¿xed. su kursevi ¿ksirani. 'akle, ta valuta ili Therefore, that currency or group of currencies may grupa valuta moåe Àuktuirati samo prema Àuctuate only towards the rest of the world. Creating ostatku svijeta.Stvaranje slobodne trgovine, free trading, common market, as well as creating 58 Deriŵ âHPD Odnos ekonomske, monetarne i politiþke 6KHPD Relation of economic, monetary and integracije political integration EKONOMSKA INTEGRACIJA MONETARNA INTEGRACIJA Početak EI EI,nakon pritiska na MI i PI ,]YRU 0RQJHOOL )³1HZ´ YLHZV RQ WKH 6RXUFH 0RQJHOOL)³1HZ´ YLHZV RQ WKH RSWLPXPFXUUHQF\DUHDWKHRU\ :KDWLV(08 RSWLPXP FXUUHQF\ DUHD WKHRU\ :KDW LV (08 WHOOLQJXV"(&%VWU WHOOLQJXV"(&%SJ .ao prednost OVP autori navode ³YHüD As the advantage of the OVP the authors mention NRULVW YDOXWH FLMHQH NRMH üH YLãH SRWLFDWL ³higher currency value, prices that will encourage NRQNXUHQFLMX PDQMD VWRSD QHVLJXUQRVWL more competition, lower rate of uncertainty NRMD üH RMDþDWL XQXWUDãQMH WUåLãWH SRGVWLþH which will strengthen the inner market, market WUJRYLQXQLåLLQYHVWLFLMVNLUL]LNYHüLSRGVWLFDM encouragement, lower investment risk, higher VWUDQLKGLUHNWQLKLQYHVWLFLMD 6', H¿NDVQLMD encouragement of direct foreign investments (S'I , UDVSRGLMHOD UHVXUVD´. Ostale prednosti a more ef¿cient distribution of resources´. Other proizilaze iz transparentnog i dubljeg advantages come from the transparent and deeper ¿nansijskog tråišta, uštede na transakcijskim ¿nancial market, savings on the transactional troškovima, te šire meÿunarodne cirkulacija expenses, and wider international circulation jedinstvene valute.S druge strane, tu su of the single currency. On the other hand, there troškovi prelaska na novu valutu ³YHüL the expenses of transferring to a new currency DGPLQLVWUDWLYQL WURãNRYL ]ERJ IRUPLUDQMD ³higher administrative expenses due to forming QDFLRQDOQLK LQVWLWXFLMD WH VSUHþDYDQMH national institutions, as well as preventing national QDFLRQDOQLK YODGD GD L]MHGQDþDYDMX governments to equalise the border expenses of JUDQLþQH WURãNRYH RSRUH]LYDQMD L SRUH]D´. taxation and taxes´.The forming of the monetary Formiranje monetarne unije, odnosno OVP union, that is the OVP, is a question of relations pitanje je odnosa troškova i koristi. Teorija between the expenses and bene¿ts. The OVP OVP uzima koristi kao zadate i predlaåe theory takes the bene¿ts as set and suggests the kriterije na osnovu kojih treba da se ocijene criteria according to which the expenses of using troškovi korištenja iste valute..oristi od the same currency should be determined. The 59 Deriŵ *UDILNRQ .orist od formiranja valutne unije *UDSK Bene¿ts of forming the currency union Korelacija dohotka među grupom Prednosti uvođenja zajedničke valute dominiraju Nedostaci uvođenja zajeničke valute dominiraju Linija optimalnog valutnog područja Trgovina međua članicama grupe ili stepen otvorenosti ,]YRU %LODV 97HRULMD RSWLPDOQRJ YDOXWQRJ 6RXUFH %LODV 97HRULMD RSWLPDOQRJ YDOXWQRJ SRGUXþMD (XUR L (XURSVND PRQHWDUQD XQLMD SRGUXþMD (XUR L (XURSVND PRQHWDUQD XQLMD =DJUHEVWU =DJUHESJ 'va se kriterija navode kljuþnima u ostvarivanju Two criteria are mentioned as key in achieving the net neto koristi od formiranja valutne unije meÿu- benefit from forming the currency union mutual trad- sobna trgovina zemalja þlanica i korelacija meÿu ing of member nations and correlation between their njihovim dohocima predstavljeni gra¿konom incomes presented in graph 4. Therefore, the larger the br.4. 'akle, što je veüa korelacija dohotka meÿu correlation of income is between the potential members potencijalnim þlanicama unije i što je njihova of the union and the more intense their mutual trading meÿunarodna trgovina intenzivnija odnosno što is, that is the bigger the degree of openness is, the more je stepen otvorenosti veüi, prednosti uvoÿenja the advantages of implementing a mutual currency will zajedniþke valute dominiraju, odnosno uvoÿen- dominate, that is introducing a mutual currency is opti- je zajedniþke valute je optimalno za navedenu mal for the mentioned group of countries. The lower the grupu zemalja. âto je manji stepen meÿusobne degree of mutual trading amongst the members is and trgovine meÿu þlanicama i što su razlike u do- the bigger the differences in incomes are, the more the hocima veüe, to nedostaci uvoÿenja zajedniþke shortcomings of implementing a mutual currency will valute dominiraju.Vaåno pitanje za sve zemlje dominate. The important question for all the countries koje åele da se prikljuþe EM8 ili bilo kojoj dru- who want to join the EM8 or any other monetary inte- goj monetarnoj integraciji jeste utvrÿivanje da gration is determining whether they will have more ben- li üe od gubitka monetarnog suvereniteta imati efits or expenses by losing their monetary sovereignty. It veüe koristi nego troškove. Sve to je neophod- 60 Deriŵ 1 Šokove koji utiču na različite ekonomije na slične načine nazivaju se 1 Shocks that affect different economies in similar ways are called simetrični, oni koji imaju različite implikacije ili reflektiraj uimplikacije cimetrical, those which have different implications or reflect impli- samo na jednu zemlju na specifičan način nazivaju se asimetrični. cations only to one country in a specific way are called asymetric. 61 Deriŵ $1$/,=$120,1$/1(,5($/1( $1$/<6,62)120,1$/$1' .219(5*(1&,-(82.9,58 5($/&219(5*(1&(:,7+,17+( (95236.(81,-( (8523($181,21 120,1$/1$,5($/1$ 120,1$/$1'5($/ .219(5*(1&,-$=(0$/-$Î/$1,&$ &219(5*(1&(2)7+((8523($1 (95236.(81,-( 81,210(0%(5&28175,(6 Pod konveregencijom se podrazumjeva proces The term convergence implies the process of pribliåavanja vrijednosti ekonomskih varijabli bringing the values of economic variables closer meÿu zemljama i to tako da slabije razvijene together between the countries and in such a zemlje bråim razvitkom sustignu razvijenije. way that the weaker countries can through fast .onveregencija se moåe posmatrati sa dva development catch up to the more developed aspekta i to sa aspekta sadašnjih zemalja countries quicker. Convergence can be observed þlanica i tranzicijskih zemalja, odnosno from two aspects and those are the aspect of the zemalja kandidatkinja. Postavlja se pitanje present member nations and countries in transition trebaju li nove zemlje þlanice uvesti euro that is the candidate countries. One question arises što je prije moguüe ili primijeniti oprezniju should the new member nations introduce the Euro strategiju i pridruåiti se monetarnoj uniji as soon as possible or should they apply a more nakon napretka u postizanju višeg stepena cautious strategy and join the monetary union realne konvergencije" =emlje se bitno after improving in achieving a higher degree of razlikuju po stepenu ekonomske razvijenosti real convergence" Countries differ signi¿cantly i funkcionisanju tråišnih struktura, te se s according to the degree of economic development razlogom postavlja pitanje opravdanosti and the functioning of trading structuresand it is ulaska u EM8 kao i implikacije na unutrašnju with a reason that we ask the question of justi¿ability ekonomsku aktivnost. Prema teoriji OVP of entering the EM8 as well as the implication de¿nisani su kriteriji koje je neophodno to the inner economic activity. According to the ispuniti prilikom pristupanja monetarnoj OVP theory the necessary criteria that need to be uniji sa drugom zemljom a to su mobilnost ful¿lled in order to join the monetary union with proizvodnih faktora, Àeksibilnost cijena i another country have been de¿ned and they are the nadnica, visok stepen trgovinske otvorenosti, mobility of the production factor, the Àexibility of visok stepen integriranosti ¿nansijskih tråišta, prices and wages, a high degree of trading openness, diverzi¿ciranost proizvodnje i potrošnje, a high degree of the ¿nancial market integration, usklaÿenost poslovnih ciklusa >.ersan- diversi¿cation of production and consumption, 62 Deriŵ Tabela 1 Mastrihtski kriterij ikonvergencije za 7DEOH Maastricht convergence criteria for 11 prvobitnih þlanica-podaci za 1997. godinu the ¿rst 11 members –sub excise 1997 Kriterij Deficit / BDP Javni dug/ Inflacija u % Kamatne u % BDP u % stope Referentna -3,0 60 2,7 7,8 vrijednost Austrija -2,5 66,1 1,1 5,6 Belgija -2,1 122,2 1,4 5,7 Finska -0,9 55,8 1,3 5,9 Francuska -3 58 1,2 5,5 Njemaþka -2,7 61,3 1,4 5,6 Irska 0,9 66,3 1,2 6,2 Italija 2,7 121,6 1,8 6,7 Luksemburg 1,7 6,7 1,4 5,6 Holandija -1,4 72,1 1,8 5,5 Portugal -2,5 62 1,8 6,2 Španija -2,6 68,8 1,8 6,3 ,]YRU 60HPRãHYLü0RQHWDUQR 6RXUFH 60HPRãHYLü RNUXSQMDYDQMHQDHYURSVNRPWOXHNRQRPVND 0RQHWDUQRRNUXSQMDYDQMHQDHYURSVNRPWOX LPRQHWDUQDXQLMD'LUHNFLMD]DHYURSVNH HNRQRPVNDLPRQHWDUQDXQLMD LQWHJUDFLMHVWU 'LUHNFLMD]DHYURSVNHLQWHJUDFLMHSJ 63 Deriŵ 120,1$/1$,5($/1$ 120,1$/$1'5($/ .219(5*(1&,-$129,+=(0$/-$ &219(5*(1&(2)7+(1(: Î/$1,&((95236.(81,-( (8523($181,210(0%(5&28175,(6 Od 2004. godine ide peto proširenje E8,a The fifth E8 expansion started in 2004. The Maastricht kriteriji iz Mastrihta koje su ispunjavale zemlje criteria satisfied by the countries are presented in the prezentirane su u narednoj tabeli. =emlje koje su following table. The countries that have joined the se pridruåile E8 bile su ýeška, Estonija, Poljska, E8 were Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Slovenia, Slovenija, Maÿarska, /itva, /atvija i Slovaþka Hungary, /ithuania, /atvia and Slovakia and a nešto kasnije Bugarska i Rumunija. Pored sometime later Bulgaria and Romania. Besides the navedenih kriterija usvaja se i Pakt o stabilnosti mentioned criteria The Pact of Stability and Growth i rastu 1997. godine sa ciljem odråavanja 1997 was accepted with the aim of maintaining the ¿skalne discipiline koja je nuåna za postizanje fiscal discipline which is necessary in order to achieve i odråavanje stabilnosti cijena te odråivoga and maintain the stability of prices and a sustainable ekonomskog rasta. Paktom je de¿nisana nuånost economic growth. The pact defined the necessity of poštivanja granica budåetskog de¿cita i javnoga respecting the limits of the budget deficit and public duga te su propisane novþane kazne za zemlje debt where fines were enacted for the countries which koje ih se ne pridråavaju ili ukoliko se nastalo were not respecting it or if the occurred overstepping prekoraþenje ne koriguje u roku od dvije godine. was not corrected within two years. 7DEHOD Pokazatelji (kriteriji konvergencije Table 2 Indicators (convergence criteria for za 2004. godinu the year 2004 Criteria Inflation Long-term Budget Public debt interest rate deficit New EU members Czech 2,9 5,7 5,9 40,7 Republic Estonia 2,8 8,3 0,6 6,2 Poland 2,4 6,5 6,2 48,1 Slovenia 4,6 8,5 1,6 24,7 Hungary 6,8 7,6 4,6 57,6 Lithuania 0,2 8,5 2,6 21,1 Latvia 3,1 9,0 2,0 14,0 Slovakia 7,6 5,5 3,0 42,9 Candidates Bulgaria 4,8 6,3 0,7 43,2 Romania 12,7 18,0 3,0 26,4 Croatia 2,3 9,5 3,9 66,0 ,]YRU %LODV9 .RQYHUJHQFLMDWUDQ]LFLMVNLK ,]YRU %LODV9 .RQYHUJHQFLMDWUDQ]LFLMVNLK ]HPDOMDSUHPD(XURSVNRMXQLMLVWU ]HPDOMDSUHPD(XURSVNRMXQLMLVWU 64 Deriŵ 7DEHOD 8kupna inÀacija po zemljama za 7DEOH Overall inÀation according to the juli 2012 countries for July, 2012 Country Inflation Country Inflation amount (in amount (in %) %) Sweden 0,7 Luxemburg 2,7 Greece 0,9 Portugal 2,8 Germany 1,9 Lithuania 2,9 Latvia 1,9 Finland 3,1 Belgium 2,0 Romania 3,1 Ireland 2,0 Czech Republic 3,3 Denmark 2,1 Italy 3,6 Spain 2,2 Cyprus 3,8 France 2,2 Slovakia 3,8 Bulgaria 2,4 Poland 4,0 Great Britain 2,6 Estonia 4,1 Slovenia 2,6 Malta 4,2 The Netherlands 2,6 Hungary 5,7 Euro system 2,4 EU 2,5 USA 1,4 ,]YRU KWWS ZZZHFELQWVWDWVSULFHVKLFS 6RXUFH KWWS ZZZHFELQWVWDWVSULFHVKLFS KWPOLQÀDWLRQHQKWPO KWPOLQÀDWLRQHQKWPO veüeg stepena realnekonvergencije u in a long term. From the indicated tables dugom roku. Iz navedene tabele se vidi da we can see that Sweden (0,7 and Greece najniåu stopu inflacije imaju âvedska koja (0,9 have the lowest inÀation rate while the iznosi 0,7 i Grþka sa 0,9, a najviüu ima Netherlands have the highest inÀation rate of Holandija 5,7. âto se tiþe Eurosistema 5,7. As far as the Euro system is concerned prosjeþna stopa inflacije je 2,4 a E8 je the average inÀation rate is 2,4 while for the 2,5. 8 poreÿenju sa 8SA þija je stopa E8 it is 2,5. Compared to the 8SA whose inflacije 1,4, E8 je u znatnog goroj rate is 1,4 the E8 is in a signi¿cantly worse poziciji. position. 65 Deriŵ 7DEHOD +,&3 7DEOH +,&3 Country Average 2010 2011 May June July Average 2001-00 2012 2012 2012 for 2012 Belgium 2.1 2.3 3.5 2.6 2.2 3.5 Denmark 1.6 1.2 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.0 26.5 Estonia 4.2 2.7 5.1 4.1 4.4 0.1 Ireland 2.2 -1.6 1.2 1.9 1.9 1.4 Greece 3.4 4.7 3.1 0.9 1.0 3.3 Spain 2.8 2.0 3.1 1.9 1.8 2.2 12.4 France 1.9 1.7 2.3 2.3 2.3 20.6. Italy 2.2 1.6 2.9 2.9 3.6 3.7 18.2 Cyprus 2.4 2.6 3.5 3.5 2.9 0.3 Luxemburg 2.6 2.8 3.7 3.7 2.6 2.7 0.3 Malta 2.4 2.0 2.5 2.5 4.4 0.1 The 2.1 0.9 2.5 2.5 2.5 4.9 Netherlands Austria 1.9 1.7 3.6 3.6 2.2 3.1 Portugal 2.4 1.4 3.6 3.6 2.7 2.4 Slovenia 4.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.4 2.6 0.4 Slovakia 4.1 0.7 4.1 4.1 3.4 0.7 Finland 1.7 1.7 3.3 3.3 3.1 1.8 EUROZONE 2.0 1.6 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 100.0 Bulgaria 6.0 3.0 3.4 1.8 1.6 - 0.7 Czech 2.3 1.2 2.1 3.5 3.8 1.4 Republic Denmark 2.0 2.2 2.7 2.1 2.2 1.1 Latvia 5.4 -1.2 4.2 2.3 2.1 0.7 Lithuania 3.0 1.2 4.1 2.6 2.6 0.4 Hungary 5.6 4.7 3.9 5.4 5.6 1.1 Poland 2.8 2.7 3.9 3.6 4.2 5.4 Romania 12.1 6.1 5.8 2.0 2.2 1.6 Sweden 1.9 1.9 1.4 0.9 0.9 1.9 UK 2.1 3.3 4.5 2.8 2.4 15.5 EU 2.2 2.1 3.1 2.5 2.6 100.0 ,]YRU 6WDWLVWLFV 3RFNHW %RRN (&% $XJXVW 6RXUFH 6WDWLVWLFV3RFNHW%RRN(&%$XJXVW VWU SJ 66 Deriŵ *UD¿NRQ .omparacija stope nezaposlenosti *UDSK Comparison of the unemployment po mjesecima za Eurozonu, E8, SA' i Japan rate per months in the Eurozone, E8, SA' and Japan Estonija 2004. godine postaje punopravna In 2004 Estonia became a full member of the þlanica E8. Centralna banka Estonije, E8. The Central bank of Estonia, following vodeüi se primarnim zadatkom odråavanje the primary aim of maintaining the stability of stabilnosti cijena, oslonila se na ¿ksni prices, relied on the ¿xed exchange rate within devizni kurs unutar currency board the currency board arrangement. Trading aranåmana. 'eset godina prije ulaska u in Estonia was liberalised 10 years before E8 liberalizovana je trgovina Estonije. joining the E8. Thanks to the mentioned the =ahvaljujuüi navedenom ekonomska kriza economic crises never came to Estonia and its je nije ni dotakla, a B'P je na visokih 8.2 B'P is at a high 8.2 2Meÿutim, ni u ovoj zemlji þlanici EM8, nešto nije u redu. Naime, However, even in this member country of the EM8 something is not dolazi do pada plata i penzija. Ekonomski rast od 8 predstavlja right. Namely, there is a signi¿cant drop in salaries and pensions. The uzlet pro¿tiranja uglavnom bolje obrazovanih u veüim gradovima economic growth of 8 represents an ascent of pro¿ting mainly of the better educated in bigger cities resembling the metropolis Tallinna. On poput metropole Tallinna. S druge strane, stanovnici van urbanih the other hand, the citizens outside the urban areas are barely making naselja jedva sastavljaju kraj sa krajem. ends meet. 67 Deriŵ .riteriji konvergencije vrlo su naglašeni The convergence criteria are severely jer je ocijenjeno da evropska valuta, emphasised because it has been deemed that euro, moåe biti dovoljno jaka samo ako the European currency, the Euro, can only u monetarnu uniju uÿu samo zemlje koje be strong enough if the monetary union is ostvare niske stope inflacije i povoljne only joined by the countries which achieve parametre u fiskalnoj sferi. Na tim low inÀation rate and favourable parameters kriterijima posebno je insistirala Njemaþka, in the ¿scal sphere. Germany speci¿cally þija je valuta bila prestiåna i sluåila je insisted on these criteria whose currency uevropskim ekonomskim integracijama was prestigious and served the European kao nominalno sidro. 'eka - evropski economic integration as the nominal anchor. konvergencijski indikator (engl. 'eka 'CEI ('ekaConvergenceEuropeanIndicator Convergence European Indicator, 'CEI is a unique way for countries to express the je jedinstven naþin iskazivanja postignutog achieved level of convergence. 'CEI takes stepena konvergencije zemalja. 'CEI into consideration four types of convergence uzima u obzir þetiri vrste konvergencije monetary, ¿scal, economic and institutional. monetarnu, fiskalnu, ekonomsku i The maximum value of the 'CEI is 100 and institucionalnu. Maksimalna je vrijednost it represents the average value of a speci¿c 'CEI 100 i ona predstavlja prosjeþnu indicator for the E8 >Bilas (2005 pg. 229@. vrijednost odreÿenoga indikatora za E8 It is important to mention that within the >Bilas (2005 str. 229 @. Bitno je napomenuti monetary convergence the inÀation rate, da se u sklopu monetarne konvergencije interest rate, exchange rate and loan increase promatraju stopa inflacije, kamatna stopa, rate are observed. From the aspect of the ¿scal devizni kurs stopa rasta kredita. Sa aspekta convergence, a part of the budget balance in the fiskalne konvergencije, dio budåetskog B'P, consumption private share in the B'P, salda u B'P, u dio privatne potrošnje u B'P, public debt share in the B'P and external debt udio javnog duga u B'P i udio vanjskoga share in the B'P are observed. :ithin the real duga u B'P. 8 sklopu realne konvergencije convergence the following are observed the promatra se B'P po stanovniku, udio B'P per citizen, agricultural share in the B'P, poljoprivrede u B'P, stopa nezaposlenosti unemployment rate and the trading share with i udio trgovine se E8 u ukupnoj trgovini. the E8 in the overall trading. From the aspect Sa aspekta institucionalne konvergencije of institutional convergence the observed posmatraju se uspješnost politike, parts are the success of politics, institutions institucije bankarskog sektora, te stepen of the banking sector and the degree of the 68 Deriŵ Iz tabele 5 se vidi da u 2012. godini u ukupnom In table 5 we can see that in 2012 in the B'P-a najveþe uþešüe ima Njemaþka sa overall B'P the largest participation is taken 20,2. Iza Njemaþke su Francuska sa by Germany with 20,2. Behind Germany is 15,8, 8. sa 13,9. Najniåe uþešüe imaju France with 15,8, the 8. 13,9. The lowest /atvija, .ipar, Malta, Estonija sa uþešüem participationin the B'P is taken by /atvia, od 0,1 u B'P-u. .riterij koji se odnosi na Cyprus, Malta and Estonia (0,1 . The criteria javni dug ispunjavaju Poljska þiji javni dug which relates to the public debt is satis¿ed iznosi 56,3, âvedska sa javnim dugom od by Poland which has a public debt of 56,3, 38,4, 'anska 46,5, najniåi iznos javnog Sweden 38,4, 'enmark 46,5 and Estonia duga od 6 ima Estonija. which has the lowest public debt of 6. 69 Deriŵ =$./-8Î$. &21&/86,21 ýinjenica je da se EM8 suoþava sa teškim The fact is that the EM8 is facing difficult challenges, izazovima, jer je uvoÿenjem eura, otpoþelo voÿenje because with the implementation of the Euro, began a zajedniþke ekonomske monetarne politike u cjelini. joint conduction of the economic monetary policy as Nezavisno odluþivanje ECB o monetarnoj politici a whole. Independent decision making by the ECB predstavlja još jedan preduslov za stabilnost eura. concerning the monetary policy represents another Ispunjavanjem kriterija iz Mastrihta ostvaruje se precondition for the stability of the Euro. By fulfilling the nominalna konvergencija. .ako bi se postigla criteria form the Maastricht the nominal convergence is realna konvregencija neophodno je ispunjavanje accomplished. On order to achieve real convergence it nominalne konvergencije. Moåe se desiti da su is necessary to satisfy the nominal convergence. It may nominalna i realna konvergencija u sukobu a happen that the nominal and real convergence are at a najviše polemike izaziva inÀacija kao jedan od conflict and most controversy derives from the inflation uslova pristupanja E8. Nelogiþno je zahtjevati od as one of the conditions for joining the E8. It is illogical zemalja sa razliþitim stepenom razvijenosti da imaju to demand from the countries with different degrees of iste stope inÀacije. 'akle, zemlje kandidatkinje za development to have the same inflation rates. Therefore, þlanstvo u E8 pored navedenog moraju pokazati candidate countries, apart from the stated, must show a odråivi nivo zadovoljenja makroekonomskih maintainable level of satisfied macroeconomic indicators pokazatelja koji su stavljeni pred njih. presented before them to join the E8. Najveüi izazov za EM8 dogodio se 2008. The biggest challenge for the EM8 happened Godine kada se kriza koja je pogodila SA' in 2008 when the crisis which hit the 8SA also odrazila i na zemlje þlanice E8. Najvaåniju reÀected on the members of the E8. The ECB ulogu imala je ECB koja je ubrizgala velike had the most important role in which it injected koliþine likvidnosti na tråištu. Mnoge large quantities of liquidity into the market. zemlje þlanice Eurozone imaju teške Many member nations of the Eurozone have posljedice kao što su smanjenje potraånje, dif¿cult consequences such as the decrease pad proizvodnje i izvoza, poveüanje of demand, drop in production and export, nezaposlenosti, poveüanje javnog duga te higher unemployment rate, increase of the pritiska na vrijednost domaüe valute.Veliki public debt as well as pressure on the domestic problem u Eurozoni üe se pojaviti ako neka currency. A big problem in the Eurozone will od zemalja zapadne u ozbiljne ¿nansijske occur if one of the countries falls into serious probleme. Njen najveüi problem je politiþka ¿nancial problems. Its largest problem is konstrukcija od þije strukture zavisi puno the political construction, the structure of stvari. Ispunjenje kriterija konvergencije which affects many things. Satisfying the ne bi trebalo da inicira makroekonomske convergence criteria should not initiate probleme Eurozone. Trenutno stanje macroeconomic problems in the Eurozone. ukazuje na optimistiþnu buduünost, iako The current state points to an optimistic future je buduünost teško predvidjeti i u sluþaju although the future is dif¿cult to predict even mnogo izvjesnijih stvari. when it comes to more certain things. 70 Deriŵ /LWHUDWXUD /LWHUDWXUH 1. Ahmetaševiü N, 6WDUWHJLMDLQWHJULUDQMD%L+X(Y 1. Ahmetaševiü N.6WDUWHJLMDLQWHJULUDQMD%L+X(Y URSVNXXQLMX(XURSOXV*DUDPRQG6DUDMHYR URSVNXXQLMX(XURSOXV*DUDPRQG6DUDMHYR VWU SJ 2. Bilas V,3URãLUHQMH(XURSVNHXQLMHLVXGMHORYDQMH 2. Bilas V., 3URãLUHQMH(XURSVNHXQLMH L VXGMHORYDQ QRYLKþODQLFDXWHþDMQRPPHKDQL]PX=ERUQLND MHQRYLKþODQLFD X WHþDMQRPPHKDQL]PX =ERUQL UDGRYD 6YHXþLOLãWH X 5LMHFL (NRQRPVNL IDNXOWHW NDUDGRYD6YHXþLOLãWH X 5LMHFL (NRQRPVNLIDNXOWHW VWU SJ 3. Bilas V,.RQYHUJHQFLMDWUDQ]LFLMVNLK]HPDOMDSUH 3. 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Grgiü M, Bilas V, âimoviü H)LQDQVLMVNDOLE HUDOL]DFLMDPRQHWDUQDL¿VNDOQDSROLWLND(XURSVNH HUDOL]DFLMDPRQHWDUQDL¿VNDOQDSROLWLND(XURSVNH XQLMH (NRQRPVNL IDNXOWHW =DJUHE 6HULMD þODQND X XQLMH (NRQRPVNL IDNXOWHW =DJUHE 6HULMD þODQND X QDVWDMDQMXVWU QDVWDMDQMXVWU 9. .ersan-âabiü I, Mihaljeviü A1RYH]HPOMHþODQ 9. .ersan-âabiü I, Mihaljeviü A1RYH]HPOMHþODQ LFH (8 L (08NRQYHUJHQFLMD L ¿QDVLMVND NUL]D LFH (8 L (08NRQYHUJHQFLMD L ¿QDVLMVND NUL]D (NRQRPVNLYLMHVQLN,%/2VLMHNVWU (NRQRPVNLYLMHVQLN,%/2VLMHNVWU 10. Marelli E, Signorelli M,,QVWLWXWLRQDOQRPLQDO 10. Marelli E, Signorelli M,QVWLWXWLRQDOQRPLQDO DQGUHDOFRQYHUJHQFHLQ(XURSH%DQNVDQGEDQN DQGUHDOFRQYHUJHQFHLQ(XURSH%DQNVDQGEDQN V\VWHP6XP\VWU V\VWHP6XP\VWU 11. Mongelli F. P1HZYLHZVRQWKHRSWLPXPFXU 11. Mongelli F. P1HZYLHZVRQWKHRSWLPXPFXU UHQF\DUHDWKHRU\ ZKDW(08WHOOLQJXV":RUNLQJ UHQF\DUHDWKHRU\ ZKDW(08WHOOLQJXV":RUNLQJ SDSHUEUVWU SDSHUEUVWU 12. Ribnikar I,.H\QHV¶PRQHWDU\WKHRU\DQGWUDQ 12. Ribnikar I,.H\QHV¶PRQHWDU\WKHRU\DQGWUDQ VLWLRQ HFRQRPLHV =ERUQLN UDGRYD (NRQRPVNL VLWLRQ HFRQRPLHV =ERUQLN UDGRYD (NRQRPVNL IDNXOWHW5LMHNDVWU IDNXOWHW5LMHNDVWU 71 DiůenŬo KWWS ZZZHFELQW KWWS ZZZHFELQW KWWS HXURSDHX KWWS HXURSDHX KWWS ZZZFEEKED KWWS ZZZFEEKED 72 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- $1$/<6,62)7+(/$%250$5.(7,17+(5(38%/,&2)6536.$ 'UDJDQ3HWURYLü GD „Vrbas“ Laktaši, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD GD „Vrbas“ Laktaši, %RVQLDDQG+H]HJRYLQD 'LMDQD'XURQMLü Ekonomski fakultet Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD Faculty of Economics, University of Banja Luka, %RVQLDDQG+H]HJRYLQD 'UDJDQ0DQGLü Ekonomska škola Banja Luka, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD Vocational School of Economics, %RVQLDDQG+H]HJRYLQD 3UHJOHGQLÏODQDN DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0012, UDK 331.5(497.6Republika Srpska) 5HYLHZSDSHU 5(=,0( $%675$&7 6YMHGRFL VPR GD VH LQGLNDWRUL WUåLãWD UDGD :HDUHZLWQHVVLQJWKDWWKHODERUPDUNHWLQGLFDWRUV 5HSXEOLNH 6USVNH JRGLQDPD SRJRUãDYDMX RI WKH 5HSXEOLF RI 6USVND KDYH EHHQ GHWHULRUDWLQJ 6WRSH QH]DSRVOHQRVWL VX L GR WUL SXWD YHüH IRU\HDUV8QHPSOR\PHQWUDWHVDUHXSWRWKUHHWLPHV RG LRQDNR YLVRNRJ HYURSVNRJ SURVMHND KLJKHU WKDQ WKH DOUHDG\ KLJK (XURSHDQ DYHUDJH EH] L]JOHGD GD üH VH RYDNYR VWDQMH XVNRUR ZLWK QR SURVSHFW RI FKDQJLQJ WKH VLWXDWLRQ LQ WKH SURPLMHQLWL3RVHEQRMH]QDþDMQRSRJRUãDQMH QHDUIXWXUH'HWHULRUDWLRQLQWKHODERUPDUNHWZLWK VWDQMDQDWUåLãWXUDGDOLFDPODÿLKRGJRGLQD UHVSHFW WR SHRSOH \RXQJHU WKDQ \HDUV RI DJH -DYOMDVH]QDþDMDQMD]L]PHÿXVPDQMHQMDEURMD EHDUVSDUWLFXODUVLJQLILFDQFH7KHUHLVDQRWDEOHJDS QH]DSRVOHQLK L SRYHüDQMD EURMD ]DSRVOHQLK EHWZHHQWKHUHGXFWLRQRIXQHPSOR\PHQWUDWHDQGWKH OLFD L] RYH SRSXODFLMH 3RVWDYOMD VH SLWDQMH LQFUHDVH RI HPSOR\HG SHRSOH IURP WKLV SRSXODWLRQ *GMH LGDOL QHVWDMXPODGL REUD]RYDQL OMXGL JURXS7KHTXHVWLRQLV :KHUH DQGZKHWKHU DUHWKH VD WUåLãWD UDGD 5HSXEOLNH 6USVNH"$XWRUL VX \RXQJ HGXFDWHG SHRSOHGLVDSSHDULQJIURPWKHODERU QDVWRMDOL GDWL DQDOL]X RVQRYQLK SRND]DWHOMD PDUNHWRIWKH5HSXEOLFRI6USVND"7KHDXWKRUVSURYLGH QD WUåLãWX UDGD 5HSXEOLNH 6USVNH V FLOMHP DQDQDO\VLVRIWKHPDLQLQGLFDWRUVRIWKH5HSXEOLFRI XRþDYDQMD RVQRYQLK WHQGHQFLMD L SUREOHPD 6USVND¶VODERUPDUNHWZLWKWKHDLPRIUHFRJQL]LQJWKH NRML SRVWRMH QD RYRP WUåLãWX NDR L SRWUHEH PDLQWHQGHQFLHVDQGSUREOHPVH[LVWLQJDWWKHPDUNHW ]DGH¿QLVDQMHPDGHNYDWQLKPMHUD]DQMLKRYR DVZHOODVWKHQHHGWRGHILQHDGHTXDWHPHDVXUHVIRU UMHãDYDQMH WKHLUUHVROXWLRQ .ljuþne rijeþi tråište rada, nezaposlenost, .eywords labor market, unemployment, zaposlenost, Republika Srpska employment, the Republic of Srpska JE/ klasi¿kacija E23, J21, J64 JE/ classi¿cation E23, J21, J64 1G' ÄVrbas³ /aktaši, e-mail petrovic.id#gmail.com 2Faculty of Economics, 8niversity of Banja /uka, e-mail dijana.duronjic#ef.unibl.org 3Vocational School of Economics, e-mail mandic-dragan#hotmail.com 73 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- 892' ,1752'8&7,21 Iako postoji sve veüa tendencija ka Although there is a growing tendency towards automatizaciji i robotizaciji proizvodnje, još automation and robotization of production, it is uvijek je nemoguüe funkcionisanje procesa still impossible to maintainproduction process proizvodnje bez korištenja radne snage kao without utilisation of workforce as an essential bitnog faktora proizvodnje. Mjesto na kom factor of production. A place where the supply se sreüu ponuda i traånja za ovim faktorom and demand for this factor of production actually proizvodnje jeste tråište rada. Tråište rada je meet is - the labor market. The labor market is dio kompleksnog nacionalnog tråišta i ima a part of a complex national market and serves funkciju obezbjeÿenja što veüe zaposlenosti to ensure higher employment and ef¿cient i e¿kasne alokacije radne snage po sektorima allocation of labor (workforce by sectors and i djelatnostima, ali i teritorijalno. Tråište industries, but also in terms of distribution rada obezbjeÿuje zapošljavanje u skladu across the state territory. /abor market provides sa realnom traånjom za radnom snagom, employment in accordance with the real ali i prema ponudi koja je speci¿þna demand for workforce, but also in accordance po profesionalnoj, starosnoj, polnoj ili with the supply that is speci¿c with respect to teritorijalnoj strukturi. Nezaposlenost professional, age, gender or territorial structure. postoji u sluþajevima devijacija, odnosno, 8nemployment exists in cases of deviation, i.e. nesavršenosti funkcionisanja tråišta rada, the imperfections of functioning of the labor kada veüi broj ljudi ne uspijeva pronaüi market, when numerous people fail to ¿nd work, posao, iako aktivno uþestvuju u njegovom although actively involved in the search for traåenju. Nezaposleno lice je osoba koja u one. An unemployed person is a person that has odreÿenom periodu nema posla, iako ga no work in a given period, despite the fact it is aktivno traåi i spremna je da radi. actively looking and prepared for work. Aktuelnost istraåivanja ovog fenomena je The actuality of the research of this phenomenon jednaka i u fazi recesije, ali i u periodima is equalboth during the recession period, and ekonomskog uzleta. Svjetska ¿nansijska in periods of economic upswing. The Global kriza, koja se poslije eskalacije u SA' (druga Financial Crisis, which, following its outbreak polovina 2008. godine prenijela u Evropu in the 8nited States (second half of year 2008 i cijeli svijet, ponovo aktuelizira probleme shifted to Europe and the whole world, reinstated nezaposlenosti i naþine prevazilaåenja unemployment issues and methods to overcome ove negativne makroekonomske pojave. such negative macroeconomic issue. Nowadays Nezaposlenost i danas, þak mnogo više the unemployment, even more than before nego ranije, predstavlja kljuþni ekonomski i represents a key economic and political problem politiþki problem u svakoj dråavi. in any country. Ni Republika Srpska nije ostala imuna na The Republic of Srpska also failed to preserve efekte Svjetske ¿nansijske krize, tako da su itself from the effects of the Global Financial trendovi rastuüe nezaposlenosti primjetni i na Crisis, which caused the rising unemployment našem tråištu rada u posljednjih deset godina. trends to becomeevident in our labor market in Spor oporavak privrede i slaba preduzetniþka the past ten years. Slow recovery of the economy aktivnost svakako ne doprinose smanjenju and poor entrepreneurial activity certainly do stopa nezaposlenosti u Republici Srpskoj. not contribute to reducing unemployment in the Naša zemlja još uvijek nema zakonsko Republic of Srpska. Our country still has no legal rješenje za ovaj problem, ali postoji prijedlog solution to this problem, but there is a proposal of Plana o smjernicama, politika tråišta a Plan on the Guidelines /abor Market Policies rada i aktivnim mjerama zapošljavanja u and Active Employment Measures in Bosnia BiH za 2016. godinu, a u februaru 2017. and Herzegovina for 2016, and in February 2017 godine =avod za zapošljavanje Republike the Employment Agency of the Republic of 74 DiůenŬo 7(25,-6.,$63(.7, 7+(25(7,&$/$63(&762) 1(=$326/(1267, 81(03/2<0(17 Rad je kljuþni proizvodni faktor u veüini :ork is a key factor of production in most konvencionalnih ili modernih teorija conventional or modern theories of economic privrednog rasta i razvoja.4 Ovo ukazuje na growth and development.4 This indicates a fundamentalnu ulogu agregatne zaposlenosti fundamental role of aggregate employment u makroekonomskoj teoriji. Mogu se navesti in macroeconomic theory. Numerous brojni primjeri u kojima se zaposlenost, examplescould be mentioned in order to nezaposlenost, radna snaga ili rad porede compare, or bring into direct relation the ili dovode u direktnu vezu s drugim terms such as employment, unemployment, makroekonomskim veliþinama. Jedan od workforce or work with other nominal sizes. najþešüih sluþajeva predstavlja ³trade off´ One of the most common cases is a ³trade off´ izmeÿu stope nezaposlenosti i stope inÀacije, between the unemployment rate and inÀation poznat kao Filipsova kriva (Phillips Curve 5. rate, known as the Phillips curve5. According Prema ovoj zakonomjernosti, visoke stope to this empirical model, high unemployment nezaposlenosti prate niske stope inÀacije, dok rates tend to follow low inÀation rate, whereas nisku nezaposlenost prati visoka inÀacija. low unemployment rate is accompanied by Meÿutim, ovi odnosi nisu predmet ovog high inÀation. However, these relations are not istraåivanja. the subject of this research. Nezaposlenost se moåe definisati kao 8nemployment can be de¿ned as the difference razlika broja radno sposobnih osoba between the number of working-age population i broja zaposlenih radnika. =avod za and number of employed people. Institue of 4.. Marks je u svojim djelima rad smatrao glavnim proizvodnim 4 In his works, .. Marx considered labor to be the main produc- faktorom. 8z kapital, rad i danas þini osnovu svake proizvodne tion factor. In addition to capital, laborforms the basis of every pro- funkcije. Pored toga, tehniþki progres kao vaåan proizvodni þini- duction function, even today. In addition, technical progress as an lac, organski je vezan za kvalitativne aspekte ljudskog rada. important production factor, is organically linked to the qualitative 5Ovaj ³trade off´ je krajem pedesetih godina prošlog vijeka prvi aspects of human labor. uoþio A.V. Phillips, þuveni novozenlandski ekonomista. Iako je 5 This ³trade off´ was, in the1950¶s initially noted by A.V. Phillips, doåivjela mnoge kritike, þak i od eminentnih nobelovaca kao što the famous economist from New =ealand. Although it has under- su Felps i Friedman, njena aktuelnost nije izgubila na znaþaju. gone much criticism even from eminent Nobel Prize winners such as Vidjeti više u Burda, M., Viploš, ý. (2001 Makroekonomija - Phelps and Friedman, its topicality has not lost any of its relevance. Evropski udåbenik. Oxford 8niversity Press. Prevod Popoviü See more in Burda, M., :yplosz, C. (2001 Macroeconomics –A '. (2004 Centar za liberalno-demokratske studije. Beograd, European Text. Oxford 8niversity Press. Translation Popoviü '. str. 280. i str. 290. Colander '. (2016 Macroeconomics, Mc- (2004 Center for /iberal-'emocratic Studies. Belgrade, p. 280 and Graw-Hill Education McConnell R. C., Brue /. S. (1996 Mac- p. 290 Colander '. (2016 Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill Educa- roeconomics Principles, Problems and Policies, McGraw-Hill, tion McConnell R. C., /. Brue S. (1996 Macroeconomics Princi- SA', i dr. ples, Problems and Policies, McGraw-Hill, 8SA, and others. 75 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- statistiku RS daje sljedeüu definiciju Statistics of the Republic of Srpska provides nezaposlenosti the following de¿nition of unemployment Ä1H]DSRVOHQLP OLFHP VPDWUD VH OLFH NRMH ³8QHPSOR\HG SHUVRQ LV D SHUVRQ UHJLVWHUHG MH SULMDYOMHQR QD HYLGHQFLMX =DYRGD ]D ZLWK WKH (PSOR\PHQW %XUHDX DJHG WR ]DSRãOMDYDQMH VWDURVWL RG GR JRGLQD \HDUV ROG DEOH RU SDUWLDOO\ FDSDEOH RI VSRVREQRLOLRJUDQLþHQRVSRVREQR]DUDGNRMH ZRUN ZKLFK LV XQHPSOR\HG RU ZKLFK KDV QLMHXUDGQRPRGQRVXLOLNRMHQLMHQDGUXJLQDþLQ QRWRWKHUZLVHH[HUFLVHGLWVULJKWRIZRUNDQG RVWYDULORSUDYRQDUDGLNRMHDNWLYQRWUDåLSRVDR LV DFWLYHO\ ORRNLQJ IRU D MRE LH D SHUVRQ RGQRVQRNRMHMHUDVSRORåLYR]DUDG³ DYDLODEOHIRUZRUN´ Nezaposlenost u ovom smislu pretpostavlja 8nemployment in this sense presupposes the postojanje dvije vrste nezaposlenosti, existence of two types of unemployment, namely i to voljnu i nevoljnu. Razlike izmeÿu voluntary and involuntary. The differences ovih varijacija nezaposlenosti se mogu between these variations in unemployment can objasniti analizom Slike 1. Vidljivo je be explained by analyzing Figure 1. It is evident da je ravnoteåa tråišta rada u taþki A that the balance of the labour market is at point (izjednaþene ponuda i traånja . 8 toj A (equal supply and demand . At this point, in taþki se pri realnoj zaradi (w zapošljava case of realistic earning (w of a total of (/1 ukupno (/1 radnika. Na ovom nivou workers is employed. At this level of real earning realne zarade i zaposlenosti postoji tzv. and employment, there is a so-called voluntary voljna nezaposlenost koju predstavlja unemployment represented by the difference razlika ukupne ponude rada i broja between the total labor supply and the number zaaposlenih radnika (/ – /1 . Nevoljna of employed workers (/ - /1 . Involuntary nezaposlenost je odreÿena razlikom (/s unemployment is determined by the difference - / ࡄ i javlja se kada je realna zarada viša (/s - / ࡄ and occurs when the real earning is higher od zarade koja se postiåe pri ravnoteåi than the earning that is achieved at equilibrium ponude i traånje. Tako, pri realnoj zaradi between supply and demand. Thus, with the w ࡄ, ponuda rada je /s, a traånja za radom real earning of w ,ࡄ work supply is /s, while the je manja i iznosi / ࡄ jedinica. Nevoljna demand for work is lower and amounts to / ࡄ nezaposlenost postoji kada za dati nivo units. Involuntary unemployment exists when the realne zarade ima radnika koji su voljni workers who are willing to work for a speci¿c da rade, ali ne mogu naüi posao. level of real wages,but are unable ¿nd work. 6OLNDNevoljna nezaposlenost Figure 1. Involuntary unemployment ,]YRU %XUGD09LSORãý 0DNURH 6RXUFH %XUGD09LSORVý 0DFURHFR NRQRPLMD(YURSVNLXGåEHQLN2[IRUG8QLYHU QRPLFV(XURSHDQWH[WERRN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\ VLW\3UHVV3UHYRG 3RSRYLü' &HQWDU]D 3UHVV7UDQVODWLRQ 3RSRYLü' &HQWHU OLEHUDOQRGHPRNUDWVNHVWXGLMH%HRJUDG IRU/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF6WXGLHV:KLWH&LW\ 76 DiůenŬo &LNOLþQD QH]DSRVOHQRVW je razlika aktuelne &\FOLFDOXQHPSOR\PHQW is a difference between i ravnoteåne stope nezaposlenosti (zbir real unemploymentrate and equilibrium frikcione i strukturne nezaposlenosti . unemployment rate (the sum of frictional Cikliþna nezaposlenost se vezuje za and structural unemployment . Cyclical periode ekonomskih kriza i recesija. 8 unemployment is linked to periods of economic takvim situacijama dolazi do veüih padova crisis and recessions. In such situations, zaposlenosti i porasta stope nezaposlenosti large drops of employment and increase in koja i u najrazvijenijim privredama, dostiåe unemployment rate occur and in most developed i prestiåe, dvocifrene vrijednosti7. Poseban economies it reaches and exceeds double-digits7. oblik nezaposlenosti javlja se kod speci¿þnih . A special form of unemployment occurs in poslova koji se obavljaju samo u toku radne speci¿c jobs that are performed only during sezone, dok van tog perioda dolazi do rasta the working season, which is why there is an nezaposlenosti. Ovaj vid nezaposlenosti increase in unemployment beyond that period. naziva se VH]RQVNDQH]DSRVOHQRVW, i u pravilu This type of unemployment is called VHDVRQDO je manja od frikcione, strukturne i cikliþne XQHPSOR\PHQW and is generally less than the nezaposlenosti. Prisutna je u oblastima koje frictional, structural and cyclical unemployment. 6. O vrstama nezaposlenosti vidjeti u Mankju G. (2007 Principi 6. On the types of unemployment, refer tothe following Mankiw ekonomije, Cengage /earning. Prevod CI' (2013 Ekonomski G. (2007 Principles of economy, Cengage /earning. Translation fakultet, Beograd, str. 611. Burda, M., Viploš, ý. (2001 Makroe- CI' (2013 Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, p. 611 . Burda, M., konomija - Evropski udåbenik. Oxford 8niversity Press Prevod :yplosz, C. (2001 Macroeconomics –A European Text. Oxford Popoviü '. (2004 Centar za liberalno-demokratske studije. 8niversity Press Translation Popoviü '. (2004 Center for /ib- Beograd, str. 86-93. Colander '. (2016 Macroeconomics, eral-'emocratic Studies. Belgrade, p. 86-93 Colander '. (2016 McGraw-Hill Education McConnell R. C., Brue /. S. (1996 Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill Education McConnell R. C., /. Macroeconomics Principles, Problems and Policies, McGraw-Hill, Brue S. (1996 Macroeconomics Principles, Problems and Policies, SA', i drugi. Veüina njih elaborira frikcionu, sezonsku, strukturnu i McGraw-Hill, 8SA, and others. Most of them elaborates frictional, cikliþnu nezaposlenost. seasonal, structural and cyclical unemployment. 7Finansijska i privredna kriza u SA' i cijelom svijetu, koja je 7 The ¿nancial and economic crisis in the 8S and across the world, eskalirala u drugoj polovini 2008. god. je uticala na rast stope which has escalated in the second half of 2008. affected the unem- nezaposlenosti u gotovo svim svjetskim privredama. ployment rate in almost all of the world¶s economies. 77 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- su vezane za odreÿene vremenske periode, It is present in areas which are related to speci¿c kao npr. zaposlenost u turistiþkoj sezoni, ili time periods, such as employment in the tourist u vrijeme intenzivnih poljoprivrednih radova season or at the time of intensive agricultural i dr. works, etc. 8kljuþivanjem adaptacija realnih zarada prema Enabling adaptation of real earnings according to tråišnim i drugim uslovima odreÿuju se VWYDUQD L the market and other conditions determines DFWXDO UDYQRWHåQDQH]DSRVOHQRVW 8 bilo kojoj inÀatornoj DQGHTXLOLEULXP XQHPSOR\PHQW In an inÀationary or ili nekoj drugoj nepovoljnoj tråišnoj situaciji, radnici any other unfavorable market situation, the workers üe iskoristiti sindikalnu infrastrukturu i traåiti da will use the union infrastructure and require that se nadnice prilagode novim okolnostima. Oni üe their earnings are adjusted to new circumstances. uvijek nastojati da zaštite realnu vrijednost svojih They will always try to protect the real value of nadnica. Ovo je npr. jedna od zakonomjernosti their earnings. This is one of regularities which limit kojima se ograniþavaju moguünosti politike the possibilities of demand management policies upravljanja traånjom (npr. od strane centralnih (e.g. by the central monetary institutions . Thus, monetarnih institucija . Tako se åelje monetarnih the desires of the monetary authorities to reduce vlasti za smanjenjem traånje, preko smanjenja demand through reductionsof real earnings are realnog nivoa nadnica, najþešüe amortizuju usually absorbed by resistance of organized unions. otporima organizovanih sindikata. 8 suprotnom, Otherwise, by means of aggregate demand and agregatnom traånjom, odnosno njenim smanjenjem its decrease or increase, various macroeconomic ili poveüanjem, mogle bi se idealno realizovati objectives and transactionscould be ideally razliþiti makroekonomski ciljevi i transakcije. implemented. Veü je konstatovano da se strukturna i frikciona It has already been stated that structural and frictional nezaposlenost ne mogu sprijeþiti, pa je nemoguüe unemployment cannot be prevented. Therefore, ostvariti perfektno stanje na tråištu rada, odnosno it is impossible to achieve a perfect balance on the stanje pune zaposlenosti. Ekonomisti stanje labor market, or the state of full employment. The pune zaposlenosti de¿nišu kao nivo koji je blizu state of full employment, de¿ned by the economists stoprocentne zaposlenosti, odnosno, pri nultoj as a level that is close to 100% employment, or at cikliþnoj nezaposlenosti. Stopa pune zaposlenosti zero percent of cyclical unemployment. The full jeste stopa prirodne nezaposlenosti, kada postoji employment rate is the natural rate of unemployment ravnoteåa na tråištu rada8. 8 toj poziciji privreda when there is a balance in the labor market8. In such postiåe potencijalni output. position, the economy achieves its potential output. ,]UDþXQDYDQMH VWRSH QH]DSRVOHQRVWL. 8 radu se &DOFXODWLRQRIWKHXQHPSOR\PHQWUDWH. The paper, za analizu koriste podaci =avoda za statistiku for its analysis, used the data of the Institute of Republike Srpske, prema þijoj metodologiji Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, according stopa nezaposlenosti predstavlja odnos broja to whose methodology the unemployment nezaposlenih lica i ukupnog broja lica koja rate represents the ratio of the unemployed and þine radnu snagu. Radnu snagu ili aktivno total number of workforce. :orkforce or active stanovništvo þine zaposlena i nezaposlena lica i population comprises employed and unemployed oni predstavljaju ponudu na tråištu rada. Pored persons and they constitute asupply at the labor radne snage, postoji segment stanovništva koji je market. In addition to workforce, there is a segment takoÿe radno sposoban, ali nisu aktivni na tråištu of the working-age population that isnot active at rada. Oni þine dio stanovništva koji je voljno the labor market. They form a part of the population nezaposlen, te ne preuzimaju nikakve aktivnosti that is voluntarily unemployed and do not take u cilju traåenja posla i nisu spremni da poþnu da any action in order to search for work and are not rade u naredne dvije sedmice ako bi im se posao ready to start work within two weeks should they be ponudio. /ica koja imaju manje od 15 godina offered a job. Peopleaged under 15 years of age and 8Prirodna stopa ne daje garanciju ostvarenja pune iskorišüenosti 8 The natural rate does not guarantee full capacity utilization. kapaciteta. 78 DiůenŬo Ipak, postoje odreÿeni faktori koji djeluju na However, there are certain factors that affect the visinu stope nezaposlenosti. Mnogi od njih su unemployment rate. Many of them are very unstable veoma nepostojani i vrlo teško se kvanti¿kuju. and very dif¿cult to quantify. In transition countries, 8 tranzicionim zemljama, ali sve više i u but increasingly in most developed economies, najrazvijenijim privredama, dolazi do porasta there is an increase in hiring employeeswithout angaåovanja radnika koji nisu prijavljeni registering them (i.e. the ³black labor´ .Sharpening (tzv. rad ³na crno´ . =aoštravanje globalne of global competition affects the economic actors konkurencije djeluje na privredne aktere koji who try to reduce their costs in doing so, in order i na ovaj naþin redukuju svoje troškove u to achieve a higher level of competitiveness. In cilju postizanja višeg stepena konkurentnosti. contrast, temporary employees are included in Suprotno, privremeno zaposleni radnici se a group of full-time employees (which is not ubrajaju u grupu de¿nitivno zaposlenih radnika the case , thus reducing the real unemployment. (što nije sluþaj , pa se na taj naþin smanjuje The problems occur in the form of apathy that realna nezaposlenost. Problemi se javljaju workers demonstrate upon failing to ¿nd a job, i u apatiji koju radnici ispoljavaju, kada ne which is why theystop searching for one, or due naÿu posao, pa ga onda više i ne traåe, ili to overvaluation of unemployment, dueto some precijenjenosti stope nezaposlenosti, zato što se people identifyingthemselves as unemployed, as neke osobe izjašnjavaju kao nezaposlene, traåe people searching for a job, but actually not wanting posao, ali ga istinski ne åele. Postoje i neke to ¿nd one. There are some other distortions on druge deformacije na tråištima rada pojedinih the labor markets of individual countries. They zemalja. One uglavnom zavise od stepena mainly depend on the level of development of the razvijenosti tråišta rada, opšte društveno- labor market, overall social and economic situation, ekonomske situacije, ureÿenja institucija, development of institutions, level of functioning of funkcionisanja demokratije, itd. democracy, etc. $1$/,=$ 1( =$326/(1267,8 81 (03/2<0(17$1$/<6,6,1 5(38%/,&,6536.2- 7+(5(38%/,&2)6536.$ 261291,0$.52(.21206., 0$,10$&52(&2120,& 32.$=$7(/-,=$5(38%/,.8 ,1',&$7256)257+(5(38%/,&2) 6536.8 6536.$ Republika Srpska prostire se na površini od The Republic of Srpska covers an area 24 641 km2, sa populacijom od pribliåno of 24 641 km2, with a population of 1 415 776 stanovnika (podaci =avoda za about 1,415,776 (data from the Institute statistiku za 2015. godinu . 8 2015. godini, of Statistics of RS for 2015 . In 2015, B'P proizvod po glavi stanovnika iznosio je 6 G'P per capita amounted to 6465 BAM 465 .M, odnosno 3 306 ¼ (prosjeþan godišnji or ¼ 3306 (Annual average exchange rate kurs .ME8R 1,9558, izvor Centralna BAM E8R 1.9558, source Central banka Bosne i Hercegovine . Istovremeno, Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina . At the podaci E8ROSTAT-a pokazuju da je B'P same time, Eurostat data show that the po glavi stanovnika za zemlje E828 u 2015. G'P per capita in the E828 countries in godini iznosio 28 900 ¼, a u 2016. godini 29 2015 amounted to ¼ 28900, and ¼ 28900 000 ¼, dok za zemlje E8-15 ta vrijednost in 2016, while the E8-15 boast the dostiåe 33 400 ¼ u 2015, odnosno 33 500 ¼ u amount of ¼ 33 400 in 2015, and 33 500 2016. godini. ¼ in 2016. 79 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- *UD¿NStope realnog rasta B'P-a, prom- Chart 1. Growth rate of real G'P, changes jene u odnosu na isto tromjeseþje prethodne in relation to the same quarter of the year godine before ,]YRU 0MHVHþQLVWDWLVWLþNLSUHJOHG=DYRGD]D 6RXUFH 0RQWKO\VWDWLVWLFDOUHYLHZRIWKH,QVWL VWDWLVWLNX56QRYHPEDUSUHX]HWRVD WXWHRI6WDWLVWLFVRI561RYHPEHUDYDLO KWWS ZZZU]VUVED DEOHDW KWWS ZZZU]VUVED HVWLPDWLRQ Gra¿k 1. pokazuje da su u posljednje dvije godine Chart 1 shows that the real growth rates of G'P stope realnog rasta B'P-a u Republici Srpskoj in the Republic of Srpska in the past two yearsare veüe u odnosu na isto tromjeseþje prethodne higher than those from the same quarter of the year godine, tako da u 2015. godini stopa realnog rasta before. Therefore, real growth rate in 2015 reaches dostiåe maksimalnu vrijednost od 2,6% u periodu a maximum value of 2.6% in the period following poslije Svjetske ¿nansijske krize (Gra¿k 2. . :orld Financial Crisis (Chart 2 . :ith the exception Izuzimajuüi 2009. godinu, kao godinu poþetka of 2009, as the year of the beginning of the Global Svjetske ¿nansijske krize, kada stopa realnog rasta Financial Crisis, when the real growth rate reached dostiåe rekordno nizak nivo (-3% , negativna stopa a record low (-3% , negative real growth rate was realnog rasta ostvarena je jedino u 2012. godini, recorded only in 2012, when it stood at -1.1%. If kada je iznosila -1,1%. 8koliko posmatramo B'P we were to look at G'P at current prices, there has u tekuüim cijenama, primjetan je blagi trend rasta been a slight upward trend after a period of Global nakon perioda Svjetske ¿nansijske krize. Financial Crisis. *UD¿N.retanje makroekonomskih &KDUW Trends of macroeconomic indicators pokazatelja (u % desno, u hiljadama lijevo (shown in % on the right, in thousands on the left ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLKEG G N K 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKHKIGNIK L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D 6WDWLVWLFDO 80 DiůenŬo 99,6 102,5 103,9 102,1 100,0 98,8 98,6 ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKH L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D 6WDWLVWLFDO .5(7$1-( 1( =$326/(1267,8 81 (03/2<0(17 75(1'6 ,1 5(38%/,&,6536.2- 7+(5(38%/,&2)6536.$ Stope nezaposlenosti su imale rastuüi tren u 8nemployment rates had anincreasing trend in the periodu nakon 2008. godine, pa sve do 2013. period followingyear 2008 until 2013, which is godine, što je i razumljivo, uzimajuüi u obzir understandable, taking into account the effects of efekte Svjetske ekonomske krize na koju ni the Global Economic Crisis to which neither the Republika Srpska nije bila imuna. Nakon Republic of Srpska was immune. After 2013, there 2013. godine, dolazi do blagog pada stopa was a slight decline in the unemployment rate, nezaposlenosti, pri þemu ona u 2015. godini wherein in 2015 it amounts to, still high 25.2% iznosi, i dalje visokih, 25,2% (Gra¿k 2. (Chart 2 Information obtained from Institute of Podaci =avoda za statistiku RS zasnivaju se Statistics of RS are based on the records of the na evidencijama =avoda za zapošljavanje RS, Employment Bureau of the Republic of Srpska, tako da je stvarna stopa nezaposlenosti sigurno so that the actual unemployment rate is certainly veüa od zvaniþno prikazane,s obzirom na to higher than of¿cially presented, considering da sva lica koja traåe zaposlenje ne moraju that all job seekers do not have to necessarily be biti prijavljena =avodu. Poredeüi podatke registered to the 'epartment. Comparing the data za Evropsku uniju, u kojoj je u 2015. godini for the European 8nion, where the unemployment nezaposlenost iznosila 9,4%, a u 2016. godini rate in 2015 amounted to 9.4% and in 2016 8,5%, prema podacima E8ROSTAT-a, skoro to 8.5%, based on Eurostat data, almost triple trostruko veüa stopa nezaposlenosti navodi na unemployment rate leads to concern.However, brigu.Ipak, ono što još više zabrinjava jeste pad what is even more worrying is the decline in the broja lica koja traåe zaposlenje koji nije praüen number of job seekers, which is not accompanied adekvatnim rastom broja zaposlenih. by adequate employment growth. Tabela 2. .retanje broja (ne zaposlenih Table 2. Changes in number of (un employed people Saldo (Razlika broja poveüanja Rast broja zaposlenih u odnosu na Rast broja nezaposlenih u Zaposleni Nezaposleni zaposlenih i smanjenja prethodnu godinu odnosu na prethodnu godinu nezaposlenih) 2011 238956 153535 - - - 2012 238178 153458 -778 -77 -855 2013 238640 149284 462 -4174 -3712 2014 241544 142675 2904 -6609 -3705 2015 245975 135585 4431 -7090 -2659 sep 2015 248783 137502 2808 1917 4725 mar 2016 249610 135690 827 -1812 -985 sep 2016 257001 128464 7391 -7226 165 ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURP L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D WKH6WDWLVWLFDO ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDND 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURP SUHX]HWLKL]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND WKH6WDWLVWLFDO ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKH L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D 6WDWLVWLFDO 82 DiůenŬo =a lica koja pripadaju starosnoj grupi 30 - For peopl belonging to the age group 30 - 39, 39 godina, ovaj trend je primjetan u 2014. this trend is noticeable in 2014 and 2015. For i 2015. godini. =a starosnu grupu 40 – 49 the age group 40 - 49 years of age, during the godina, u toku posmatranog perioda (2007 observed period (2007 - 2015 an increase in - 2015 godine poveüanje broja lica koji su the number of employed people is higher than zaposleni prevazilazi broj lica koji su se the number of people who have unsubscribed odjavili sa =avoda za zapošljavanje samo from the 'epartment Bureauonly in year 2009. u 2009. godini. That fact of the majority of young people 'a je najveüi broj mladih koji zaposlenje ¿nds employment outside of the borders of nalazi van granica Republike Srpske the Republic of Srpska can be concluded on moåemo zakljuþiti na osnovu Grafika 5. i the basis of Charts 5 and 6. There has been a 6. Primjetan je trend pada broja lica koja downward trend in the number of job seekers traåe zaposlenje do 30. godine starosti, za up to 30 years of age, for all age groups, but also sve starosne grupe, ali i trend smanjenja the trend of reducing the number of employed broja zaposlenih iz ovih starosnih grupa. peoplefrom these age groups. It is particularly Posebno izraåena razlika primjetna je za noticeable that there is a signi¿cant difference starosne grupe 25-29 godina, koju þine for the age groups 25-29 years old, consisting najveüim dijelom visokoobrazovani ljudi, mostlyof highly educated people, following nakon završetka fakulteta. their graduation. Jedan od razloga za ovakav trend moåe One of the reasons for such trend can be seen se vidjeti iz Grafika 7. Najveüi broj fromChart 7. Most of the unemployed people nezaposlenih lica provede više od 3 godine spend more than 3 years looking for a job, based traåeüi posao, na osnovu evidencija on the records of the Employment Bureau =avoda za zapošljavanje (Statistiþki (Statistical Yearbook 2016, Institute of Statistics 83 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- godišnjak 2016, =avod za statistiku RS . of the Republic of Srpska . The smallest group Najmanji je broj onih koji posao uspiju is comprised of people who manage to ¿nd the naüi u peridu izmeÿu 6 – 11 mjeseci. job in the period 6 – 11 months from the moment Skoro duplo veüi broj je onih koji naÿu of starting looking for one. As for the people who posao u prvih 6 mjeseci traåenja posla, manage to ¿nd a job within the ¿rst 6 months of dok ostali þekaju na posao izmeÿu 1 i 3 searching, there are almost double of that number, godine. Na åalost, ne postoje statistiþki whereas others usually waitfor a job between 1 and podaci o duåini perioda potrebnog za 3 years. 8nfortunately, there are no statistics on the pronalaåenje prvog posla, ali svakako da length of time required to ¿nd the ¿rst job, but the sve upuüuje na to da bi rezultati išli u data available suggests that the results would be in prilog pomenutim trendovima. favor of the aforementioned trends. *UD¿N /ica koja traåe zaposlenje starosti Chart 5. People seeking employment aged 15 od 15 - 30 godina (u hiljadama - 30 years (in thousands *UD¿N /ica koja su zaposlena starosti od &KDUWPeople employed, aged 15 - 30 years 15 - 30 godina (u hiljadama (in thousands ,]YRU $XWRURYD REUDGD SRGDWDND SUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURP L] 6WDWLVWLþNRJ JRGLãQMDND =DYRGD ]D WKH6WDWLVWLFDO *UD¿N 'uåina perioda traåenja posla ne- &KDUWThe length of the job search by un- zaposlenih lica (u hiljadama employed people (in thousands ,]YRU $XWRURYD REUDGD SRGDWDND SUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKH L] 6WDWLVWLþNRJ JRGLãQMDND =DYRGD ]D 6WDWLVWLFDO $1$/,=$ 1( =$326/(1267, 81 (03/2<0(17$1$/<6,63(5 35(0$67(3(182%5$=29$1-$ ('8&$7,21/(9(/ 8 2016. godini, najveüi broj stanovnika, In 2016, most of the employment-seeking evidentiran u evidenciji =avoda za populationregisteredwith the Employment Bureau zapošljavanje Republike Srpske, koji je of the Republic of Srpska was either quali¿ed or traåio zaposlenje bio je kvali¿kovan ili je had secondary vocational education (Chart 8 The imao srednju struþnu spremu (Gra¿k 8 least of that number is made of highly-quali¿ed Najmanji broj je visokokvali¿kovanih lica people (around 1000 , whereas 14 594 people with (oko 1 000 , dok je 14 594 lica sa visokom a university degree sought employment in January struþnom spremom u januaru 2016. godine 2016. It should be noted that there was a declining traåilo zaposlenje, pri þemu je tokom cijele trend in terms of the number of employment- godine postojao trend smanjenja broja lica seeking people with a university degreethroughout sa visokom struþnom spremom koja traåe the entire year (in November, the number has zaposlenje (u novembru je broj dostigao reached the ¿gure of 13,507 people . As for the cifru od 13 507 lica . 8kupan broj lica koji total number of people who sought employment je traåio zaposlenje u 2016. godini ima trend in 2016, there is a downward trend present pada tokom godine. Primjetno je na osnovu throughout the year. Based on the data from the podataka iz Gra¿ka 9. da je broj lica koji traåi Chart 9, it is notable that the number of people zaposlenje manji za sve stepene obrazovanja seeking employment decreased for all education u odnosu na isti period u 2015. godini. levels compared to the same period in 2015. Such Najviše kvali¿kovanih lica je prestalo da traåi trend applies most to the quali¿ed peoplewho zaposlenje u 2016. godini u odnosu na isti ceased seeking employment in 2016 compared to period 2015. godine. the same period in 2015. 8koliko posmatramo posljednju deceniju, In the last decade, one can clearly see a growing primjetiüemo rastuüi trend kada je u pitanju trend when it comes to the number of university broj lica koja traåe zaposlenje sa visokom educated job seekers (Chart 10 . It is interesting struþnom spremom (Gra¿k 10. . Interesantno that the increase in the number of employed je da je rast broja zaposlenih lica sa visokom people with university education is much struþnom spremom daleko znaþajniji. Jedan more notable. One of the reasons may be that od razloga moåe da bude što lica koja people who are being educated at universitycan se obrazuju na visokoškolskoj instituciji be employed at the same time, being in the istovremeno mogu da budu zaposlena, te je situation where the promotion at work is one of napredovanje na poslu jedan od razloga za the reasons for the continuation of education, nastavak školovanja, pri þemu lica ne moraju while the people do not have to interrupt their prekidati radni odnos (i samim tim poveüati employment (thus increasing the number of job- broj lica koji traåi zaposlenje . seeking people . Primjetan je pad broja visokokvali¿kovanih, There is a notable decrease in the number kvali¿kovanih, polukvali¿kovanih i of highly quali¿ed, skilled, semi-skilled and nekvali¿kovanih radnika koji traåe posao, ali unskilled workers looking for work, but also isto tako i smanjenje broja lica sa pomenutim a dropin the number of employed people stepenom obrazovanja koja su zaposlena. ofthe giveneducation levels. As a result of the .ao posljedica postojanja strukturne structural unemployment in the Republic of nezaposlenosti u Republici Srpskoj, te Srpska, as well as due to increased demand for poveüane traånje za radnicima ovog stepena employees of the aforementionededucation obrazovanja u inostranstvu, sve više lica level in the countries abroad, an increasing pokušava da problem nezaposlenosti riješi numberof people try to resolve the traåenjem zaposlenja u nekoj od evropskih unemployment issue by seeking employment zemalja. in one of the European countries. 85 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- *UD¿N /ica koja traåe Chart 8. People seeking employment zaposlenje u 2016. godini prema inyear 2016 presented by education level (in stepenu obrazovanja (u hiljadama thousands *UD¿N /ica koja traåe zaposlenje (u Chart 9. People seeking employment (in hiljadama thousands VSS – 8niv. edu, VâS – 2-year univ.edu SSS – Second. Vocational school, V.V – highly skilled, .V – skilled, P.-NS – partially skilled, N. - unskilled ,]YRU $XWRURYD REUDGD SRGDWDND SUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶V SURFHVVLQJ RI GDWD WDNHQ L] 6WDWLVWLþNRJ JRGLãQMDND =DYRGD ]D IURPWKH6WDWLVWLFDO Nakon 2007. godine, dolazi do blagog rasta Following year 2007, there was a slight increase broja lica sa srednjom struþnom spremom in the number of people with secondary koja traåe zaposlenje, sve do 2013. godine, vocational education seeking for employment. kada ovaj broj poþinje da opada. Istovremeno, The trend lasted until 2013, when it began to upravo najviše lica sa srednjom struþnom decline. At the same time, most people with spremom je zaposleno u posmatranom secondary vocational education were employed periodu. Primjeüuje se smanjenje broja in the reporting period. Note the reduction in the zaposlenih u periodu nakon 2009. godine, number of employees in the period following pa do 2013. godine, kada dolazi do blagog 2009 which lasteduntil 2013, when there was a poveüanja broja zaposlenih lica sa srednjom slight increase in the number of employees with struþnom spremom. secondary vocational education. 1DMYHüLEURMGRNWRUDQDXNDPDJLVWDUDL]DSRVOHQLK Most of Ph's, Magisters (Masters and sa visokom struþnom spremom zaposleno je u university-educated employees were employed sektoru obrazovanja, javne uprave i odbrane, in the sectors of education, public administration zdravstvene zaštite i socijalnog rada. Sliþna slika and defense, health care and social services. javlja se i kada posmatramo zaposlene se višom Similar situation applies when we analyze struþnom spremom. =aposleni sa srednjom thetwo-year post-secondary school employees. struþnom spremom u najveüem broju sluþajeva su Employees with secondary vocational education zaposleni u sektoru trgovine, preraÿivaþkoj industriji, are primarily employed in trade sector, javnoj upravi i odbrani, te djelatnostima zdravstvene manufacturing industry, public administration 86 DiůenŬo ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURP L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D WKH6WDWLVWLFDO $1$/,=$ 1( =$326/(1267, $1$/<6,62) 81 (03/2<0(17 35(0$32/8,32'58Î-85$'$ %<*(1'(5$1'),(/'2):25. 8 Republici Srpskoj od 2007. godine In the Republic of Srpska, ever since 2007 there postoji stalni trend pada radno sposobnog has been a constant trend of declining numbers of stanovništva. Smanjenje broja stanovnika, working-age population. Reduction in the number kao posljedica ratnih dešavanja na ovim of inhabitants as a consequence of warfare in prostorima, te kontinuirano smanjenje, a od the region, as well as the continuous decrease 2003. godine trend negativanog prirodnog of population, and since year 2003 the trend of priraštaja (Statistiþki godišnjak 2016, =avod negative natural growth (Statistical Yearbook za statistiku RS , samo su od nekih razloga koji 2016, Institute of Statistics of RS are only some dovode do ovakvog izgleda ove krive (Gra¿k of the reasons that lead to such appearance of this 12 . 'o privremenog rasta u raspoloåivoj curve (Chart 12 . A temporary increase in the radnoj snazi dolazi 2013. i 2015. godine, više available workforce was registered in 2013 and pod uticajem rasta ponude muškaraca, nego 2015, more affected by the growth of available men than women. Although Chart 12 shows that 87 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- åena. Iako se uoþava na Gra¿ku 12. da je radno the working-age population9 is predominantly sposobno stanovništvo9 preteåno åenskog female the employment rate of men is almost pola, stope zaposlenosti muškaraca su skoro twice the rate of female employment (Chart 13 , duplo veüe od stopa zaposlenosti åena (Gra¿k while women¶s unemployment rates are higher 13. , dok su stope nezaposlenosti åena veüe than the male unemployment rate. The reasons for od stopa nezaposlenosti mušaraca. Razloge such occurrence can be found in the still-present moåemo traåiti u, još uvijek, tradicionalnom traditional understanding of a woman¶srole as a shvatanju uloge åene kao majke i domaüice. mother and a housewife. There is a noticeable Primjetan je rast nezaposlenosti i muškaraca i rise in unemployment among both men and åena u periodu nakon 2009. godine, uz blago women in the period followingyear 2009, with a smanjenje stopa nakon 2013. godine. slight decrease of the rates after year 2013. *UD¿N Radno sposobno stanovništvo (u Chart 12. Population of working age(in hiljadama thousands *UD¿N. Stope (ne zaposlenosti prema polu Chart 13. (8n employment rates per gender ,]YRU $XWRURYD REUDGD SRGDWDND SUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKH L] 6WDWLVWLþNRJ JRGLãQMDND =DYRGD ]D 6WDWLVWLFDO Iako bi jedno od rješenja problema velike Although one of the solutions to the high nezaposlenosti moglo biti samozapošljavanje, unemployment rate problem could be self- trendovi koji postoje posljednjih godina i nisu employment, trends that have existed over the ohrabrujuüi. Skoro duplo veüi je broj onih recent years and are not quite encouraging. There koji su zaposleni kod privrednih subjekata is almost nearly double the number of those u odnosu na one koji su se usudili da se employed in business entities compared to those bave preduzetniþkom aktivnošüu. Gra¿k 15. who dared to engage in entrepreneurial activity. pokazuje da su muškarci znatno hrabriji kada Chart 15 shows that men are considerably je u pitanju pokretanje sopstvenog biznisa, more courageous when it comes to launching tako da je nešto više od 70% samozaposlenih their own business, so that more than 70% of muškog pola. Od ukupno zaposlene self-employed people are men. Out of the total populacije muškaraca, oko 30% se odluþuje employed population of men, about 30% decides na pokretanje sopstvenog biznisa, dok se to start their own business, while only about 20% na ovakav vid zaposlenja odluþilo oko 20% of women (Statistical Yearbook 2016, Institute 9 Prema definiciji Zavoda za statistiku, radno sposobno stanovništvo 9According to a definition from the Institute of Statistics of Republic of obuhvata sva lica stara 15 i više godina. Srpska, population of working age includes all people aged 15 or more. 88 DiůenŬo ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURPWKH L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D 6WDWLVWLFDO åena (Statistiþki godišnjak 2016, =avod za of Statistics of Republic of Srpska have decided statistiku RS . to undertake this method of employment. äene su preteåno zaposlene u usluånim djelatnostima :omen are mostly employed in service (više od 50% zaposlenih åena , a zatim u activities (more than 50% of employed women poljoprivrednim djelatnostima (prosjeþno 30% and in agriculture (average of 30% of women zaposlenih åena . =aposlenost muškaraca u sva tri employed . The employment of men in all three sektora (poljoprivredne, nepoljoprivredne i usluåne sectors (agricultural, non-agricultural and service djeþatnosti je priliþno ravnomjerna, ali ipak najveüi activities is fairly uniform, with the largest broj muškaraca radi u usluånim djelatnostima. percentage of men working in service activities =$326/(126735(0$2%/,.8 (03/2<0(17%<7<3(2) 692-,1(,6(.7258 2:1(56+,3$1'6(&725 Iako je veüinsko stanovništvo zaposleno u Although the majority of the population is privatnom sektoru (nešto više od 130 000 employed in the private sector (slightly more than hiljada radnika, odnosno preko 50% zaposlenog 130 000 people, or over 50% of the employed stanovništva , postoji sve izraåeniji trend rasta population , since 2009there is anincreasing broja zaposlenih u preduzeüima koja su u javnom trend of growth in the number of employees in vlasništvu nakon 2009. godine. Oþigledno da public enterprises. Obviously the global ¿nancial Svjetska ¿nansijska kriza i rast nezaposlenosti crisis and rising unemployment that followed nakon nje nije uticala na rast zaposlenosti u did not affect the growth of employment in state dråavnim preduzeüima. S druge strane, javlja enterprises. On the other hand, there is a reduction se smanjenje broja zaposlenih u privatnim in the number of employees in private enterprises preduzeüima nakon 2009. godine, pa sve do 2013. following year 2009 until 2013, when a slight godine, kada se primjeüuje blagi rast zaposlenosti increase in employment in the private sector can u privatnom sektoru. be noted. 89 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- *UD¿N. =aposleni prema obliku svojine &KDUW Employees according to type of (u hiljadama ownership (in thousands ,]YRU $XWRURYDREUDGDSRGDWDNDSUHX]HWLK 6RXUFH $XWKRU¶VSURFHVVLQJRIGDWDWDNHQIURP L]6WDWLVWLþNRJJRGLãQMDND=DYRGD]D WKH6WDWLVWLFDO 8 2015. godini, najveüi broj stanovnika bio In 2015, the majority of the population was je zaposlen u preraÿivaþkoj industriji (oko 49 employed in manufacturing industry (around 857 radnika , a zatim u trgovini na veliko i 49,857 employees , followed by the wholesale malo ( 42 595 radnika , pri þemu je primjetan and retail trade (42,595 employees , with trend smanjenja broja zaposlenih u ovim the notable trend of reducing the number of djelatnostima. .ao što je veü primjeüeno employees in these sectors. As already noted u Gra¿ku 16, izrazit je trend poveüanja in Chart 16, the increase in the number of broja zaposlenih u javnoj upravi i odbrani, employees in public administration and defense, te sektorima obrazovanja i djelatnosti education, health and social services is evident. zdravstvene zašite i socijalnog rada. Trend The decreasing trend in the number of employees smanjenja broja zaposlenih primjeüuje se i u is observed in the sectors of tourism, transport sektoru turizma, saobraüaju i graÿevinarstvu. and construction. Najmanji broj zaposlenih je u sektoru The least number of employees is in the real poslovanja nekretninama, i taj broj ima estatesector, with a pronounced downward trend izraåen trend smanjenja (u odnosu na 2006. (the number of employees is three times less in godinu broj zaposlenih je tri puta manji , dok comparison to year 2006 , whereas the activities djelatnosti koje se odnose na administrativne related to administrative affairs and arts, poslove, te na umjetnost, zabavu i rekreaciju entertainment and recreation have registered an biljeåe rast broja zaposlenih. increase in the number of employees. =naþajan trend porasta broja zaposlenih od A signi¿cant increase in the number of employees 2006. godine primjeüuje se u ¿nansijskim since 2006,has been noted in the ¿nancial and djelatnostima i djelatnostima osiguranja, te insurance activities and mining, information and sektoru rudarstva, informacija i komunikacija. communication. 90 DiůenŬo =$./-8Î$. &21&/86,21 Ekonomski troškovi nezaposlenosti, ali i The economic costs of unemployment, but also neekonomske konsekvence imaju negativne non-economic consequences have negative implikacije na poziciju radne snage. 8glavnom, implications on the position of the workforce. nezaposlenost razara mnoge dijelove društvene Basically, the unemployment is devastating many zajednice, a ponekad postaje i uzrok politiþkih segments of the community and sometimes causes nestabilnosti i nasilnih promjena u postojeüim political instability and violent changes in the društvenim sistemima. 8pravo zbog toga se existing social systems. This is why the resolution rješavanje problema nezaposlenosti postavlja kao of the unemployment issueis imposed as one of the jedan od glavnih ciljeva ekonomskih politika i main objectives of economic policy and the subject predmet zakonskih propisa u mnogim zemljama. of legislation in many countries. 8nfortunately, in 8 našoj zemlji, na åalost, još uvijek ne postoji our countrythere is no adequate approach to solving adekvatan pristup rješavanju ovog problema. this problem yet. The evidence of such claim is 'okaz za to nalazimo u analizi trenutnog stanja found in the analysis of the current situation on the na tråištu rada Republike Srpske. labor market of the Republic of Srpska. 8oþava se trend kontinuiranog rasta stopa There is a trend of continuous growth of nezaposlenosti nakon 2008. godine, pa sve do unemployment in the periodfrom 2008 to 2013, 2013. godine, kada dolazi do blagog pada stope when there was a slight decline of the unemployment nezaposlenosti, þija vrijednost u 2015. godini rate, the value of which amounted to a high 25.2%in iznosila visokih 25,2%. Poreÿenja radi, evropski 2015. By comparison, the European average for the prosjek za istu godinu bio je 9,4%. 8 skladu same year was 9.4%. According to economic theory, sa ekonomskom teorijom, pad nezaposlenosti the decline in unemployment was accompanied praüen je rastom zaposlenosti, ali ono što by employment growth, but what is surprising is iznenaÿuje jeste razlika koja se javlja u broju the difference that occurs in the number of people lica koja su pronašla zaposlenje i onih koji su who have found employment and those who have prestali da traåe posao. =a poslednje tri godine stopped looking for one. For the last three years of posmatranja, ova cifra dostiåe zbirnu vrijednost observation, this ¿gure reaches a cumulative value od preko 10 000 ljudi. 'a li je zaista moguüe of over 10,000 people. Is it really possible that so da je ovoliki broj ljudi za tako kratak period many people in so short a period decided to become odluþio da postane radno neaktivan" Trend inactive in terms of work"The trend that occurs in koji se javlja u društvu, posebno kod osoba society, particularly among people younger than mlaÿih od 30 godina, je traåenje zaposlenja i 30 years of age, is - seeking employment and trajno iseljavanje iz Republike Srpske i Bosne permanent emigration from the Republic of Srpska i Hercegovine. Razlozi za takva kretanja mogu and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The reasons for such se uoþiti iz analize u radu. Najveüi broj lica koja trends can be seen from the analysis provided in this traåe zaposlenje pripada upravo starosnoj grupi paper. A majority of job seekers belongs to the age 15 - 29 godina. Od 2008. godine postoji jasan group 15-29 years of age. Since 2008 there has been trend smanjenja broja zaposlenih iz ove starosne a clear trend of reducing the number of employees grupe. Najveüi broj nezaposlenih lica provede from this age group. Most of the unemployed people više od 3 godine traåeüi posao u Republici spend more than three years looking for work in the Srpskoj, a na åalost, ne postoje statistiþki podaci Republic of Srpska, and unfortunately, there are o duåini perioda potrebnog za pronalaåenje no statistics on the length of time required to ¿nd prvog posla. Vjerovatno je da bi statistika bila their ¿rst job. It is likely that such statistics would be poraåavajuüa. devastating. Najveüi broj stanovnika u 2016. godini, In 2016¬, most of the populationlooking for a evidentiran u evidenciji =avoda za zapošljavanje job, registered with the Employment Bureau of Republike Srpske, koji je traåio zaposlenje, the Republic of Srpska, was either skilled or had a bio je kvali¿kovan ili je imao srednju struþnu secondary vocational education, while the majority 91 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- spremu, dok je najviše zaposleno lica sa ofpeople employed had secondary vocational srednjom struþnom spremom. 8 pogledu education. In terms of gender structure, the rodne strukture, radno sposobno stanovništvo working age population is predominantly female, je preteåno åenskog pola, ali su stope but the employment rate of men is almost double zaposlenosti mušakaraca skoro duplo veüe od compared to the employment rate of women. Self- stopa zaposlenosti åena. Samozapošljavanje employment in the Republic of Srpska is still at u Republici Srpskoj je još uvijek na niskom a low level. The entrepreneurial activity is still a nivou, a preteåno se na preduzetniþku aktivnost venture predominantly chosen by men. :omen are odluþuju pripadnici muškog pola. äene su primarily working in the service industry. veüinom zaposlene u usluånim djelatnostima. The trend of employment growth in the public sector Trend rasta zaposlenosti u javnim preduzeüima was not interrupted by the Global Financial Crisis, nije prekinula ni Svjetska ¿nansijska kriza, ni nor by the unemployment increase that followed. rast nezaposlenosti nakon nje. Ipak, još uvijek Still, the majority of the population is employed in je veüina stanovništva zaposlena u privatnom the private sector. In 2015, most of the population sektoru. 8 2015. godini, najveüi broj was employed in the manufacturing industry and in stanovnika bio je zaposlen u preraÿivaþkoj the retail sector. There is a distinct trend of increasing industriji i sektoru trgovine. Izrazit je trend the number of employees in public administration poveüanja broja zaposlenih u javnoj upravi i and defense, education sectors, health and social odbrani, te sektorima obrazovanja i djelatnosti security, whereas the trend of reducing the number zdravstvene zašite i socijalnog rada, dok se of employees can be observed in the manufacturing trend smanjenja broja zaposlenih primjeüuje u industry and the retail sector, but also in tourism, preraÿivaþkoj industriji i sektoru trgovine, ali i transport and construction. u sektoru turizma, saobraüaju i graÿevinarstvu. The implementation of active employment policies Sprovoÿenje aktivnih politika zapošljavanja is the jurisdiction of the Employment Bureau of je nadleånost =avoda za zapošljavanje RS. Republic of Srpska. However, the current system Meÿutim, trenutni sistem praüenja i ocjene of monitoring and evaluating the effects of the efekata postojeüih programa se ne sprovode existing programs is not implemented in such a way tako da je moguüe donošenje konkretnih to enable possible adoption of speci¿c proposals prijedloga za unapreÿenje ovih mjera. for the improvement of these measures. Existing Postojeüim aktivnim politikama zapošljavanja active employment policies are dominated by dominiraju mjere su¿nansiranja zapošljavanja measures of employment co-¿nancing and self- i samozapošljavanja, dok se u proteklom employment, whereas insuf¿cient attention was periodu nedovoljna paånja poklanjala paid to measures of training and advisory services mjerama obuke, te savjetodavnim uslugama to the unemployed throughout the previous nezaposlenim licima. 'odatno obrazovanje i period. Additional education and training of the obuka radne snage kao mjera aktivne politike workforce as a measure of the active employment zapošljavanja, omoguüava oþuvanje postojeüe policyenables preservation of existing employment, zaposlenosti, ali i poboljšanje profesionalne but also improves the professional mobility of the mobilnosti nezaposlenih, u cilju lakšeg unemployed, in order to facilitate employment. zaposlenja. A precondition for the improvement of the Preduslov za unapreÿenje institucionalnog institutional framework and measures of active okvira i mjera aktivnih politika zapošljavanja employment policy is the implementation of jeste sprovoÿenje ekonomskih reformi, economic reforms, improvement of the business poboljšanje poslovnog okruåenja i adekvatne environment and appropriate macroeconomic makroekonomske mjere. Same mjere measures. Active employment policy measures by aktivne politike zapošljavanja nisu dovoljne themselves are insuf¿cient to solve the problem of za rješavanje problema nezaposlenosti u unemployment in the Republic of Srpska. Republici Srpskoj. 92 DiůenŬo /LWHUDWXUD /LWHUDWXUH 1. Burda, M, Viploš, ý. 1. Burda, M., :yplosz, C. 0DNURHNRQRPLMD (YURSVNL XGåEHQLN 0DFURHFRQRPLFV ± $ (XURSHDQ 7H[W 2[IRUG 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV 3UHYRG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV 7UDQVODWLRQ 3RSRYLü ' 3RSRYLü' &HQWDU]DOLEHUDOQR &HQWHU IRU /LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF 6WXGLHV GHPRNUDWVNHVWXGLMH%HRJUDG %HOJUDGH =YDQLþQLSRGDFL(85267$7GRVWXSQR 2I¿FLDO GDWD RI(85267$7 DYDLODEOH DW QD YHEVDMWX KWWS HFHXURSDHX KWWS HFHXURSDHXHXURVWDW eurostat 3. Iliü G., =olak Poljaševiü B 3. 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Colander '. 0DFURHFRQRPLFV 0F*UDZ+LOO(GXFDWLRQ 0F*UDZ+LOO(GXFDWLRQ 93 ECONOMICS ragan Weƚroǀiđ͕ iũanauronũiđ͕ ragan DanĚiđ - $1$/,=$75Ŀ,Ģ7$5$'$85(38%/,&,6536.2- 493 493 8345 7832 7130 5608 5288 5168 4981 4788 3293 2850 49857 42595 24135 22314 17054 11602 11570 11072 508 8307 8307 7565 6809 5608 5155 5081 4748 4828 3123 2719 48935 41983 23843 21917 16785 11181 11479 10970 tp://www.rzs.rs.bad 670 7788 7788 7166 7084 5664 4866 5088 4491 4637 2814 2540 45844 44750 23681 21484 16755 11345 10970 11003 238640 241544 245975 238640 241544 608 7816 7816 7114 6938 5616 4932 5106 3754 4566 2540 2550 45968 45902 23198 21156 16350 11330 11032 11702 623 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2015 2013 2014 2012 2011 8159 8159 6952 6880 5252 4918 5034 3410 4498 2500 2599 46372 47447 22394 20778 15394 11840 11316 12590 756 8176 8176 7101 6752 5122 4841 5030 3619 4524 2355 2540 48816 49344 22444 20126 14784 12848 11512 13763 34 244453 238956 238178 34 244453 238956 854 8468 8468 6999 7224 5180 4711 4968 4269 4602 2503 2520 52951 54308 22708 19516 14449 15090 12036 15278 8349 8349 6907 7141 3799 4970 4788 4745 4448 2036 2200 1131 56874 54028 21062 18837 14208 16660 11870 15152 8354 8354 6659 6970 3304 4595 4764 5336 4236 1815 1833 1431 58488 53193 20213 18540 14138 17756 12665 13946 8340 8340 7056 6566 2814 3803 4532 5142 4004 1498 1470 1551 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 59114 49112 19391 17902 13946 16730 11972 13196 248139 258236 259205 2586 repair of motor vehicles of motor repair hotel and hospitality hotel and hospitality electric power, gas, steam steam electric power, gas, d technical activities d technical activities industry industry remediation of environment environment of remediation Sector Manufacturing industry retail trade; Wholesale and defence; mandatory and Public administration social security Education security social and Health care catering; Accommodation, Transportation and storage Construction fishing Agriculture, forestry and Production and supply of and air conditioning science an Professional, and insurance Finance quarrying Mining and and communication Information activities Other Service and management waste sewerage; Water supply; and recreation Art, entertainment services and support Administrative Real estate IN TOTAL and motorcycles and motorcycles Source: Author’s processing of data taken from the Statistical Yearbook 2016, Institute of Statistics of Republic of Srpska, ht of Republic of Statistics of 2016, Institute Yearbook the Statistical taken from data of processing Author’s Source: Appendix. per sectors 3. Employment Table 94 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( $OHNVDQGDU6WRMDQRYLü University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economics, Pale, %RVQLDDQG+HU]HJRYLQD 5HYLHZSDSHU DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0013, UDK 336.127:338.23:336.22(1-672) 5HYLHZSDSHU 6800$5< ,1752'8&7,21 $OWKRXJKLWLV\HWWREHV\VWHPDWLFDOO\LQYHVWLJDWHG Fiscal decentralization is the most complex ZKHUH WKH LQLWLDWLYH IRU ¿VFDO GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ form of decentralization. This decentralization FDPH IURP OLPLWHG HYLGHQFH VXJJHVWV WKDW leaves to lower levels to make ¿nancial GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ RIIHUV JUHDW RSSRUWXQLWLHV WR decisions and inÀuence over the budget, LPSURYHWKHGHOLYHU\RISXEOLFVHUYLFHVDQGWKDW because if the lower levels of government WKHUHVXOWGHSHQGVRQWKHW\SHRIGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ are transferred the responsibility for carrying WKDWKDVEHHQLPSOHPHQWHGDQGWKHLQVWLWXWLRQV out certain functions it is necessary to WKDWLPSOHPHQWLW1RWUDUHDUHWKHH[DPSOHVWKDW facilitate their access to sources of income GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ LV LPSOHPHQWHG KDSKD]DUGO\ from which they will generate enough funds ZLWKRXW D SURSHU OHJDO IUDPHZRUN DQG FOHDUO\ to cover the costs incurred in connection GH¿QHGUXOHVRULVVLPSO\LPSRUWHGIURPDQRWKHU with these functions. In carrying out ¿scal FRXQWU\ ZLWKRXW WDNLQJ LQWR DFFRXQW ZKHWKHU decentralization the expenditure and the WKHORFDODXWKRULWLHVLQWKHFRXQWU\DUHDEOHWR revenue are taken into account. The main FDUU\RXWWKHLUUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV'HFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ issues included in ¿scal decentralization LVRIWHQDPDWWHURISROLWLFDOUHDOLW\DQGLQLWVHOI are1 distribution of income, allocation of LWLVQHLWKHUJRRGQRUEDG expenditures, imbalance in ¿scal capacities and in needs of political and territorial units )LVFDO GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ LV HVSHFLDOO\ WRSLFDO LQ of the same level of government. PDQ\ FRXQWULHV GXH WR IHDUV RI IXUWKHU JURZWK LQSXEOLFVSHQGLQJ'DWDRQWKHH[WHQWRISXEOLF Fiscal decentralization, in terms of public VSHQGLQJ LQ PRVW FRXQWULHV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH revenues, requires solution of two basic ODVWWZRGHFDGHVVKRZWKHFRQVWDQWLQFUHDVHLQ questions what is the level of government SXEOLFVSHQGLQJLQ*'37KHUHVXOWVRIQXPHURXV responsible for the introduction of speci¿c VWXGLHVRQWKHVXEMHFWLQGLFDWHWKHKLJKGHJUHH public revenues (the question of responsibility RI FRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ ¿VFDO GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ for the introduction and secondly, how will DQG JURZWK RI SXEOLF VSHQGLQJ LQ D ZD\ WKDW the issue of allocation of public revenues be FHQWUDOL]DWLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDJUHDWHUVKDUH resolved by levels of political and territorial RISXEOLFVSHQGLQJLQ*'37KHUHIRUHDSDUWRI organization (the issue of allocating . WKH SURIHVVLRQDO FRPPXQLW\ KDV ORQJ KHOG WKH YLHZ WKDW ¿VFDO GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQ FRQWULEXWHV WR Therefore, when it comes to measuring the JUHDWHUHI¿FLHQF\LQWKHDOORFDWLRQRIUHVRXUFHV autonomy in the sphere of public revenue, the DQGUHGXFHVWKHDPRXQWRISXEOLFVSHQGLQJ following should be born in mind .eywords ¿scal system. ¿scal policy, ¿scal The tax base for local taxes may not be decentralization, ¿scal autonomy. mobile at the interregional plan because otherwise taxpayers would migrate from 1Radiþiü, M., Raiþeviü, B., Javne ¿nansije - teorija i praksa, Ekonomski fakultet, Novi Sad, 2008 95 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( the local communities in which tax rates are greater independence threatened potential higher to communities where they are cheaper. weakening of the unity of the unitary Britain in a multinational framework. The 8. Local taxes should be clear and easy to see, government, after the victory of Tony Blair as they ¿nance public expenditures of local in 1997, in accordance with a program that character. included a radical constitutional reform, Local taxes should provide suf¿cient income applied the devolution plan (assignment and be stable in order to meet the needs of the or transfer of central government powers local community. without parliamentary approval for Scotland and Wales. The Conservatives evaluated Local taxes should be as simple as possible such a move of the Government as the in tax and administrative sense to make beginning of the process of ³Balkanization´ collection costs and payments expenses as in Britain, which will lead to increased low as possible. conÀict, nationalism and the fragmentation of the country. Scotland now has the right to Local taxes should not be progressive introduce some form of taxes, unlike Wales, because it could lead to a migration of wealthy which was not entitled to tax. taxpayers. In Canada, the political discussion on Measuring the autonomy of public expenditure ¿scal decentralization often resulted in starts from the assumption that ¿scal the forwarding of the request for greater autonomy implies a certain Àexibility of local autonomy of some federal units. In order to governments to decide, within the budgetary avoid ³Balkanization´ in Canada in the best constraints, on priorities in the implementation possible way, one of the offered solutions of their public expenditures. One of the to the problem of 4uebec was to strengthen necessary preconditions for successful independent tax systems of the members of decentralization of local government is that the federation. Germany and Switzerland are local authorities have enough administrative in the process of consideration of reform of and technical capabilities to effectively carry the equilibration that reduces disparities in out activities and tasks. Well placed budget the amount of public revenues of the federal system, the existence of effective local units. authority for collection of public revenues and appropriate mechanisms for ensuring The World Bank clearly points out the coordination and cooperation between importance of all the above, stating that the different levels of government both in the main factors that will enable the world¶s political and in the technical sense of the development in the ¿rst decade of this word, have a key role in the functioning of the century include globalization (continuing system with a number of government levels. integration of countries around the world and localization (the desire for self-determination :25/'75(1'6 and the transfer of powers from the central level to lower levels of government . The 'illinger states that as many as 63 out of report also notes that ³globalization and 75 developing countries with a population localization,´ although at ¿rst glance may greater than 5 million started some form seem countervailing often derive from the of transfer of ¿scal powers from central same sources and reinforce one another. government to lower levels of government Regardless of the process of integration into 2 (¿scal decentralization . the E8, the issue of ¿scal federalism in the In the 8., which had a centralized direction of decentralization is ongoing, both ¿scal system, the pressure of London for for the E8 Member States, and for countries in transition. 2See in t, A., Tranzicija i poreske reforme 96 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS Macro-economic instability in many the E8 considers the decentralization of the countries in transition with the inherited Member States desirable, certain territorial centralized way of managing the economy and political structure of a country is not are the main aggravating circumstances to a condition for membership in the E8. The the establishment of an effective, ¿scally 8nion accepts the membership of the countries decentralized system. In the framework of as they are in their territorial, political and the comprehensive reforms of tax systems ¿scal terms, when they ful¿ll the other in countries in transition, special emphasis conditions necessary for membership. As a was placed on ¿scal relations between result, its members include very centralized different levels of government. The degree and highly decentralized countries. General of decentralization in these countries is and highly conditional division of E8 conditioned by a number of factors, not only countries can be carried out via three economic, but also political, demographic, groups in terms of territorial and political historical, and similar. Thus, it was shown that organization. Three countries are federal considerable autonomy in spending of income (Austria, Belgium, Germany , two regional exists in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland (Italy, Spain , and twenty-two are unitary with and Slovakia, while in Bulgaria, Albania, various solutions. Some unitary countries 8kraine and Moldova priorities for public have no regions except administrative and expenditure at the local level are usually statistical (Latvia , while others have some determined by the central government. Giving form of region, whether they are regions with the effective independence to local authorities a historical background, or regions that have a to determine themselves the tax rate and the historical basis ('ukedoms in Poland or they tax base for income which belong to them are subsequently constituted as regions. These continues to represent one of the challenges regions practically belong to the local level of faced by countries in transition. government, together with municipalities and cities. In average, own taxes make up only 7.3% of their revenues, with the largest share 8nited .ingdom has four sub-state units in Slovakia (21% , while Bulgaria, Latvia of government (England, Scotland, Wales and Lithuania, do not really have their own and Northern Ireland , which still have little income. Taxes attributable to local authorities jurisdiction but can possibly be independent include property taxes, fees for usage of goods states. 8nited .ingdom formally does not of common interest and a number of additional fall within any of the three aforementioned taxes that have relatively little signi¿cance. groups and as such is a special case. Thus, for example, in 2002 Russia had twenty one types of such local taxes, but their sum 'ata on E8 countries suggest that these in total tax revenues barely reached 0.5%. On countries are (de centralized in a very different the other hand, in Hungary, the business tax, degree. The level of government spending for which the tax base has a combination of according to different levels of government payroll, capital and pro¿ts, yields 40.8% of is used as a measure of decentralization. revenues in total tax revenues. But practically Increased consumption at the level of the in all the countries in transition the majority central government in relation to other levels of the revenue of local authorities consists of of government means greater centralization. outsourced (common taxes, transfers from When it comes to the level of government other levels of government as well as non-tax spending at the level of the central government revenues. in relation to the overall level of government The European 8nion encourages the policy spending, highly centralized countries are of decentralization in its Member States and those that have 80 percent or more spending this orientation has lasted almost from the on government level. Centralized countries beginning of that association. But although have spending of 20-30 percent, semi- 97 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( centralized of 30-40 percent, decentralized name of the Secretariat of Revenue or the of 40-50 percent, and highly decentralized of Secretariat of Income Tax. Most states have more than 50 percent of spending on lower harmonized regulations for taxes at the local government levels. and national level, making it easier to levying taxes and ¿ling tax forms. The rules of ¿ling 7+(35$&7,&(2)'(9(/23(' tax forms by taxpayers are very different from &28175,(6 country to country. Tax forms are submitted to the state administrations separate from the In the 8SA, taxes are collected by hundreds of federal ones. tax administrations. At the federal level there are three tax agencies Alcohol and Tobacco The Federal power has the largest share in the Tax and Trade Bureau3, Internal Revenue total public revenue in 8SA. The main source Service4 and 8S Customs and Border Patrol5. of public revenues of the federal budget and Roles of TTB and CBP are clear and easily the state budgets is the progressive income understood on the basis of their names. The tax, which is the backbone of the 8S tax most important is of course the IRS which system. The most signi¿cant tax revenues for is in charge of all internal tax obligations the federal authorities come from the personal of citizens and companies and does not fall income tax and social security contributions. under the jurisdiction of TTB. CBP is part of The federal government has a dominant the 'epartment of Homeland Security6, while place in the budgetary transfers in order to the TTB is part of the Ministry of Justice. IRS equilibrate amount of public revenues of the has broad autonomy within the 8S Treasury. states in accordance with the achievement of Each state has its own tax administration a certain level of public services and a fairer whose activities are de¿ned by state laws distribution of the tax burden. and regulations. In most cases they bear the Table 44 - Share of different levels of government in the 8S public revenues (in % Federal Local Types of public revenues Total States government government 1. Tax revenues: 100,0 56,8 26,2 17,0 - property tax 100,0 - 3,8 96,2 - income tax 100,0 82,0 16,3 1,7 - corporation income tax 100,0 79,9 18,5 1,6 - sales tax and gross income 100,0 24,0 63,3 12,7 - customs duties 100,0 100,0 - - - retail sales tax on products and services 100,0 - 83,0 17,0 - selective consumption tax 100,0 40,3 50,1 9,6 - tax on inheritance and gifts 100,0 71,4 28,4 0,2 2. Social security and welfare 100,0 75,8 21,3 2,9 - Social and Health Care 100,0 100,0 - - - unemployment insurance 100,0 1,1 98,7 0,2 - pension insurance 100,0 5,2 79,4 15,4 Total public revenues 100,0 56,8 24,6 18,6 Source: R. W. Rachis, Revenue Raising Pouvrs, Practice, And Policy Coordination In The Federal System of the United States, Background Document, OECD Seminar: Fiscal Federalism in Econo- mies in Transition, OECD, Paris, 1991, p. 7. 3Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and TRade Bureau, TTB 4Internal Revenue Service, IRS 58.S. Customs and Border Patrol, CBP 6'epartment of Homeland Security 98 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS The most important in the structure of total The provinces¶ signi¿cant revenues include public revenues of the states are tax revenues also transfers from the federal budget to the from personal income tax, sales taxgross budgets of provinces. Transfers, as a rule, income, retail sales tax on goods and services are given due to unevenness of economic and excise tax on the consumption of gasoline, development in order to achieve a balance in cigarettes and alcohol, while the property tax the amount of income of provinces. There are is most important for local government. In three basic forms of these transfers: order to mitigate the regressive effects of the retail sales tax on goods and services, most - transfers that are given to balance the states have exempted medicines and food amount of tax revenues from paying this tax. - transfers that serve to implement a Canada is a federal state which is composed national program of the Fund for health care of ten federal units (provinces and three and secondary education, and autonomous units which differ a lot according - transfers that are given for the to the level of their economic development, implementation of social assistance programs. and in which the model of ¿scal federalism with the dominance of the federal (federal Transfers that are given in order to implement ¿scal sovereignty functions7. the program of balancing of tax revenues are intended to provide in all provinces a level In terms of the ¿nancing of political- of public services with the same tax burden. territorial units in Canada, it can be said Assistance is provided to provinces whose that the Federation is mainly ¿nanced amount of total tax revenue is under the by income from the personal income tax established standards, or below the national (46.7% to 59.5% , while other income yields average. signi¿cantly less funds: corporation pro¿t tax (11,5do 20.9% , VAT (12.8 to 16.9% and Transfers given to implement the policy of the individual consumption taxes (around 8.1% Fund for national health care and secondary of revenues . The sub-central authorities education are given to those provinces that are also largely ¿nanced by revenues from can not provide their citizens such a level the personal income tax (32.4% to 43.4% , of public services that is consistent with followed by corporate income tax (6.1% to national standards in the ¿eld of health care 11.2% , retail sales tax (16.9 % to 19.6% and and education. Transfer of funds in order to individual consumption tax (3.5% to 16.8% . realize a program of social assistance means that the central government bears part of the The most important local government revenue (half costs incurred in implementation of is property tax, mainly the periodic property this program. Transfers include nearly 5.2% tax (78.1% to 88.1% , while the share of non- of the G'P of Canada (average 28% of total recurrent taxes on property signi¿cantly less tax revenues of provinces , which points to (2.9% to 7.3% . Property tax revenues are their importance in the system of ¿nancing being introduced at sub-central level, which the provinces. are then, for the most part, given away to the local authorities. This means that it is common Germany represents a federally regulated state revenue of sub-central and local authorities. in which power is divided into three levels: In relation to the property taxes, the share of central government (federal government , other income in the total income of the local sub-central level or the level of federal units government is negligible (for example, a tax (states and the local government level where on the use of resources to carry out activities there are local communities (municipalities . accounts for a share of only 1.3% to 2.1% . Given the fact that Germany is a federal 7Constitution Act, 1867, Nelson, Political Science, Ottawa, 2001; T. J. Courchene, In praise of re- newed federalism, C. D. Howe Research Institute, Toronto, 1991; M. Sabia, The Experietice of Canada, Position Paper, OECD Seminar: Fiscal Federalism in Economies in Transition, OECD, 1991 99 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( republic, authority to collect taxes is the German ¿scal administration is divided into federal government (Bund , Member States federal, state and municipal. The German (Llnder and municipalities (Gemeinden Ministry of Finance issues regulations, in whose role in taxation is deferred and legally some cases written decrees implemented by enshrined in the Constitution of 1949. local tax of¿ces that belong to the states. The tax system in Germany is one of the most The most important taxes include income effective systems of Western Europe. One tax, business, corporation, trade tax and value reason for this Àattering evaluation is the added tax. Although Germany is a federal developed system of education of ¿nancial state, 95% tax represents tax at the federal human resources and pro¿les of expertise in level, which is still under article 116 of the state services. Constitution, allocated as follows: For the ¿nancing of political-territorial units a The Federal State retains exclusive in Switzerland the most important revenues revenues from customs duties, taxes on the for the central government come from general ÀDYRUHGDOFRKROLFEHYHUDJHVDXWRPRELOHV sales tax (28.3% to 35.7% and personal GLVWLOOHGGULQNVRLODQGRLOSURGXFWVFRIIHH income tax (23.9% to 27.8% . VSDUNOLQJ ZLQH HOHFWULFLW\ WREDFFR DQG insurance, the so-called solidarity burden The cantons are, for the most part, ¿nanced (tax for the development of the former East by revenues from the personal income tax Germany). (63.5% to 65.3% , while the share of other income is much lower - taxes on corporate b Member States retain exclusive revenue pro¿ts (10.2% to 14.2% , taxes on property from tax on heritage, tax on beer and (14.3% to 18.2% and individual consumption JDPEOLQJWD[RQ¿UHSURWHFWLRQ taxes (5.8% to 6.9% . c Municipalities retain only revenue from Local authorities are mainly ¿nanced by WKHWD[RQRWKHUGULQNVGRJVDQGLQQVDQG income ceded by the Confederation and the tax on real estate. cantons. In fact, the personal income tax (73.2% to 76.3% has the largest share, while However, most of the revenues are income the tax on corporate pro¿ts (8.6% to 13.4% tax and value added tax (VAT and some and property taxes (13.2% to 15, 4% yield other taxes. Revenues from these taxes are much less revenues. distributed between the federal state and the member states on the basis of quotas8: The tax administration consists of the Federal income tax accounts for 42.5% for the federal tax administration (SPA , the cantonal tax government, 42.5% for states and 15% for administrations and municipal tax unit. municipalities. The corporate income tax accounts for 50% to the federal government The role of the SPA and the cantonal tax and 50% to states. administrations is legally delimited by the Constitution that gives full right to the cantons Member States pay to municipalities a part of to determine the tax rates at which it collects revenues from other taxes. In addition there is taxes and imposing new taxes except those compensation between rich and poor member that are already taxed at the federal level. states established by Article 107 of the At the same time, the cantons in accordance German Constitution. Also, there is a strong with their constitutions give municipalities co-ordination of ¿scal policy implemented by the right to the collection of certain taxes, the various levels of government. which varies from canton to canton. At the same time SPA and cantons carry out the 8Schwidetzky, W.'., A Comparison Of The Income Tax Systems In The 8nited States And Germany, 8niversity Of Baltimore School Of Law 100 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS collection of certain direct taxes. In order to The growth of local tax revenue is supportive avoid double or disproportionate taxation, in factor for the local authorities, as it allows 1990 the Federal law on tax harmonization higher budget spending and higher ful¿llment was adopted which led to harmonization of of general needs. However, in BiH local federal and cantonal tax rates on direct taxes, taxes practically do not exist, because they primarily the personal income tax and tax on are all under the jurisdiction of the entities corporate income. or the state. Mostly, entities which introduce them decide on rates, bases, exemptions and ),1$1&,1*2)/2&$/6(/) deductions, and charge them by care of the *29(510(17,1285&28175< entity tax administrations. The revenue of some of them was transferred to the local Local governments are mainly responsible communities, but they have no inÀuence on for local administrative services (such as the elements of taxation, including the amount home records of citizens, building permits, of the tax rates and collection control. Local land register, and a certain degree of business governments are characterized by a high level licenses ; local utilities and infrastructure of dependence on the income transferred to facilities for water and sewerage, solid them from the higher levels of government, waste, and local roads; and certain features so they have no ability to affect the height of of education (in RS, preschool education the key sources of funding, except some local and capital investments in high schools; in taxes and fees. FBiH, certain expenditures on preschool and primary education in some cantons , culture In order to ¿nance the local government and sport, social assistance and ¿nancing in jurisdictions, the budget of the local one of the health centers (in the Republic of government units is entitled to revenue and Srpska . earnings, as follows: In order for local governments to successfully 1 taxes in the part established by law: part carry out their activities within the framework of the revenue from indirect taxes, personal of the law-delegated jurisdictions, they must income tax; property tax; tax on inheritance have adequate ¿nancial resources. The and gift; tax on transfer of absolute rights; relationship between public revenues and public expenditures with local communities 2 fees: administrative, utilities and is far stronger than at the state level (state can taxes; relatively easily increase spending without 3 fees for the use of goods of common increasing revenues , and the decrease in tax interest, in accordance with the law; revenues, as a measure aimed at improving economic opportunities and attracting 4 grants and transfers; investors, inevitably calls into question the level and quality of local public services. 5 other public revenue: interest income; income from leasing, or the use of real estate The Law on Principles of Local Self- and movable government-owned property, Government of FBiH and the Law on Local used by local governments or the authorities, Self-Government of the Republic of Srpska organizations and services of the local distinguish several categories of revenue of government units and indirect bene¿ciaries local governments. of its budget; income from leasing, or the use of real estate and movable property Two main groups of revenues are tax revenues owned by local governments, in accordance and non-tax revenues. Other income groups with the law; revenues obtained from the that often occur are grants from higher levels activities by authorities, organizations and of government (entities, cantons , grants and services of the local self-government; income loans. generated from ¿nes imposed in misdemeanor 101 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( proceedings for misdemeanors prescribed by delegating authority to local government. the assembly of the local self-government and con¿scated assets in this process; revenues Local self-government is achieved in from concession fee in accordance with the municipalities and cities, and it is carried out law; other income stipulated by law; by the citizens and local government bodies. The municipality is the basic unit of local 6 proceeds: income from the sale of real government, which is formed for populated estate owned by local government; proceeds places, for one or more settlements. The from the sale of movable state-owned municipal authorities perform tasks that property used by authorities, organizations belong to the local government, the Mayor of and services of the local self-government; the municipality and the municipal assembly. proceeds from the sale of movable property All the activities of municipalities are divided owned by local governments used by the into: independent and delegated affairs of the bodies, organizations and services of the state administration. local self-government; proceeds from the sale of stockpiles; proceeds from borrowing; According to the Law on Budget System of the proceeds from the sale of ¿nancial assets; Republic of Srpska, revenues that are divided other proceeds stipulated by law. between the republic budget, the budget of municipalities and cities and other users are Table 11 Structure of revenues of selected cities in BiH in 2014 (in .M mil. Mostar Tuzla Banja Luka Sarajevo Revenue 48.6 45.3 118.0 90.9 Tax revenue 21.5 22.7 65.6 36.2 Taxes on income of individuals and 30.0 19.7 1.2 63.7 companies Taxes on wages and labor 25.3 201.6 14.7 / Property tax 4.2 4.3 5.5 18.4 Domestic taxes on goods and services 9.2 38.3 0.3 / Income tax 6.6 7.2 1.7 Revenues from indirect taxes 10.6 10.8 44.8 16.0 Other taxes 2.7 9.5 33.4 34.4 Non-tax revenues 25.5 19.0 38.7 41.8 Transfers and grants 1.5 3.5 4.0 12.2 Proceeds from property 0 0 4.1 0.5 Proceeds from borrowing 0 0 5.5 0 6RXUFH 6RXUFH KWWS MDYQH¿QDQVLMHFSLED The comparison of the budget of the the revenues from indirect taxes paid into Republic of Srpska shows that the revenues the budget of the Republic of Srpska from of municipalities and cities in the Republic of the Single Account of the Indirect Taxation Srpska are more dependent on indirect taxes, Authority, of which after the separation of unlike the FBiH, while grants have a much part of the funds for external debt, 24% is larger share in the structure of the municipality paid (back to municipality and city budgets. revenues in the Federation than in RS. Also, cities and municipalities in the Republic of The local government units are characterized by a high level of dependence of their Srpska have signi¿cantly higher debt levels. revenues from indirect taxes (over 50% that 5(38%/,&2)6536.$ are transferred to them from higher levels of government, and therefore are not able The Republic of Srpska consists of 57 to affect the amount of the key sources of municipalities and 6 cities, and has a funding. Municipal budgets realize other centralized structure and the low level of ¿scal income through: 102 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS 1 The income tax: The most signi¿cant changes consist in the complete transfer of competences to local a. tax on income from self-employment and governments over tax on real estate. Law on b. personal income tax, which after allocation Budget System of the Republic of Srpska of funds for reserves in the amount of 10% stipulates that local governments, as its for the return of the impairment of the tax original income, are entitled to the following base are shared between the state budget and revenues realized on their territory: the budgets of municipalities and cities in the 1 property tax, scale of 75:25; 2 ¿nes imposed in misdemeanor proceedings 2 Compensation for the change of use of for offenses set forth by the decisions of agricultural land, which is shared between the municipalities, state budget and the budgets of municipalities and cities in the scale of 30:70; 3 municipal administrative fees, 3 The royalty fee for use of mineral 4 municipal taxes, there are a total of 15 resources, which is divided between the state types of municipal tax, and as a special one budget and the budgets of municipalities and on the city territory - city administrative fee, cities in the scale of 30:70; 5 special water charges - charges for 4 special water charges, as follows: protection from waters, a. fees for the abstraction of surface water and 6 municipal fees for the use of natural and groundwater, other goods of common interest: b. fees for electricity generated by hydropower, a income from land rents, c. fees for the extraction of material from b fees: for landscaping and use of building watercourses, which are shared between the land, forest utilization - funds for the state budget and the budgets of municipalities development of underdeveloped areas of the and cities in the scale 70:30 and municipality realized from the sale of wood products, the use of municipal resources of d compensation for protection against waters, common interest and use of mineral water, which is divided between the state budget and budgets of municipalities and cities and the 7 tax on winnings from games of chance, Fund for Environmental Protection of the Republic of Srpska in the scale 55:30:15; 8 other income: 5 Con¿scated assets and the proceeds a income from donations and revenues from the sale of seized items from the that budget users realize by performance of jurisdiction of the Republic Administration regular and additional activities, which is not for Inspection Affairs, which is shared contrary to the law regulating their activities, between the state budget and the budgets of as a percentage determined by the decision on municipalities and cities in the proportion budget execution and of 70:30. Thus, the practice to a new set of b other municipal revenues. laws, which consisted in the fact that the criteria in the allocation of shared taxes were Among mentioned revenue of local determined by higher levels of government, governments especially important are local while de¿ning the participation of certain utility taxes and income from real estate tax. levels in the distribution and collection of These revenues are most important for most joint taxes and control of the application of local governments not only in terms of the legislation, has not essentially altered a lot. balance sheet, but also as more important local source of public revenue. 103 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( But it is also interesting that in practice revenues based on voluntary contributions have been ),6&$/'(3(1'(1&(2) certainly forgotten. A voluntary contribution 081,&,3$/,7,(621+,*+(5/(9(/6 represents relatively signi¿cant local ¿scal 2)*29(510(17 revenue of strictly earmarked character, and it has had a long tradition in this region. Its Although the system of shared revenues to speci¿city is reÀected in the fact that a decision local governments guarantees some certainty on its introduction is made by citizens through in generating revenues, a particular problem direct personal voting on the referendum and, arises due to the fact that for a signi¿cant as a rule, it is time-limited public revenue number of municipalities the amount of (collected for a certain number of years . transfers from the budget of the higher levels of government is very important source of The original public revenues, however, are often income, and the unit is not able to inÀuence not suf¿cient to ensure the ¿nancing of local the amount of shared revenues of local self- public expenditures, and the local governments government. The consequence of such a may make independent borrowing at home and situation is extreme diversity in the heights abroad, for the purpose of ¿nancing capital of taxes imposed by autonomous decision investment expenditures and/or cover the by local governments, whether it refers to de¿cit. The Ministry approves the amount of administrative or communal taxes. debt that exceeds this limit. The introduction of the transfer system as Cities and municipalities may also borrow from one of the dominant sources of income of the state budget, with the consent of the Ministry, local government units, resulted in ¿scal for the following: 1. Investment expenditure dependence of local governments from and 2. Cover of short-term de¿cits caused by the central (entity authorities, making it unforeseen expenses or due to Àuctuations of dif¿cult to wear revenue in accordance liquid assets during the ¿scal year. The total with local preferences and narrowing ¿scal amount of borrowings during the ¿scal year decentralization. must be returned to the Republic budget by 31 December of the same year. Local governments The measure of ¿scal decentralization is best can borrow long term only if in the period of expressed by the share of local public revenues debt the total amount due for repayment after in total public revenues of each speci¿c the proposed debt and the overall matured, and country and, in particular, the structure of the outstanding existing debt, in any coming local revenues from the point of origin. Thus, year does not exceed 18% of their regular by comparison, in the early 2000s, the share income realized in the previous ¿scal year. of local revenues in total public revenues in Proposal of Decision on borrowing is made by unitary regulated OECD countries was 13.8% the municipal assembly, or city. of total revenues. The data show that there has been a strengthening of ¿scal decentralization Receipts and expenditures of the Republic of in unitary OECD countries, since the share of Srpska municipal debt in 2014 are: local public revenues increased by nearly ten percent9. Proceeds from short-term borrowings .M 108.1 million The structure of local revenues in OECD member countries is dominated by the Proceeds from long-term borrowings .M original local public revenues (over 68% in 379.4 million and unitary and close to 70% in federal states , Repayment of debts in 2014 were .M 539.8 million. while the share of assigned revenues in both groups is about 27%. The share of additional public revenue is modest: in unitary OECD 9Statistiques des recettes publiques, OECD, Paris, 2004, p. 210. 104 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS member countries it is around 5%, and in a large number of social functions (social federal approximately it is 3% of total local protection, education, schools are left to public revenue. the municipalities that have at their disposal several times less funding than the entity. This Contrary to the aforementioned structures of also, in turn, shows a narrowing of the level local public revenues from the point of origin of ¿scal decentralization in Srpska in terms represented in the OECD member countries, of the inÀuence of local communities on the data for the Republic of Srpska and the amount rather than the very amount of public Federation of BiH indicate signi¿cant ¿scal revenue funds. and ¿nancial dependence of local communities on remittances of funds from higher levels We can conclude, based on everything of government - entities and cantons. 4uite that BiH is extremely decentralized, socio- unreliable data for the period up to 2014 show political structure, but it has a very centralized that the share of direct revenues in total public ¿scal structure at the intermediate level - revenues of local governments, on average, entity and cantonal level, with a very uneven in BiH, was just above 45%, while the share level of development between different lower of transferred ones was about 55% of total forms of socio-political organization (cantons public revenue of local governments.10 and municipalities . Economically developed are mainly communities and municipalities The RS budget occupies about ó of the with a high degree of urbanization (cities , consolidated budget of BiH. Republic while in contrast to a small number of them of Srpska collects 25.8% of total public stands a large number of underdeveloped revenues, and consumes 28.3% of total public municipalities. Both entities, suffer from expenditure. From the standpoint of ¿scal extremely uneven degree of regional decentralization, it is noticeable that the economic development, which is manifested Republic of Srpska is extremely centralized in emigration - the concentration of population because the central level participates in in cities, exacerbating regional divides. In any public revenues and expenditures over case, there is an evident disparity between 60%. We can draw conclusions about the the ¿nancial capacity of municipalities and scope of its decentralization since public their responsibilities and the needs of local funds spend over 25% of the budget, and population. 10Ibid., SAFE, 2015 105 ECONOMICS ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( &21&/86,21 One of the fundamental economic reasons for The transfer of ¿scal powers occur even joining the ¿scal decentralization concerns the in ³countries that have always been changes in individual customer preferences centralized,´ such as the .ingdoms of in the selection of different public good. Jordan and Morocco, countries of Central Decentralized power is able to be better and Eastern Europe - the former socialist and more fully informed about the needs countries, the People¶s Republic of China, and requirements of individuals, which can military regimes such as Pakistan, countries contribute to meeting public needs. Besides, like Thailand that view decentralization as the satisfaction and the provision of local an effective strategy to improve the delivery services is less expensive because the overall of public services after the ¿nancial crisis, costs and control costs are lower. In order in national states that are trying to avoid to make the central government able to act the centrifugal forces of separatism, like effectively, it is necessary ¿rst of all to have Russia and Indonesia, and South American appropriate instruments, including ¿scal. If the countries, where there is increasingly stronger central government decentralized tax system participation of citizens and authorities in the too much it could reduce its ability to use ¿scal budget process. The transfer of ¿scal powers policy to achieve macroeconomic objectives. to lower levels of government is a trend that is also encouraged by the European 8nion, Great mobility of tax base between different although the existing studies do not prove levels of government signi¿cantly complicates a direct correlation between the degree of taxation at the local level, and distorts the ¿scal decentralization and GDP growth. ef¿cient allocation of production resources. Thus, ¿scal decentralization remains a Therefore, the public revenues (taxes with less political rather than economic issue. mobile tax base for taxation are more suited to local levels of government to avoid moving of The issue of ¿scal decentralization is the taxpayers in the local communities where still purely political issue. In Bosnia and tax rates are lower. These public revenues Herzegovina in the postwar period it was (taxes include taxes on property, primarily dif¿cult, due to frequent changes in the taxes on real estate. The unequal distribution model of ¿nancing of local governments of the tax base suggests that it is economically and speci¿c socio-economic relations, to ef¿cient that federal entities tax natural determine the share of local revenues in total resources (e.g. oil or natural gas . If such public revenues. The data for BiH show that resources are unevenly distributed between the the degree of ¿scal decentralization in BiH is federal units, there is an economic justi¿cation higher on the secondary government levels, for the central government to tax extra income, but not at the level of local communities with the intention to avoid sub-optimality in which is the case with the unitary OECD the allocation of natural factors. countries. 106 ůeŬsanĚar ^ƚoũanoǀiđ - ),6&$/'(&(175$/,=$7,21:25/'(;3(5,(1&($1'28535$&7,&( ECONOMICS /LWHUDWXUH 1. Stojanoviü, A., Stakiü, B. i Heljiü, A., 0 6DELD 7KH ([SHULHWLFH RI &DQDGD )LVNDOQLV\VWHPLF5HYLVLRQ6DUDMHYR 3RVLWLRQ 3DSHU 2(&' 6HPLQDU )LVFDO )HGHUDOLVP LQ (FRQRPLHV LQ 7UDQVLWLRQ 2. Radii, M., Raiþeviü,B., Javne ¿nansije 2(&' WHRULMD L SUDNVD (NRQRPVNL IDNXOWHW 1RYL 6DG 6FKZLGHW]N\:'$&RPSDULVRQ2I7KH ,QFRPH7D[6\VWHPV,Q7KH8QLWHG6WDWHV$QG 6WRMDQRYLü$7UDQ]LFLMDLSRUHVNHUHIRUPH *HUPDQ\8QLYHUVLW\2I%DOWLPRUH6FKRRO2I 5HYLFRQ6DUDMHYR Law &RQVWLWXWLRQ $FW 1HOVRQ 3ROLWLFDO 6WDWLVWLTXHVGHVUHFHWWHVSXEOLTXHV2(&' 6FLHQFH2WWDZD 3DULV 7 - &RXUFKHQH ,Q SUDLVH RI UH QHZHG 6$)(3URMHNDW9ODGH.UDOMHYLQHâYHGVNH IHGHUDOLVP & ' +RZH 5HVHDUFK ,QVWLWXWH 6DUDMHYR 7RURQWR 107 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 0DULD3RSRYLü Fakultet poslovne ekonomije, Bar, Crna Gora Faculty of business economy, Bar, Montenegro 3UHJOHGQLÏODQDN DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0014 , UDK 338.48:725.94(497.16) 5HYLHZSDSHU $3675$.7 $%675$&7 8 UDGX VH DSRVWUR¿UD YULMHGQRVW VDNUDOQLK ,Q WKLV DUWLFOH YDOXH RI VDFUHG REMHFWV OLNH D REMHNDWD NDR UHVXUVD ]D UD]YRM NXOWXUQRJ L UHVRXUFHIRUGHYHORSPHQWRIFXOWXUDODQGUHOLJLRXV YMHUVNRJWXUL]PD2SLVDQRMHSRVWRMHüHVWDQMH WRXULVPLVEHLQJHPSKDVHG,WLDEHLQJGHVFULEHG VDNUDOQLK VSRPHQLND QMLKRYD VSUHPQRVW GD WKH FXUUHQW VWDWH RI UHOLJLRXV PRQXPHQWV X SRVWRMHüLP XVORYLPD EXGX IXQNFLRQDOQL WKHLU ZLOLQJQHVV WKDW LQ H[LVWLQJ FRQGLWLRQV EH þLQLRFL WXULVWLþNH SRQXGH =D LVWUDåLYDQMH VH IXQFWLRQDOIDFWRUVRIWRXULVWRIIHU)RUUHVHDUFK NRULVWL NYDOLWDWLYQRNYDQWLWDWLYQD PHWRGD LW LV EHLQJ XVHG TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH NRMRPVHRSLVXMXSUL]QDWLHOHPHQWHWXULVWLþNH PHWKRGV ZLWK ZKLFK DUH EHLQJ GHVFULEHG YDORUL]DFLMH WXULVWLþNRJHRJUDIVNL SRORåDM UHFRJQL]HG HOHPHQWV RI WRXULVW YDORUL]DWLRQ DPELMHQW DWUDNWLYQRVW L SUHSR]QDWOMLYRVW WRXULVPJHRJUDSKLFDO ORFDWLRQDPELDQFH XUHÿHQRVW L RSUHPOMHQRVW SURVWRUD L DWUDFWLYHQHVV DQG LGHQWLW\ GHFRUDWLRQ DQG XNORSOMHQRVW X WXULVWLþNR ERJDWVWYR 3RWRP HTXLSPHQWRIWKHVSDFHLQWRXULVWZHDOWK7KHQ VH NYDQWL¿NXMX VYL VHJPHQWL YDORUL]DFLMH WKHVHJPHQWDRIYDORULVDWLRQDUHEHLQJTXDQWL¿HG NUR] RFMHQX QDMUHSUH]HQWDWLYQLMLK VDNUDOQLK WKURXJK HYDOXDWLRQ RI WKH PRVW UHSUHVHQWDWLYH VSRPHQLND X &UQRM *RUL 5DGRP VH åHOL UHOLJLRXV PRQXPHQWV LQ 0RQWHQHJUR :LWK WKLV XND]DWLQDYULMHGQRVWRYRJQDVOMHÿDLQMHJRYH ZRUN ZH ZDQW WR GUDZ DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH YDOXH PRJXüQRVWL GD UHODWLYQR ODNR SRVWDQH RIWKLVKHULWDJHDQGLWVDELOLW\WRUHODWLYHO\HDV\ SUHSR]QDWOMLY UHVXUV NXOWXUQRJ L YMHUVNRJ EH UHFRJQL]HG DV D UHVRXUFH RI FXOWXUDO DQG WXUL]PD äHOL VH LVWUDåLWL NRML VHJPHQWL UHOLJLRXVWRXULVP,WLVEHLQJZDQWHGWRH[SORUH WXULVWLþNHYDORUL]DFLMHPRJXELWLXQDSULMHÿHQL ZKLFK VHJPHQWV RI WRXULVW YDORUL]DWLRQ FDQ EH SD QD WHPHOMX WRJD L LQNRUSRULUDQL X VLVWHP LPSURYHGVRRQWKHEDVHRILWDQGLQFRUSRUDWHG WXULVWLþNHSRQXGH LQDV\VWHPRIDWRXULVWRIIHU .ljuþne rijeþi: valorizacija, sakralni objekat, .eywords: valorization, sacral objects, resource, resurs, vjerski turizam religious touriam 109 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, 892' ,1752'8&7,21 Crna Gora svojim geografskim Geographical position and a rare compound poloåajem, te rijetkim sklopom prirodnih of natural and anthropogenic resources across i antropogenih vrijednosti na relativno a relatively small area are the features that malom prostoru, atraktivna je za make Montenegro attractive for tourist visits. turistiþke dolaske i boravak. Elementi Tourism elements, such as attractiveness, turistiþkog proizvoda: atraktivnost, level of activity, pleasantness, availability, aktivnost, prijatnost, dostupnost i ljudski and human resources (Collier, 2007: 22 resursi (Collier,2007:22 opredjeljuju de¿ne future of Montenegro on the tourism buduünost Crne Gore na turistiþkom market. In that respect, its production, general, tråištu. 8 tom smislu proizvodni, opšti, infrastructure and tourism factors are what infrastrukturni i turistiþki faktori daju joj provides it an advantage over its competitors. prednost u odnosu na njenu konkurenciju. A wide range of cultural resources distributed =a kreiranje jedinstvenog turistiþkog throughout the country are particularly proizvoda Crne Gore poseban znaþaj ima important for creation of a unique tourism širok opseg kulturnih resursa na teritoriji product of Montenegro. Religious buildings cijele dråave. Svojim se mjestom, misijom, tend to stand out in terms of their location, znaþenjem i ljepotom izdvajaju sakralni mission, meaning and beauty, so the question objekti, pa je pitanje njihove valorizacije of their evaluation is of particular importance od posebne vaånosti za razvoj kulturnog i for the development of cultural and religious vjerskog turizma. tourism. Na prostoru Crne Gore nalaze se Montenegro is a home to religious sakralni objekti koji predstavljaju buildings that represent the cultural reprezentativni dio kulturne baštine heritage of national, regional and universal nacionalnog, regionalnog i univerzalnog significance. They pose as artistic creations znaþaja. Spomenici su velike graditeljske and monuments of significant architectural vrijednosti i umjetniþke kreacije, te value, and are witnesses of the past epochs predstavljaju svjedoke minulih epoha from the historical and cultural point of iz kulturološke i istorijske vizure. view. They represented the spirituality Predstavljali su jezgra duhovnosti epoha cores of eras in which they were built, u kojima su nastajali, djelovali i djeluju operated and have been operating over tokom vremena. Osim toga, aktivno su time. In addition, they actively contributed uticali na širenje pismenosti i knjiåevnog to the spread of literacy and literary stvaralaštva, te afirmisali likovnu i creations, asserting the establishment of the primijenjene umjetnosti. Osim toga, fine and applied arts. Moreover, these were ovo su bila mjesta okupljanja lokalnog the gathering places of local population, stanovništava, gdje su predstavnici naroda where the representatives of the people donosili vaåne odluke o organizovanju would make important decisions about the odbrane, politiþkom djelovanju i organization of defence, political actions aktivnostima koje üe opredijeliti njihovu and activities that would decide their fate. sudbinu. 8 socio-kulturološkoj ravni At the socio-cultural level, we can talk moåemo govoriti o njihovom znaþaju za about their importance in the formation of formiranje identiteta i vrijednosti koje identity and values inherited by traditional baštini tradicionalna i dijelom savremena and to a certain extent - modern state of Crna Gora. Duhovna vertikala naroda Montenegro. High level of spirituality of koji åivi na ovim prostorima rezultat people living in the region is the result of je vjekovnog saåimanja autohtonih centuries of merging indigenous creations tvorevina sa uticajima osvajaþa kojima with the impacts of invaders who found je ovo podruþje strateški bilo izuzetno this area strategically very interesting. 110 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS zanimljivo. Brojnost te teritorijalna The number and territorial intermingling of izmiješanost sakralnih objekata u Crnoj religious buildings in Montenegro speaks in Gori govori u prilog suåivotu tri konfesije: favour of coexistence of the three religions: pravoslavne, katoliþke i muslimanske. Ovi Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim. In terms of objekti sa aspekta turistiþke valorizacije tourist evaluation, these facilities are of varying razliþitog su znaþaja, stanja i oþuvanosti. importance, status and preservation level. A part Jedan dio njih inkorporiran je u turistiþku of them is incorporated into regular tourist sights, ponudu, a drugi, ne mali broj, objekata whereas the other, which is by no means a small bi mogao uz veüu ili manju pripremu number, could be equally represented in the list biti ravnopravno zastupljen u turistiþkoj of tourist sights of Montenegro, provided that ponudi Crne Gore. Imajuüi u vidu more or less adaptation is done. Given the fact þinjenicu da prema projekcijama VTO do that, according to World Tourism Organisation 2020.godine 15% ukupnih putovanja biüe (WTO) projections, by 2020 15% of all travel will motivisana vjerom, pitanje valorizacije be motivated by religion, it is important to assess sakralnih objekata na teritoriji Crne Gore the issue of evaluation of religious buildings in vaåno je za analizu. Montenegro. 6$.5$/1,2%-(.7,1$32'58Î-8 5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,1 &51(*25( 0217(1(*52 Ostaci sakralnih objekata na teritoriji The remains of religious buildings across the cijele Crne Gore svjedoþe o razliþitim territory of Montenegro testify about different civilizacijskim uticajima u razliþitim civilizational inÀuences across different epochs. epohama. Iz predslovenskog perioda The remains of the monastery in Doljani from datiraju ostaci manastira u Doljanima the end of the ¿fth century, trefoil in Bar from s kraja V vijeka, trikonhosa u Baru iz the sixth century, and the remains of several VI vijeka, te ostaci nekoliko crkava u churches in the Podgorica settlement of =latica podgoriþkom naselju =latica iz VI vijeka. from the sixth century date back to the pre- Iz perioda preromantike i dolaska Slovena Slavic period. The remains of several buildings ostaci su nekoliko zdanja: stara crkva bear witness to the pre-Romance period and the Sv.Jovana u =atonu kod Bijelog Polja, days of arrival of the Slavs: the old church of St. crkva Sv.Petra – centralna benediktinska John in =aton near Bijelo Polje, the Church of opatija u âuranju nadomak .otora, St. Peter - a central Benedictine abbey in âuranj manastir Sv.Arhangela Mihaila na near .otor, Monastery of St. Archangel Michael Prevlaci i Manastir Bogorodice Rataþke on Prevlaka and the Monastery of Our Lady of nadomak Bara. Po mišljenju ýilikova Ratac near Bar. In the opinion of Chilikov, the najmonumentalnija bazilika preromantike most monumental basilica from pre-Romance u Crnoj Gori otkrivena je na Martiniükoj period was discovered in Montenegro in the gradini blizu Danilovgrada (2011:18 . Gradina Martiniþka near Danilovgrad (2011: 18 . Iz perioda mirnijeg srednjeg vijeka In the more peaceful period of Middle pravoslavni manastiri, crkve i utvrÿenja Ages, Orthodox monasteries, churches and izmiještani su na skrovitija i branjena forti¿cations have been moved to the more mjesta (Nikoliü,2000:227 , kako bi bili hidden and better defended localities (Nikoliü, saþuvani od najezde turskih, mletaþkih 2000: 227 , in order to be saved from the i drugih osvajaþa. Ova epoha izuzetno Ottoman, Venetian and other invaders. This je plodna, pa veliki broj spomenika koji epoch is extremely proliferant, as a large number od tada datira izuzetno je interesantan. of monuments dating from the time tends to be Sakralne graÿevine sa stilskim osobinama remarkably interesting. Religious buildings with preromantike, romantike i gotike svjedoþe features of pre-Romance, Romance and Gothic o snaånom uticaju i prisutnosti evropskog period testify to the strong influence and presence duha toga vremena. of the European spirit of the times. 111 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, Od poþetka XV vijeka evidentan je A dual artistic impact has been evident in the area dvostruki umjetniþki uticaj na podruþje of today¶s Montenegro ever since the beginning današnje Crne Gore, posebno kada je of the ¿fteenth century, especially when it comes rijeþ o sakralnim objektima duå ove to religious buildings within the territory. One is teritorije. Jedan vezujemo za primorski related to the coastal region and Baroque style, region i barokni stilski krug, kao as a symbol of evident inÀuence from the West. evidentni uticaj =apada. Arhitektura, Architecture, zoographic and iconographic zoografski i ikonografski umjetniþki izraz artistic expression of Orthodox churches in the pravoslavnih hramova u zaleÿu uticaj je hinterland were inÀuenced by the Byzantine Vizantije. empire. Najezdom Otomanske imperije i islamska The invasion of the Ottoman Empire üe kultura ostaviti peþat i trajno nasljeÿe brought the Islamic culture and its lasting na ovo podruþje. Posebno je zastupljen u legacy to the region. It is particularly gradovima koji su nastajali u eri njihovih distinguished in the towns created in osvajanja. Pokretno i nepokretno kulturno the era of their conquest. Personal and blago odiše snaånim islamskim uticajem real cultural goods bear a strong Islamic kroz brojne sakralne graÿevine: dåamije, influence through a number of religious medrese i pomoüne objekte u njihovoj buildings: mosques, madrasas and sluåbi. ancillary facilities in their service. .ulturni prostor crnogorske dråave The cultural space of the Montenegrin odlikuje se izrazitom multikulturalnošüu, state is characterized by a pronounced slojevitošüu civilizacijskih krugova i multiculturalism, layered civilizational epoha. .ulturno nasljeÿe, pa i sakralni circles and epochs. The cultural heritage objekti nalaze se, sa veüom ili manjom and religious buildings are, more or less koncentracijom, na terioriji cijele dråave. concentrated across the entire country. In 8 registru zaštiüenih spomenika kulture the register of protected cultural monuments nalazi se popis zaštiüenih urbanih cjelina, there is a list of protected urban areas, ancient strarih gradova, sakralnih i profanih cities, religious and secular monuments, spomenika, arheoloških nalazišta, archaeological ¿ndings, ethnological etnoloških zaostavština, te tehniþkih i legacies, as well as 357 technical and memorijalnih spomenika, njih ukupno memorial monuments. The fact that the 357. Imajuüi na umu þinjenicu da od ovog highest percentage of the aforementioned broja najveüi procenat pripada sakralnim number belongs to the religious monuments, spomenicima, taþnije 57%, govori o 57% to be more precise, speaks for itself of njihovoj zastupljenosti, mjestu i znaþaju their presence, position and importance for za crnogorski kulturni identitet. the Montenegrin cultural identity. Na prostoru Crne Gore nalazi se 865 In Montenegro there are 865 Orthodox sakralnih objekata pravoslavlja, preko religious buildings, over 230 Catholic 230 katoliþkih i 105 dåamija (prema and 105 mosques (according to Radovic, Radoviü,2010:192 . Pod zaštitom dråave 2010: 192 . 205 religious monuments nalazi se 205 zaštiüenih sakralnih most of which are spiritually active, are under spomenika koji su u najveüem broju state protection. Out of that number there are 155 duhovno aktivni. Od toga pravoslavnih Orthodox protected monument, 38 Catholic, 10 zaštiüenih spomenika ima 155, katoliþkih Islamic and two monuments of other religions. 38, 10 islamskih i dva spomenika When it comes to categorization, 18 religious ostalih vjeroispovjesti. .ada je u pitanju monuments belongs to the 1st category, 78 to kategorizacija 18 sakralnih spomenika 2nd and 109 to 3rd preservation category. pripada prvoj kategoriji, 78 drugoj i 109 Based on the Report on the State of Cultural treüoj kategoriji zaštite. Heritage from Ministry of Culture of Na osnovu Izvještaja o stanju kulturne Montenegro from 2005, the religious buildings baštine Ministarstva kulture Crne Gore are threatened by natural factors, due to 112 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS iz 2005.godine, sakralni objekti su negligence, lack of care and maintenance, ugroåeni uticajem prirodnih faktora, improper and illegal works, as well as other nebrigom i neodråavanjem, nestruþnim i factors of devastation. According to the same nelegalnim radovima, te drugim faktorima source, religious buildings, which comprise devastacije. Prema istom izvoru od 71% of all the endangered cultural monuments svih kulturnih spomenika u Crnoj Gori are the most endangered type of monuments najugroåeniji su upravo sakralni objekti in Montenegro as compared to all other, or 99 i to u procentu od 71% u odnosu na sve endangered religious buildings compared to ostale, ili 99 ugroåenih sakralnih objekata 138 devastated monuments at the state level. u odnosu na 138 devastiranih spomenika According to the information available to the na nivou dråave. public, and which may be obtained from the Tabela 1:Pregled devastiranih sakralnih 7DEOH Summary of devastated religious objekata na teritoriji Crne Gore buildings in Montenegro Pravoslavni objekti / Orthodox facilities 79 Katoliþki objekti / Catholic facilities 15 Islamski objekti / Islamic facilities 5 Ukupno / Total 99 Izvor: Izvještaj o stanju kulturne baštine Source: Report on the state of Cultural Heritage Ministarstva kulture Crne Gore,2005. from the Ministry of Culture of Montenegro, 2005. Prema podacima koji su dostupni javnosti, Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Property, a koje je moguüe dobiti u 8pravi za zaštitu the most outstanding examples of deterioration kulturnih dobara, najizrazitiji primjeri devastacije have ruined the visual identity, original appearance, narušili su vizuelni identitet, originalni izgled, surrounding environment, architectural and ambijentalnu cjelinu, arhitektonsku i estetsku aesthetic dimension to the original religious dimenziju prvobitnog zdanja sakralnih objekata, buildings, therefore having substantive and pa su sadråinska i funkcionalna namjena functional purposes brought to Question. It is the dovedena u pitanje. Rijeþ je o sanacionim rehabilitation works at the Podmaine Monastery in radovima na budvanskom manastiru Podmaine, Budva, Cetinje Monastery, the Monastery complex Cetinjskom manastiru, manastirskom kompleksu Dobrilovina and Ostrog Monastery. Dobrilovina i Ostroškom manastiru. On a number of religious buildings, the original Na jednom broju sakralnih objekata prvobitni appearance was marred by jeopardizing and izgled je narušen ugroåavanjem i nestruþnom inadequate restoration of facades, domes and restauracijom fasada, kupola i zvonika, bell towers, the iconostases, floors of religious ikonostasa, podova sakralnih objekata i konaþno buildings and finally, by incompetent painting and nastruþnim oslikavanjem i doslikavanjem decorating of interior facades. unutrašnjih fasada. When all of the above factors are taken into .ada se svi navedeni þinioci uzmu u obzir, na account, based on data from the Report of the osnovu podataka Izvještaja Ministarstva kulture, Ministry of Culture, we can perform a summary moåemo izvesti zbirnu ocjenu o nivou oþuvanosti assessment on the level of preservation of religious sakralnih objekata na podruþju Crne Gore. buildings in Montenegro. 7DEHOD Ocjena stanja sakralnih objekata u 7DEOH Assessment of condition religious Crnoj Gori buildings in Montenegro Stanje/Condition Pravoslavni/Orthodox Katolički/Catholic Islamski/Islamic Ostali/Others Ukupno/Total Dobro/Good 37 11 2252 Osrednje/Medium 53 10 7070 Slabo/Poor 37 5 0 042 Loše/Bad 27 12 1040 Izgubio svojstva 1 0 001 Lost its properties Ukupno/Total 155 38 10 2 205 113 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, Na osnovu analize ukupnog stanja Based on the analysis of the overall condition of sakralnih spomenika kulture na podruþju religious cultural monuments across the territory of Crne Gore, moåemo zakljuþiti da su oni Montenegro, we can conclude that they are mainly u najveüem procentu osrednje ocijenjeni evaluated as being in medium condition (34.14% , (34,14% , nešto manje odliþno 25,36 % with slightly less number of buildings in excellent i loše 19,51%. condition 25.36% and 19.51% of the poor ones. 6$.5$/1,2%-(.7,8&512- 5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,1 *25,.$2785,67,Î.,5(6856 0217(1(*52$6$7285,675(6285&( Sakralni spomenici u Crnoj Gori su vrijedna Religious monuments in Montenegro are a valu- kulturna dobra. Kao takvi, vaåni su turistiþki able cultural asset. As such, they are important resursi koji nisu u funkciji turizma u tourist resources that are not a function of the de- poåeljnoj mjeri. Kao takvi dominantno velopment of tourism in a preferred extent. Thus, privlaþe turiste sa visokim interesovanjem za they dominantly attract tourists highly interested kulturnu ponudu. Ako se tome doda podatak in culture. If we add the information that these da u svijetu ovih turista ima ukupno 5-10% tourists make a total of 5-10% on a world scale (Alat za razvoj kulturnog turizma,2008:12 , (Alat za razvoj kulturnog turizma (eng.: „Tool srazmjerno godišnjem broju dolazaka for the Development of Cultural Tourism“, 2008: u Crnu Goru, uvidjeüemo da je rijeþ o 12). Put into proportion to the annual number relativno malom broju turista. Na drugoj of visits to Montenegro, we will find that this is a strani, turisti prosjeþnog interesovanja relatively small number of tourists. However, av- ne biraju destinaciju na osnovu kulturne erage tourists do not choose a destination based ponude. Ona moåe biti sekundarna i uz on its cultural sights. The sights can be a com- zabavu moåe biti komplementarni turistiþki pletely secondary matter and can, in addition to sadråaj. Na osnovu zakljuþaka istraåivanja entertainment, act as a complementary activity Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Crnoj Gori for tourists. Based on the conclusions of the re- (Kukalj,Lazoviü:2014 ovih turista ima search „Attitudes and expenditures of tourists in najviše. Montenegro“ (orig. Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Crnogorske manastire posjeüuju i crnoj gori) (Kukalj, Lazović: 2014) such tourists spiritualno motivisani turisti. Oni to u are the majority. najveüem broju rade u okviru pokloniþkih Montenegrin monasteries are also visited by spir- putovanja kroz Crnu Goru kao Ädestinaciju itually motivated tourists. Their visits are mainly autohtonih svetaca kojima se pripisuju forms of pilgrimages through Montenegro as a þudotvorstva (sveti Vasilije Ostroški, sveti “destination of indigenous saints who performed Petar Cetinjski i sveti Leopold Mandiü ³ miracles” (St. Basil of Ostrog, St. Peter of Cetinje (Pasinoviü,2006:85 . and St. Leopold Mandić)” (Pasinović, 2006: 85). 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$ 7285,67(9$/8$7,21 ³Turistiþka valorizacija predstavlja ut- ³Tourist evaluation represents the vrÿivanje ili procenu vrednosti turistiþkih assessment of tourist attractiveness, i.e. atraktivnosti, odnosno procenu turistiþkih at- evaluation of tourist attractiveness of all raktivnosti svih onih pojava, objekata i pros- those phenomena, facilities and areas that tora koji imaju, pored ostalih karakteristika have, inter alia, features and properties i svojstvo da su atraktivni (interesantni za making them attractive (popular) for turiste i da kroz njih turisti mogu zadovolji- tourists, and that the tourists can meet ti svoju turistiþku (kulturnu ili rekreativnu their own tourist (cultural or recreational) potrebu´(Ahmetoviü-Tomka:1994,156 . Po needs.” (Ahmetović-Tomka: 1994.156). ýomiüevom mišljenju pod turistiþkom val- Based on Čomić’s opinion, tourist 114 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS orizacijom podrazumijevamo vrʁednovanje, evaluation implies the evaluation, i.e. tj. kvalitativnu i kvantitativnu procʁenu tur- qualitative and quantitative assessment istiþke vrijednosti svih resursa, kao i ostalih of the tourist value of all the resources, konstitutivnih elemenata turistiþkog potenci- as well as other constituent elements of jala (turistiþke opreme (1990:170 . Drugim the tourism potential (1990:170). In other rijeþima, turistiþkom valorizacijom utvrÿu- words, the tourist evaluation determines jemo turistiþki potencijal date destinacije tourist potential of a given destination in sa aspekta ocjene moguünosti za turistiþko terms of assessment of opportunities for privreÿivanje. tourism economy. Jedinstveni metod turistiþke valorizacije A unique and uni¿ed method of tourist evaluation nije definitivno utvrÿen niti prihvaüen has not yet been de¿nitively established, nor od strane nauþne javnosti. =a tu se svrhu accepted by the scienti¿c community. For this uglavnom koriste metode drugih disciplina purpose, the methods from other disciplines prilagoÿenih zahtjevima i specifiþnostima tailored to the requirements and speci¿cities turizma. Metoda Hilari du Kros je veoma of tourism are generally used. The Hillary du efikasna kod valorizacija jednog resursa Cros method is a very purposeful, but effective ili kompleksnog resursa na jedinom method for the evaluation of a single resource mjestu (stari gradovi na primjer . Stoga or a complex resource at one place/location (old se pribjegava kvalitativno-kvantitativnoj towns for example . Therefore, the qualitative metodi ocjenjivanja kroz numeriþku i and quantitative methods of evaluation through deskriptivnu ocjenu. numerical and descriptive assessment are used. =a ocjenu turistiþke valorizacije sakralnih The aforementioned quantitative and objekata na podruþju Crne Gore koristi se qualitative evaluation method is used for the upravo kvantitativno-kvalitativni metod, assessment of tourist evaluation of religious a ocjenjivani su oni sakralni objekti buildings in Montenegro. The buildings za koje je ocijenjeno da su adekvatan that were evaluated were the ones that were resurs kulturnog turizma. Kao osnova za deemed as adequate resource of cultural turistiþku valorizaciju sljedeüi þinioci se tourism. As a basis for tourist evaluation the smatraju relevantnim: following factors are considered as relevant: - 7XULVWLþNRJHRJUDIVNL SRORåDM – poloåaj - Tourist-geographical position - the u odnosu na saobraüajnice, matiþno mjesto position in relation to the roads, the focal turista i pristupaþnost; location of tourists and its accessibility; - Ambijent – ureÿenost, speci¿þnost, - Ambiance - arrangement, specificity, oþuvanost prostora; maintained space; - $WUDNWLYQRVW L SUHSR]QDWOMLYRVW – - Attractiveness and identity - privlaþnost za turiste; attractiveness for tourists; - 8UHÿHQRVW L RSUHPOMHQRVW SURVWRUD – - Decor of the area - the amount of tourist stepen zastupljenosti turistiþkih objekata facilities in the vicinity: rest areas, u neposrednoj blizini: odmorišta, þesme, fountains, information panels; informativne table; - Incorporation in the tourist assets - - 8NORSOMHQRVW X WXULVWLþNR ERJDWVYR complementary facilities within the same komplementarni sadråaji u istoj destinaciji. destination. 115 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, 785,67,Î.2*(2*5$)6.,32/2ij$- 7285,67*(2*5$3+,&$/326,7,21 Pristupaþnost resursa se sagledava na osnovu Accessibility of resources is perceived based blizine aerodroma, luka, åeljezniþkih pruga i on the proximity of airports, harbours, rail- puteva koji do njih vode. Dakle, što je veüi ways and roads leading to them. Thus, the broj saobraüajnica i frekvencija saobraüaja, higher the number of means of access (roads) veüa je ocjena turistiþke valorizacije. and traffic frequency, the higher the tourist Saobraüajnice do sakralnih spomenika u evaluation score. Roads to religious mon- Crnoj Gori imaju uglavnom dobar kolovoz, uments in Montenegro generally have well što svakako ima vrlo pozitivne efekte na maintained driveway, which certainly has a turistiþku valorizaciju. U neposrednoj blizini very positive impact on the tourist evaluation. najveüeg broja sakralnih spomenika nalaze In the near vicinity of the majority of reli- se magistralni i regionalni putevi. Prema gious monuments are the main and regional mišljenju jednog broja autora (Blaåeviü i roads. In the opinion of a number of authors dr,1988:172 saobraüajna izolovanost Crne (Blažević et al., 1988: 172) traffic isolation of Gore je prestala izgradnjom Jadranske Montenegro came to an end by upon finaliza- magistrale. Ova saobraüajnica ima tion of construction of the Adriatic Highway. neprocjenjiv znaþaj za valorizaciju sakralnih This road is priceless for the evaluation of re- objekata na crnogorskom priobalju. Oni su ligious buildings on the Montenegrin coast. veoma dobro povezani na cijelom podruþju They are very well connected throughout the krajnjeg juga i to dominantno doprinosi far south and it predominantly contributes to dostupnosti sakralnih objekata smještenih u the availability of religious buildings situated blizini obale. near the coast. =a valorizaciju sakralnih spomenika u For the evaluation of religious monuments centralnom dijelu Crne Gore (manastir in the central part of Montenegro (Ostrog Ostrog, manastir Piva i dr najveüi znaþaj Monastery, Piva Monastery, et al.), the road ima saobraüajnica Podgorica – Nikšiü – Podgorica - Nikšić - Plužine - Foča – Saraje- Pluåine – Foþa – Sarajevo, odnosno sve vo is of the highest importance, in addition saobraüajnice koje povezuju Crnogorsko to all the access routes that connect the Mon- primorje i Podgoricu. Saobraüajnica je tenegrin coast and Podgorica. The route is veoma frkventna u ljetnjim mjesecima very frequent in the summer months when kada turisti koji su u tranzitu u najveüem transiting tourists predominantly visited broju posjeüuju manastir Ostrog i nešto monastery Ostrog and to a lesser extent - manjem broju manastir Pivu. Piva Monastery. Sjeverni region i sakralni spomenici Northern Region and religious monu- koji se u njemu nalaze dostupni su ments located within are available for za turistiþku valorizaciju prije svega tourist evaluation primarily due to the zahvaljujuüi magistralnom putu Bar – highway Bar - Belgrade. In terms of its Beograd. Po privrednom znaþaju, ovo je economic importance, this is the most najznaþajnija i najfrekventnija crnogorska important and busiest Montenegrin road. saobraüajnica. U ljetnjim mjesecima In the summer months a vast number of ogroman broj turista koji su u tranzitu tourists in transit to the coast of Monte- prema Crnogorskom primorju posjeüuju negro visit religious buildings located in sakralne objekte smještene u ovom dijelu this part (in particular manastir Morača). (posebno manastir Moraþu . Takoÿe, Likewise, during the transit in winter, on tokom tranzita u zimskim mjesecima, their way to winter resorts / tourist areas, na putu prema zimskim turistiþkim tourists also visit these religious build- mjestima, turisti takoÿe posjeüuju ove ings. The roads of great importance are sakralne objekte. Od velikog su znaþaja Bijelo Polje (Ribarevine) - Berane and putevi Bijelo Polje (Ribarevine – Berane Mojkovac - Đurđevića Tara - Pljevlja, 116 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS i Mojkovac – Ĉurÿeviüa Tara – Pljevlja, as well as a number of minor roads and kao i niz manjih saobraüajnica i lokalnih local roads leading to the monuments puteva koji vode do samih spomenika. themselves. Kapitalni projekat izgradnje puta Bar – Capital project for construction of high- Boljare zvaniþno je zapoþeo 2015.godine way Bar - Boljare was officially started in i kako se planira, završetak je predviÿen 2015 and according to the plan, comple- za 2019.godinu. =avršetak radova na tion is scheduled for 2019. The completion ovom autoputu doprinijeüe unaprjeÿenju of works on the highway will contribute to ukupne privrede, time svakako i turizma. the improvement of the total economy, and äeljezniþki saobraüaj na relaciji Bar – therefore certainly – of tourism. Beograd doprinosi unarijeÿenju turistiþke Railway traffic on the route Bar - Belgrade privrede i valorizaciji turistiþkih resursa. contributes to the improvement of tourism Pored navedenog, u Podgorici i Tivtu and evaluation of tourism assets. se nalaze aerodomi koji su direktnim ili In addition, airports in Podgorica and Tivat indirektnim letovima povezani sa cijelim are via direct or indirect flights connected svijetom. Trajektna linija Bar-Bari sa to the entire world. Ferry line Bar-Bari with manjim prekidom u radu 2016. i polovini minor operational disruption in 2016 and 2017.godine realizuje pomorski putniþki half of 2017 has contributed to maritime saobraüaj izmeÿu dvije zemlje. passenger traffic between the two countries. Veliki broj sakralnih objekata na podruþju A large number of religious buildings in Crne Gore ima odliþan ili veoma dobar Montenegro have an excellent or a very turistiþko-geografski poloåaj. Kako se good tourist-geographical position. As the najveüi broj sakralnih spomenika nalazi largest number of religious monuments is u primorskom dijelu, gdje je ujedno located in the coastal area, which is also i najgušüa koncentracija turistiþko- the area with the densest concentration of ugostiteljskih objekata, sakralni objekti u tourist facilities, religious buildings in this ovom dijelu nalaze se u blizini ili u samim region are located in the vicinity or in the turistiþkim jezgrima. U centralnom i very tourist core. In the central and north- sjevernom dijelu Crne Gore turistiþko- ern part of Montenegro, tourist and accom- ugostiteljski objekti su relativno blizu modation facilities are relatively close to sakralnih objekata, a u neposrednoj religious buildings and near some of them blizini nekih izgraÿeni su i grade se manji smaller catering facilities, such as restau- ugostiteljski objekti: restorani, pansioni, rants, hotels, motels (Ostrog and Morača) moteli (Ostrog i Moraþa . U nekim have been completed or are still being con- sakralnim objektima receptivni kapaciteti structed. Some religious buildings do have postoje ali su veoma ograniþeni. Po accommodation capacities but are very Radoviüevom mišljenju nedostatak limited. Based on the opinion of Mr.Ra- ovakvih kapaciteta i neadekvatan dović, lack of such capacity and inadequate marketing glavna su prepreka razvoju marketing are the main obstacle to the de- religioznog turizma (2010:192 . velopment of religious tourism (2010: 192). $0%,-(17 $0%,$1&( Jedinstvena osobina svih sakralnih objekata na The unique feature of all religious buildings in podruþju Crne Gore je paåljivi odabir lokacije, u Montenegro is a careful site selection, in line skladu sa pejzaånim karakteristikama njihovog with the landscape features of their place of or- mjesta nastanka. ÄGledano kroz dugi istorijski igin. “Perceived through a long historic span, hod, prirodne odrednice geografske sredine i natural determinants of the geographical envi- strategijski poloåaj imali su presudnu ulogu na ronment and strategic position had a decisive utvrÿivanje lokacije i graditeljsko oblikovanje role in determining the location and architec- ovih spomenika³(Nikoliü,2000:228 .Odabir tural design of these monuments.” (Nikolić, 117 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, mjesta sakralnih lokaliteta koji se ne nalaze u 2000: 228). The locations of sacred sites located gradskim jezgrima ili gusim naseljima locirani outside of town centres or densely populated su tako da izuzetno pogoduju meditaciji i settlements were selected so that they beneficial- duhovnom miru. Graÿeni su na zaštiüenim i ly contribute to meditation and spiritual peace. skrovitim mjestima, þesto utvrÿeni zidinama, They were built in protected and hidden places, u blizini morske obale, na obali jezera ili often with fortified walls, near the sea coast, on malim jezerskim ostrvima, dolinama rjeþnih the shores of lakes or small lake islands, valleys tokova Moraþe, Pive, Lima i Tare. U nekim of rivers Morača, Piva, Lim and Tara. In some manastirima prirodni ambijent nije pogodovao monasteries the natural environment is not fa- odbrani pa se pribjegavalo izgradnji masivnih vorable for the defense, which is why the settlers zidina i kupola (Pododstog, Stanjeviüi, resorted to the construction of massive walls Starþevo . and domes (Pododstrog, Stanjevići, Starčevo). Savršeno uklopljeni u prirodno bogatstvo, Perfectly blended with the natural environment, zavisno od regije gdje se nalaze, okruåeni depending on the region they are located in, sur- su voünjacima, maslinjacima, pašnjacima rounded by orchards, olive groves, pastures, all organizovanim u crkvene ekonomije. Lokacija integrated in the church economy. Location of sakralnih objekata unutar gradskih jezgara religious buildings within the city core favoured pogodovala je duhovniþkoj misiji i vjerskim spiritual missions and religious services in these obredima u ovim sredinama. Njihov vizuelni areas. Their visual identity is in perfect harmony identitet u savršenom je saglasju sa izgledom with the appearance of old cities. Integrated with starih gradova. Uklopljeni sa objektima profane facilities of profane architecture they discreetly arhitekture, diskretno se izdvajaju ljepotom i stand out by their sheer beauty, thus leaving a time daju peþat cjelokupnom ambijentu. mark onto the overall environment. Ambijentalne cjeline manastirskih kompleksa Ambient compounds of contemporary urban savremene urbanistiþke tendencije su townscape monastery complexes have been par- djelimiþno derogirale. Izgradnjom modernih tially derogated. The construction of modern saobraüajnica kojom se doprinijelo roads, which contributed to the evaluation of valorizaciji ovih objekata, na drugoj strani, these buildings, on the other hand, permanently trajno se ugrozilo prvobitno jedinstvo jeopardized the original unity of natural and an- prirodnih i antropogenih elemenata za thropogenic elements in terms of the experience doåivljaj ambijenta sakralnih objekata. Tako of religious buildings. Thus, Adriatic highway je Jadranskom magistralom odsjeþen dio has cut off a section of the Praskvica monas- manastirske ekonomije Praskvice, a šumski tery’s economy, whereas the forest complex of kompleks Savine je prepolovljen. Još je Savina monastery has been cut in half. Another jedna tekovina savremenog doba promijenila achievement of the modern age has changed the sudbinu tri crnogorska manastira: Kosijerevo, fate of three Montenegrin monasteries: Kosijere- Piva i Duboþica. Kako navodi autorka Pejoviü vo, Piva and Dubočica. According to the author (2011:30 , izmještanje manastira inicirala Pejović (2011: 30), the relocation of the monas- je potreba za ustupanjem prostora za vode teries was initiated by the requirement for ced- akumulacionih jezera. ing space to the water reservoirs. Ambijent crnogorskih manastira znaþajno The ambiance of Montenegrin monasteries was je ugroåene nestruþnom i nasmotrenom significantly affected by unprofessional and izgradnjom objekata u njihovoj neposrednoj careless construction of facilities in their im- blizini. Neki su potpuno, a neki djelimiþno mediate vicinity. Some of them have been com- izgubili vizuelni identitet i time bitno umanjili pletely and some partially devoid of their visual doåivljaj zdanja kao duhovnih centara, identity, thereby significantly reducing the expe- ustupajuüi primat komercijalnoj i lukrativnoj rience of the buildings as spiritual centres, giving svrsi. primacy to commercial and lucrative purposes. 118 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS $75$.7,91267,35(32=1$7/-,9267 $775$&7,9(1(66$1','(17,7< Atraktivnost sakralnih objekata odgovara The attractiveness of religious buildings stepenu zadovoljenja turistiþkih potreba corresponds to the fulilment level of needs of turista koji ga posjeüuju, odnosno vrijednosti tourists who visit them, i.e. to the level which kojom objekti odgovaraju motivima za buildings correspond to the motives for their njihovu posjetu. Sa druge strane, stepen visit. On the other hand, the level of utilisation of korištenja resursa zavisi od karaktera resursa such resources depends on the features of such i potreba turista (Pasinoviü,2008:69 . =a resources and needs of tourists (Pasinović, 2008: potrebe valorizacije najoperativniji pojam 69). For the purposes of evaluation, the most je pojam atraktivnosti sa elementima: operative term would be a term „attractiveness“ estetske vrijednosti, kuriozitetnosti i with the elements of aesthetic value, oddity and znamenitosti. Te vrijednosti ili atributi notability or relevance. These values or attributes sakralnih spomenika variraju u zavisnosti od of religious monuments vary depending on the stepena sloåenosti atraktivnosti, razuÿenosti complexity level of their attractiveness, dispersion i nivoa (prema:Joviþiü,1986 . Estetski and category (according to Jovičić, 1986). The atributi ogledaju se u arhitektonskoj i aesthetic attributes are reflected in the architectural likovnoj vrijednosti, umjetniþkoj vrijednosti and visual value, artistic value of the interior and enterijera i eksterijera sakralnog objekta. exterior of the religious building. Oddity refers Kuriozitetna vrijednost odnosi se na rijetkost i to the rarity and uniqueness of the building, neponovljivost objekta, njegovog okruåenja i its surroundings and the treasury (the relics of riznice (mošti svetaca i njihovi djelovi, rijetke saints and their parts, rare icons and iconostases, ikone i ikonostasi, mobilijer, knjige, krune i equipment and furniture, books, crowns and ostali vrijedni sadråaju riznice . =namenitost other valuable content of the treasury). Notability se ogleda u odnosu na sakralni objekat i relates to the religious building and its historical, njegov istorijski, kulturni, politiþki i društveni cultural, political and social context. The degree kontekst. Stepen sloåenosti navedenih atributa of complexity of those attributes is in proportion u srazmjeri je sa atraktivnošüu samog objekta, to the attractiveness of the building itself, or the ili što je stepen ovih atributa veüi, objekat je higher the level of these attributes, the building is atraktivniji. more attractive. Po svojoj atraktivnosti na prostoru Crne In terms of attractiveness, notable religious buildings Gore izdvajaju se: manastir Ostrog, Cetinjski in Montenegro are as follows: the monastery of manastir, manastir Savina, katedrala Svetog Ostrog, Cetinje Monastery, Savina Monastery, the Tripuna, manastir Moraþa, manastir Piva, Cathedral of St. Tryphon, Morača Monastery, Piva manastir Ĉurÿevi Stupovi, manastir Svete Monastery, Tracts of St. George Monastery, Holy Trojice i Husein-pašina dåamija. U posljednje Trinity Monastery and Husein Pasha Mosque. vrijeme za turistiþke posjete sve su atraktivniji Recently, the monasteries increasingly interesting manastiri na Skadarskom jezeru: Starþevo, for tourist visits are the ones on Skadar Lake: Beška i Moraþnik. Starčevo, Beška and Moračnik. 8./23/-(12678785,67,Î.2 ,1&25325$7,21,1727285,60 %2*$76792 $66(76 Veliki problem za ovo istraåivanje A major problem for this research was the predstavljala je zatvorenost predstavnika lack of cooperation from representatives of svih konfesija u Crnoj Gori da dijele any confession in Montenegro to share any in- informacije o broju posjeta sakralnih formation on the number of visits to religious objekata. Procjene Nacionalne turistiþke buildings. Estimates of the National Tourism organizacije Crne Gore te lokalnih Organization of Montenegro, as well as of lo- organizacija samo su djelimiþno otklonili cal organizations only partially contributed 119 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, ovaj nedostatak. U skladu sa njima, manastir to resolving this issue. According to them, Ostrog je posjetilo tokom prošle godine the monastery of Ostrog was visited over one preko milion turista. Najveüi procenat million tourists in the past year. The highest turistiþkih posjeta je u ljetnjim mjesecima, percentage of tourist visits is in the summer tokom sezone i velikih pravoslavnih months, during holiday season and on major praznika. Od kraja maja do kraja avgusta Orthodox holidays. In the period from late Cetinjski manastir organizovano posjeti više May to late August, Cetinje monastery is visit- od dvije hiljade turista dnevno, ne raþunajuüi ed by more than two thousand tourists a day. individualne posjete. Prema podacima According to the data obtained in the Tourist koje smo dobili u Turistiþkoj organizaciji Organization of Kolasin, number of visits to Kolašin, broj posjeta manastira Moraþe je the monastery Morača is impossible to deter- nemoguüe utvrditi. Naveli su, ukoliko bi mine. They noted that if one should analyse sa analizirali motivi za dolazak u Kolašin, the motives for visiting Kolasin, the percent- da bi procenat posjeta manastiru Moraþa, age of visits to the monastery Morača would, po njihovim pretpostavkama, bio veüi od by their assumptions, be higher than the ones onih motivisanih zimskim sportovima ili motivated by winter sports or hiking. The planinarenjem. Prizor desetina parkiranih sight of tens of buses parked on a nearby park- autobusa na obliånjem parkingu uobiþajen ing lot is common in the summer months. In je u ljetnjim mjesecima, a gotovo da nema addition almost no organized tourist groups organizovane turistiþke grupe koja u tranzitu faild to visit Morača on their transit route. mimoiÿe Moraþu. Veoma veliku posjeüenost Moraca can also boast with a large attendance Moraþa ima i od individualnih posjeta koje in terms of daily individual visits, regardless su svakodnevne, nezavisno od turistiþke of the tourist season. As for the municipality sezone. Na podruþju opštine Pljevlja dva of Pljevlja, two religious buildings stand out sakralna objekta su najposjeüenija: manastri as the most visited ones: Holy Trinity Mon- Sv. Trojice i Husein-pašina dåamija, i to astery and Husein Pasha Mosque, particular- posebno u ljetnjim mjesecima. Podrumijske ly during the summer months. Churches and crkve i manastiri na podruþju barske monasteries of Podrumija in the municipali- opštine biljeåe dobru posjeüenost u ljetnjim ty of Bar record a high number of visitors in mjesecima i to, prema podacima lokalne the summer months and, according to the lo- Turistiþke organizacije, od oko 6.000 turista cal Tourist organization, about 6,000 tourists u ljetnjoj sezoni. U vrijeme velikih praznika during the summer season. At the time of ma- i vjerskih manifestacija manastir Savina jor holidays and religious events, monastery biljeåi najveüu posjeüenost, kao i za vrijeme Savina has the highest attendance, as well as Praznika mimoze. Od kotorskih sakralnih during the Mimosa Festival. As far as the re- objekata najveüu posjeüenost, prema ligious buildings of Kotor are concerned, the podacima TO Kotor, ima katedrala Svetog Cathedral of St.Tryphon is visited the most, Tripuna. according Tourist Organisation of Kotor. Duhovno motivisani turisti posjeüuju Spiritually motivated tourists actively visit aktivno dio crnogorskih manastira, dråeüi a part of the Montenegrin monastery, being ih za centre pravoslavne duhovnosti, considered as the centre of Orthodox spiritu- posjeüuju iz vjerskih razloga. Ovakva ality, they are visited for religious reasons. Such putovanja briåljivo su organizovana uz trips are carefully organized with the provided predviÿenu pratnju obuþenih vodiþa. accompanying trained guides. Young people Mlada populacija najþešüe dolazi ÿaþkim mainly visit the locations as a part of their pu- i studentskim ekskurzijama, a najveüi broj pil and student group tours, whereas the larg- posjetilaca sakralnih objekata þine to u est number of visitors to religious buildings periodu godišnjih odmora. do so during the holiday season. 120 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS 85(Ò(1267,235(0/-(1267 '(&252) 3526725$ 7+($5($ Veüina sakralnih objekata na podruþju Crne Most religious buildings in Montenegro are Gore su dobro opremljeni. Putokazne table well equipped. Direction signs are placed at su postavljene na vidnim mjestima, ispisane easily accessible locations, printed in Latin and na üirilici i latinici, nerijetko na dva strana Cyrillic scripts, often in two foreign languages jezika: engleskom i/ili ruskom.Odmorišta as well: English and / or Russian. Rest areas and i þesme su takoÿe uobiþajeni u okolini tap water are also common in the vicinity of sakralnih objekata, dok su oni u gradskim religious buildings, whereas those in the town jezgrima drugaþije organizovani, u skladu sa centres are organized differently, according to urbanistiþkim rješenjima samih gradova. the development plans of the cities themselves. Kod sakralnih objekata na Crnogorskom When speaking of religious buildings on the primorju i Cetinju nivo komplementatnih Montenegrin coast and in Cetinje, the level of sadråaja turistiþkog bogatstva je izuzetno complementary tourist assets is extremely high, visok, dok u kontinentalnom dijelu sakralni whereas religious monuments in continental spomenici imaju nešto niåi stepen uklopljenosti region have a slightly lower level of incorporation sa manjim brojem komplementarnih with less complementary tourist facilities. Thus, turistiþkih sadråaja. Tako je i opremljenost the decor and equipment of the area in the prostora oko sakralnih spomenika na juånom vicinity of religious monuments in the southern i centralnom podruþju Crne Gore nešto veüa u and central part of Montenegro is slightly higher odnosu na njen sjeverni region. in comparison to its northern region. Ocjena valorizacije izvedena je na osnovu Evaluation rating was derived on the basis of ocjena dodijeljenih svakoj sakralnoj jedinici i markings assigned to each religious unit as to: ocjena 5 – odliþan kvalitet, ocjena 4 – vrlo follows: grade 5 - excellent quality, grade 4 - dobar kvalitet, ocjena 3 – dobar kvalitet, ocjena very good quality, grade 3 - good quality, grade 2 – zadovoljava i ocjena 1 – ne zadovoljava. 2 – satisfactory, 1 - unsatisfactory. The marking Ocijenjeni su oni sakralni spomenici koji was made for religious monuments which se odmah ili sa manjim pripremama mogu can, immediately or with minor preparations, staviti u funkciju efektivnog razvoja vjerskog effectively contribute to development of religious turizma. tourism. Tabela 3: Ocjena valorizacije sakralnih ob- 7DEOH1R Evaluation rating of religious jekata na podruþju Crne Gore buildings in Montenegro Sakralni objekat ka nost þ þ ke þ aj aj enost å ÿ Polo Umjetni vrijednost Ambijen Ure Smještajno- ugostiteljski kapaciteti Turisti vrijednosti Pristupa Ocjena Manastir 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4,8 Savina – Herceg Novi Katedrala Sv. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0 Tripuna – Kotor 121 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, Crkva Sv. 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4,8 Nikole – Kotor Bogorodiþin 5 5 4 3 4 3 5 4,1 hram Prþanj Crkva Sv. 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4,4 Ĉorÿa – Gospa od Škrpjela Crkva Sv. 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4,7 Ivana - Budva Crkva Sv. 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4,7 Trojice – Budva Manastir 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 3,8 Podostrog Manastir 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 4,3 Praskvica Manastir 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 4,6 Reåeviüi Manastir 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 4,1 Gradište Manastir 3 3 5 4 2 3 3 3,2 Beška Manastir 3 3 5 4 2 3 3 3,2 Starþevo Cetinjski 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5,0 manastir ûipur 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4,8 Manastir 4 5 5 4 3 3 3 3,8 Dajbabe Manastir 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4,8 Ostrog Crkva Sv. 5 4 5 5 4 3 5 4,4 Vasilija Ostroškog – Nikšiü 122 Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 7285,67(9$/8$7,212)5(/,*,286%8,/',1*6,10217(1(*52 ECONOMICS Manastir Piva 5 5 4 4 3 3 5 4,1 Manastir 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 4,7 Moraþa Crkva Sv. 5 4 3 3 5 3 5 4,0 Petra – Bijelo Polje Manastir 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 4,7 Ĉurÿevi Stupovi Manastir Sv. 4 5 5 4 4 4 3 4,1 Trojice Husein Pašina 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 4,7 dåamija Careva 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 4,4 dåamija - Plav Srednja 4,64 4,4 4,68 4,4 4,0 4,16 4,52 4,4 vrijednost Sakralni objekti u Crnoj Gori su prepoznati Religious buildings in Montenegro have sa aspekta turizma kao znaþajan resurs been identified as an important resource for za njegov razvoj. Ipak, od ukupnog broj development of tourism. However, only 25 sakralnih objekata (207 , samo 25 se religious buildings of the total number of 207 uspješno ili relativno uspješno turistiþki are successfully or relatively successfully valued valorizuje. Na Primorju i Cetinju nalazi se from the aspect of tourism. The coastal area and 15 sakralnih objekata koji su se pokazali the town of Cetinje contain 15 religious buildings kao turistiþki atraktivni i podobni za which have proved to be attractive for tourists and proces turistiþkog valorizovanja. Najviše appropriate for the process of tourist evaluation. ocjene (5,0 dobili su Cetinjski manastir i Highest marks (5.0) were given to the Cetinje katedrala Sv. Tripuna u Kotoru, a veoma monastery and the Cathedral of St.Tryphon visoke ocjene dobili su manastir Savina, in Kotor, whereas very high grades were given crkva sv. Ivana i sv. Trojice u budvanskom to Savina monastery, Church of St. Ivan and St. starom gradu i ûipur na Cetinju. Takoÿe, Trinity church in Budva’s Old Town, as well as visok nivo turistiþke valorizacije pokazao Ćipur in Cetinje. Likewise, Monastery of Reževići je paštrovski manastir Reåeviüi. has been granted a high level of tourist evaluation. U kontinentalnom dijelu kao izuzetan As for the continental part, Ostrog Monastery resurs za razvoj kulturnog turizma has proven as an excellent resource for the pokazao se manastir Ostrog i dobio najvišu development of cultural tourism, with the highest ocjenu u ovom dijelu Crne Gore (4,8 . score in this part of Montenegro (4.8), followed Slijedi manastir Moraþa (4,7 , Ĉurÿevi by Morača Monastery (4.7), Tracts of St.George stupovi u Beranama (4,7 i Husein Pašina Monastery in Berane (4.7) and Husein Pasha dåamija(4,7 . Mosque (4.7). 123 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, =$./-8Î$. &21&/86,21 Sakralni objekti na teritoriji Crne Gore Religious buildings in Montenegro act as predstavljaju veoma vaåne spomenike highly important cultural monuments. kulture. Sagledani kao duhovni centri, is- Perceived as spiritual centres, historical and torijska i kulturna jezgra minulih epoha, cultural cores of bygone eras, they carry posjeduju izrazitu evokativnu vrijednost. distinct evocative value. In addition, due Osim toga, zbog ljepote i ambijentalne to their beauty and incorporation into the uklopljenosti, istiþu se estetskim vrijed- ambience, their aesthetic value and meaning nostima i znaþenjem. Edukativnost sakral- clearly makes them stand out. Educational nih lokaliteta doprinosi njihovoj visokoj function of religious sites contributes to their vrijednosnoj pozicioniranosti kao resursa high positioning of as a resource of cultural kulturnog i vjerskog turizma. and religious tourism. =ahvaljujuüi kvalitativno-kvantitativnoj Thanks to the qualitative and quantitative analizi utvrÿeno je da bi se sakralni objekti analysis, it was found that the religious u Crnoj Gori mogli relativno lako inkorpo- buildings in Montenegro could relatively rirati u turistiþki proizvod. easily be incorporated into assets of tourism. S obzirom na zbirnu ocjenu, vrednovani Given their cumulative score, evaluated resources reursi pokazuju da se bez velikih ulaganja have shown that they can be incorporated into a mogu odmah staviti u turistiþku upotrebu. tourist offer without major investments. Mean Srednje vrijednosti elemenata valorizacije values of evaluation elements point to somewhat ukazuju na nešto niåe ocjene neporedne lower marks regarding their vicinity to tourist blizine turistiþko-ugostiteljskih objekata. establishments. Likewise, lower-than-average Takoÿe, niåu od prosjeþne ima zbirna oc- cumulative score was noted with respect to jena komplementarnih turistiþkih sadråaja complementary tourist facilities near the religious u blizini sakralnih objekata. Kako je rijeþ buildings. As this is a general assessment, analysis o generalnoj ocjeni, analiza svakog objekta of each building or facility, as a part of careful u paåljivom planiranju razvoja kulturnog i planning of the development of cultural and vjerskog turizma, doprinijela bi poveüanju religious tourism would contribute to the increase navedenog segmenta valorizacije. Visoke of the given evaluation segment. 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Ahmetoviü-Tomka,Dragica(1994): Touristic 7XULVWLþND YDORUL]DFLMD NXOWXUQRLVWRUL evaluation (evaluation) of the cultural and histori- MVNLK VSRPHQLND QD SULPHUX )UXãNRJRU cal monuments (eng. Turistička valorizacija kultur- VNLK PDQDVWLUD =ERUQLN UDGRYD,QVWLWXW no-istorijskih spomenika, na primeru Fruškogorskih ]D JRHJUDILMX 3ULULGQRPDWHPDWLþNL manastira), using the example of the monasteries of IDNXOWHW1RYL6DG Fruška Gora, Proceedings - Institute of Geography 24, 3. Blaåeviü, Ivan; Pepeonik =latko Faculty of Sciences, Novi Sad 7XULVWLþNL ]HPOMRSLV ± 6YLMHW L 6)5 -XJR 3. Blaåeviü, Ivan; Pepeonik =latko (1988): Tourism VODYLMDâNROVNDNQMLJD=DJUHE Geography - World and SFR Yugoslavia , Školska kn- 4. ýomiü, Ĉorÿe 3VLKRORJLMDWXUL] jiga, Zagreb PD7XULVLþNDãWDPSD%HRJUDG 4. ýomiü, Ĉorÿe (1990): The Psychology of Tourism, 5. Joviþiü, äivojin Ä2EOLFLSURSD Turistička štampa, Belgrade JDQGQRJSRVWXSDQMDXWXULVWLþNRMSUH]HQW 5. Joviþiü, äivojin (1986): Forms of propaganda ac- DFLML PDQDVWLUD³ 7HRULMD L SUDNVD EURM tions in tourist presentation of monasteries, Theory 4, *ODVQLN 2GVHND ]D WXUL]PRORãNH QDXNH and Practice), No.4, Gazette of Tourism Department 3ULURGQRPDWHPDWLþNRJ IDNXOWHWD 8QLYHU of Faculty of Science, University of Belgrade ]LWHWDX%HRJUDGX 6. Kukalj,Emil; Lazoviü,Vesna: Manners and ex- 6. Kukalj,Emil; Lazoviü,Vesna: 6WDYRYLL penditures of tourists in Montenegro –- Research SRWURãQMDWXULVWDX&UQRM*RUL±,VWUDåLYDQ (2014), National Tourism Organization of Montene- MH 1DFLRQDOQD WXULVWLþND RUJDQL gro, Podgorica ]DFLMD&UQH*RUH3RGJRULFD 7. Nikoliü, Stevan (2000): Nature and Tourism of 7. Nikoliü, Stevan 3ULURGDLWXUL Montenegro , The Republic Institute for the Protection ]DP&UQH*RUH5HSXEOLþNL]DYRG]D]DãWLWX of Nature, Podgorica, Podgorica SULURGH3RGJRULFD 8. Pasinoviü Milenko (2008): OSustainable develop- 8. Pasinoviü Milenko 2GUåLYLUD] ment of tourism in Montenegro , Faculty of Tourism, YRMWXUL]PDX&UQRM*RUL)DNXOWHW]DWXUL Hospitality and Trade, Bar ]DPKRWHOLMHUVWYRLWUJRYLQX%DU 9. Pasinoviü, Milenko (2006): Management of Natu- 9. Pasinoviü, Milenko 0HQDGåPHQW ral and Cultural Resources), Faculty of Tourism, Hos- SULURGQLK L NXOWXUQLK UHVXUVD )DNXOWHW ]D pitality and Trade, Bar WXUL]DPKRWHOLMHUVWYRLWUJLQX%DU 10. Pejoviü, Tatjana; ýilikov, Aleksandar 10. Pejoviü, Tatjana; ýilikov, Aleksandar 2UWKRGR[ 0RQDVWHULHV LQ 0RQWHQHJUR âWDPSDU 3UDYRVODYQL PDQDVWLUL X &UQRM 0DNDULMH2NWRLK%HRJUDG *RULâWDPSDU0DNDULMH2NWRLK%HRJUDG 11. Radoviü, Miljan 7RXULVP *HRJUDSK\ 11. Radoviü, Miljan 7XULVWLþND RI0RQWHQHJUR)DFXOW\RI7RXULVP+RVSLWDOLW\DQG JHRJUDILMD&UQH*RUH)DNXOWHW]DWXUL]DP 7UDGH%DUDQG)DFXOW\RI7RXULVPDQG+RWHO0DQ KRWHOLMHUVWYRLWUJRYLQX±%DUL)DNXOWHW]D DJHPHQW.RWRU WXUL]DPLKRWHOLMHUVWYR±.RWRU 12. Štetiü,Sneåana $WWUDFWLYHQHVV RI 5H 12. Štetiü,Sneåana $WUDNWLYQRVWUH VRXUFHV WKH 0RWLYH IRU 6HOHFWLQJ D 7RXULVW'HVWL VXUVDPRWLY]DRGDELUWXULVWLþNHGHVWLQDFL QDWLRQ 3URFHHGLQJV ³7XULVWLþNLSRWHQFLMDOL-XJR MH =ERUQLN ³7XULVWLþNL SRWHQFLMDOL -XJR VODYLMH´ HQJÄ7RXULVPSRWHQWLDORI 125 ECONOMICS Daria WoƉoǀiđ - 785,67,Î.$9$/25,=$&,-$6$.5$/1,+2%-(.$7$8&512-*25, 678',-( 678',(6 $ODWL]DUD]YRMNXOWXUQRJWXUL]PD5D]YRM 1. Tools for Development of Cultural Tour- SRWHQFLMDOD NXOWXUQRJ WXUL]PD X +UYDWVNRM ism, Development of Cultural Tourism Poten- tial in Croatia) 2008. ,]YHãWDM R VWDQMX NXOWXUQH EDãWLQH 0LQLV 2. Report on the Cultural Heritage of the Min- WDUVWYDNXOWXUH&UQH*RUH istry of Culture of Montenegro), 2005. . 126 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( 7DQMD5LKWDUãLþ Gea College Faculty of Entrepreneurship, Ljubljana, 6ORYHQLD 0DWMDå5LKWDUãLþ Gea College – Centre of Higher Vocational Schools, Ljubljana, 6ORYHQLD 3URIHVVLRQDOSDSHU DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0015, UDK 005.936.43:658.8.012.12]:174-055.2 3URIHVVLRQDOSDSHU 6800$5< ,1752'8&7,21 Taboo 7KLVDUWLFOHVWDUWVZLWKDUHYLHZRIGLIIHUHQW Taboos, ceremonies, rituals and sacri¿ces UHFHQWWKHRUHWLFDOYLHZVDQGSRVLWLRQVRQFXO are often blood-related. Blood is connected WXUH PHQVWUXDWLRQ WDERRV DQG HWKLFDO FRQ with several different meanings. It VXPHUEHKDYLRXU:HSHUIRUPHGDTXDQWLWDWLYH symbolizes life as well as death. It is no UHVHDUFKLQ(QJODQG*HUPDQ\6ORYHQLDDQG secret that menstruation has been a taboo 6ZHGHQRQUHVSRQGLQJIHPDOHVWXGHQWV on a global level for centuries, regardless of DERXWWKHHIIHFWRIFXOWXUDODQGVRFLRORJLFDO the observed differences between cultures. IDFWRUVRQIHPDOHFRQVXPHUEHKDYLRXUZKHQ In anthropological language, the word taboo EX\LQJIHPLQLQHK\JLHQHSURGXFWV&RXQWULHV often relates to cultural prohibitions imposed ZHUHVHOHFWHGGHSHQGLQJRQGLIIHUHQWFXOWXUHV for symbolic, rather than pragmatic, reasons« UHOLJLRQVDQGFRQVXPHUEHKDYLRXU%DVHGRQ (Winthrop 1991 . WKHDFTXLUHGUHVXOWVZHHVWDEOLVKHGDVWUXF It is a fact that, throughout history, menstrual WXUDO PRGHO RI IHPDOH FRQVXPHU EHKDYLRXU blood was regarded as disgraceful and the LQWKHVHOHFWHGFRXQWULHV7KLVPRGHOVKRZHG source of evil and toxicity. Menstruation is D VSLUDO WUDQVIHU RI FXOWXUDO OLPLWDWLRQV DQG a taboo since the time of totemistic cultures SUHMXGLFHVWRWKHUHVSRQGHQWVWXGHQWVWKURXJK when the contact with menstrual blood was WKHHQYLURQPHQW regarded as dangerous. Members of the tribe believed that their totem is Àowing with the Keywords: model of consumer behaviour, blood and that it will destroy any person ethical consumerism, culture, taboo, feminine coming into contact with it (Durkheim 1992 . hygiene. On the other hand, menstrual blood was regarded as sacred and powerful (Stein and JEL: M31, C38 Kim, 2009 . However, it is clearly visible in everyday life, that menstruation remains a taboo also in the Western countries. Kissling (1996 describes modern taboos related to menstruation as ªconcealment, behavioural taboos and communication taboos«. The concealment taboo dictates to women that menstruation is something disgraceful and should be concealed. Advertisers skilfully take advantage of this taboo for the purpose of convincing women that nobody will smell, notice or suspect that they are menstruating if they use their advertised products. Menstruating women are stigmatized and 127 ECONOMICS danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( don¶t discuss their menstruation. 4uite on (Kissling 1996 . There is no doubt that sources the contrary, they hide their menstruation at of information in connection with culture and home as well as in public. Because of the fear social environment have direct impact on the that others will ¿nd out they are menstruating, development of the attitude of women towards women avoid public events, sporting activities menstruation. Besides family environment, and sexual intercourse during the time of their the establishment of positions and attitude menstruation (Britton, 1996 . Some women towards menstruation is also inÀuenced by avoid all activities with limited access to the the wider social environment, where the bathroom such as: camping, concerts, picnics, religion, the girl was raised in and whose etc., all in fear of bleeding and disclosure of values she adopted, plays a very important their menstruation. role. In Europe, menstruation was regarded as sin and a curse until the middle of the 20th The behavioural taboo is related to everyday century. Religions of that time considered life and sporting activities. 33% of US women women as mothers and wives. Female believe that bathing, swimming and sporting sexuality, menstruation and the role of women activities are not allowed during menstruation. in traditional patriarchal societies were taboos The third taboo, communication taboo, with negative connotation. ävelc notes that restricts communication about menstruation, ªwomen who are raised Catholic or who adopt not only in company of men, but also in Catholic religion also adopt the concepts of company of women or in the family circle. this religion which affect their perception and Williams (1983 notes that 33% of suburban the experience of menstruation. The process girls believe that it is inappropriate to talk of identi¿cation with the concepts of the about menstruation with their fathers and church as the process of their inÀuence on the that almost all of them believe that girls experience of menstruation takes place mainly should not talk about menstruation with boys. on the unconscious level« (ävelc 2003 . A Kissling (1996 warns that mothers are more very important role is given to educational comfortable to talk with their daughters about contents about menstruation within the pregnancy than menstruation. Discussion framework of sex and health education in about menstruation is often unpleasant for schools. Experts warn that education about parents and they subconsciously postpone it menstruation is focused on education about or wait for the ªright moment«. This is the the physiology of the menstrual cycle and reason why even today girls are not prepared does not include information about the for their ¿rst menstruation or why they start worries, fears, mood swings, behaviour, etc. searching for information about this topic (Prendergast 1994; Kissling 1996; Rembeck, outside their family circle. Moller and Gunnarsson 2006 . Educational Girls ¿nd information about ¿rst menstruation material on menstruation is often sponsored from various sources such as parents, school, by manufacturers of feminine hygiene friends, media, advertisements (Havens products and contains a lot of negative and Swenson 1989; Britton 1996 . Despite messages and therefore a negative attitude the various sources of information about towards menstruation: Menstruation is dirty, menstruation, girls still report that they shameful and should therefore be concealed received poor information and that they from others (Houppert 1999; Kalman 2003 . were not prepared for their ¿rst menstruation (Koff and Riordan, 1995 . Information about &8/785( menstruation is mainly focused on the role of ovaries, menstruation and reproduction. Such Culture is not characteristic of individuals information is often without practical tips on but always a collective phenomenon since how girls should behave during menstruation, the individual shares it, at least partially, with whether they are allowed to swim, dance, people who live or have lived in the same wash their hair, which products are available, social environment, i.e. where this individual etc., or how they will feel during menstruation learned this culture. Culture is a collective 128 danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( ECONOMICS programming of the mind due to which the Viscose ¿bres were once trees, whilst life- members of an individual group or category threatening pesticides are used in the US differ from other groups or categories for the production of cotton. Applicators are (Hofstede, 2001 . made of plastic materials in combination with Cultural orientation of a particular society petroleum products which are simultaneously reÀects the complex interaction of values, also extremely harmful to the health of the attitudes and behaviours expressed by the workers producing such products. Disposal members of this society. Individuals express of products represents a major problem, their culture through the values which they especially disposal of applicator tubes which acquired in life and from their environment. are a major ecological problem in the US In accordance with their attitudes, values and UK (Davidson, 2012 . Seas and shores demand the most appropriate and effective are overÀown with applicators which are behaviour in a certain situation. The regularly being removed by volunteers in constantly changing behaviour pattern of an clean-up operations. individual and the group affects the culture of the society. The rotation process starts back The ¿eld of feminine hygiene includes from the beginning (Heinze 1995 . all forms of ethical consumerism such as The culture itself affects the life of people positive and negative shopping, i.e. boycott in the community. Cultural patterns strongly and combined approach. In the US as well intertwine with taboos and attitude towards as in UK it is possible to notice anti-tampon menstruation. Behaviour of women and their movements which started in the 1990¶s attitude towards menstruation are connected after the unfortunate events and the TSS in with cultural patterns in form of ªunwritten« connection with µRely¶ tampons. Besides codes of behaviour. TSS, a major problem in the past was dioxin which appeared during bleaching of materials (7+,&$/&21680(5,60 with chlorine. Female US students began to organize themselves in societies with the Brinkmann (2004 considers that there are objective to warn other women about the four types of ethical consumerism: 1 SRVLWLYH danger of the use of tampons. Soon, they VKRSSLQJ, favouring ethical products (FT, started to use the internet to promote the use organic food products, feminine hygiene of ªharmless« products such as the menstrual products made of organic cotton or animal- sponge, cup or washable sanitary pads friendly products ; 2 QHJDWLYH VKRSSLQJ, (Kissling, 2006 . which means avoiding the products with which we do not agree (eggs from caged 02'(/62)(7+,&$/&21680(5 hens or cars with high CO2 emissions, Always sanitary pads ; 3 shopping based %(+$9,285 on corporate policy as a whole (boycotts of Throughout the review of the literature we Nestle and buying µBody Shop¶ products can notice various models of ethical consumer or µNatracare¶ products ; 4 the fourth behaviour. In most cases the very core of the transparent approach is a combination of the model contains the logic of a ªdeliberate previous three and means that the consumer is action« or ªplanned behaviour«. So it is all looking for companies and products together about the knowledge or beliefs that lead to and evaluates which is the most ethical brand. the establishment of positions that effect Information about feminine hygiene products intention and behaviour (De Pelsmacker in and procedures used in their development lead Janssens, 2007 . The intention or behaviour to the development of ethical consumerism can also be affected by the subjective norms in the ¿eld of feminine hygiene. Ethical and factors controlling the behaviour (Hunt consumerism at ¿rst developed in the ¿eld and Vitell 1986; Shaw and Clarke 1999; of the production and use of tampons. The Vitell, Singhapakdi and Thomas 2001; Shaw materials themselves are extremely important. 129 ECONOMICS danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( and Shiu 2002, 2003 . Hunto and Vitellov¶s Shaw and Clark (1999 stress the important model (1986 describes the consumer¶s role of information, literature, advertising decision making process with the help of and labelling of products when establishing various philosophical aspects that represent positions and behaviour, and, on the other the basis for the consumer¶s moral judgement. hand, note the importance of situational On the basis of qualitative research, Shaw factors and product-related factors: price, and Clark (1999 suggested a conceptual availability, accessibility, information and model where the factors affecting beliefs play time. Other studies on the ethical consumer the key role. The core of the above stated behaviour identi¿ed similar factors which models also includes the sequential logic prove that positions often poorly predict ªbeliefs –positions – behaviour«. Transfer ethical consumer behaviour (De Pelsmacker of information about moral questions and/ and Janssens, 2007 . or dilemmas affects the beliefs, positions Browne et al. (2000 and Roberts (1996 and behaviour of the consumer. Behaviour warn about the fact that so-called ªethical is also affected by the detected control of products« are too expensive and that, in the the behaviour or the degree to which the eyes of the consumer, the high price does not consumers believe that their actions will reach outweigh the price premium. Other researches the desired effect, and situational factors such show that the price, quality of the product and as: price, availability and accessibility which convenience of purchase are often the most are added as variables determining intention important factors when deciding to purchase and behaviour. Besides positions towards something. Carrigan and Attalla (2001 FT, subjective norms and control behaviours, believe that ethical shopping arises when, Shaw and Shiu (2002, 2003 also studied during shopping, the consumer does not the role of the moral commitment and self- experience higher costs of the price premium, esteem. The inÀuence of the subjective norm lower quality and poor product accessibility. turned out as statistically irrelevant, whilst On the basis of observations of female the positions and individual characteristics consumer behaviour, feminine hygiene had a tremendous effect on shopping product manufacturers, market trends and decision making. Amongst the limitations theoretical background, we established the authors state that the establishment of a theoretical model which represents the models in the future should include the starting point to test the model of female inÀuence of information. In their model, consumer behaviour. )LJXUH Basic model of female consumer behaviour Culture Envirvoment InformaƟons AƟtude Behavior Buying Behavior 130 danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( ECONOMICS Culture (greatly inÀuenced by religion affects of the value of variables (!1 , scree diagram the environment and information establishing and the interpretation of the acquired factors. the attitude of society and women towards Reliability of data for individual constructs is menstruation. Environment and information checked with Cronbach Alpha. Higher values also have direct effect on behaviour and mean more reliable data. Values of Cronbach consumer behaviour. Attitude of women Alpha ranged between 0.723 and 0.913 which towards menstruation, which can be positive, means that data is very reliable. negative or mixed, directly affects the behaviour inÀuencing consumer behaviour. As a ¿rst step, we had to determine whether the data is adequate for factor analysis. For this 0(7+2'6 purpose we used the Bartlett test and Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin (KMO . As part of the review of the conceptual model 7DEOH Adequacy of variables of constructs we performed an exploratory factor analysis in Culture, Information, Environment and order to reduce the large number of the observed Behaviour KMO and Bartlett's Test KULTURA INFORMACIJE OKOLJE V EDENJE Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. ,758 ,765 ,711 ,740 Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 2180,917 1229,159 948,172 1142,055 Sphericity df 3666 Sig. 0,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 variables to a smaller number of latent variables Reliability p (sig. is for all constructs (factors . With the help of the exploratory lower than 0.05 which means that the test is factor analysis we searched for the answer to statistically signi¿cant and that connections the question of how many factors are needed to between the variables exist also in the present the data (Hair 2010 . population. Values of the KMO test ranged On the basis of the theoretical model we between 0.711 and 0.765 which means that presumed the following factors; culture, the data is adequate for further analysis. In the environment, information and behaviour. second part we determined the communalities Firstly, we must determine the adequacy of of individual variables. We excluded variables data for further analysis. We performed the with inadequate communalities from further factor analysis with the method of maximum research. We set the criterion to exclude all likelihood (ML and the oblique factor rotation variables with communality 0.2. Claims of together with the Kaiser normalization. The individual sets were already determined in the number of factors was determined with the help questionnaire itself. Table 2: Correlations of the selected constructs »Information«, »Behaviour« and »Environment« Factor 1 2 3 4 1 1.000 -.323 .225 .477 INFORMATION 2 -.323 1.000 -.113 -.410 3 .225 -.113 1.000 .140 4 .477 -.410 .140 1.000 1 1.000 0.223 .357 2 ENVIRONMENT -.223 1.000 .398 3 .357 0.398 1.000 1 1.000 -.657 BEHAVIOUR 2 -.657 1.000 Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014. 131 ECONOMICS danũa RiŚƚarƓiē ͕ Daƚũaǎ RiŚƚarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( Structuring equation modelling (SEM is a countries and the procedure of structural statistical method where the con¿rmation equation modelling with the help of AMOS. approach is used to test and con¿rm Basic information about the model can be hypothesis of individual events, actions, found amongst the results of the model. theories or phenomena. Analysis of several 7DEOH Basic information about the structural model different variables is typical. The set model is tested as a whole, whilst individual variables Minimum is reached are tested as a part of the whole (Byrne, 2010 . Validity of our model is tested with structural modelling with the help of the Chi-square = 860.072 AMOS program. Validity is checked with the con¿rmatory factor analysis (CFA of actual Degrees of freedom = 98 data and with the aforementioned exploratory factor analysis (EFA . EFA is aimed to identify Reliability = .000 and reduce the number of variables, whilst CFA is aimed to check whether the observed Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014. variables adequately measure (describe the latent variables and their behaviour also in the structural model. Adequacy of each model is '$7$&2//(&7,216 statistically tested. If the model ¿ts with the data, data is adequate. Connections between Countries were selected depending on different individual constructs show how well they cultures, religions and consumer behaviour. were assumed depending on the theory. The The research sample included 399 units from extent to which the data ¿ts the model can be Slovenia and 1 unusable unit. Research samples measured with various adequacy indices such in other countries: Sweden 240 useful and 3 as RMSEA, GFI, CMIN, RMR, CFI, TLI, unusable units. Germany - 210 useful units and NFI, PNFI and others. 5 unusable units; Great Britain - 232 useful 7DEOH Adequacy model indicators units and 13 unusable units. The research RelaƟve Įt Absolute Įt indices Normed Įt index indices Ȥ2 df p Ȥ2/df RMSEA NFI CFI PNFI Valid values 3,0 0,10 0,8 0,9 0,6 Model 837,204 95 0 8,813 0,086 0,871 0,884 0,69 Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014. pattern therefore included 1,081 respondents The RMSEA indicator amounting to .086 or useful units in total. The majority of units was used as the absolute ¿t value. This is was excluded due to their mismatch with the less than 0.1 and represents a good ¿t. As presumptions of our research because we the basic incremental ¿t indicator we used decided that our research sample only contained the CFI indicator with a value lower than the the population of female students in a certain maximum permissible value. The parsimony selected country. As the limit of usefulness we indicator (PNFI amounted to 0.69 which is determined that at least 90% of all questions higher than the minimum permissible value in the questionnaire had to be answered. We of 0.6. Based on indicators we can conclude considered this as the biggest limitation of our that the data closely ¿ts the model. empirical study (i.e. the study is performed With the above procedure we tried to ¿nd on a ªconvenient« research sample . We shall the structural model of consumer behaviour not be able to generalize the acquired data to in selected countries based on theoretical the whole population. Population of female background, acquired data in individual students was chosen for two reasons: 1 we 132 danũa RiŚtarƓiē ͕ Datũaǎ RiŚtarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( ECONOMICS were interested in the trends of behaviour of country was published on websites of at least young women; 2 we estimated that the life 5 different faculties in the selected countries. style and standard of female students is similar Collection of data took place from the middle in all countries, regardless of the cultural of March 2013 until the end of October 2013. differences between countries. 7DEOH Proportion of units in the research sample depending on the population for indi- vidual countries Country Tertiary education Number of units in ‰ – units of the female students the research sample research sample depending on the population Great Britain 220,000 232 1.1 Germany 1,245,241 210 0.2 Slovenia 52,336 399 7.6 Sweden 160,000 240 1.5 Source: Of¿ce for National Statistics; Destatis Statistisches Bundesamt; Statistiþni ),1',1*6 urad Republike Slovenije; Ukl Universitet Kenslers bmbetet, 2015. As the measure of value of consumer behaviour we used the variable in the model The data was collected with the help of marked COM. We asked the responding a questionnaire. This questionnaire was females how much they spend monthly on prepared on the website portal ªsurveymonkey. feminine hygiene products. The answers were com« which is specialized for research. The less than EUR 3, more than EUR 3 and less questionnaire in the language of the selected than EUR 5, more than EUR 5 and less than EUR 10, more than EUR 10 and less than )LJXUH Monthly expenditure for feminine EUR 15, and more than EUR 15. Answers hygiene products in EUR in the selected were properly valued within the model. countries Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014. 133 ECONOMICS danũa RiŚtarƓiē ͕ Datũaǎ RiŚtarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( 7DEOH Monthly expenditure for feminine hygiene products in EUR in the selected countries Standard Number Arithmetic mean deviation Great Britain 232 2,62 0,86 Germany 209 2,71 0,99 Slovenia 396 3,17 0,99 Sweden 240 3,02 0,74 Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014. )LJXUH Structural model of consumer behaviour Source: Rihtaršiþ, own research 2014 Legend: ³Kultura´ – culture, ³Informacije´, information¶s, ³Okolje´ – environment, ³Vedenje´ – behaviour, ³Com´ – expenses. 134 danũa RiŚtarƓiē ͕ Datũaǎ RiŚtarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( ECONOMICS affects consumer behaviour. Effect on ',6&866,21 information is still weak because certain Weights are presented in the above figure information remain taboo and because of the model. Culture negatively affects the environment only affects them in the environment as well as information. a very limited manner. Influence of This is expected, since lower valued the environment on behaviour is also answers mean more open and modern weak. Direct effect of the environment society, whilst higher valued answers on consumer behaviour is negative. mean more closed and conservative There is still insufficient discussion society. Influence is negative. Influence is on menstruation and feminine hygiene weak or medium and amounts to -0.22 or products in public and scarce research -0.35. Environment affects information. and discussion in academic spheres. In The environment directly and indirectly short, what all four countries from our affects behaviour. Influence on study have in common is that the culture information is weak and amounts to 0.18. negatively affects the environment and This can be explained by the fact that information. On the other hand, good certain information remain taboos and that information is crucial for the development the effect of the environment is minimal. of ethical consumerism and changing of There is still insufficient discussion the consumer behaviour. Values, norms, about menstruation and feminine hygiene rituals, signs and symbols keep changing, products. Nobody wants to get exposed just like Mole says that ªthe culture is a because of these topics. Influence of living and changing system« (Mole, 2003 . information on consumer behaviour is Under the influence of dynamic changes, minimal. Direct effect of the environment cultures change as well. Openness of on consumer behaviour is negative which culture towards menstruation is, on one means that those, who are more open in hand, historically connected with taboos relation to menstruation, spend less. and religion and, on the other hand, also with the dimensions of the culture. &21&/86,216$1',03/,&$7,216 Finally, we can see our above established In this section we would like to especially model of female consumer behaviour underline and emphasize the sociologically as something practically useful and interesting conclusion of our study that something that could be used in the the globalization, daily migration of economy and marketing. The results of the population and access to information in performed research indicate a process of the observed EU countries from the field the spiral transfer of cultural limitations of female behaviour during menstruation, and prejudices to the respondents through blurred the boundary between the urban the environment. and rural population. Nevertheless, it was shown that our above tested 0RGHO Upon completion of the empirical research RI FRQVXPHU EHKDYLRXU indicates great we recognized numerous possibilities to culturally conditioned differences between continue researching menstruation and individual countries. The common model ethical consumerism. Based on secondary confirmed our assumptions (established on data we can conclude that ethical the basis of the insight into the theoretical consumerism appeared in the field of background of the observed phenomenon niche products, but slowly started to gain that the culture has negative affect both weight also in the field of feminine hygiene on the environment and information. products. Nevertheless, information on Environment affects information. The suitable products and manufacturers in environment directly and indirectly Europe is still scarce or non-existing. 135 ECONOMICS danũa RiŚtarƓiē ͕ Datũaǎ RiŚtarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( Besides, there are still not enough The results of the performed research suitable natural products accessible in the indicate a process of spiral transfer of market. Ethical consumerism is a process cultural limitations and prejudices to the based on ªpositions, information and respondents through the environment. knowledge of products« (De Pelsmacker Ethical consumerism in the field of et al. 2005; Jelovac and Rihtaršiþ 2013 . feminine hygiene is currently in the It would be useful to conduct a research development stage. Based on theoretical on the existing ethical female consumers. discourse and the results of the performed Is ethical consumerism in the field empirical research and observation of of feminine hygiene a transfer of the trends we expect an increase of ethical consumer behaviour model from another consumerism in the field of feminine category of products, or has it developed hygiene in the future. independently" 136 danũa RiŚtarƓiē ͕ Datũaǎ RiŚtarƓiē - 02'(/2)&21680(5%(+$9,285)(0,1,1(+<*,(1( ECONOMICS /LWHUDWXUH 12. HOFSTEDE, GEERT &XOWXUH¶V 1. BRIKMANN, JOHANNES. /RRN &RQVHTXHQFHV &RPSDULQJ 9DOXHV %HKDY LQJDWFRQVXPHUEHKDYLRULQDPRUDOSHUVSHF LRUV ,QVWLWXWLRQV DQG 2UJDQL]DWLRQV $FURVV WLYH-RXUQDORI%XVLQHHVV(WKLFV SDJH 1DWLRQV QGHG /RQGRQ 6DJH ± 13. HOUPPERT, KAREN 7KHFXUVH 2. BRITTON, J. 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R. ³%HOLHIVDQG (WKLFVLQ&RQVXPHU&KRLFH $0XOWL $WWLWXGHVRI 138 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 0RPLU/D]DUHYLü Univerzitet u IstoÏnom Sarajevu, Ekonomski fakultet Pale, %RVQDL+HUFHJRYLQD University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economics Pale, %RVQLDDQG+HU]HJRYLQD 6WUXÏQLUDG DOI 10.1515/eoik-2017-0016 , UDK 338.484:502.131.1 3URIHVVLRQDOSDSHU 892' ,1752'8&7,21 7XUL]DP MH YLãH ]DYLVWDQ RG VUHGLQH QHJR 7RXULVPLVPRUHGHSHQGHQWRQWKHHQYLURQPHQW ELOR NRMD GUXJD JUDQD SULYUHGH äLYRWQD WKDQ DQ\ RWKHU HFRQRPLF VHFWRU (QYLURQPHQW VUHGLQD L WXUL]DP þLQH QHGMHOMLYX FMHOLQX DQG WRXULVP PDNH DQ LQWHJUDO ZKROH 0RGHUQ 6DYUHPHQL WXUL]DP ]DKWMHYD ]QDþDMQD WRXULVPGHPDQGVDVLJQL¿FDQWH[SDQVHRIRULJLQDO SURVWUDQVWYD L]YRUQH LOL GREUR ]DãWLüHQH RUZHOOSURWHFWHGHQYLURQPHQWEHFDXVHRQO\LQ åLYRWQH VUHGLQH MHU VH VDPR QD WDNYLP WKRVHDUHDVLWFDQEHV\VWHPDWLFDOO\GHYHORSHG SURVWRULPDPRåHSODQVNLUD]YLMDWLLGRQRVLWL WR FUHDWH HFRQRPLF DQG VRFLDO EHQH¿WV IRU WKH HNRQRPVNHLGUXãWYHQHNRULVWLLVWDQRYQLãWYX LQKDELWDQWV UHFHSWLYH DQGWRXULVWV LQLWLDWLYH UHFHSWLYD LWXULVWLPD LQLFLMDWLYD 1DXND )RU WKH QHHGV RI WKH WRXULVP VFLHQFH DQG LW¶V LRSHUDWLYD]DSRWUHEHWXUL]PDXYDåDYDQL] SUDFWLFDO DSSOLFDWLRQ DFNQRZOHGJH D QXPEHU SR]LWLYQLK RGQRVD SUHPD åLYRWQRM VUHGLQL RI SRVLWLYH DWWLWXGHV WRZDUGV WKH HQYLURQPHQW MHUVXQHNLQMHQLHOHPHQWLSRVHEQHWXULVWLþNH EHFDXVH VRPH RI LWV HOHPHQWV KDYH VLJQL¿FDQW YULMHGQRVWL =D SRWUHEH WXUL]PD LVWLþH VH WRXULVWYDOXHV7KHQHHGWRUHVSHFWWKHSULQFLSOH SRWUHED XYDåDYDQMD QDþHOD DNWLYQH ]DãWLWH RI DFWLYH SURWHFWLRQ RI WKH HQYLURQPHQW PXVW åLYRWQHVUHGLQH MHU MH XYHN EROMH SODQLUDWL EH KLJKOLJKWHG EHFDXVH LW LV DOZD\V EHWWHU QHJRVDQLUDWLQHJDWLYQHSRVOMHGLFH WR SODQ DKHDG WKDQ WR UHKDELOLWDWH QHJDWLYH 6YH YHüD ]DLQWHUHVRYDQRVW ]HPDOMD X FRQVHTXHQFHV VYLMHWX ]D UD]YRM WXULVWLþNRJ VHNWRUD VH 7KH JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW RI FRXQWULHV IRU WKH SULMH VYHJD REMDãQMDYD þLQMHQLFRP GD GHYHORSPHQWRIWKHWRXULVPVHFWRULVSULPDULO\ UD]YRM WXUL]PD SURL]YRGL EURMQH SR]LWLYQH H[SODLQHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH GHYHORSPHQW HNRQRPVNHHIHNWH QDGUXãWYHQLSURL]YRGL RI WRXULVP SURGXFHV D QXPEHU RI SRVLWLYH QDFLRQDOQLGRKRGDNLQMLKRYXWHULWRULMDOQX HFRQRPLF HIIHFWV LW LQÀXHQFHV JURVV QDWLRQDO SUHUDVSRGMHOX QD GMHODWQRVWL WXULVWLþNH SURGXFW QDWLRQDO LQFRPH DQG WKHLU WHUULWRULDO SULYUHGH QD ]DSRVOHQRVW VWDQRYQLãWYD UHGLVWULEXWLRQDFWLYLWLHVRIWKHWRXULVPLQGXVWU\ QDSODWQLELODQVLGUXJH WHGDVHWXUL]DP HPSOR\PHQW RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ EDODQFH RI PRåHLVNRULVWLWLNDRIDNWRUEUåHJSULYUHGQRJ SD\PHQWV DQG RWKHU DQG WKDW WRXULVP FDQ UD]YRMD 8 GUXJRM SRORYLQL ;; YLMHND EH XVHG DV D IDFWRU WR DFFHOHUDWH HFRQRPLF MH X PQRJLP WXULVWLþNLP ]HPOMDPD ELR JURZWK ,Q WKH VHFRQG KDOI RI WKH WZHQWLHWK SULPMHQMLYDQ NRQFHSW UD]YRMD WXUL]PD NRML FHQWXU\ D FRQFHSW RI WRXULVP GHYHORSPHQW MH YRGLR UDþXQD LVNOMXþLYR R RVWYDUHQMX WKDWFRQFHQWUDWHGRQO\RQDFKLHYLQJHFRQRPLF HNRQRPVNLKFLOMHYDUD]YRMDWXUL]PDNRMLVH JRDOV WKDW LV D FRQFHSW UHGXFHG WR DFKLHYLQJ ]DSUDYR VYRGH QD RVWYDULYDQMH ãWR YHüHJ PD[LPDO SUR¿WV ZDV DSSOLHG LQ PDQ\ WRXULVW SUR¿WD 0HÿXWLP LDNR L GDQDV RVWYDUHQMH FRXQWULHV +RZHYHU DOWKRXJK WKH DFKLHYHPHQW HNRQRPVNLK LQWHUHVD LPD SULRULWHW PQRJH RI HFRQRPLF LQWHUHVWV LV D SULRULW\ HYHQ WRGD\ ]HPOMHVXSRþHOHGDVYHYLãHREUDüDMXSDåQMX PDQ\FRXQWULHVKDYHEHJXQWRSD\PRUHDWWHQWLRQ ,QDHNRORãNHLQWHUHVHGHVWLQDFLMD WRWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQWHUHVWVRIGHVWLQDWLRQV 139 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 87,&$-785,=0$1$ij,9271865(',18 ,1)/8(1&(2)7+(7285,60217+( (19,5210(17 Meÿunarodni turizam u þitavom periodu International tourism in the whole period nakon Drugog svjetskog rata biljeåi izuzetno after The World War II records extremely povoljnu dinamiku razvoja odnosno kontinuirani favourable dynamics of development, that godišnji rast. Prema najnovijim podacima is, continuous annual growth. According Svjetske turistiþke organizacije (Worid Tourism to the latest data from the World Tourism 1 Organization - WTO u 2007. godini je u Organisation (WTO 1, 898 million tourists meÿunarodnom turizmu uþestvovalo þak 898 participated in the international tourism in miliona turista, a ostvarena je godišnja stopa rasta 2007 and annual growth rate of 6.50% in od 6,50 % u periodu od 1950. godine do 2007. the period from 1950 to 2007 was achieved. godine. Procjene Svjetske turistiþke organizacije According to estimate by the World Tourism su da bi do 2020. godine broj turista koji uþestvuju Organisation, the number of tourists who u meÿunarodnom turizmu mogao da iznosi þak i participate in international tourism could 2 1,6 milijardi. reach 1.6 billion by 2020. 2 Ovako dinamiþan razvoj turistiþke industrije Such a dynamic development of tourism industry ima brojne pozitivne, ali i negativne efekte has a number of positive and negative effects on na razvoj turistiþkih destinacija. Turizam je the development of tourist destinations. Tourism više zavistan od sredine nego bilo koja druga is more dependent on the environment than djelatnost, jer samo þista i nezagaÿena åivotna any other activity, because only a clean and sredina moåe biti osnova za uspješno bavljenje unpolluted environment can be a good base for turizmom. Takoÿe, turizam je i glavni korisnik successful tourism. Also, tourism is the main sredine jer se skoro sve aktivnosti turista user of the environment because almost all (bilo da je u pitanju šetnja, ronjenje, ribolov tourist activities (walking, diving, ¿shing and i druge zasnivaju na korišüenju sredine i others are based on the use of environment and svakako znaþajno utiþu na nju. certainly have a signi¿cant impact on it. Pod uticajem turizma dolazi do transformacije Under the inÀuence of tourism, the environmental prostora koja moåe biti pozitivna i negativna. area is transformed, which can be positive or U vezi sa tim se u literaturi najþešüe pominju negative. In this regard, the literature most frequently kao pozitivni efekti turizma u prostoru: mentions these positive effects of tourism on the obnavljanje i restauracija postojeüih istorijskih area: the renovation and restoration of existing mjesta. zgrada i spomenika, transformacija historical sites, buildings and monuments, the postojeüih starih zgrada i mjesta u turistiþke transformation of the existing old buildings and objekte, zaštita prirodnih resursa, donošenje places into tourist facilities, the protection of natural raznih administrativnih i planskih mjera za resources, the adoption of various administrative zaštitu pojedinih prostora, unaprijeÿenje and planed measures for the protection of certain dostupnosti prostora kao i stvaranje novih areas, the improvement of the availability of space turistiþkih prostora, izgraÿivanje svijesti o and the creation of new tourist space, the building of 3 åivotnoj sredini i drugi. awareness about the environment and other.3 Isto tako, pominju se i sledeüi negativni Similarly, the following negative effects of the impact efekti uticajaturizmana sredinu: zagaÿenje of tourism on the environment are mentioned: the prostorausljed izgradnje turistiþkih objekata i pollution of the area due to the construction of tourist opreme, zagaÿenje vazduha, vode, zemljišta, facilities and equipment, the pollution of air, water vazdušno zagaÿenje, smanjenje prirodnih and soil, the reduction of natural agricultural land, poljoprivrednih površina, uništavanje Àore i the destruction of Àora and fauna, the degradation 1http://media.unwto.org/ 2Ogorelc, A. (2001): Mednarodni turizem, Ekonomsko poslovna fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Maribor 3Prof. dr Dragan Bataveljić: Značaj i uticaj turizma na privredu Republike Srbije 140 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS faune, degradacija pejzaåa i kulturno-istorijskih of the landscape, cultural and historical monuments, spomenika, zakrþavanje prostora, geološki overcrowding of space, various geological forms oblici degradacije, prostorna redistribucija of degradation, the spatial redistribution of the stanovištva i banalizacija prostora. population and banalisation of space. Dakle, razvoj turizma ima negativan uticaj Therefore, the development of tourism has a na prostor u smislu njegovog uništavanja te negative impact on the environment in terms of its se tako turizam þesto pominje i kao ³ äderaþ destruction, so tourism is often referred to as ³eater prostora´. of space.´ Time se zapravo ukazuje na opasnost da This fact points to the dangers of uncontrolled nekontrolisani razvoj turizma moåe da tourism development that could lead to the dovede do uništavanja åivotne sredine, a destruction of the environment on one hand, and on the other hand, the environment degraded in such da sa druge strane i tako narušena åivotna manner would negatively affect the development sredina negativno utiþe na razvoj turizma. of tourism. Therefore, a prerequisite for the Dakle, preduslov za razvoj turizma je prije development of tourism is, ¿rst of all, good quality svega, kvalitetno i oþuvano okruåenje of environment and preserved environment, that is, odnosno zdrava åivotna sredina. a healthy environment. 92'$ :$7(5 Voda , posebno voda za piüe , je jedna od Water, especially potable water, is one of the most najkritiþnijih prirodnih resursa . Industrija essential natural resources. Tourism industry turizma uglavnompretjerano koristi resurs excessively uses water for hotels, swimming vode za svoje hotele , bazene , terene za golf , pools, golf courses, for the use of tourists, etc. za upotrebu turista itd. Ovo moåeda dovede do This can lead to water shortage. In dry regions, nedostatka vode. U sušnim podruþjima kao što such as the Mediterranean, the water shortage is je Mediteran, nedostatak vode je primjetan . noticeable. Because of the warm Mediterranean =bog tople mediteranske klime iobiþaja turista climate and habit of tourists to consume more da konzumiraju više vode na odmoru nego kod water on holiday than at home, the amount of kuüe, koliþina potrošene vode moåe da poraste water consumed can reach 440 litres per day. do 440 litara dnevno. To je skoro duplo nego This is almost double the amount inhabitants of što stanovnici španskih gradova potroše. Spanish cities consume. Odråavanje terena za golf zahtjeva veliku Maintenance of a golf course requires a large koliþinu þiste vode. U skorije vreme golf amounts of clean water. Recently, golf tourism turizam je postaoveoma popularan i broj golf has become very popular and the number of golf terena se brzo poveüava. Golf tereni zahtjevaju courses is rapidly increasing. Golf courses require izuzetno velike koliþine vodesvekoga dana, very large amounts of water every day and this ovo pretjerano korišüenje vode moåe da excessive use of water can lead to water shortages. dovede do nestašice vode. Ako se voda If the water is supplied from wells, excessive dovodi izbunara, pretjerano crpljenje moåe da pumping may lead to the land slides. To make dovede do urušavanja zemljišta. Da situacija things worse, golf courses are being built more and bude jos gora golftereni se sve više prave na more in places where the water resource is limited mjestima gdje je resurs vode ograniþen ili or close to protected areas, thus making their bluzu zaštiüenjih podruþja pa jenjihov uticaj impact even greater. For example, we can look at još veüi. =a primjer moåemo da pogledamo golf courses in tropical country Thailand, which terene u tropskoj zemlji Tajland , koji trošeoko consume about 1500 kg of fertilizer, pesticides, 1500kg djubriva , pesticida , herbicida i koriste herbicides and use an amount of water equal to the vodu kao 60,000 ljudi u toj zemlji. one that 60,000 people in that country consume. 141 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 Golf tereni na Tajlandu Golf courses in Thailand 9$='8+ $,5 ýist vazduh je bio i ostao jedan od na- Clean air has been one of the most import- jvaånijih elemenata prvobitne ponude ant elements of the original offer of tourist turistiþkih i izletiþkih odredišta. Neka and excursion destinations. Some of today¶s od danas velikih i poznatih alpskih tur- largest and most renowned Alpine tourist istiþkih mjesta, poput Davosa i Arose, resorts, such as Davos and Arosa, used to nekad su bila klimatska ljeþilišta. To vaåi be health resorts. This is true for many other i za mnoga druga turistiþka mjesta u po- tourist destination in areas rich with woods druþjima bogatim šumom ili na moru. or seaside areas. The results of new medical Nova medicinska istraåivanja došla su do research conclude that staying in high alti- rezultata da boravak u visinama ne djeluje tude areas doesn¶t have a stimulative effect simulativno samo na sportiste nego i na only on athletes but also on µordinary¶ tour- ³obiþne´ turiste. ists. Danas þist i zdrav vazduh, doduše, više However, today clean and healthy air is no nije, kao nekada, glavni razlog za boravak longer the main reason for spending time in a u odreÿenom mjestu, ali je za mnoge goste certain place as before, but for many guests, i dalje vaåan faktor pri izboru odredišta. it is still an important factor in the choice of Do zagadjenja vazduha dolazi usljed za- destination. Air is getting polluted due to the grijavanja prostorija, ispuštanja štetnih heating of rooms, the emissions of harmful gasova iz automobila i drugi prevoznih gases from cars and other means of trans- sredstava, prevelikih koliþina CO2 itd. port, excessive amounts of CO2, etc. 142 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS .5$-2/,. /$1'6&$3( Krajolik jeste i ostaje jedan od najvaånijih, The landscape is and will be one of the most a mnogi kaåu þak i najvaåniji element important, and many say even the most import- turistiþke ponude. Mnoga istraåivanja ant element of the tourist offer. A lot of studies potvrÿuju da gosti najviši prioritet daju con¿rm that guests give the highest priority to krajoliku kako pri izboru destinacije the landscape, when choosing a destination and tako i pri vrijednovanju. Neki krajolici assessing its value. Some landscapes can con- mogu pridonijeti funkciji odmora i tribute to the function of vacation and creation stvaranju vrijednosti, samo ako ga turisti of value, only if tourists perceive them as beau- doåivljavaju lijepim. Postoje tri osnovna tiful. There are three basic types of landscapes: tipa krajolika: prirodni, prirodi bliski natural landscapes, cultivated landscapes close kultivirani krajolici i civilizacijski, to nature and civilised landscapes, transformed preoblikovani tehnikom i industrijom. by technology and industry. However, people Meÿutim ljudi malo obraüaju paånju pay little attention to the fragility and irrepara- na krhkost i nepopravljivost krajolika ble nature of the landscapes, and the amount of i koliko se štete po okolinu turizam damage tourism can cause to the environment. moåe da ima. Najvaåniji faktori turizma The most important effects of tourism on the na krajolik su: trošenje zemljišta i landscape are: the depletion of land and disto- nagrÿivanje krajolika. ration of the landscape. /2.$/1,5(6856, /2&$/5(62856(6 Turizam moåe da izazove veliki pritisak Tourism can create a great pressure on na lokalne resurse kao sto su : energija, local resources, such as energy, food and hrana i druge sirovematerijale koji su veü other raw materials which are already in u nedostatku. =bog toga što je turizam short supply. Because tourism is mostly uglavnom sezonskog tipa. Mnoga mjesta se seasonal, many places have several times suoþavaju sa višestruko veüom populacijom higher population during the tourist tokom turistiþke sezone nego van sezone.4 season than out of season.4 '(*5$'$&,-$=(0/-,ę7$ /$1''(*5$'$7,21 =aþajni resursi koje koristi industrija Important resources used by the tourism turizma ukljuþuju : minerale , fosilna industry include: minerals, fossil fuels, goriva , plodno zemljište , šume,moþvare fertile land, forests, wetlands and wildlife. i åivotinjski svijet . Poveüanje izgradnje The increase of the construction of facilities 4http://www.bhtourism.ba/loc/ 143 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 objekata za turizam i rekreaciju dovode for tourism and recreation lead to increase do poveüanogpritiska na te resurse i of pressure on these resources and the na izgled predjela. Direktan uticaj na appearance of the area. A direct impact on prirodne resurse , bili oni obnovljivi natural resources, whether they are renewable ilineobnovljivi , u svrhu snadbjevanja or non-renewable, for the purpose of supply turistiþkih objekata mogu da nastanu of tourist facilities, is made by using the korišüenjem zemljišta za smeštajturista land for tourist accommodation and other i drugih infrastrukturnihobjekata kao i infrastructure, as well as by using materials korišüenje materijala za njihovu izgradnju. for their construction. )/25$,)$81$ )/25$$1')$81$ Flora ( biljni svijet i fauna ( åivotinjski Flora (vegetation and fauna (wildlife , as svijet kao karakteristiþni sastavni typical components of landscape, are of dijelovi krajolika imaju veliko znaþenje great importance for leisure and tourism. za slobodno vrijeme i turizam. Ako If we think of the forests, then vegetation pomislimo na šumu, onda vegetacija does not only have recreational, but nema samo rekreacijsku, nego i zaštitnu also a protective role, which is essential ulogu, kojoj posebno u planinskom especially in the mountain area. We prostoru, pripada središnje znaþenje. Ne should not neglect the productive function treba zanemariti ni proizvodnu funkciju either (wood, energy, medicinal plants... . ( drvo, energija, ljekovito bilje.. .Veliko Great significance of fauna for tourism znaþenje faune za turizam sastoji se u lies in the fact that animals are the main tome što åivotinje u mnogim krajevima attraction for tourists in many regions. predstavljaju glavnu atrakciju za turiste. This is most obvious with safari, or the To se najbolje vidi kod safarija. Ili ribe za fish for the divers in the Maldives, or ronioce na Maldivima ili svisci i divokoze fireflies and mountain goats in the Alps. za planine u Alpama. Industrija turizma i Tourism and leisure activities have an slobodno vrijeme na floru i faunu djeluje, effect on flora and fauna, on one hand by s jedne strane, izgradnjom infrastrukture,a building infrastructure, and on the other, s druge strane, aktivnostima specifiþnim through the activities specific for tourism za turizam i slobodno vrijeme. Sve and leisure. All activities that take place aktivnosti koje se odvijaju u prirodi imaju in nature have an impact on flora and uticaj na floru i faunu. Neke od aktivnosti fauna. Some of the activities that affect koje utiþu na floru i faunu jesu: alpsko flora and fauna are: alpine skiing, water skijanje, spotrovi na vodi, paragliding te sports, paragliding, as well as seasonal sezonski sportovi. sports. 144 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS ./,0$ &/,0$7( Kod klime i klimatskih promjena radi se o Climate and climate change are global globalnom fenomenu. Savremena de¿nicija phenomena. In modern de¿nition, climate klime je opisuje kao dinamiþki sitem u kome is described as a dynamic system which is uþestvuju i jedni na druge djeluju : atmosfera, comprised of and inÀuenced by: atmosphere, okeani, ledeni i snjeåni pokrivaþ, procesi na oceans, ice and snow cover, ground processes tlu (litosfera i biosfera ukljuþujuüi þovjeka . (lithosphere and biosphere, including Naravno svaki od ovih uþesnika ima svoje zakone humans. Naturally, each of these factors has i dinamiku na koje vrše uticaj druge komponente its own laws and dynamics which affect other i tako ih mijenjaju . U vazdušnom i drumskom components and thus change them. The air saobraüaju nastaje najveüi dio emisija koje utoþu and road traf¿c produce most of the emissions na klimu, a izazvane su turizmom. Svjedoci smo that affect the climate, and these are caused by da se globalna klima menja. Veüina promjena tourism. We are witnessing the global climate se moåe pripisati uticaju ljudskih aktivnosti; change. Most of the changes can be attributed istovremeno u poveüanju emisije ugljen- to the impact of human activities: at the same dioksida i drugih gasova i stvaranju efekta time the increase of carbon dioxide and other ³staklene bašte³, kao i u uticaju na smanjenje gases, generation of ³greenhouse´ effect, kapaciteta prirodne sredine da apsorbuje stvoreni as well as the reduction of environment¶s ugljen-dioksid. Turistiþke aktivnosti znaþajno capacity to absorb the carbon dioxide doprinose globalnoj proizvodnji ugljen- generated. Tourist activities signi¿cantly dioksida, kroz saobraüaj, grijanje, hlaÿenje i contribute to the global production of carbon ostale oblike trošenja energije. Ova industrija dioxide, through transport, heating, cooling je takoÿe i znaþajno pogoÿena klimatskim and other forms of energy consumption. This promjenama, globalno i lokalno. Prilagoÿavanje industry is also greatly affected by climate moguüim promjenama i smanjivanje doprinosa change, globally and locally. Adjusting turizma klimatskim promjenama, predstavljaju to the possible changes and reducing the glavnu brigu za turistiþku industriju u cijelom contribution of tourism to climate change svijetu. Putem inicijalnih razmjena mišljenja o are the main concerns in the tourism industry klimatskim promjenama, veüina nacija je poþela worldwide. Through the initial exchange of da identi¿kuje svoje moguünosti u smanjivanju views on climate change, most of the nations emisije gasova u svakom sektoru, ili da have begun to identify their opportunities ublaåi potencijalnu štetu nastalu vremenskim to reduce emissions in every sector and to nepogodama. mitigate potential damages caused by the Klimatske promjene5 mogu uticati na turizam na extreme weather conditions. više naþina: Climate change may affect tourism in several Promjenjivi i nestabilni vremenski uslovi ways: oteåaüe funkcionisanje i planiranje u turizmu; Variable and unstable weather conditions Prirodne vremenske katastrofe mogu naškoditi will make operation and planning in tourism turistiþkoj infrastrukturi, prirodnom i kulturnom very dif¿cult; blagu i lokalnim zajednicama; mnogo turistiþke Natural weather disasters can harm tourism infrastrukture je locirano u osjetljivim infrastructure, natural and cultural treasures podruþjima; and local communities; a lot of tourism Klimatske promjene mogu uticati na nivo infrastructure is located in sensitive areas; komfora turista, kao i na broj aktivnosti; Climate change may affect tourist¶s level of Poveüanje nivoa i temperature mora ugroåavaju comfort, as well as, a number of activities; priobalne i ostrvske destinacije, kao i luþke Increasing levels and temperature of seas threaten gradove; coastal and island destinations, as well as the port Klimatske promjene mogu uticati na prirodna cities; 5The strategy for adapting to climate change and low-emission development (United Nations Development Program, Bosnia and Herzegovina 145 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 staništa i biodiverzitet, koji su glavna atrakcija Climate change may affect the natural habitats ekoturista i ljubitelja prirode; and biodiversity, which are the main attraction of Promjena u koliþini padavina i ecotourists and nature lovers; hidrološki ciklus mogu uticati na dostupnost Changes in precipitation and hydrological izvora slatke vode na destinaciji, što je osnovna cycle may affect the availability of freshwater potreba turista; resources in the area, which is a basic need of Smanjivanje snjeånih padavina direktno tourists; utiþe na planinski i ski-turizam. Decreasing snowfall has a direct impact on Mnoge turistiþke aktivnosti (skijanje, plivanje, the mountain and ski tourism. divlji svijet, turizam baziran na prirodi Many tourist activities (skiing, swimming, wildlife, zahtjevaju speci¿þne vremenske uslove. Malo nature-based tourism require speci¿c weather poveüanje zimske temperature, na primjer, conditions. A small increase in winter temperatures, eliminisaüe ski centre na niåim padinama Alpa. for example, will eliminate the ski-centres on Odgovor turista na klimatske promjene moåe the lower slopes of the Alps. Tourist response to biti negativan utisak o atraktivnosti destinacije climate change can be a negative impression of the (na primjer, mrtav koral, oskudnost vrsta, attractiveness of the destination (for example, dead gubitak staništa . coral, scarcity of species, loss of habitat . 87,&$-,785,=0$.2-,'235,126( ,03$&72)7285,60:+,&+&2175,%87(6 8=52&,0$./,0$76.,+3520-(1$ 727+(&$86(62)&/,0$7(&+$1*( Iako zagaÿenje u turizmu utiþe na brojne Although pollution in tourism affects many aspects aspekte turistiþkih aktivnosti, osnovni problem of tourist activities, basic problem lies in the use se odnosi na upotrebu i korišüenje transportnih of means of transport, primarily, in passenger and sredstava, prije svega u putniþkom i vazdušnom air transport. In the wider context of sustainable saobraüaju. U širem okviru odråivosti razvoja u development in tourism, impacts of tourism on turizmu, uticaji turizma na klimatske promjene climate change can be linked to the consumption of se mogu povezati sa potrošnjom vode i energije water and energy per capita, as well as, the impact po glavi stanovnika, kao i uticaj koji turizam that tourism can have on Àora and fauna. Tourism moåe imati na Àoru i faunu. Turizam doprinosi contributes to carbon dioxide emissions, primarily stvaranju ugljen – dioksida, prije svega putem through transportation, heating and cooling of transporta, grijanja i hlaÿenja objekata za facilities for accommodation, where mainly fossil smeštaj, pri þemu se uglavnom koriste fosilna fuels are used. goriva. In order to reduce the negative effects of tourism, it Da bi se smanjili negativni uticaji turizma, potrebno je prihvatiti enviromentalne is necessary to accept environmental management upravljaþke tehnike i tehnologije. =a destinacije techniques and technologies. It is important for je vaåno da odgovore klimatskim promjenama destinations to respond to climate change by uvoÿenjem razliþitih strategija kao što su veüa introducing various strategies, such as greater energetska e¿kasnost i upotreba goriva sa manje energy ef¿ciency and the use of fuel with less ugljenika. carbon. 146 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS 2'5ij,9,5$=92- 6867$,1$%/('(9(/230(172) 785,=0$ 7285,60 Odråivi turizam u svom najþistijem smislu, Sustainable tourism, in its purest sense, is a branch podrazumjeva privrednu granu koja vrši of economy that exerts minimal impact on the minimalan uticaj na åivotnu sredinu i lokalnu environment and local culture, while helping gain kulturu, istovremeno pomaåuüi sticanje zarade, pro¿ts, creating new jobs and protecting local nova radna mjesta i zaštitu lokalnih ekosistema. ecosystems. Namely, responsible tourism has a Naime, to je odgovoran turizam koji se prijateljski friendly attitude towards the natural and cultural odnosi prema prirodnoj i kulturnoj baštini. 6 heritage. 6 Najjednostavnija de¿nicija jeste da se Äpod Its simplest de¿nition is: ³the sustainable tourism odråivim turizmom podrazumjeva svaki includes every type of tourism that contributes to vid turizma koji doprinosi zaštiti åivotne environmental protection, social and economic sredine, socijalnog i ekonomskog integriteta i integrity and improvement of natural, created and unapreÿivanju prirodnih, stvorenih i kulturnih cultural values on an ongoing basis.´ vrijednosti na trajnoj osnovi´. The main objective of this type of tourism is to Glavni cilj ovakvog vida turizma je da enable people to enjoy and acquire knowledge se omoguüi ljudima uåivanje i sticanje about the natural, historical and cultural features of znanja o prirodnim, istorijskim i kulturnim unique environments, while preserving the integrity karakteristikama jedinstvenog okruåenja, of the area and fostering the economic development uz oþuvanje integriteta mjesta i podsticanje and welfare of the local community. ekonomskog razvoja i dobrobiti lokalne To achieve development of sustainable tourism, an zajednice. integrated approach to its planning and management Da bi se postigao razvoj odråivog turizma, is necessary. Growing need for combining the needs neophodan je integralni pristup njegovom of the traditional urban management (transport, planiranju i upravljanju. Primjetna je sve veüa planning of land exploitation, marketing, economic potvrda neophodnosti kombinovanja potreba development, ¿re protection with the need to plan tradicionalnog urbanog upravljanja (saobraüaj, tourist activities is noticeable. planiranje eksploatacije zemljišta, marketinga, By no means does the sustainable development ekonomskog razvoja, zaštite od poåara sa aim to halt the development of tourism but to potrebom planiranja turistiþkih djelatnosti. enable its development in a such a manner that Odråivi razvoj, ni u kom sluþaju nema za cilj da allows tourists to see and experience what they zaustavi razvoj turizma veü da omoguüi njegov want without destroying the features that attracted razvoj na naþin da turisti vide i doåive ono them in the ¿rst place. At the same time, society, što åele, ali da pritom ne unište same þinioce culture and environment of tourist destinations are koji su ih privukli. U isto vrijeme, društvo, not destroyed nor threatened. The tourism industry kultura i okruåenje ljudi koji åive u turistiþkim needs to communicate with local communities and destinacijama nisu uništeni niti ugroåeni. involve them in the development. Turistiþka industrija treba da komunicira sa The tendency for the introduction of international lokalnim zajednicama i da ih ukljuþi u razvoj. standards is very important for the application of Teånja za uvoÿenjem meÿunarodnih standarda the concept of sustainable tourism development. je veoma bitna za primjenu koncepta odråivog International organisations, such as the ECEAT and razvoja turizma. Meÿunarodne organizacije, the EuroGites, have a special role in this process. kao što su ECEAT i EuroGites, imaju posebnu Representing the NGO sector, these organisations, ulogu u tom procesu. Predstavljajuüi nevladin as the associations of national organisations, sektor, ove organizacije, kao udruåenja signi¿cantly accelerate the development of different nacionalnih organizacija, time znaþajno forms of sustainable tourism, as well as, local pospješuju razvoj razliþitih oblika odråivog 6Strategija razvoja turizma Federacije Bosne I Hercegovine za period 2008-2018 147 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 turizma kao i lokalnu inicijativu. CenORT, kao initiative. CenORT, as a member of ECEAT and þlan ECEAT-a i EuroGites-s, sa svoje strane üe the EuroGites, will strive to extend this process to teåiti da ovaj proces proširi i na Srbiju. To bi Serbia as well. It will have a very bene¿cial impact veoma povoljno uticalo na promociju i komercijalizaciju on the promotion and commercialisation of products proizvoda vezanih za turizam posebnih interesovanja related to special interest tourism, for which Serbia za koje Srbija posjeduje odgovarajuüe resuse (posebno has adequate resources (especially rural and eco- seoski i eko turizam . 7 tourism . 7 7http://europa.ba/?p=46071 148 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS =$./-8Î$. &21&/86,21 Nekontrolisana upotreba prirodnih izvora i Uncontrolled use of natural resources and zagaÿenje åivotne sredine radi ostvarivanja environmental pollution in order to achieve što veüih ekonomskih koristi dugoroþno the highest possible economic bene¿ts has negativno utiþe na þitavo þovjeþanstvo. a long-term negative impact on the whole Odgovornim ponašanjem sadašnjih humanity. Responsible behaviour of the current generacija se mogu umanjiti posljedice po generation can reduce the consequences for buduüe naraštaje. Odråivi turizam je model the future generations. Sustainable tourism is razvoja koji, prije svega, podrazumjeva a development model that, ¿rst of all, implies jedno odgovorno ponašanje kada je u pitanju a responsible behavior when it comes to the åivotna sredina i korišüenje prirodnih environment and use of natural resources. resursa. Odråivi razvoj turizma kao cilj sebi Primarily, sustainable tourism development postavlja, prije svega ³oþuvanje svih bitnih as a goal sets µthe preservation of all essential vrijednosti okruåenja. kao djela turistiþkog values of the environment as a part of the proizvoda, i postizanja neophodne ravnoteåe tourism product and the achievement of the u kojoj zadovoljavanje sadašnjih potreba necessary balance which will meet the current turista neüe ugroziti zadovoljavanje potreba needs of tourists and not jeopardize the needs of buduüih generacija´. Iz toga proizilazi da future generations¶. It follows that the bene¿ts se koristi od odråivog turizma proteåu na of sustainable tourism can have long lasting dugoroþne staze, i da se nikako ne moåe effects, and that we can not be talking only govoriti samo o nekom kratkoroþnom about a short-term positive impact. pozitivnom efektu. It is also very important to note is that this concept Ono što je takoÿe veoma vaåno istaüi jeste is equally acceptable, from the standpoint of the da je ovaj koncept podjednako prihvatljiv, interests of the bearers of the tourist offer as well kako sa stanovišta interesa nosilaca as the bearers of tourist demand. Ecological turistiþke ponude, tako i nosilaca turistiþke basis of tourist offer is very important for one traånje. Ekološka osnova tunstiþke ponude as well as the other. Interest of the bearers of je veoma znaþajna i za jedne i za druge. tourist offer is Iogical and very clear, because Interes nosilaca ponude u turizmu je only healthy and protected environment enables Iogiþan i sasvim jasan, jer samo zdrava successful tourism in the long run. On the other i oþuvana åivotna sredina omoguüuje hand, it is a fact that the number and inÀuence uspješno bavljenje turizmom na dugi rok. of consumers who insist on environmental A sa druge strane þinjenica je da u svijetu tourist offer is growing in the world and the raste broj i uticaj potrošaþa koji insistiraju requirements of this part of the tourist demand na ekološkoj prihvatljivosti turistiþke must be taken into account more and more. ponude te se zahtjevi ovog dijela turistiþke At the same time, it is very important for the traånje moraju sve više uvaåavati. successful implementation of sustainable Pri tome, za uspješno sprovoÿenje odråivog tourism in practice that the local community turizma u praksi je veoma znaþajno da recognises the bene¿ts they will gain and it lokalna zajednica prepozna koristi koje üe is also important to establish some kind of imati od toga i da se uspostavi neka vrsta partnership between the private sector and partnerskog odnosa izmeÿu privatnog local community. One of the major differences sektora i lokalne zajednice. Upravo je jedna between the old and the new concept of od bitnih razlika izmeÿu starog i novog tourism development is in the fact that in koncepta razvoja turizma u tome što su u the old concept the interested parties were starom konceptu zainteresovane strane bile poorly interconnected, while modern concept slabo meÿusobno povezane, dok savremeni of development implies the partnership koncept razvoja podrazumjeva partnerstvo i and the interconnectedness of all interested meÿusobnu povezanost svih zainteresovanih parties (tourism enterprises, local population, 149 ECONOMICS Domir >anjareviđ - 87,&$-785,=0$1$Ŀ,9271865(',18 uþesnika (turistiþkih preduzeüa, lokalnog tourists . stanovništva. turista . As we have seen, sustainable tourism Kao što smo vidjeli, odråivi turizam requires the effort of all parties interested in zahtjeva napore svih zainteresovanih strana tourism development, but it also guarantees u razvoju turizma, ali je garant oþuvanja the preservation of economic as well as kako ekonomskih tako i ekoloških i environmental and cultural values, and as it is kulturnih vrijednosti, a osim toga kako se often pointed out, it provides protection of the þesto istiþe,.obezbjeÿuje i zaštitu ekosfere, ecosphere, stable economic development and stabilan privredni razvoj i jednaku equal distribution of life opportunities and it raspodjelu åivotnih šansi´a te nam se þini seems that this is the only possible acceptable da se radi o jedino moguüem prihvatljivom concept for the future development of tourism konceptu buduüeg razvoja turizma u svijetu. in the world. 150 Domir >anjareviđ - ,1)/8(1&(2)7285,60217+((19,5210(17 ECONOMICS /LWHUDWXUD /LWHUDWXUH 1. 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Rastuüi broj korporativnih statements. A growing number of corpo- skandala u svijetu izazvan kriminalnim rate scandals in the world caused by crimi- radnjama i prevarama doveo je do toga da nal activityand fraud led to the fact that the raþunovodstvena i revizijska profesija posveti accounting and auditing profession devote veliku paånju ovom problemu. great attention to this problem.The existence Na postojanje kriminalne radnje uglavnom of fraud generally indicate doubts, com- ukazuju sumnje, prigovori ili glasine o plaints or rumors of criminal acts originat- kriminalnoj radnji koje potiþu od treüih lica, ing from third parties, intuition or suspect- intuicije ili sumnje lica koje se bavi istragom ed person engaged in the investigation that da nešto nije u redu i iznenadno otkriüe something was wrong and suddenly discover da nešto nedostaje (gotovina, imovina, that something is missing (cash, assets, re- izvještaji, datoteke, dokumenti ili podaci . ports, ¿les, documents or the data . The au- Revizor rijetko na samom poþetku procesa ditor rarely at the very beginning of the pro- moåe utvrditi da je poþinjena kriminalna cess may determine that committed criminal radnja, kraÿa ili pronevjera (Singleton i dr, acts, theft or embezzlement (Singleton et al., 2010 . Vaåno je razumjeti de¿nicije, modele 2010 was done. It is important to understand i klasi¿kacije kriminalnih radnji radi dalʁeg the de¿nitions, models and classi¿cation of razumijevanja prirode kriminalnih radnji i criminal acts to further understanding of the poþinilaca istih. Prema tome, prvi dio rada je nature of criminal acts and the perpetrators baziran na konceptualnom okviru kriminalnih thereof. Accordingly, the ¿rst part of the radnji. work is based on the conceptual framework Prevara moåe biti poþinjena na štetu of criminal acts.Fraud can be committed to organizacije ili u korist organizacije. U the detriment of the organization or for the prvom sluþaju najþešüe se radi o prevarama bene¿t of the organization. In the ¿rst case is koje poþine rukovodioci najvišeg nivoa, dok usually a fraud committed by top-level exec- prevare u korist organizacije se manifestuju u utives, while fraud in favor of the organiza- vidu izbjegavanja plaüanja poreza ili davanja tion aremanifested in the form of tax evasion mita radi dobijanja ugovora. Kriminalne or giving bribes to obtain contracts. Fraud radnje koje poþine zaposleni u organizaciji committed by employeesof the organization utiþu prvenstveno na njeno poslovanje, a primarily affect its business, and if not de- ako se ne otkriju i ne sprijeþe, mogu narušiti tected and do not stop, they can damage the reputaciju organizacije. Uzimajuüi u obzir organization¶s reputation. Taking into ac- sve ove þinjenice, predmet istraåivanja ovoga count all these facts, the subject of this paper rada bila bi prisutnost kriminalnih radnji would be the presence of criminal activity na globalnom nivou i sagledavanje slike globally and consideration of the image of korporativnih kriminalnih radnji u svijetu. corporate criminal activity in the world. 154 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS .21&(378$/1,2.9,5 &21&(378$/)5$0(:25.2) .25325$7,91,+.5,0,1$/1,+5$'1-, &25325$7(&5,0,1$/$&76 Kriminalne radnje predstavljaju izazov na Criminal actions are a challenge at the svjetskom nivou i jednu od kljuþnih tema global level and one of the key themes of današnjice u raþunovodstvenoj i revizijskoj our time in the accounting and auditing profesiji. Naime, i najrazvijenije ekonomije sa profession. In fact, the most developed ureÿenim ekonomsko-pravnim sistemima ne economies, with nice economic and legal mogu da se izbore sa problemima kriminalnih systems cannot cope with the problems of radnji koje se odnose na ¿nansije i privredni criminal actions related to the financial and kriminalitet. U nastavku rada üe detaljno biti economic crime. Further work will explain objašnjeno šta su to kriminalne radnje i koje in detail what this fraud is and what are su njihove osnovne karakteristike. their basic characteristics. 32-$0.5,0,1$/1,+5$'1-, 7+(&21&(372)&5,0,1$/$&7,9,7< Prema Meÿunarodnim standardima revizije According to the International Auditing (2011 , kriminalna radnja predstavlja namjeran Standards (2011 , the criminal action akt koji je izvršilo jedno ili više lica iz redova represents a deliberate act that was committed rukovodstva, lica ovlaštenih za upravljanje, by one or more persons from among the zaposlenih ili treüih lica koji ukljuþuje leadership of authorized management, obmanjivanje radi sticanja nepripadajuüe employees or third parties which includes ili nezakonite dobiti. Postoje mnogobrojne misleading with the purpose of gaining an de¿nicije kriminalnih radnji, kao što su undue or illegal pro¿ts. There are many (Singleton Singleton, 2006 : de¿nitions of criminal acts, such as (Singleton Kriminalne radnje kao kriviþno djelo – Singleton, 2006 : pod kriminalnim radnjama se podrazumijevaju Fraud is a criminal offense - term criminal razliþiti vidovi prevare koje ljudski um moåe da activity means various forms of fraud which osmisli i kojima pojedinci podlijeåu kako bi kroz the human mind can conceive and in which laåne tvrdnje ostvarili prednost nad drugima. individuals become submissive using false Kriminalne radnje kao delikt – u smislu claims to take advantage over others. graÿanskog prava, Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Criminal acts as a felony - in terms of civil dråava je 1887. godine dao de¿niciju kriminalne rights, the Supreme Court of the United States radnje u kojoj je: 1 okrivljeni iznio tvrdnju u in 1887 gave a de¿nition of fraud in which: pogledu materijalnih þinjenica; 2 takva tvrdnja 1 the defendant made a claim related to the je neistinita; 3 takvu tvrdnju okrivljeni nije, material facts; 2 this assertionis false; 3 such iz razumljivih razloga, smatrao za istinitu; 4 a claim the defendant has not, for obvious tvrdnja je data sa namjerom da se na osnovu reasons, considered the true; 4 assertion is nje dalje djeluje; 4 podnosilac åalbe postupa na given with a view to on the basis of it is still osnovu nastale štete; i 5 podnosilac åalbe nije active; 4 the appeal proceeds on the basis of bio svjestan neistinitosti informacija i imao je any damage; and 5 the complainant was not opravdanih razloga da vjeruje u njihovu taþnost. aware of the falsity of the information and Korporativne kriminalne radnje – pod njima had a good reason to believe intheir accuracy. se podrazumijevaju bilo koje kriminalne radnje Corporate fraud - includes any criminal izvršene od strane, za ili protiv korporacije. acts that were committed by, or against the Kriminalne radnje menadåera – corporation. podrazumijevaju namjerno laåno Fraud Manager - include intentional predstavljanje perfomansi preduzeüa od strane misrepresentation performance of companies zaposlenih na menadåerskim funkcijama. by employees in managerial functions. 155 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU Cilj takvog laånog predstavljanja jeste ostvarivanje The aim of such a fraudulent misrepresentation koristi u pogledu napredovanja na radnom mjestu, is the realization of bene¿ts in terms of bonusa i sliþnih vidova ekonomskih podsticaja i advancement in the workplace, bonuses and statusnih simbola. similar forms of economic incentives and status Na osnovu prethodno navedenih de¿nicija, symbols.Based on the above de¿nitions, we can moåemo zakljuþiti da kriminalna radnja conclude that criminal activity involves different podrazumijeva razliþite naþine prevare, ways of fraud, ofdeception, lying and cheating, obmanjivanja, laganja i varanja, a sve na štetu all to the detriment of the organization which is organizacije koje je årtva kriminalne radnje. a victim of fraud. All these ways of committing Svi ovi naþini þinjenja kriminalnih radnji su u criminal acts are contrary to the Code of Ethics suprotnosti s Kodeksom etike za profesionalne for Professional Accountants. According to raþunovoÿe. Prema Kodeksu etike (2012 , the Code of Ethics (2012 , a professional profesionalne raþunovoÿe treba da poštuju princip accountant should respect the principle of nezavisnosti, objektivnosti, profesionalne i duåne independence, objectivity, professional, and due paånje, povjerljivosti i profesionalnog ponašanja. care, con¿dentiality and professional behavior. Iz navedenih de¿nicija proizlazi nekoliko From the above de¿nition follows several karakteristika vezanih za kriminalne radnje: characteristics related to fraud: Motiv – Brojni su faktori koji mogu navesti Feature - There are many factors that can neku osobu da prilikom ostvarivanja svojih ciljeva make a person in the pursuit of their goals or ili zadovoljena potreba pribjegne manje legalnim satisfying their needs to resort to less legal ways naþinima zadovoljenja tih potreba. Svakako of satisfying those needs. Certainly the most najznaþajniji pritisak koji neku osobu moåe dovesti important pressure that a person may be tempted u iskušenje ovog tipa jesu ¿nansijske poteškoüe. by are ¿nancial dif¿culties. However, there is Meÿutim, postoji þitava lepeza pritisaka na a whole range of pressures on the individual, pojedinca koje moåemo svrstati u þetiri grupe which can be divided into four groups (Albrecht (Albrecht Albrecht, 2014 : ¿nansijski pritisci, Albrecht, 2014 : ¿nancial pressures, vices, poroci, pritisci na radnom mjestu i ostali pritisci. pressures at work and other pressures. Finansijski pritisci su najznaþajniji faktor Financial pressures are the most important factor nastanka kriminalnih radnji, a þesto se javljaju in the development of criminal activities, and kada poþinilac ima velika dugovanja nastala often occur when the perpetrator has large debts lošim raspolaganjem steþenih ¿nansijskih incurred bad disposition of the acquired funds, sredstava, nastankom nepredviÿenih okolnosti the occurrence of unforeseen circumstances ili åivotom iznad svojih ¿nansijskih moguünosti. or life beyond their ¿nancial capabilities. It is =animljivo je dodati da je veliki broj poþinilaca interesting to add that many ofthe perpetrators ove vrste kriminalne radnje bilo veoma imuüno. of this kind of fraud were very wealthy. You Takoÿe, treba obratiti paånju na pritiske na should also pay attention to the pressures of radnom mjestu poput nepravednog tretmana the workplace, such as unfair treatment of zaposlenog, potcjenjivanja ili nepravednog the employee, demeaning or unfair system of sistema nagraÿivanja svih zaposlenih. Pored remuneration of all employees. In addition to navedenih, treba napomenuti i neke od ostalih these, we should mention some of the other pritisaka kao što su izazov poþinioca da putem pressures such as to challenge the perpetrator nezakonitih radnji na neki naþin prevari through illegal actions to somehow trick the sistem interne kontrole i pokaåe kako je isti system of internal control and to show how naivno osmišljen. Poþinioci ovog tipa su þesto the same naively conceived. The perpetrators dobri poznavaoci procedura interne kontrole, of this type are often connoisseurs of internal raþunarskih programa i tehnologija koje im control procedures, computer programs and pomaåu da poþine kriminalne radnje i za njih ne technologies that help them to commit criminal budu uhvaüeni niti kaånjeni. acts and for them not to be caught nor punished. Prilika – Gotovo je nemoguüe i priliþno Opportunity - It is almost impossible and rather naivno upuštati se u þinjenje ovakvih naive to indulge in the commission of such acts radnji bez posjedovanja odreÿenog nivoa without a certain level of knowledge, abilities 156 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS znanja, sposobnosti i vještine. Najveüa and skills. The biggest obstacle that stands prepreka koja poþiniocima stoji na putu je in the way to the perpetrators is the internal sistem interne kontrole. Loše osmišljen sistem control system. Poorly designed system of interne kontrole moåe da bude i te kako dobra internal control can be very much a good prilika za zaposlene da ostvare svoje ciljeve opportunity for employees to achieve their u pogledu þinjenja kriminalnih radnji. Nakon goals in terms of committing crimes. After velikih skandala, posebno je došlo do znaþaja a big scandal, especially there is a big preispitivanje i unapreÿenje sistema interne interest in the review and improvement of kontrole. Iskorak u tom polju su bili formiranje the system of internal control. A step inthis COSO – Komiteta spozorskih organizacije ¿eld has been the formation of COSO - (The (The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission i Sarbanes- of the Treadway Commission and the Oxley zakona. Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Sve prilike koje stimulativno utiþu na All the opportunities that have a stimulating þinjenje kriminalnih radnji moåemo podijeliti inÀuence on the commission of criminal acts na (Petkoviü, 2010 : kontrolne þinoce i can be divided into (Petkoviü, 2010 : control vankontrolne þinioce. Kontrolni þinioci su and out of control factors. Control factors are usmjereni na kvalitet sistema interne kontrole focused on the quality of the internal control koji treba biti takav da demotiviše zaposlene na system that should be such that it discourages nedozvoljene radnje, pri þemu je od izuzetnog employees from illicit activities, in which of znaþaja Äton sa vrha³. Meÿu najznaþajnije great importance is ³tone from the top´. Among vankontrolne þinioce spadaju: nesposobnost the most important out of control factors are: ocjene obavljenog posla, nemoguünost inability to make evaluation of work, inability kaånjavanja poþinioca, nemoguünost pristupa to punish the offender, lack of access to informacijama, neukost, apatija, nesposobnost, information, ignorance, apathy, incompetence, nedostatak traga revizije. lack of audit trail. Opravdanje – Veüina osoba koje su poþinile Justi¿cation - Most of the persons who have kriminalne radnje imaju opravdanje za svoje committed criminal acts have an excuse for postupke (Albrecht Albrecht, 2014 : their actions (Albrecht Albrecht, 2014 : a ¿rma mi duguje novac, a the company owes money, b ja samo pozajmljujem novac – vratiüu ga b I¶m just borrowing the money - it¶ll come nazad, back, c niko neüe biti povrijeÿen, c no one will be hurt, d ja zasluåujem više, d I deserve more, e to je uraÿeno u dobroj namjeri, e it is done in good faith, f srediüemo papire þim izaÿemo iz ¿nansijskih f we cut papers as it exits the ¿nancial poteškoüa dif¿culties g nešto mora biti årtvovano ili moje poštenje g something has to be sacri¿ced or my ili moja reputacija. integrity or my reputation. Prilikom odluþivanja da li se upustiti u When deciding whether to engage in some odreÿeni nezakoniti þin svi poþinioci illegal act all perpetrators perceive costs sagledavaju troškove i koristi koje im isti and bene¿ts that it brings to them. If these donosi. Ukoliko su te koristi (novþane i sl bene¿ts (cash, etc. outweigh the costs, veüe od troškova koji se u ovom sluþaju which in this case is manifested as dismissal, ispoljavaju kao otkaz, odstranjivanje iz removal from the profession, constipation, profesije, zatvor i sliþno, osobe üe biti sklonije etc., people will be more prone to abuses and zloupotrebama i prevarama. fraud. 157 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU 9567(.5,0,1$/1,+5$'1-, 7+(7<3(62)&5,0,1$/$&7,9,7,(6 Prema Petkoviüu (2010 , kriminalne radnje se According to Petkovic (2010 , criminal activities mogu podijeliti u dvije velike grupe: can be divided into two major groups: Malverzacije ili prevare – Najþešüe korištena corruption or fraud - The most commonly used de¿nicija malverzacije ili prevare de¿niše prevaru de¿nition of embezzlement or fraud de¿nes fraud na naþin da ona predstavlja opšti pojam koji in such a way that it is a general term that includes obuhvata sve raznovrsne naþine koje ljudska all the different ways that human ingenuity can dovitljivost moåe osmisliti, koji su iskorišteni od devise, which are used by the individual for the strane pojedinca, zarad sticanja koristi, u odnosu sake of gaining bene¿ts in relation to the other, na druge, putem laånih predstavljanja. through phishing . Kriminalne radnje u ¿nansijskim izvještajima Fraud in the ¿nancial statements (ie, (tzv. ³white-collar crime´ – kriminal bijelog ³white-collar crime´ - white-collar crime okovratnika – =a nas posebno interesantne - for us especially interesting is precisely jesu upravo kriminalne radnje u ¿nansijskim fraud in the ¿nancial statements. ISAs, izvještajima. Meÿunarodni standardi revizije, kao što je prethodno navedeno, kriminalne as noted above, the fraud in ¿nancial radnje u ¿nansijskim izvještajima odreÿuju kao statements is de¿ned as a deliberate action namjeran þin koji izvrši jedno ili više lica, koja which is made by one or more persons su na rukovodeüim poloåajima, ovlašüena za who are in leading positions, an authorized upravljanje, zaposlena ili treüa lica, ukljuþujuüi management, employee or a third party, i obmanjivanje, u cilju sticanja nepravedne ili including the deception, in order to obtain protivzakonite koristi. unfair or illegal bene¿ts. Prema Boåiüu i Kondiüu (2012 , kriminalne According to Christmas and ¿tness (2012 , radnje u raþunovodstvenoj i revizijskoj profesiji fraud in the accounting and auditing obuhvataju na sljedeüe: profession include the following: Manipulacija, falsi¿kovanje ili izmjena evidencija Manipulation, falsi¿cation or alteration of ili dokumentacije, records or documents, protivpravno prisvajanje sredstava, misappropriation of funds, spreþavanje ili propuštanje registrovanja poslovnih prevent or to register business events in dogaÿaja u evidencijama i dokumentaciji, records and documentation, evidentiranje ¿ktivnih poslovnih dogaÿaja, recording of ¿ctitious business events, pogrešna primjena raþunovodstvenih politika. incorrect application of accounting policies. Prema ACFE-u postoje tri vrste kriminalnih According to the ACFE there are three types radnji: of criminal activity: Protivpravno prisvajanje sredstava – Moåe Misappropriation of funds - can be de¿ned se de¿nisati kao kriminalna radnja kojom as a criminal act whereby the perpetrator poþinilac, bez saglasnosti i odobrenja rukovodnih without the consentand approval of the i upravljaþkih organa prisvaja i koristi za svoje management and governing bodies uses for potrebe materijalna sredstva pravnog lica its own needs resources of a legal entity (Petkoviü, 2010 . Pri tome se þesto, zarad skrivanja (Petkoviü, 2010 . In doing so, often, for the samog þina prisvajanja, koristi i krivotvorenje sake of hiding the act of appropriation, uses poslovne dokumentacije. Od materijalnih bene¿ts and forging business documents. sredstava najpodloånije ovom vidu kriminalnih From tangible assets the most vulnerable radnji su gotovina i zalihe te nekretnine i oprema. to this type of criminal activity are cash Shodno tome, protivpravno prisvajanje sredstava and stocks and property and equipment. moåe se pojaviti kao protivpravno prisvajanje Accordingly, misappropriation of assets gotovine, protivpravno prisvajanje zalihe i druge may occur as misappropriation of cash materijalne imovine. misappropriation of stocks and other assets. Korupcija – U najširem smislu korupcija se Corruption - In its broadest sense corruption de¿niše kao opšti pojam koji opisuje bilo koji is de¿ned as a general term to describe any 158 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS organizovan, nezavisan sistem u kojem jedan organized, an independent system in which a njegov dio ili ne izvršava svoju duånost na naþin port of it does not perform its duty in a manner kako je prvobitno zamišljeno ili ih ne obavlja as originally conceived or does not perform it na naþin koji je nepravilan i na štetu prvobitnih in a manner that is irregular and at the expense ciljeva sistema. Prema Belaku (2011 , korupcija of the original goals of system. According to predstavlja sukob interesa, podmiüivanje, ilegalne Belak (2011 , corruption poses a conÀict of nagrade i ekonomske ucjene. interest, bribery, illegal remuneration and Laåno ¿nansijsko izvještavanje – Laåno economic blackmail. ¿nansijsko izvještavanje usmjereno je na False ¿nancial reporting - False ¿nancial izkazivanje iskrivljene slike o ¿nansijskom reporting is directed to the expression of a poloåaju organizacije. Ovaj oblik kriminalne radnje distorted picture of the ¿nancial position moåe da prouzrokuje ogromne gubitke s obzirom of the organization. This type of fraud can da je bazirano na donošenju pogrešnih odluka od cause huge losses since it is based on making strane korisnika tih ¿nansijskih izvještaja, a prije wrong decisions by users of these ¿nancial svega kreditnih institucija i investitora. Laåno statements, primarily credit institutions and ¿nansijsko izvještavanje se najþešüe ispoljava investors. False ¿nancial reporting is usually u vidu sljedeüih pet meÿusobnih povezanih expressed in the form of the following ¿ve oblika (Petkoviü, 2010 : ¿ktivni prihodi, laåno mutual-related forms (Petkovic, 2010 : a vremenska ograniþenja, prikrivanje obaveza i ¿ctive revenues, false timeouts concealment troškova, nepravnilna objelodanjivanje, ostale costs and expenses, incorrect disclosure, other tehnike laånog ¿nansijskog izvještavanja. techniques of false ¿nancial reporting. (03,5,-6.,5(=8/7$7,,675$ij,9$1-$ (03,5,&$/(9,'(1&( Rezultati istraåivanja su dobijeni i The research results have been obtained and analizirani od strane Udruåenja za analyzed by the Association for the Detection otkrivanje kriminalnih radnji (ACFE – of Criminal Acts (ACFE - Association of Association of Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners . Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners . ACFE is the ACFE je najveüe udruåenje u svijetu koje se largest association in the world that deals bavi otkrivanjem kriminalnih radnji, kao i with the detection of crime, as well as edukacijom za njihovu uspješnu prevenciju. training for successful prevention. ACFE, ACFE, koje broji 80.000 þlanova, doprinosi which has 80,000 members, contributes to smanjenju poslovnih prevara širom svijeta, reducing business fraud worldwide and is te se zalaåe za poveüavanje povjerenja committed to increasing public con¿dence javnosti u integritet i objektivnost u okviru in the integrity and objectivity within the ¿nansija i poslovnog svijeta. Osnovan je ¿nance and business. Founded in 1988 1988. godine od strane dr Josepha T. Wellsa by Dr. Joseph T. Wells, who was working koji je radeüi kao raþunovoÿa u FBI-u došao as an accountant in the FBI and came up do ideje osnivanja zajedniþkog tijela za with the idea of establishing ajoint body otkrivanje prevara koje se danas time i bavi. to detect fraud that todays he deals with. A Izvještaj koji sadråi podatke o kriminalnim report containing information about criminal radnjama u svijetu za 2016. godinu obuhvata activity in the world for 2016 includes 2,410 2.410 analiziranih sluþajeva prevare, koji su analyzed fraud cases, which occurred in 114 se desili u 114 zemalja svijeta. countries worldwide. 159 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU Tabela 1. Geografska lokacija organizacija Table 1. Geographical Location of Victim årtava Organizations Region/Region Broj Procenat Prosjeþni gubici (u sluþajeva/ sluþajeva/Percent of dolarima) /Median Number casses Loss (in $) of casses SAD/ United States 1038 48.8% 120.000$ Podsaharska Afrika/ Sub-Saharan Africa 285 13.4% 143.000$ Azija – Pacifik/ Asia-Pacific 221 10.4% 245.000$ Latinska Amerika i Karibi/ Latin America 112 5.3% 174.000$ and the Caribbean Zapadna Evropa/ Western Europe 110 5.2% 263.000$ Istoþna Evropa i Zapadna/Centralna Azija/ 98 4.6% 200.000$ Eastern Europe and Western/Central Asia Juåna Azija/ Southern Asia 98 4.6% 100.000$ Kanada/ Canada 86 4.0% 154.000$ Bliski Istok i Sjeverna Afrika/ Middle East 79 3.7% 275.000$ and North Africa Source: ACFE – Association of Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners Na osnovu podataka prikazanih u Tabeli 1. Based on the data presented in Table 1. it can moåe se zakljuþiti da je najveüi broj sluþajeva be concluded that the largest number of cases pronaÿen u SAD-u, a jedan od razloga zašto je are found in the US, and one of the reasons to tako jeste da SAD ima najveüe ¿nansijsko why this is so is that the US has the largest tråište. Prema tome, postoji i mnogo više ¿nancial market. Therefore, there are many moguünosti i prilika da se kriminalna radnja more options and opportunities to commit poþini, a isto tako da bude otkrivena i criminal acts, but also to be detected and prijavljena nadleånim oganima. reported to the relevant precincts. Kako je navedeno u prvom dijelu rada, ACFE As stated in the ¿rst part, ACFE de¿nes de¿niše tri osnovne vrste kriminalnih radnji – three basic kinds of criminal activities - protivpravno prisvajanje sredstava, korupcija misappropriation of funds, corruption and i laåno ¿nansijsko izvještavanje. Gra¿kon 1. false ¿nancial reporting. Figure 1 represents predstavlja uþestalost kriminalnih radnji prema the incidence of criminal activity by category, kategoriji, odnosno vrstama kriminalnih radnji or types of criminal actions de¿ned by the de¿nisanih od strane ACFE. ACFE *UD¿NRQ Frekvencija ¿nansijskih Graph 1. Occupational Frauds by prevara po kategorijama Category²Frequency Source: ACFE – Association of Certified Fraud Examiners 160 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS Kada se posmatra protivpravno prisvajanje When looking at misappropriation of sredstava, moåe se zakljuþiti da je ova funds, it can be concluded that this type vrsta kriminalne radnje najuþestalija u svim of fraud is the most common in all the posmatranim godinama. Nakon toga dolazi observed years. After that comes the cor- korupcija sa prosjekom oko 35%, te na kraju ruption with an average of about 35%, laåno ¿nansijsko izvještavanje sa prosjekom and at the end false financial reporting od 8% posmatrajuüi navedene tri godine. with an average of 8% watching those Meÿutim, iako je najmanje zastupljeno, laåno three years. However, although theleast ¿nansijsko izvještavanje donosi i najveüe frequent, false financial reporting brings gubitke, što se moåe vidjeti na narednom the greatest losses, which can be seen on gra¿konu. the following chart. *UD¿NRQ Frekvencija ¿nansijskih Graph 2. Occupational Frauds by prevara prema prosjeþnom gubitku Category²Median Loss Source: ACFE – Association of Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners Iz prethodnog se moåe zakljuþiti da uþestalost From the above it can be concluded that ne utiþe na gubitke izazvane kriminalnim the frequency is not affected by the loss- radnjama, veü znaþaj poþinjenog djela. es caused by criminal acts, but the char- Dakle, protivpravno prisvajanje sredstava je acter of the offense. So, misappropriation najuþestalije, ali je prouzrokovalo najmanje of funds is the most common, or at least gubitke za sve tri posmatrane godine, i to caused losses for all three observed years, u prosjeþnom iznosu od 125.000 dolara. and the average amount of $ 125,000. Cor- Korupcija je nešto manje uþestala pojava ruption is less frequent than the previous od prethodne radnje, te izaziva gubitke od actions, and causes losses of 200,000 to 200.000 do 250 .000 dolara godišnje. 250, 000 dollars a year. 161 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU *UD¿NRQ Uþestalost i prosjeþni gubici Graph 3. Frequency and Median Loss bazirani na vremenu otkrivanja prevare Based on Duration of Fraud Source: ACFE – Association of Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners Vaåan pokazatelj u analizi kriminalnih radnji An important indicator in the analysis of criminal jeste period koji je prošao dok one nisu activities is the period that has passed until they otkrivene. Na sljedeüem gra¿konu se moåe were discovered. In the next chart you can see that vidjeti da što više vremena proÿe dok se the more time passes until the fraud is detected, kriminalna radnje ne otkrije, dolazi do viših there are higher losses. These actions detected after gubitaka. One radnje koje su otkrivene nakon 6 6 months or less, have caused losses of $ 45,000, mjeseci ili kraüe, izazvale su gubitke od 45.000 while those that have lasted longer than 60 months dolara, a one koje su trajale duåe od 60 mjeseci have caused far more losses of as much as $ 850,000. izazvale su neuporedivo više gubitke, od þak The positive is that it is a much larger percentage of 850.000 dolara. Pozitivno je to što je mnogo actions that are discovered for less than 6 months veüi procenat radnji koje su otktivene za manje than those that have lasted much longer. od 6 mjeseci od onih koje su trajale mnogo Since there are many types of organizations, duåe. it is necessary to show in what kind of S obzirom na to postoji više vrsta organizacija, organization is committed the highest number potrebno je prikazati u kojoj vrsti organizacije of fraud and where are the greatest losses. je poþinjen najveüi broj prevara i gdje su najveüi The analysis will include privatecompanies, gubici. U analizu üe biti ukljuþene privatne public companies, governments and non- kompanije, javna preduzeüa, vlada i nepro¿tne pro¿t organizations. The analysis shows organizacije. Analiza pokazuje da je u privatnim that in private companies it is committed kompanijama poþinjen najveüi broj prevara the largest number of frauds that follow the koje prate i najveüi gubici. Na Gra¿konu 4. se biggest losses. On the Figure 4 it can be seen 162 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS moåe vidjeti uþestalost kriminalnih radnji, kao i the incidence of criminal activity, as well as gubitaka izazvanih istim po navedenim vrstama losses caused by the same organization in the organizacija. Naime, u ovom sluþaju imamo species. Speci¿cally, in this case we have a pozitivnu korelaciju izmeÿu uþestalnosti positive correlation between frequency of kriminalni radnji i gubitaka. fraud and losses. *UD¿NRQ Vrsta organizacije årtve – Graph 4. Type of Victim Organization² Uþestalost i prosjeþni gubici Frequency and Median Loss Source: ACFE – Association of Certi¿ed Fraud Examiners 163 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU =$./-8Î$.,%8'8È$ &21&/86,21$1')857+(5 ,675$ij,9$1-$ 5(6($5&+ Posmatrajuüi u cjelini emipirijski dio ovog Considering empiric part of this study rada moåemo zakljuþiti da je protivpravno on the whole we can conclude that the prisvajanje sredstava najþešüi oblik misappropriation of funds isthe most kriminalnih radnji na globalnom nivou te i da common form of criminal activity at a global se ukupna šteta kriminalnih radnji smanjuje level and that the total damage decreases u periodu od 2012-2016.godine.Postupci i criminal activity during the period from procesi otkrivanja kriminalnih radnji ponekad 2012 to 2016. Actions and processes of dugo traju, a što duåe traju i šteta nanesena detection of criminal acts sometimes take entitetu je veüa. Vlastima je veoma teško a long time, and the longer this lasts, the otkriti bilo kakve oblike korporativnih damage to property is higher. It is very kriminalnih radnji, a ove koje bivaju otkrivene difficult for the authorities to detect any najþešüe su dojavljene od strane radnika. form of corporate criminal activity, and Razlog dojava radnika se moåe pronaüi u those that are detected are most often the nezadovoljstvu poštenih radnika, odnosno reported by workers. Reason for this can be nepravednom odnosu prema onima koji nisu found in the discontent of decent workers or pošteni. Otkrivanje je još teåe ako se zna da unfair relation to those who are not honest. su najveüe nastale štete poþinjene od strane Detection is even harder if it is known that vlasnika ili direktora, a takve kriminalne the biggest damage is caused by the owner radnje izazivaju strah kod radnika pri samoj or director, and such criminal acts cause prijavi. fear among workers while reporting. Korporativne kriminalne radnje ne Corporate fraud is not a problem only predstavljaju problem samo na globalnom, at the global, but also at the local level. nego i na lokalnom nivou. Prioritet Priority of management andpersons rukovodstva i lica ovlaštenih za upravljanje qualified for management should be treba da bude fokusiran na spreþavanje i focused on prevention and timely detection pravovremeno otkrivanje protivzakonitih of illegal activities in the organization. radnji u organizaciji. Djelovanje protiv Action against illegal acts prior to their nezakonitih radnji prije njihovog nastanka, happening, but also improvement of the ali i poboljšavanje mehanizama otkrivanja detection mechanisms should certainly be zasigurno treba da budu fokus vlastima i the focus of the authorities and auditors. revizorima. I pored toga što revizor nema Although the auditor does not have any nikakvu vrstu odgovornosti za kriminalne kind of responsibility for the criminal acts radnje koje su se desile kod klijenta revizije, that have taken place at the client audit, eksterna revizija predstavlja jedan od kljuþnih external audit is one of the key mechanisms mehanizama za spreþavanje i otkrivanje istih. to prevent and detect them. Especially Posebno velika odgovornost po ovom pitanju great responsibility in this regard lies with leåi na internoj kontroli i internoj reviziji the internal control and internal audit, koje treba da budu osmišljene i sprovoÿene which should be designed andimplemented na adekvatan i e¿kasan naþin. Stoga, buduüa in an appropriate and efficient manner. istraåivanja treba da idu u smjeru ocjenjivanja Therefore, future research should go in e¿kasnosti pojedinih mehanizama u cilju the direction of assessing the efficiency of otkrivanja korporativnih prevara u ranoj fazi i specific mechanisms to detect corporate njihovog spreþavanja. fraud at an early stage and its prevention. 164 ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - 35(6(1&(2)&25325$7()5$8'6$7$*/2%$//(9(/ ECONOMICS /LWHUDWXUD /LWHUDWXUH 1. Albrecht, C; Kranacher M. J; Albrecht, S. 1. Albrecht, C.; Kranacher M. 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Rezaee Z.; Riley R. )LQDQFLDO VWDWHPHQW IUDXG 3UHYHQWLRQ DQG GHWHFWLRQ VWDWHPHQW IUDXG 3UHYHQWLRQ DQG GHWHFWLRQ -RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV+RERNHQ1HZ-HUVH\ -RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV+RERNHQ1HZ-HUVH\ 165 ECONOMICS ^vũetlana sranũeƓ - PRISUTNOST KORPORATIVNIH KRIMINALNIH RADNJI NA GLOBALNOM NIVOU 13. Rittenberg, L. E; Johnstone, K. M; 13. Rittenberg, L. E.; Johnstone, K. M.; Gramling, A. A. $XGLWLQJ $%XVLQHVV Gramling, A. A. $XGLWLQJ $%XVLQHVV 5LVN $SSURDFK %RVWRQ 6RXWK:HVWHUQ 5LVN$SSURDFK %RVWRQ 6RXWK:HVWHUQ &HQJDJH/HDUQLQJ &HQJDJH/HDUQLQJ 14. Singleton, T. W; Singleton, A. J; Bologna, 14. Singleton, T. W.; Singleton, A. J.; J; Lindquist, R. 5HYL]LMD NULPLQDOQH Bologna, J.; Lindquist, R. 5HYL]LMD UDGQMHLIRUHQ]LþNRUDþXQRYRGVWYR3UHYHGHQR NULPLQDOQHUDGQMHLIRUHQ]LþNRUDþXQRYRGVWYR QDVUSVNL 6DYH]UDþXQRYRÿDLUHYL]RUD6UELMH 3UHYHGHQR QD VUSVNL 6DYH] UDþXQRYRÿD L %HRJUDG UHYL]RUD6UELMH%HRJUDG 166 DE DE GRUYTER ECONOMICS G OPEN Vol. 5, No 1, 2017 ISSN 2303-5005 UPUTSTVO ZA AUTORE 7,0(61(:520$19(/,.$6/29$%2/'&(175$/12325$91$1ƣ( ,16758&7,216)25$87+256 Petar Petrović Univerzitet u Istoþnom Sarajevu, Ekonomski fakultet Pale, Bosna i Hercegovina University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economy Pale, %RVQLDDQG+HU]HJRYLQD 5(=,0( 6800$5< 5H]LPH VH QDOD]L QD SRþHWNX UDGD L WUHED 6XPPDU\ VKRXOG EH ZULWWHQ DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ GDEXGHQDSLVDQIRQWRP7LPHV1HZ5RPDQ RI ZRUN DQG VKRXOG EH W\SHG LQ 7LPHV 1HZ ,WDOLFSW1DYRGÄ5H]LPH³SLãHVHGYD 5RPDQ ,WDOLF SW $OOHJHG ³6XPPDU\´ SURSUHGDLVSRGQDVORYDIRQWRP7LPHV1HZ VKRXOGEHZULWWHQWZRVSDFHVEHORZWKHWLWOHLQ 5RPD%ROGSW'XåLQDUH]LPHDMHRG 7LPHV1HZ5RPD%ROGSW6XPPDU\OHQJWK GRULMHþL-HGDQSURUHGQDNRQUH]LPHD LVWRZRUGV2QHOLQHDIWHUWKHVXPPDU\ QDYRGHVHNOMXþQHULMHþL GRNOMXþQLKULMHþL \RXVKRXOJLYHNH\ZRUGV XSWRNH\ZRUGV .OMXþQHULMHþL rezime, duåina rezimea, .H\ZRUGV summary, the length of the klasifikaciona šifra, font summary, classification code, font 892' ,1752'8&7,21 Uvod se piše dva proreda nakon kljuþnih Introduction should be written two spaces rijeþi (TNR, bold, 12). after keywords (TNR, bold, 12). */$91,1$6/29, +($',1* Glavni naslovi u radu treba da budu napisani Main titles should be written in capital velikim slovima, centrirano, font TNR, bold, letters, centered, TNR font, bold, 12. 12. Prije i poslije glavnog naslova se nalaze Before and after the main title there is one po jedan prazan red. blank line. 3RGQDVORYLGUXJLQLYR +HDGLQJ Drugi nivo podnaslova se piše malim Second level headings should be written slovima, centrirano, font TNR, bold, 12. Prije in lower case, centered, TNR font, bold, 12 i poslije naslova se nalazi jedan prazan red. Before and after the title is an empty line. 3RGQDVORYLWUHÉLQLYR +HDGLQJ Treüi nivo podnaslova se piše malim slovi- Third level headings should be written in ma, poravnato prema lijevoj margini, font lower case, Àush with the left margin, font TNR, 12, italic. Prije i poslije naslova se nal- TNR 12, italic. Before and after the title is an azi jedan prazan red. empty line. 167 ECONOMICS UPUTSTVO ZA AUTORE )250$7675$1,&( 3$*()250$7 Stranica je veliþine A4. Margine su: vrh 2,54 Page size is A4. Margins are: top 2.54 cm, cm, donja 2,54 cm, lijeva 2,54 cm, desna bottom 2.54 cm, 2.54 cm left, right 2.54 cm, 2,54 cm, odnosno, svaka po 1 inþ. Rad treba respectively, each 1 inch. The paper should have da ima duåinu do 20.000 znakova, 10 strana a length of up to 20,000 characters, 10 pages (ukljuþujuüi apstrakt, jednaþine, tabele, refer- (including abstract, equations, tables, references ence literature i dodatke). Rad se piše u dvije and appendices). The paper should be written kolone (lijeva kolona na srpskom, a in two columns (left column is in Serbian and desna na engleskom jeziku). Širina kolona je the right one in English). Column width is 7.91 7,91 cm, a razmak izmeÿu kolona je 0,1 cm. cm, and the distance between the columns is 0.1 Razdvajanje pasusa se vrši uvlaþenjem poþet- cm. The separation of paragraphs is done by nog reda za 0,5 cm. inserting a paragraph initial order of 0.5 cm -(=,.5$'$,3,602 :5,7,1* Tekstovi se pišu u Microsoft Word Windows Papers are written in Microsoft Word for programu. Jezik rada je srpski i engleski. Dio Windows program. Language is Serbian and na srpskom jeziku dostavljati na latiniþnom English. Part of the Serbian language to the pismu. Economics, þasopis za ekonomsku Latin script. Economics, Journal of Economic teoriju i analizu koristi APA standarde pisa- Theory and Analysis using APA writing nja nauþnog rada. standards of scienti¿c research. 7$%(/( 7$%/(6 Tabele treba da budu numerisane u kontinuitetu Tables should be numbered in Arabic numer- arapskim brojevima, i to naslov i redni broj ta- als continuity, and the title and number of the bele se postavljaju iznad tabele, poravnato uz li- tables are placed above the table, Àush with jevu marginu. Legenda se ispisuje ispod tabele. the left margin. Legend is printed below the Kada citiramo podatke, ime tabele ispisujemo table. When quoting data table name with poþetnim velikim slovom i navodimo njen redni writing Capitalized and mention her number. broj. APA slijedi pravilo da se u tabelama uk- APA follows the rule that the tables eliminate lone vertikalne linije, a od horizontalnih zadråe the vertical line and the horizontal retain only samo najnuånije. Veliþina fonta u tabelama je the most necessary. Font size is 10pt in the 10pt. Tabele se postavljaju centrirano, dovoljno tables. Tables are centered and only in English je samo na engleskom jeziku, a legenda se po language, and the legend, if necessary, should potrebi ispisuje i na srpskom jeziku. be written in the Serbian language too. *5$),.21,6/,.(, *5$3+6',$*5$06$1' -('1$Î,1( (48$7,216 Gra¿koni i slike se numerišu u kontinuitetu Charts and pictures are numbered in Arabic nu- arapskim brojevima. Naslov i redni broj ¿g- merals continuity. The title and number of the ure se unose ispod ¿gure, poravnato uz lijevu ¿gures are entered below the ¿gure, Àush with marginu. Sve ¿gure citiramo poþetnim velik- the left margin. All ¿gures quote an initial cap- im slovom. Veliþina fonta u ¿gurama je 10 pt. ital letter. The font size in the ¿gures is 10 pt. 168 ,16758&7,216)25$87+256 ECONOMICS Jednaþina treba da bude napisana u Equation The equation to be written in Equation Editor i pozicionira se na centar, dok je nu- Editor, and is positioned at the center, and meracija arapskim brojevima uz desnu mar- the numbering is with Arabic numerals on the ginu. right margin. &,7,5$1-(5()(5(1&, &,7,1*5()(5(1&(6 87(.678 ,17+(7(;7 Osnovni APA princip citiranja u otvorenom The basic principle of APA citation in tekstu jeste Äjedan autor, jedna rijeþ³. Uz ime plaintext is ³one author, one word.´ With the autora potrebno je navesti samo godište, ali author¶s name should be stated only age, but ne i broj stranice. not the number. Na primjer: For example: Voker (Walker, 2000). poredio je vrijeme Walker (2000). compared reaction times... reakcije... Citing the names of three, four or ¿ve authors: Citiranje imena tri, þetiri ili pet autora: First time: Wasserstein, Zappulla, Rosen, Prvo navoÿenje: Iliü, Brankoviü, Milijeviü, Gertsmann, and Rock (1994) found... Suziü i Gutoviü (1999) objasnili su... Second time: Wasserstein et al. (1994) Drugo navoÿenje: Iliü i saradnici (1999) found ...(ibid,p.208) objasnili su... For an Internet source that does not have a Za izvor sa Interneta koji nema oznaþene bookmark, use the sign pairs and the number stranice, koristite znak para i broj paragrafa of paragraphs on the page where it published. na stranici na kojoj je objavljen. For example: Na primjer: (English) (Myers, 2000, 5) (Srpski jezik) Majers (Myers, 2000, 5) 323,6/,7(5$785( 5()(5(1&(6 Svi citirani izvori u tekstu rada treba da All sources cited in the text should be includ- se nalaze u popisu literature. Radovi koji su ed in the reference list. Papers that have been korišüeni u literaturi se navode alfabetskim used in the literature are presented in alphabeti- redom. APA standardi slijede princip Äautor cal order. APA standards follow the principle of –godište izdanja³. APA stil podrazumijeva ³author–year release.´ APA style that includes a da se lista referenci daje u popisu na kraju list of references given in the list at the end of rada, a nikako navoÿenjem izvora u fusnota- the article, not quoting sources in footnotes. The ma. Naredni primjeri imaju za cilj da autori- following examples are intended to authors pro- ma pruåe pregled navoÿenja u bibliogra¿ji vide an overview of citation in the bibliography odgovarajuüih modela. of the corresponding models .QMLJH %RRNV 6X]Lü1 3RVORYQDNXOWXUD GUXJR +LUVFK-U(' 7KHVFKRROVZHQHHGDQG L]GDQMH %DQMD/XND ;%6 ZK\ZHGRQRWKDYHWKHP1HZ 5DGRYLL]ÏDVRSLVD 3DSHUVIURPWKHPDJD]LQH 6X]Lü 1 .DNR DGROHVFHQWL 'HQQLV7$&ROH30:LJJLQV&1&R YUHGQXMX VYRMH URGLWHOMH D NDNR URGLWHOML KHQ/+ =DOHZVN\0 169 ECONOMICS UPUTSTVO ZA AUTORE VDPLVHEH"1DãDãNRODþDVRSLV]DWHRULMX 7KHIXQFWLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQRISUHVFKRRODJH LSUDNVXRGJRMDLREUD]RYDQMDEU FKLOGUHQ¶VHPRWLRQH[SUHVVLRQVDQGDFWLRQVLQ VWU± FKDOOHQJLQJVLWXDWLRQV(PRWLRQ ± 5DGREMDYOMHQX]ERUQLNX 3DSHUSXEOLVKHGLQWKHMRXUQDO Suziü, N. (2009). Kako uþenici vrednuju Barrett, cp, Campos, J. J. (1987). Perspec- školu i kako uþe. U zborniku 0RQRJUDILMD tives on emotional development: II. PHÿXQDURGQRJ]QDQVWYHQRJVNXSDÄâNROD A functionalist approach to emotions. In J. po mjeri“ (str. 221–236). Pula: Sveuþilište D. Osofsky (Ed.),+DQGERRNRILQIDQWGHYHO Jurja Dobrile. RSPHQW(2nd ed., Pp. 555–578). Oxford, En- gland: Wiley. 5DGSR]QDWRJDXWRUD 7KHZRUNRIUHQRZQHGDXWKRU SUHX]HWHOHNWURQVNL GRZQORDGHGHOHFWURQLFDOO\ Schwarzer, R. (1989). Statistiþki softver za Schwarzer, R. (1989). Statistics software for meta analizu >Kompjuterski softverski vodiþ@. meta-analysis >Computer software and manual@. Preuzeto 23. marta 2001. sa http:// www. Retrived March 23, 2001,from http:// yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/ www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/ meta_e.htm meta_e.htm ÎODQDNNRMLMHREMDYOMHQ $QDUWLFOHWKDWZDVSXEOLVKHG MHGLQRQD,QWHUQHWX RQO\RQWKH,QWHUQHW Fredserickson, B. L. (07.03.2000). Cultivat- Fredserickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivat- ing positive emotions to optimize ing positive emotions to optimize health and health and wel-being. Prevention Treat- wel-being. Prevention Treatment, 3, Article ment, 3, Article 0001a. Preuzeto 20.11.2000, 0001A. Retrieved November 20, 2000 from sa sajta http://journals.apa.org/prevention/ http://journals.apa.org/prevention/ volume3/ volume3/ pre0030001a.html pre0030001a.html 3RGDFLSUHX]HWLVDVDMWDYODGLQHLOL 'DWDGRZQORDGHGIURPWKHJRYHUQPHQ GUXJH]YDQLÏQHRUJDQL]DFLMH WRURWKHURˉFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQ Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. (1991). National Center for Health Statistics. (1991). National Health Provider Inventory: Home National Health Provider Inventory: Home health agencies and hospices, 1991 >Zvaniþni health agencies and hospices, 1991 >Data podaci@. Dostupno na veb sajtu Nacionalnog ¿le@. Available from National Technical In- tehniþkog informacionog servisa: http:// formation Service Web site, http://ntis.gov www.ntis.gov 170 ,661