sign in sign up
<<
Home , 31 March Incident, Albanian revolt of 1910, Albanian Revolt of 1911, Alexander of Battenberg, Alimia, April Uprising of 1876

War in the This page intentionally left blank War in the Balkans

AN ENCYCLOPEDIC HISTORY FROM THE FALL OF THE TO THE BREAKUP OF

Richard C. Hall, Editor Copyright © 2014 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Cataloging-in-Publication Data War in the Balkans : an encyclopedic history from the fall of the Ottoman Empire to the / Richard C. Hall, editor. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–1–61069–030–0 (hard copy : alk. paper) — ISBN 978–1–61069–031–7 (ebook) 1. Balkan Peninsula—History, Military—20th century—Encyclopedias. I. Hall, Richard C. (Richard Cooper), 1950– editor. DR45.W37 2014 949.600403—dc23 2014014296 ISBN: 978–1–61069–030–0 EISBN: 978–1–61069–031–7 1817161514 12345 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the of America As ever for Audrey This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Maps, xiii Balkan Entente, 1934, 20 Preface, xv , 20 Introduction, xvii , 1954, 21 Balkan War, First, 1912–1913, 22 REFERENCE ENTRIES Balkan War, Second, 1913, 26 Abdulhamid II (1842–1918), 1 , 1912–1913, Causes, 28 Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913, 2 Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences, 31 Adrianople, Treaty of, 1829, 3 Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Naval , Italian Occupation of, 1939, 3 Campaigns, 32 Albania in the Balkan Wars, 5 Balli Kombetar, 33 Albania in , 7 , Treaty of, 1878, 34 Albania in World War II, 8 , 35 Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911, 10 Bihac´,36 I, of Yugoslavia , 36 (1888–1934), 11 Campaign, 1941–1944, 37 Alexander Obrenovic´, King of (1876–1903), 12 Boris III, Czar of (1894–1943), 39 , of Bulgaria , Austrian Occupation, 1878, 40 (1857–1893), 13 , 1908–1909, 41 Ali Pasha (1750?–1822), 14 Bosnian Forces, 43 Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946), 15 Bosnian Revolt, 1876, 44 - in the Balkans during , 1992–1995, 45 World War I, 16 , 47 Averescu, Alexandru (1859–1938), 18

vii viii Contents

Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913, 47 Dayton Peace Accords, 1995, 91 , Treaty of, 1918, 48 Dimitriev, Radko (1859–1918), 92 , 49 Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin (1876–1917), 93 Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars, 50 Djilas, Milova´n (1911–1995), 94 Bulgaria in World War I, 53 Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918, 95 Bulgaria in World War II, 57 Dobrudja, 96 Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” 1944–1945, 58 Campaign, 1944, 97 Bulgarian Horrors, 1876, 59 Doiran, Battles of, 1915–1918, 98 Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885, 60 EAM/ELAS, 100 Carol I, King of (1839–1914), 62 EDES, 101 Carol II, (1893–1953), 63 (1882–1922), 102 Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918–1989), 64 , 104 Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914, 66 Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria (1861–1948), 106 Cˇ etniks, 67 Fiume/, 1919–1924, 106 Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912, 68 , 1915, 108 Cherniaev, M. G. (1824–1898), 70 in the Balkans during World in the Balkans, 70 War I, 111 Constantine I, King of Germany in the Balkans during World (1868–1923), 73 War II, 113 , Treaty of, 1913, 75 Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941, 116 Contested Zone (), 1912, 75 Greco-Ottoman War, 1897, 118 Channel Incident, 1946, 76 Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922, 119 Corfu Declaration, 1917, 77 Greece, Invasion of, 1941, 120 Corfu Incident, 1923, 78 Greece in the Balkan Wars, 122 Cretan Crisis, 1896, 79 Greece in World War I, 123 , Battle of, 1941, 80 Greece in World War II, 125 , Balkan Operations, 82 Greek , 129 Croat Forces, 1991–1995, 83 Greek Military Coup, 1909, 132 Croat War, 1991–1995, 84 Greek War of Independence, Cypriot Civil War, 1963, 87 1821–1832, 133 War, 1974, 88 Contents ix

Greens (), 134 , 1915–1918, 176 Handschar SS , 135 Macedonian War, 2001, 178 Revolt, 1875, 136 Mahmud II, Ottoman (1785–1839), 180 in the Balkans, 137 Mahmud Muhtar Pasha (1866–1935), 182 Horseshoe, Operation, 1998, 141 Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 1917, 184 Hoxha, Enver (1908–1985), 142 Mehmet Ali (1769–1849), 185 Ilinden Uprising, 1903, 144 Metaxas, Ioannis (1871–1941), 186 , 145 Michael I, King of Romania (1921–), 187 in the Balkans during World War I, 146 Mihailov, Ivan (1896–1990), 187 Italy in the Balkans during World War II, Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” (1893– 148 1946), 188 Izetbegovic´, Alija (1925–2003), 150 Military League (Bulgaria), 189 Janina, Siege of, 1912–1913, 153 Milosˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006), 190 JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army), 154 Mladic´, Ratko (1943–), 192 Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913, 157 Montenegro in Balkan Events, 1876–1878, 193 Karadzˇic´, Radovan (1945–), 157 Montenegro in the Balkan Wars, 194 Karageorge (George Petrovic´; 1768–1818), 158 Montenegro in World War I, 195 Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938), 160 (Greece), 1916–1917, 197 , Battle of, 1915, 162 NATO in the Balkans, 198 , 163 Navarino, Battle of, 1827, 199 , 1998–1999, 164 Nedic´, Milan (1877–1946), 201 , Battle of, 1912, 166 Neuilly, Treaty of, 1920, 203 , Battle of, 1917, 168 Nikola I, King of Montenegro Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923, 169 (1841–1921), 204 Levski, Vasil (1837–1873), 170 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 205 Little Entente, 171 , of, 207 , Treaty of, 1913, 172 Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901), 209 Lyule –Buni Hisar, Obrenovic´, Milosˇ (1780–1860), 210 Battle of, 1912, 173 , Siege of, 1941, 210 Macedonia, 174 x Contents

Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations in San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878, 264 the Balkans and Crete, 212 , Siege of, 1992–1995, 265 Ottoman Empire, 214 Sarajevo Assassination, 1914, 266 Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars, 215 Sarkoy and Baloyir, Battles of, 1913, 267 Ottoman Empire in World War I, 220 Savov, Mihail (1857–1928), 268 Papandreou, George (1888–1968), 223 Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913, 269 Partisans, Albania, 224 Selim III (1761–1808), 270 Partisans, Bulgaria, 225 Serbia, Invasions of, 1914, 271 Partisans, Yugoslavia, 226 Serbia, Invasions of, 1915, 272 Pavelic´, Ante (1889–1959), 227 Serbia and the Balkan Wars, 274 , Siege of, 1877, 228 Serbia in World War I, 277 Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944, 229 Serbian Retreat, 1915, 280 Princip, Gavrilo (1894–1918), 231 Serbian War of Independence, Putnik, (1847–1917), 232 1804–1817, 281 Radomir Rebellion, 1918, 236 Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876, 283 Romania, Invasion of, 1916, 237 Se`vres, Treaty of, 1920, 284 Romania, Invasion of, 1944, 238 Shipka Pass, Battles of, 1877–1878, 286 Romania in the Balkan Wars, 240 SS Division, 287 , 242 , Battle of, 1885, 288 Romania in World War II, 245 Slovene War, 1991, 289 in Hungary, 1919, 248 Smyrna, Destruction of, 1922, 291 Romanian Campaign in Hungary, , 1995, 292 1944–1945, 249 Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943, 293 Romanian Coup, August 1944, 250 Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r (1879–1923), 297 Romanian Peasant Uprising, 251 Stepanovic´, Stepa (1856–1929), 298 Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812, 252 Storm, Operation, 1995, 299 Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829, 254 Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha (1838–1892), 300 Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878, 256 Tepelene, Ali Pasha (1744–1822), 303 Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 1919, 259 Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980), 305 Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921, 261 Transnistrian War, 307 Salonika, 262 Trianon, Treaty of, 1920, 308 Contents xi

Trieste Dispute, 310 Yugoslavia, 337 , 311 Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces in World War II, 340 Tsolakoglou, Georgios (1886–1948), 313 Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in Tudjman, Franjo (1922–1999), 314 World War II, 342 UNPROFOR, 316 Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941, 345 Ustasˇa, 317 Yugoslavia in World War II, 347 Vance-Owen Plan, 1993, 319 Yugoslav Military Coup, 351 Vaphiadis, Markos (1906–1992), 320 Yugoslav Overflight Incidents, 1946, 353 Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936), 321 Yugoslav-Soviet Split, 353 Award, Second, 322 , 1991–1995, 355 Vladimirescu, Tudor (1780–1821), 324 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes, 358 VMRO, 325 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Vukovar, Siege of, 1991, 327 Consequences, 360 , 328 Zhekov, Nikola (1864–1949), 364 World War II Peace Settlement in the Zog, King of the Balkans, 331 (1895–1961), 365 , 334 Ypsilantis, Alexander (1792–1828), 336

Chronology, 367 Bibliography, 371 Editor and Contributors, 375 Topical Index, 379 Categorical Index, 387 General Index, 393 About the Editor, 411 This page intentionally left blank List of Maps

Contemporary Balkans, xxi , xxii , xxiii Serbia, xxiv The Balkans, 1878–1913, 29 Bosnian , 1992–1995, 46 Dardanelles/, 1915, 109 Ottoman Empire, 1877, 217 Balkan Front, 1914–1918, 278 Yugoslavia, 1945, 348

xiii This page intentionally left blank Preface

Southeastern , also known as the Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and . Balkan Peninsula, has a distinct geography. Other areas that at the time were in political It is bordered on the west, south, and east arrangements with Balkan partners, such as by significant bodies of water, the Adriatic Croatia and , are dealt with only in Sea, the , and the Black Sea, the context of those arrangements. respectively. In general, the reverse “S” of By the beginning of the nineteenth the southern part of the Carpathian mountain century, western European ideas based system provides a northern border. The upon Enlightenment principles had begun topography of much of the interior is irregu- to intrude into southeastern Europe. The lar. The River system provides a influx of concepts such as reason, rights of unifying route through much of the region. man, and caused disrup- The Balkan Peninsula has long main- tions throughout the region. The peoples of tained a political and cultural identity the Balkans sought to emulate the perceived distinct from that of . The successes of the western European national major defining characteristics were estab- states. Conflict and war marked the nine- lished by the split in Christian ideology in teenth and twentieth centuries in the Bal- the eleventh century and the Ottoman kans as the inhabitants adopted national conquest in the fifteenth century. Afterward, identities and sought political arrangements the Balkan Peninsula was largely under the to conform to those identities. Inevitably political control of the Ottoman Empire these national conflicts attracted the atten- from its capital in the ancient imperial city tion of the European Great Powers, who of Constantinople, and under the cultural sought economic and political advantage direction of the Orthodox Church, also from them. This process continued on into based in Constantinople. the twentieth century and the cataclysms of Any precise characterization of this World War I, World War II, and the Cold region is very difficult. For purposes of this War. This volume is intended as a guide to volume, the Balkan Peninsula is defined as these conflicts in this region. that part of southeastern Europe that is All dates in this volume are according to largely Orthodox Christian or Muslim the Western or , even culturally south of the mountain divide. though it did not come into general usage This includes the modern states of Albania, in the region until the early twentieth Bosnia, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, century. Transliterations from Cyrillic are

xv xvi Preface

based upon the Library of Congress system. reference—i.e., Constantinople until 1923, Place names are generally given according and afterward. I have attempted to to the most common usage, although I have be consistent throughout the locations and made an effort to include alternative place names of the peoples of the Balkans. I take names—i.e., Scutari (Shkode¨r). Other full responsibility for any errors of fact or names are given according to their time interpretation that appear here. Introduction

Ottoman domination of southeastern small region around . Gradually Europe, often referred to as the Balkans, the Ottoman government granted additional began in the fourteenth century. Initial privileges, which culminated in full Ottoman rule provided relative peace and independence at the in stability for the region for the next three cen- 1878. turies. This was the pax ottomanica,orthe Next, the Greeks sought complete separa- Ottoman Peace. The long Ottoman decline tion from Ottoman authority. Their revolt began after the Ottoman defeat outside the against Ottoman rule started in 1821. By city of Vienna in 1683. Throughout the 1827, the Greeks, with the help of the eighteenth century, Ottoman control of Great Powers, obtained an independent southeastern Europe receded. This permitted state. The borders of newly independent the intrusion of Enlightenment ideas from Greece did not conform to the distribution Western Europe at the end of the eighteenth of Greek-speaking people in southeastern century. The concept of nationalism, Europe. Accordingly, the government in imported from Western Europe, in particular adopted a policy of irredentism. caused desires for political change through- The withdrawal of the Russians from the out the Balkans. Its influence would provide of and the main basis for conflict in southeastern in 1856 and the unification of the Europe, lasting throughout the nineteenth principalities under the same prince that and twentieth centuries. At first the self- same year marked the establishment of identified nationalities of the Balkans, first Romania. The formal end of Ottoman the , then the Greeks, , suzerainty at Berlin in 1878 established a , and finally the Albanians all fully independent Romania. sought to obtain national states, mainly at Due to their proximity to the Ottoman the expense of Ottoman rule. capital, the Bulgarians were slower to This process lasted throughout the nine- develop a national movement. A nationalist teenth century. It began in 1804 with the revolt against Ottoman rule in 1876 failed. Serbian revolt. Although initially the Serbs This failure, however, attracted Russian acted to redress local wrongs, their revolt sympathy and support. The Russians inter- soon assumed nationalist overtones. By vened against the Ottomans the next year, 1818, Ottoman authorities in Constantinople initiating the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877– acknowledged the autonomous status of a 1878. The Russian victory in that conflict

xvii xviii Introduction

established a Bulgarian state that technically from the wreckage of the Ottoman Empire. remained under Ottoman suzerainty. This weak state soon became the object of ThroughtheTreatyofBerlinof1878,the contention from its Greek, Montenegrin, Great European Powers confirmed the bor- and Serbian neighbors. ders of the Bulgarian principality as well as The Balkan allies failed to find a formula the independence of Montenegro, Romania, for the division of the conquered Ottoman and Serbia. territories. Consequently, in the summer of The satisfied none of the 1913, Bulgaria confronted its erstwhile Balkan states. All sought unification with allies primarily because of disputes over their co-nationals in the Ottoman Empire Macedonia. The ensuing Second Balkan and, in the case of the Romanians and War was brief but bloody. While Bulgarian Serbs, also those living in Austria-Hungary. forces were deployed against the Greeks The Romanians additionally recognized a and Serbs, the Ottomans and Romanians Romanian minority within the borders of seized the opportunity to invade Bulgaria the in Bessarabia. Some- from the southeast and northeast. After a times, as in the case of Ottoman Macedonia, month of fighting, the Bulgarians sued for the aspirations of the Balkan states over- peace. They surrendered territory to all of lapped. After 1878, all of the Balkan states the surrounding states. attempted to realize their national ambi- Even though Austro-Hungarian and Ital- tions. National unification was perceived as ian objections had barred Serbia from access the necessary basis for further economic to the Adriatic, Serbian troops continued to and political development. National rival- maintain a presence in the new state of ries, however, precluded unified by Albania after the Balkan Wars. The antago- the Balkan states against the Ottomans. nism between Austria-Hungary and Serbia The Young Turk Coup in Constantinople continued through 1913 and into 1914. One in 1908, with its stated goals of military consequence was the Sarajevo assassination and political reform, motivated the leaders on June 28, 1914. of the Balkan states to begin diplomatic For the Balkan peoples, World War I was talks for a Balkan alliance. They recognized a continuation of the fighting that had that they would be less likely to realize their begun in the autumn of 1912. Three nationalist agendas at the expense of a revi- Austro-Hungarian invasions of Serbia in talized Ottoman Empire. The outbreak of 1914 failed. When the Austro-Hungarians the Italian-Ottoman war in 1911 provided returned in 1915, they had assistance from further incentive for a Balkan Alliance. In the Bulgarians and the Germans. Bulgarians the fall of 1912, a Balkan League was were eager to obtain Macedonia, which they formed. It was really a loose series of bilat- had lost in the Balkan Wars. The Central eral agreements. Powers quickly overran Serbia and neigh- In , in the , boringMontenegro.Inanefforttohelpthe the Balkan League overwhelmed the Otto- beleaguered Serbs, British and French man Empire. By the spring of 1913, the forces landed at Salonika. The Bulgarians, Ottoman Europe was limited to a bit of however, stopped and contained them at the territory in front of Constantinople and a Greek frontier. The war divided Greece into part of the Gallipoli Peninsula. In Decem- supporters of the Entente and advocates of ber 1912, an emerged neutrality. This lasted until the summer of Introduction xix

1917, when the interventionists, with British Balkan states. By the mid-1930s, they all and French military assistance, ousted neu- had strong economic ties with Germany. Bul- tralist King Constantine. Afterward, Greek garia also was attracted to German revision- troops deployed on the Macedonian Front ism. The failure of the British and French to alongside the British, French, Italian, and protect at also made Serbian forces. clear to the Balkan states the fact of German The Romanians had joined the Entente in continental domination. By the time of the the summer of 1916. They quickly advanced outbreak of World War II in 1939, all of the into Austro-Hungarian territory. A rapid Balkan states were in some position of subser- counterattack thrust deeply vience to . The only into Romania. The left exception was Albania, which Italy invaded Romania isolated and forced the Romanian and annexed in April 1939. The seizure of government to accede to terms with the Romanian territory by Bulgaria, Hungary, Central Powers. and Soviet in the summer of 1940 An Entente offensive undertaken on served to emphasize German domination of , 1918, broke through the the region. Bulgarian lines at Dobro Pole. The Bulgarians, Actual fighting returned to the Balkans in exhausted after six years of intermittent war, the fall of 1940 when Italian Benito collapsed and sued for peace. The Ottomans Mussolini (1883–1945) sought to recreate followed soon afterward. In November 1918, the by invading Greece Serbian troops, advancing north from the from Italian bases in Albania. Greek resis- Macedonian Front, finally returned to their tance soon pushed the invaders back into homeland. At the same time, Romania Albania. The British hastened to send aid rejoined the Entente. to Greece. This attracted the attention of TheconclusionofWorldWarIin the Germans, who were then planning their southeastern Europe did not end conflict invasion of Soviet Russia in the following there. After a turbulent birth as a nation, spring, . Hitler decided Albania increasingly came under Italian to eliminate this potential threat to the control. Bulgaria, defeated for the second southern flank of Operation Barbarossa. A time in five years, remained committed to pro-British coup in Yugoslavia added unification with Macedonia. Montenegro urgency to the German plans. In Operation disappeared into the new South Slav state, Marita, German troops swiftly overran officially called Yugoslavia after 1929. Yugoslavia and Greece. On the eve of Oper- Yugoslavia, with the other two Bal- ation Barbarossa in June 1941, all of kan victors in World War I, Greece and southeastern Europe was under the control Romania,struggledtomaintainthestatus of Nazi Germany or its Bulgarian, Hungar- quo in the face of foreign and domestic ian, or Italian allies. opposition. The former Ottoman Empire When the Germans invaded Soviet Russia was revitalized as a secular Turkey under on June 22, 1941, they received considerable the leadership of the former Young Turk aid in manpower and material from Romania. Mustapha Kemal Ataturk (1881–1938). Meanwhile, strong resistance against the The rise of Nazi Germany and its Germans and their collaborators began to demands for foodstuffs and raw materials emerge in Greece and Yugoslavia. In both brought unprecedented prosperity to the places this developed into a three-sided xx Introduction

conflict among collaborators, pro-Communist subsequent decade allowed dormant Balkan resistance, and anti-Communist resistance. At to revive. Communist regimes the same time, deep in Soviet Russia, the Roma- in Bulgaria and Romania quickly collapsed nian army shared in the disaster at Stalingrad. at the end of 1989. While the Bulgarian Com- Bythesummerof1944,theRedArmywasat munists conceded power with little resistance, the of the Balkans while the Communist regime in Romania fell with the Communist resistance forces in Greece considerable violence. In 1992, the end of and Yugoslavia were winning the conflicts the isolated Communist government in Alba- against both the collaborators and the anti- nia attracted little world notice. This was Communists. At the end of the summer, first mainly because neighboring Yugoslavia was Romania and then Bulgaria changed sides, undergoing ideological and national collapse. and began to fight alongside the . The adhesive qualities of had eroded The Germans undertook a long retreat out of considerably over the 10 years after the Yugo- Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia. slav dictator’s death. A particularly virulent The victorious Red Army then imposed nationalism revived throughout Yugoslavia. Soviet- regimes in Bulgaria and Roma- A series of bloody wars tore the state apart. nia. The triumphant Partisans of Josip Broz By 1996, Yugoslavia had dissolved into its Tito (1892–1980) did the same thing in national components, with Montenegro and Yugoslavia and Albania. Tito, however, Serbia still maintaining a loose confederation. came to resent the Soviet presence in his By 2010, not only had the Montenegrin- country, and in 1948, he broke off his con- Serbian arrangement ended, but Kosovo had nections to them. The Albanians utilized declared its independence from Serbia. Out this Yugoslav-Soviet break to rid themselves of the six federal states of Titoist Yugoslavia of the . Meanwhile in Greece, the had emerged seven independent states. three-sided fighting of World War II had In the aftermath of the nationalist revival morphed into a civil war between pro- and in southeastern Europe, all of the new gov- anti-Communist forces. By 1950, the anti- ernments sought inclusion in wider Euro- Communist forces had prevailed in this pean organizations. Greece and Turkey had conflict, due in part to the considerable been members of NATO since the Cold quantities of aid from the United States and War, and Greece was one of the original other Western countries. members of the European Union. Bulgaria The next three decades were relatively and Romania joined NATO in 2004 and the quiet in the Balkans. Greece and Turkey European Union in 2007. As of this writing, joined the Western military alliance NATO, the other Balkan states are all in the process while Bulgaria and Romania adhered to the of joining both of these international organi- Soviet-backed Warsaw Pact. Yugoslavia zations. After two tumultuous centuries and, after 1961, Albania remained outside of nationalist conflict in southeastern of the Cold War organizations. Ideology tri- Europe, full admission and participation in umphed over nationalism, at least for the international organizations offers at last time being. The pax sovietica replicated the some expectations of peace and prosperity pax ottomanica that had prevailed in for the region. These were exactly the same the region up until the nineteenth century. goals the Balkan peoples had anticipated The death of Tito on May 4, 1980, and the gaining with the achievement of national decline of Soviet power through the unity. xxii xxiii xxiv A

Abdulhamid II (1842–1918) for the people there, and during his reign the Hejaz Railroad was constructed to Ottoman sultan, the son of Sultan Abdulme- Medina and Mecca. cid, Abdulhamid was born on September 21, Abdulhamid strongly opposed Zionist 1842. He succeeded to the throne on the aspirations for a state in , however. deposition of his brother Murad on This was at least in part because he feared August 31, 1876, and ruled until April 27, that resulting increased immigration from 1909. Abdulhamid II enjoyed near absolutist the European states, especially from rule. He attempted to carry out reforms, but Turkey’s historic enemy Russia, would lead these latter proved impossible. His reign to expanded European influence in the came to be marked by war, internal vio- empire. Following expanded Jewish emigra- lence, upheaval, and on the empire tion from Russia after the 1881 , in from outside powers. A revolt occurred in 1882 Abdulhamid prohibited Jewish immi- Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875, and gration to Palestine. He rescinded the order war with followed, in 1883 but reinstated it in 1891. Nonethe- leading to Russian intervention and the less, the regulations against immigration Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. The lat- were not stringently enforced, and ter was a disaster for the empire, although were still able to settle in Palestine. the harsh effects of the Treaty of San In June 1896 Abdulhamid awarded Stefano were somewhat mitigated by the Zionist leader Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) 1878 Congress of Berlin. In gratitude the Commander’s Cross of the Majidiyya for London’s assistance at that conference, Order.InMay1891thesultanreceived Turkey ceded Cyprus to Britain in 1878. In Herzl in private audience, although this 1881, the French seized Tunis in North brought no tangible advantages to . Africa, and in 1882, British forces occupied Abdulhamid rejected Herzl’s effort to secure . Despite the Ottoman wartime victory a charter that would have established an over Greece in 1897, the Great Powers autonomous Jewish settlement in Palestine insisted that Turkey yield Crete. in return for cash payments to help reduce Abdulhamid pursued a surprisingly the Turkish national debt. Abdulhamid sug- liberal policy toward the Jews. In 1876, he gested instead that Jewish immigrants settle allowed Jews of the empire full equality in various parts of the Ottoman Empire. before the law. Jews were elected to the Dissatisfaction with the continued deter- Ottoman Parliament, and Abdulhamid ioration of the Ottoman domestic situation named two Jews as senators. Another Jew coupled with crumbling frontiers brought was made an admiral in the Turkish navy. the rise of the Young Turk movement and In Palestine, Abdulhamid introduced admin- the Revolution of 1908. Suspected of sym- istrative reforms that improved the situation pathies with a counterrevolutionary coup

1 2 Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913

attempt of , 1909, Abdulhamid was consisted of two lines of fortified positions sur- deposed on April 27. Banished to Salonika, rounding the city. The garrison consisted of he was permitted to return to Istanbul in 52,597 men and officers, under the command 1912 and passed his last years studying and of Ferik Mehmed Sukru Pasha (1857-1916). working at his hobby of carpentry. Abdulha- Initially the Bulgarians intended only to mid died in Istanbul on February 10, 1918. employ their under General Spencer C. Tucker to screen Adrianople to prevent Ottoman forces from the garrison from attack- See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Russo- ing the flanks of the main Bulgarian force Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878; Young Turks moving east of the city toward Constantinople. After the Bulgarian success at Lozengrad, the Further Reading Bulgarians decided to initiate a siege. Soon Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace: afterward the Russians indicated that they TheFalloftheOttomanEmpireandthe would not object to a Bulgarian presence there. Creation of the Modern .New At the time of the December armistice, York: Avon, 1989. the Bulgarians had surrounded the city and Kent, Marian, ed. The Great Powers and the subjected it to regular bombard- End of the Ottoman Empire. London: Rout- ments. They also had called upon their Ser- ledge, 1996. bian allies for help. By November 12 the Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Serbian Second Army under the command Ottoman Empire. London: John Murray, of General Stepa Stepanovic´ had arrived to 1992. augment Bulgarian forces. The Balkan allies remained in place during the armistice. After the Ottomans denounced the armi- Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913 stice, the Bulgarians resumed their bom- bardments. Additional Serbian artillery The siege of Adrianople (Turkish: , arrivedinFebruary.OnMarch24theBul- Bulgarian: Odrin) was a protracted engage- garians and Serbs began an infantry assault ment during the First Balkan War that on the Ottoman positions. By March 26 began in October 1912 when the Bulgarian they had taken the center of the city and Second Army blocked the Ottoman fortress accepted the surrender of Sukru Pasha. city of Adrianople and ended on March 26, Victory came at a high cost. The Bulgar- 1913, when the Bulgarian Second Army ians lost 18,282 men in the siege. The together with the allied Serbian Second Ottomans lost about 15,000 in siege opera- Army succeeded in taking the city. tions and around 60,000 were taken pris- Adrianople was the city in . In oner. Civilian casualties in the city due to 1912, it had a mixed largest population of the bombardment as well as to disease around 76,000, of whom about half were and lack of food resources undoubtedly Turkish and the other half , Greeks, increased Ottoman losses. The Bulgarian Jews, and others. At the start of the war it was success was short lived. Fighting in Mac- not initially a major Bulgarian objective. The edonia against their erstwhile Greek and Ottomans had fortified Adrianople as a Serbian allies during the Second Balkan forward defensive position to protect Constan- War forced them to transfer most of their tinople. The fortifications at Adrianople troops to the west. The small Bulgarian Albania, Italian Occupation of, 1939 3 garrison remaining in Adrianople was collection of taxes in return for Serbian pay- unable to contest control of the city when ment of a fixed annual tribute to the sultan. Ottoman forces returned. The Ottomans They also accepted the autonomy of the reoccupied Adrianople on July 23 without Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia firing a shot. The Bulgarian occupation of under Russian protection and fixed the bor- Adrianople had lasted about as long as the der between the Ottoman Empire and Walla- Bulgarian siege. chia on the thalweg of the Danube. The Richard C. Hall Porte also recognized the autonomy of Greece, which achieved full independence See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bal- in 1830. Russia was granted the same capit- kan War, Second, 1913; Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars ulatory rights enjoyed by the subjects of other European states. The treaty opened Further Reading the Dardanelles to all commercial vessels Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The and Russia was granted the same capitula- Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. tory rights enjoyed by other European states. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. Alexander Mikaberidze Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Lon- 1832; Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 don: Routledge, 2000. Vachkov, Alexander. The Balkan War, 1912– Further Reading 1913. Sofia: Angela, 2005. Finkel, Caroline. Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923.New York: Basic Books, 2006. Adrianople, Treaty of, 1829 Karsh, Inari. Empires of the Sand: The Strug- gle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789– The treaty concluding the Russo-Ottoman 1923. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University War of 1828–1829 was signed on Septem- Press, 2001. ber 14, 1829, in Adrianople by Russia’s Count Aleksey Orlov (1787–1862) and by the Ottoman Empire’s Abdul Kadyr-Bey. Albania, Italian Occupation Russia, whose forces had advanced as far of, 1939 as Adrianople during the war, abandoned most of its conquests beyond the Danube Fascist Italy occupied Albania in April 1939 but gained territory at the mouth of the Dan- after years of Italian political and economic ube and acquired substantial territories in domination. After came the and southern Georgia. The to power in Italy in 1922, he dreamed of Porte recognized Russia’s possession of establishing a new Roman Empire around western Georgia and of the Khanates of Yer- the (). ivan and Nakhichevan, which had been Albania had been part of the Roman Empire, ceded to Russia by Iran in the Treaty of and several Italian states had influenced and Turkmenchay (1828). The Ottomans recog- controlled portions of Albania during part of nized the autonomy of Serbia and agreed to the . Additionally, the Italian the removal of their troops except for the Fascists claimed that the Albanians were frontier garrisons, and the end of Ottoman ethnically linked to the , not to the 4 Albania, Italian Occupation of, 1939

Slavs of the Balkans, since prehistoric times. a short and ineffective Albanian resistance. In addition, direct control of Albania would On , King Zog with his family fled give Italy an important beachhead in the to Greece. Balkans for a possible invasion of Yugo- On April 12, the Albanian parliament slavia or Greece and provide Italy with com- voted to offer the Albanian to the plete control of the Strait of Otranto and the Italian king, Victor Emmanuel III, who entrance to the . The Fascists appointed Francesco Jacomoni di San used these tenuous cultural, historical, and Savino (1893–1973), a former ambassador “ethnic” claims to justify Italy’s right to to Albania, as his viceroy to govern Albania. dominate and eventually possess Albania. The Fascist government also established a By the mid-1930s, the Fascist regime customs union between Italy and Albania, dominated Albania politically and economi- and assumed control of Albania’s for- cally. It had granted Albania’s ruler, King eign policy. The Zog I, several loans, making Albania eco- became part of the Italian military, and nomically dependent on Italy. In exchange Italian advisors were placed inside all levels for Italy’s continued support of Albania, of the Albanian government. Mussolini demanded that Zog allow all new The Italian Fascist regime established an appointees to Albanian government positions Albanian Fascist Party and subordinate organ- to receive an “Italian education” and allow an izations as a branch of the National Fascist “Italian expert” into all Albanian government Party of Italy, and its members took an oath ministries (1895–1961). Furthermore, Italy to obey the orders of Il Duce (Mussolini). assumed control of Albania’s fortifications, The Italian Fascist regime resettled Italians and Italian officers replaced the British offi- in Albania as colonists who, it hoped, would, cers who were training Albania’s gendarme- in time, gradually transform it into Italian rie. In addition, Albania had to abrogate its soil. Albania remained an autonomous part existing commercial treaties with other coun- of the Italian Empire until September 1943, tries, make no new agreements without the when Italy surrendered to the Allies. At that approval of the Italian government, and sign time, German forces occupied Albania until a treaty granting Italy “most favored country” November 1944 when Albanian resistance status in trade. fighters liberated their country. By 1939, the Fascist regime decided to B. Kane physically occupy Albania although Albania See also: Hoxha, Enver (1908–1985); Parti- had been a de facto Italian protectorate since sans, Albania; Zog, King of the Albanians 1927. Mussolini wanted direct control to (1895–1961). increase his own prestige and provide a response to Hitler’s of Austria Further Reading and occupation of Czechoslovakia. On Barclay, Glen St. John. The Rise and Fall of March 25, Mussolini sent the Albanian the New Roman Empire: Italy’s Bid for government an ultimatum, demanding it to World Power, 1890–1943. London: Sidg- accede to Italy’s occupation of the country. wick and Jackson, 1973. King Zog refused, and, on April 7, 1939, Fischer, Bernd J. Albania at War, 1939–1945. Italian troops invaded Albania. They com- West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University pleted the occupation by April 10 after Press, 1999. Albania in the Balkan Wars 5

Hibbert, Reginald. Albania’s National Libera- who had vigorously opposed the Ottoman tion Struggle: The Bitter Victory. London: government months before, now organized Pinter Publishers, 1991. Albanian military units in Kosova and Villari, Luigi. Italian Foreign Policy under opposed the Serbian offensive. Mussolini.NewYork,Devin-AdairCo., 1956. Opening Phases In early October, Montenegrin units came in force across the border and encountered stiff Albania in the Balkan Wars Ottoman resistance. Ottoman border posi- tions were flanked and isolated, and by the Not long after the conclusion of the middle of October these border positions Albanian Rebellions of 1910–1912, the surrendered. As Montenegrin forces moved First Balkan War broke out. The Albanian southward, they slowly pushed Ottoman territories of the Ottoman Empire became forces out. These moves opened the way to the objective of several campaigns of the Scutari, which was the ’ prin- Balkan League. Additionally, northern cipal objective. Serbian forces concentrated Albania was the first Ottoman territory their moves against the Kosova . Ser- attacked by the Balkan League. Montenegro bian forces crashed into the ad hoc Ottoman launched an offensive and officially forces defending the Kosova frontier. Not declared war on October 8, 1912. Previous long thereafter, a Greek army moved toward to this there had been nearly constant cross- the Yanya (Janina) Vilayet and opened hos- border raiding by both states ever since the tilities there. Albanian Rebellions of 1910–1912. Serbia moved into the Kosova Vilayet, considered The Siege of Scutari (Shkode¨r) by Albanians in the period to a part of One of the principal events in Albania during Albania, in the middle of October 1912. the Balkan Wars was the siege of Scutari, Greece moved against Albania on October which occurred from October 28, 1912, to 18, 1912. April 23, 1913—in essence the entire duration The Balkan Wars, coming as they did in of the First Balkan War. In late October, a the aftermath of the Albanian Rebellions, joint Serbian-Montenegrin force surrounded placed many Albanians in a difficult posi- the city. Hasan Riza Pasha (1871–1913) and tion. Reactions to the incursions by the Bal- Essad Pasha Topanti (1863–1920) were the kan League from Albanians were mixed. Ottoman commanders that directed the Scars from the Albanian Rebellions had yet defense of Scutari. With this, Scutari was cut to heal and some Albanians welcomed the off from resupply and reinforcement. The ini- war, hoping it would bring about Albanian tial Serbian-Montenegrin attacks did not independence. Some of the Catholic tribes break the resolve of Ottoman forces in the of the Shkodra region, who had been given city. By early December, an armistice was refuge in 1910–1911 by Montenegro, coop- proposed. This armistice was agreed to in erated with Montenegrin-Serbian forces. principal by both parties, but it was almost Other Albanians rallied to the Ottoman immediately violated. Ottoman authorities in cause, often spurred on by accounts of real the city pressed the Great Powers for assis- or perceived atrocities committed by the tance in maintaining the armistice, but to no Balkan League. (1864–1916), avail. The armistice officially collapsed on 6 Albania in the Balkan Wars

February 3, 1913. Throughout the siege, themselves around the city of Berat. Serbian Montenegrin and Serbian forces launched forces did press down on them from the numerous offensives on Ottoman positions in north and east, but the armistice of Decem- and around Scutari. These engagements ber 1912 was observed by the Serbs, inflicted numerous casualties on both sides. and this sector remained relatively quiet. Eventually, after the assassination of Hasan This quiet was shattered in the spring of Riza Pasha, Essad Pasha Topanti negotiated 1913. With the fall of Yanya, in early surrender, and Montenegrin forces entered March 1913, what remained of the Ottoman Scutari. Despite capturing the city, in forces from Yanya made their way north- , Montenegro was obliged by most ward into central Albania. This was fol- of the Great Powers to evacuate Scutari. lowed by the movement of Serbian forces Meanwhile, Serbian forces pushed southward southward in the middle of March 1913. into central Albania. Small delaying actions kept Ottoman forces in the region from being totally encircled, Epirus but just barely. Meanwhile, Serbian forces The Greek kingdom’s principal goal in the again pushed down from the north. On Albanian territories was Epirus, specifically , 1913, Ottoman and Serbian forces the city of Yanya. A series of three battles fought the battle of Los¸ne. The beleaguered for Yanya began on December 14, 1912, Ottomans were unable to keep the Serbs and focused on the fortress on Mount Bijan out of Los¸ne or Berat, which fell a few (Bizani), which controlled the approach to days later. Los¸ne was the final battle of the the city of Yanya. Ottoman and Greek posi- First Balkan War. The Army and tions fluctuated back and forth. Eventually, the remaining Ottoman forces in central Greek forces, bolstered by the arrival of Albania were saved from a Greek-Serbian reinforcements, made a final push, and on pincer movement by an armistice in mid- March 6, 1913, Yanya surrendered and . Greek forces entered the city the same day. Throughout March 1913, Greek forces The Emergence of Albania steadily pushed northward and faced fairly With the defeat of Ottoman forces, the pos- disorganized Ottoman resistance in central sibility of remaining in the Ottoman Empire Albania. disappeared; became the only option. Albania’s independence Central Albania wasdeclaredbyanassemblyheldatVlore¨ After Serbian victory at the Battle of Mana- on November 28, 1912. The Treaty of stir () on November 20, 1912, the London confirmed Albania’s independence remainder of the Ottoman army in Macedo- on May 30, 1912. Albania’s status was not nia, often known as the Vardar Army, was altered by the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913 forced to retreat west into central Albania. or any other postwar treaties, although the As Ottoman forces entered the region, an in- new state’s existence was contested by the dependent Albania was proclaimed and the of Central Albania under Esad prospect of Albanian cooperation with the Pasha Topanti, the former Ottoman com- Balkan League became a concern. This mander at Scutari. This republic asserted its joint action never materialized, and the own during 1913–1914 but was remnants of the Vardar Army organized later incorporated into the rest of Albania. Albania in World War I 7

The Greek-backed Autonomous Republic of Wilhelm zu Wied (1876–1945) as Albanian also attempted to alter the ruler. He arrived in Albania in March 1914 boundaries of the new Albanian state. but departed on September 3 after World Later, after World War I, this state too was War I erupted. He lacked confidence that he incorporated into the new Albania. could maintain his government amidst the James Tallon fighting on the Balkan Peninsula. He real- ized that with the distractions of the war, See also: Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911; the Great Powers had little interest in main- Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Janina, Siege of, 1912– taining him. During the war, he joined 1913; Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913 the German army. On Wied’s departure, Albania reverted to anarchy. Throughout Further Reading the war, Albania had no real functioning Erickson, Edward. Defeat in Detail: The Otto- central government. The French established man Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. the so called “Republic of Korc¸e¨” in Decem- Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. ber 1916. The Italians and Austro- Kira´ly, Be´la, and Dimitrije Djordjevic, eds. Hungarians also set up Albanian govern- East Central European Society and the Bal- ments in conjunction with their occupations. kan Wars. New York: Columbia University The Italian and Austro-Hungarian occupy- Press, 1987. ing authorities also established local struc- Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– tures and supported local armed bands. 1913: Prelude to the First World War. These Albanian institutions, even though London: Routledge, 2000. under the sponsorship of foreign occupa- General Staff. AConciseHis- tions, maintained the concept of Albanian tory of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. identity and even Albanian independence during the war. Treadway, John D. The Falcon and the : Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908– Although Albania sought to avoid 1914 .West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- involvement in World War I, its neutrality sity Press, 1983. and sovereignty were alternately threatened by Austria-Hungary, , Italy, Germany, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia. Greek Albania in World War I troops occupied southern Albania beginning in . In June 1915, Montenegrin Located in the Balkans on the Adriatic Sea, troops returned to Scutari (Shkode¨r), which Albania proclaimed its independence from they had taken during the First Balkan War, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) in Novem- and Serbs reentered central Albania, where ber 1912, following the First Balkan War. they had maintained an armed presence This was confirmed by a conference of until the outbreak of World War I. Already ambassadors in London that December. Tur- in November 1914, Italy, although officially key officially renounced all rights there in neutral, sent troops into the port of Vlore¨.In May 1913, and Albania was formally the secret of April 26, granted independence as a Muslim princi- 1915, that secured Italy’s entry into the war pality in July. on their side, the Entente governments The Great Powers agreed to the installa- promised Italy Vlore¨, the island of Sazan tion of Austro-Hungarian aristocrat Prince (Saseno), and a protectorate over much of 8 Albania in World War II

the rest of Albania. Serbia and Greece were those proclaimed by the London Conference to divide what remained. of 1913. In the fall of 1915, Serbian and Monte- Gary Kerley negrin forces, under pressure from Austro- See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans Hungarian and Bulgarian armies, withdrew during World War I; Greece in World War I; across northern and central Albania. As Montenegro in World War I; Serbia in World they retreated toward the Adriatic, the War I; Serbian Retreat, 1915 Serbs and Montenegrins also came under attack by local Albanian forces. In the sec- Further Reading ond half of 1916, Italian troops drove the Jacques, Edwin E. The Albanians: An Ethnic Greeks from southern Albania and brought History from Prehistoric Times to the almost all Albanian territory under their Present. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1995. control. Austrian forces invaded in Pollo, Stefanaq, and Arben Puto. The History June 1916. In 1918, there was fighting in of Albania from Its Origin to the Present Albania between Austro-Hungarian forces Day. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981. on the one side and Italian, French, and Greek forces on the other. Austro- Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999. Hungarian forces remained in Albania until the end of the war. Italian troops stayed on in Albania after the war. Greek and Italian interests threat- Albania in World War II ened the existence of Albania at the Peace Conference. The Greeks also sent During World War II, Albania was the armed bands into southern Albanian springboard for the Italian invasion of territory, which they called “Northern Greece and the scene of anti-Axis guerrilla Epirus.” Nevertheless, the Americans, warfare. Having dominated Albania politi- British, and French all supported the cally and economically for some time, reestablishment of Albanian independence. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini planned a After the conferees at the Paris Peace formal annexation of Albania in the spring Conference called on Italy to withdraw, of 1939. Italian troops invaded the small they did so in August 1920, following an mountainous country on April 7, 1939, and uprising in Albania and unrest in Italy. The met only light resistance, although a small Congress of Lushnja, which began to meet force led by Abas Kupi (1892– in January 1919 even before the final Italian 1976) held the Italians at Durre¨s (Durazzo) withdrawal, established a new government. for 36 hours, sufficient time for Albanian At the end of the Great War, Albania lay in King Zog (1895–1961), Queen Geraldine ruins. There was chaos and great suffering, (1915–2002), and their days-old heir Prince with 70,000 deaths from epidemics and Leka (1939–2011) to escape. They eventu- fighting out of a population of only 800,000 ally arrived in Britain, where they spent the people. war. Like his predecessor William of Wied In December 1920, Albania was admitted (1876–1945), Zog would never return to to the . It was declared a Albania once he left the country. On republic on January 21, 1925, and its bor- April 16, 1939, King Victor Emmanuel III ders were formally established in 1926 as of Italy accepted the Albanian crown, and a Albania in World War II 9 pro-fascist government was installed. Brit- ain, still hoping to prevent an alliance between Mussolini and , acceded to the annexation, but the Greeks prepared to resist an inevitable Italian inva- sion of their own country, which occurred on October 28, 1940. The invading Italian army contained some Albanian formations. The invasion of Greece presented Albanian nationalists with something of a quandary. They relished the opportunity to gain the parts of northwestern Greece containing an Albanian population. On the other hand, the Greek defeat of the Italian invasion and subsequent occupation of southern Albania presented Albanian nationalists with an opportunity to throw off Italian control. German intervention in the war on the Ital- ian side the next year rendered the issue moot. The Germans and Italians soon over- ran Yugoslavia and Greece. The defeat of Albanian troops under Italian command in , Greece and Yugoslavia brought additional Albania, April 24, 1939. (Bettmann/Corbis) territories to Albania. Kosovo, parts of , and northwestern Greece (C¸ame¨ra) were annexed. These central and northern Albania, Abas Kupi were not unpopular either in and various tribal leaders also formed resis- Albania proper or in the new territories. tance groups. SOE agents Colonel Neil Already, earlier in 1940, Britain’s Special McLean (1918–1986) and Major David Operations Executive (SOE) had attempted Smiley (1916–2009) were sent into southern to create a united-front movement under Albania, and they subsequently recom- Abas Kupi and to stimulate a revolt against mended that the British provide aid to both the Italians in northern Albania. The effort Hoxha’s partisans and the Balli Kombetar. began well, but it faltered after the German The disintegration of the Italian forces conquest of Yugoslavia. However, as Axis in Albania following the overthrow of fortunes waned in 1942, Albanian resistance Mussolini in September 1943 provided the revived. Italian control became limited to Albanian guerrillas with arms and other sup- the major cities and the coastal regions. plies captured from or abandoned by the In the mountains of southern Albania, the Italians. The Germans quickly sent in troops Communists, encouraged by Josip Broz to clear out the remaining Italian forces, Tito, leader of the , coa- savagely repressed the local population, lesced under (1908–1983). and “restored Albanian independence.” The Liberal landowners and intellectuals mainly Germans created a government under in the north formed the Balli Kombetar Mehdi Frasheri (1872–1963), but it was (National Front) resistance movement. In able to control only the main towns and 10 Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911

coastal plain. The rest of Albania descended Further Reading into chaos as various guerrilla chieftains Fischer, Bernd J. Albania at War, 1939–45. fought for power. The Germans’ attempt to West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University bolster their control by raising the 21st SS Press, 1999. Mountain Division (“Skanderberg”) among Swire, Joseph. Albania: The Rise of the King- mainly the population of Kosovo met with dom. New York: Arno Press, 1971. little success. Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern The British Balkan Air Force head- History, London: I. B. Tauris, 1997. quarters at Bari controlled the support to anti-Axis guerrillas in the Balkans and was Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911 decidedly pro- in both Albania and Yugoslavia. The British hoped to use all of Following the of the Albanian resistance forces to harass the 1908, there was a strong reaction, especially German withdrawal from Greece, which by many of the highland tribes of northern began in September 1944. But when Hox- Albania, to the imposition of new reforms ha’s Communists attacked the Balli Kombe- by the Young Turk regime. This reaction tar and Abas Kupi instead, the British cut off eventually broke out into a full-scale rebel- aid to the non-Communist resistance groups, lion. It was one of the largest rebellions in thereby ensuring their defeat. This situation the Young Turk period (1908–1918). mirrored that in Yugoslavia, where the Parti- The Ottoman army committed 50,000– ˇ sans gained an advantage over the Cetniks in 60,000 soldiers to quell the rebellion. Fight- their ongoing civil war. Kupi and the Balli ing principally occurred in the areas around Kombetar leaders were evacuated to Italy the Montenegrin border and Kosovo, with the McLean SOE mission, and the although there were isolated incidents else- Communists were left to take over Albania. where in Albania. The rebellions of 1910– German forces withdrew from Albania in 1911 began for two principal reasons: the the fall of 1944. With Yugoslav support, anger of local agents of the deposed sultan Hoxha seized power on November 29, Abdulhamid II against the removal of their 1944, and the People’s Republic of Albania subsidies; and the imposition of new taxes was recognized by the Allies. Hoxha main- and regulations in the Albanian provinces tained his ties to his Yugoslav patrons for of the Ottoman Empire. Later, as the rebel- only a brief time. When the Yugoslavs split lion dragged on, nationalism also motivated from Soviet control in 1948, Hoxha used rebellion. the opportunity to support the Soviets and In April 1910, Shevket Turgut Pasha rid Albania of Yugoslav domination. Alba- (1857–1924) was dispatched by Istanbul and nia subsequently developed anti-Western moved to crush the rebellion. By the end of views and supported an isolated Stalinist June 1910, the rebellion was defeated. Many regime for nearly half a century. of the erstwhile rebels fled across the Charles R. Shrader border with Montenegro. This led to the See also: Hoxha, Enver, 1908–1985; Germany 1911 rebellion, also known as the Highland- in the Balkans during World War II; Greco- er’s Rebellion. This rebellion began when Italian War, 1940–1941; Italy in the Balkans the highland tribes near the city of Scutari during World War II; Partisans, Albania (Shkode¨r), with the urging of Montenegro, Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia 11 attacked Ottoman soldiers in May 1911. The Alexander Karadjordjevic´ returned to Serbia rebels initially captured Ottoman positions as crown prince in 1909 after his elder brother along the border, threatening Scutari itself. George disqualified himself for the throne by However, Ottoman forces recovered, recap- murdering his manservant. There, Alexander tured the lost positions, and scattered the continued his education. remaining rebels. Many of the rebels fled During the First Balkan War, Alexander again across the border into Montenegro. commanded the Serbian , which Several remained there and launched a third won battles at Kumanovo (October 1912) rebellion in 1912. and Monastir () against the James Tallon Ottomans, allowing for Serbian control of a large part of Macedonia. During the Second See also: Abdulhamid II (1842–1918); Alba- Balkan War, Alexander helped to defeat the nia in the Balkan Wars; Montenegro in the Balkan Wars at the Battle of Bregalnica (June– ), thereby permitting Serbia to Further Reading retain Macedonia. In June 1914, Alexander Blumi, Isa. Reinstating the Ottomans: Alterna- became of Serbia due to his father’s tive Balkan Modernities, 1800–1912.New age and ill health. York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. As supreme commander of Serbian Gawrych, George. The Crescent and the forces, Alexander and his army withstood Eagle: Ottoman Rule, , and the Alba- three Austro-Hungarian attacks after the nians, 1874–1913. London: I. B. Tauris, outbreak of the First World War. In 1915 2006. combined Austro-Hungarian, German, and Ja¨ckh, Ernst. Im tu¨rischen Kriegslager durch Bulgarian attacks forced Alexander and the Albanien. Heilbronn: Verlag von Eugen to retreat across the Albanian Salzer, 1911. mountains to the Adriatic coast. There Skendi, Stavro. The Albanian National Entente ships took the survivors to the Awakening, 1878–1912. Princeton, NJ: Greek island of Corfu. After rest and recov- Princeton University Press, 1967. ery, they became part of the Entente Salo- Treadway, John D. The Falcon and the nika Front in Greece. While in Salonika in Eagle: Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908–1914. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue 1917, a Serbian military tribunal convicted University Press, 1983. a group of army officers of plotting to assas- sinate Alexander. Among those executed was Colonel Dimitrijevic´, the leader of the Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia Black Hand. Serbian forces were instrumen- (1888–1934) tal in the Battle of Dobro Pole in Septem- ber 1918, which forced Bulgaria out of Alexander was born the second son of Peter the war. Karadjordjevic´ of Serbia and Princess Zorka In late 1918, Serbia joined with the South of Montenegro on , 1888, in Slav lands of the former Austria-Hungary Montenegro. Peter became king of Serbia and Montenegro to become the Kingdom of in 1903 after the murder of Alexander Serbs, and with King Peter Obrenovic´ by conspirators including Colonel Karadjordjevic´ as . When Peter Dragutin Dimitrijevic´ (Apis). Educated died on August 16, 1921, Regent Alexander in and St. Petersburg (1876–1917), succeeded his father as king. The kingdom 12 Alexander Obrenovic´, King of Serbia

did not meld together, mainly because of con- of Serbia, with Alexander’s mother as regent flict between the Serbs, who were the largest until he turned 18 years old. national group, and the Croats, the second- In 1893, Alexander, aged 16, staged a largest national group. Due to ethnic strife, coup, dismissed the , and took royal Alexander proclaimed a royal dictatorship in authority into his own hands. In May 1894, January 1929, officially changing the name he staged a second coup in which he abol- of the country to Yugoslavia. Under his leader- ished his father’s liberal 1888 constitution ship, Yugoslavia joined the Little Entente and and restored the conservative one of the Balkan Entente. During a state visit to 1869. In 1894, Alexander brought his France, Alexander was assassinated on Octo- father, Milan, back to Serbia and, in 1898, ber 9, 1934, by a terrorist with connections to appointed him commander in chief of the Croatian Ustasˇa and Macedonian VMRO. Serbian army. Both of these were separatist organizations. In the summer of 1900, Alexander sud- Gregory C. Ference denly announced his engagement to the wid- owed Masˇin (1864–1903), a former See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans lady-in-waiting to his mother. The projected during World War I; Black Hand; Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin (1876–1917); Kosovo, Battle of, union initially aroused great opposition 1915; Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912; Serbia in from his father, Prime Minister Dr. Vladan the Balkan Wars; Serbia in World War I; Ser- Dordevic´ (1844–1930), and his mother. bia, Invasions of, 1914; Serbia, Invasions of, Milan and Dordevic´ resigned from their 1915; Serbian Retreat, 1915; Ustasˇa; VMRO respective offices, and Alexander banished his mother from Serbia. Opposition to the Further Reading marriage subsided somewhat after Russian Graham, Stephen. Alexander of Jugoslavia: czar Nicholas II published his congratula- Strongman of the Balkans. London: Cassel, tions to Alexander on his engagement and 1938. of his acceptance to act as the principal wit- Graham, Stephen. Alexander of Yugoslavia: ness at the wedding, which took place on The Story of the King Who Was Murdered in Marseilles. New Haven, CT: Yale August 5, 1900. University Press, 1939. On his own initiative, Alexander unveiled , Allen. The Turning Point: The Assas- a liberal constitution, introducing a two- sination of Louis Barthou and King chamber legislature for the first time in Ser- Alexander I of Yugoslavia. New York: bia’s constitutional history. The army, St. Martin’s Press, 1970. already dissatisfied with the king’s marriage, became more dissatisfied at the rumors that Alexander might proclaim one of the Alexander Obrenovic´, King queen’s two unpopular brothers as heir- of Serbia (1876–1903) presumptive to the throne. Then, in a third coup in March 1903, Alexander suspended Alexander Obrenovic´ was born on the constitution for 30 minutes so he could August 14, 1876, to King Milan Orbrenovic´ dismiss the old senators and councilors of (1854–1901) of Serbia and his wife Natalija state and replace them with new ones, Obrenovic´ (1859–1941). On March 6, 1889, increasing dissatisfaction in the country. King Milan unexpectedly abdicated and pro- In June 1903, a group of army officers claimed Alexander, then 13 years old, king with ties to the Serbian secret society the Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria 13

Black Hand and several politicians con- royalty. His godfathers were his uncle, Czar spired to assassinate the king and his wife Alexander II, and Count Josef and replace him with Peter I Karageorgevic´. (1766–1858), the Austrian field marshal. The conspirators invaded the and bru- His father was stationed with a garrison in tally murdered the royal couple in the early Verona when Alexander was born, but in morning of June 11, 1903. King Alexander 1861, he retired and moved the family and Queen Draga were buried in the crypt back to Darmstadt in Hesse (present-day of St. Mark’s Church, Belgrade. Germany). When the Russo-Ottoman War Robert B. Kane broke out in 1877, Alexander was a lieuten- ant in the Hessian Dragoons and was eager See also: Black Hand; Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin to participate in the conflict. Over the next (1876–1917); Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901) few years, he served in several military Further Reading capacities, most notably with the Bulgarian Cox, John K. The History of Serbia. Westport, and later as an aide to King Carol I CT: Greenwood Press, 2002. (1839–1914) of Romania. Mackenzie, David. Apis, the Congenial Con- When the war ended, the Congress of spirator: The Life of Colonel Dragutin T. Berlin established Bulgaria as an autono- Dimitrijevic.Boulder,CO:EastEuropean mous principality within the Ottoman Monographs, 1989. Empire, with the restriction that Bulgaria’s Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Serbia: The History of new monarch could not come from a ruling an Idea. New York: New York University so as not to tip the balance of Press, 2002. power in the Balkans in favor of one of the major European powers. The major European powers also retained a supervisory Alexander of Battenberg, Prince role over the newly independent nation, par- of Bulgaria (1857–1893) ticularly Russia, which was the dominant power in the region. Alexander’s name was From 1879 to 1886, Alexander of Batten- put forward by the Russian minister of for- berg was the first elected prince of Bulgaria eign affairs, who thought that the young and had the unfortunate job of trying to cre- man could easily be made an instrument of ate a nation-state without the support of the Russian policy. His candidacy had the back- major European powers. In particular, the ing of both Czar Alexander II and Britain’s Russian czars worked for his removal from . office throughout his short reign. Never- On April 29, 1879, the Bulgarian National theless, Alexander oversaw the union of Assembly was given a slate of three candi- Bulgaria with the province of Eastern dates for the position of prince: Alexander, in 1885 and successfully led his Prince Henry XXV of Reuss (1856–1911), army against the invading Serbs in the and Prince Waldemar of (1858– same year. By the time he abdicated in 1939). Alexander, the only serious candidate 1886, he was a symbol of national unity for and the one who had fought recently on the the Bulgarian people. side of the Bulgarians during the Russo- Alexander was born on April 5, 1857, in Ottoman War, was easily elected. Verona, Italy, a member of an aristocratic Alexander arrived in Varna, Bulgaria, on family that was related to much of European June 29, 1879, after a visit with the Ottoman 14 Ali Pasha

sultan Abdulhamid II in Constantinople. of that year. Austria then intervened and Immediately after he ascended the throne, convinced Bulgaria to accept peace terms Alexander attempted to institute some in the Treaty of Bucharest that confirmed reforms. He felt the Bulgarian constitution the status quo in the region. was too liberal, but appeals to other mon- The pro-Russian factions within Bulgaria archs to get it changed were unsuccessful. had had enough of Alexander, however. On He also had to contend with a strong pro- August 21, 1886, just months after he final- Russian faction within Bulgaria and Rus- ized the Treaty of Bucharest, Alexander was sia’s continual interference in Bulgarian forced to abdicate by a coup of pro-Russian affairs. Alexander had to walk a fine line army officers, who then escorted him out of with Russians. He resented their interfer- Bulgaria to Bessarabia. Many referred to the ence, but he needed Russia’s support to episode as a kidnapping. He returned shortly maintain Bulgaria’s independence from the thereafter in an attempt to reclaim his throne, aggression of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. but his efforts met with little success, despite In 1880, finding it increasingly difficult to the efforts of Stambolov to maintain a pro- govern with the Russophiles in the legisla- Alexander faction in the country. He formally ture, Alexander dissolved the National abdicated on September 7, 1886. Assembly (Su˘branie). The following year, Alexander arrived back in Hesse on Sep- he suspended the constitution, concentrating tember 10. In 1889, he assumed the title almost all political power in Bulgaria in count of Hartenau and married the actress himself. He also attempted to purge the Johanna Loisinger (1865–1951). He received Bulgarian army of Russophile officers. His a commission as a colonel of an infantry regi- relations with Russia deteriorated even fur- ment stationed in and died there of peri- ther after the ascension of his cousin, Czar tonitis on November 17, 1893. Alexander III, in 1881. To build support for Michael D. Johnson his regime among the Bulgarians, he reinsti- See also: Abdulhamid II (1842–1918); Bucha- tuted the constitution and convened the rest, Treaty of 1886; Bulgarian-Serb War, National Assembly, ruling with the help of 1885 a liberal-conservative coalition. Alexander’s next move was in violation of Further Reading the Congress of Berlin and was sure to fur- Corti, Egon Caesar Conte. Alexander von Batten- ther harm Bulgaria’s relations with Russia, berg. London: Cassell and Company, 1954. but nationalist sentiment was growing Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria 1878–1918: A His- increasingly strong in the Balkans. In Sep- tory. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- tember 1885, he annexed the province of graphs, 1983. with the full backing of Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New Prime Minister (1854– York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. 1895). The Russians were furious but did not want to go to war over the issue. The Serbians, however, launched an attack Ali Pasha (1750?–1822) against Bulgaria in protest of the annexa- tion. Alexander led the Bulgarian army Ali Pasha was born around 1750 in southern against the Serbs and had pushed them Albania near the village of Tepelene. back into their own country by November A prominent clan, his family lost much of Antonescu, Ion 15 its influence after Ali’s father was murdered. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, His mother formed a brigand band where 1999. Ali learned the art of tribal politics, soon becoming its leader and recovering much Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946) of what the family had lost. The Turks appointed him to protect northern Epirus in Romanian marshal and dictator Ion Anto- 1778, and he helped put down a rebellion nescu was born in Pitesti on June 14, 1882 in Scutari (Shkode¨r). He became the lieuten- to an aristocratic military family. Antonescu ant to the pasha of Rumelia, and received the graduated from Romanian military schools pashalik of for his help in the in (1902) and Ias¸i (1904). A cavalry Austro-Turkish War of 1787–1791. In during the 1907 Peasant Revolt, 1788, he became pasha of Yannina, his he fought in the and power center until his death. was an operations officer during World War Dreaming of establishing a sea power to I. From 1922 to 1927, he was military rival that of the dey of Algiers, in the late attache´ in Paris, Brussels, and London. He 1790s, Ali Pasha entered into an alliance was chief of the Army General Staff in with France in order to gain a seaport on 1933 and 1934. the Adriatic. In 1807, he switched sides to As with most others among the nationalis- the British before briefly renewing his alli- tic Romanian military elite, Antonescu ance with the French, all of this with the favored British and French political influ- approval of the sultan. ence. However, he closely monitored both The weakness of the Ottoman government the Third Reich’s ascendancy and the loom- allowed Ali Pasha and his sons to expand ing in his vigilance regarding their territory to include most of Albania, Romanian territorial integrity, pragmatically large sections of western Greece, and part of preparing for a German accommodation the peninsula. In 1820, the should such a choice become necessary. sultan, who wished to enact reforms to As minister of defense, Antonescu became strengthentheempire,sentanarmyinan embroiled in and frustrated by the corrupt attempt to remove Ali from power. Ali worked governing vicissitudes of King Carol II with the Christian Greeks, who were fighting (1893–1953), especially after 1937. Pro- for their independence, against the Ottomans, testing Carol’s February 1938 establishment but after a two-year siege of Yannina, Ali of the Royal Dictatorship and his suppres- was killed in either January or February 1822, sion of the fascistic Legion of Saint Michael with his head being sent to the sultan. (the Iron Guard), Antonescu defended the Gregory C. Ference Iron Guard’s leaders in court and was briefly See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– jailed and outposted to Chisinau (Kishinev) 1832 near the Soviet border. Following the Soviet Union’s occupation Further Reading of Bessarabia and the ceding of Transylva- Baggally, John W. Ali Pasha and Great nia to Hungary in summer 1940, in Septem- Britain. Oxford: Blackwell, 1938. ber, King Carol was coerced into naming Fleming, K. E. The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplo- Antonescu head of the troubled government macy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha Greece. before abdicating under pressure in favor of 16 Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during World War I

his son Michael, age 19. Antonescu’s title, sentence, and he was executed there on Conducator, was the Romanian equivalent June 1, 1946. of Duce or Fuhrer, and he used his broad Gordon E. Hogg powers to oust the Iron Guard from See also: Iron Guard; Michael I, King of government in . That June, he Romania (1921–); Romania in World War II; assigned 14 Romanian divisions to Ger- Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 many’s invasion of the Soviet Union, Opera- tion Barbarossa. For reclaiming Romanian Further Reading lands from the Soviets, Antonescu was pro- Hitchins, Keith. Rumania: 1866–1947. Oxford claimed marshal by figurehead King and New York: Oxford University Press, Michael I on August 23, 1941. Antonescu 1994. continued to supply the German war effort Temple, Mark. “The Politicization of History: with troops (ultimately, Romania lost sub- Marshal Antonescu and Romania.” East stantially more men than Italy) in exchange European Politics and Societies 10, no. 3 for German military favor, but on the home (1996): 457–503. front he sought to temper his ally’s over- bearing appetite for Romania’s oil and agri- Austria-Hungary in the Balkans cultural bounty. Antonescu did not hesitate during World War I to assert Romanian interests in direct con- versations with Hitler. During World War I, there were three basic In coming to terms with Romania’s “Jew- weaknesses of the Austro-Hungarian mili- ish question,” Antonescu—like Benito Mus- tary. First, about one-quarter of all con- solini in Italy—preferred his own solution to scripted soldiers were illiterate, and most of anything dictated by Berlin, employing poli- the conscripts from the subject nationalities cies that (officially) allowed Jews to emi- simply did not understand German or grate in exchange for payment or to face Hungarian. Communication within the deportation to Romanian-administered Habsburg army was at best somewhat diffi- work camps in the Ukrainian region of cult. Second, for most of these same subject . Nonetheless, Antonescu’s nationalities—Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, regime was responsible for the deaths of Romanians, and southern —there were more than 250,000 Romanian and Ukrainian links and sympathies that crossed inter- Jews and Gypsies as a result of its “romani- national borders, a sense of identity with the zation” policies during 1940–1944, despite empire’s various enemies. Third, Austria- its refusal to join Germany’s “final solution” Hungary, like Russia, lacked the industrial outright. After the catastrophe of Stalingrad base needed to wage protracted war and was made victory problematic, Antonescu not well served in terms of railways and roll- began to moderate his policies toward the ing stock so important in the timely move- Romanian Jews. ment of formations between fronts. Antonescu was deposed by coup-installed The latter point was but one factor of King Michael on August 23, 1944, and a division of the empire into two parts turned over to the occupying Soviet forces. that basically fell apart during the war. His war crimes show trial, held in Bucharest The Austrian part was relatively industrial- on May 4–17, 1946, led to the death ized, whereas Hungary was the empire’s Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during World War I 17

Austro-Hungarian Army troops on their way to the in the in March 1917. (National Archives) breadbasket. But with the collapse of to exist after that time. The adoption of field domestic industrial production and the rail gray uniforms and the spiked helmet reflected transport system, Austria lacked the con- an increased German influence throughout the sumer goods to sell to Hungary, and Hun- Austrian formations. The Germans, in addi- gary would not sell grain to Austria. The tion to providing chiefs of staff to the various latter development gave rise to the bitter commands within the Austro-Hungarian Austrian comment that Hungary would army, increasingly provided German forma- rather give grain to the pigs than to Austria. tions to support Austro-Hungarian formations Austria-Hungary did not have an army; it in the field. By 1917, the majority of Austrian had two armies, one for each of the two troops regarded themselves as German rather parts of the empire. In 1914, it was nomi- than Habsburg, and this was manifest in the nally able to put 32 infantry and 9 cavalry honoring of the German national anthem divisions into the field and had a reserve of rather than the imperial one. For their part, 16 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions; but the the Germans were increasingly contemptuous fact was that the empire called up only of Austria-Hungary, its head of state, army, 29 percent of its eligible manpower for ser- and military personnel. Allied—or hand- vice and the reserve divisions were decidedly cuffed—to a corpse was the not inaccurate third-rate and aging. The problem for the summary of this relationship. army was that the disastrous defeats of 1914 Austro-Hungarian forces first invaded in Galicia really wrecked the Austrian part Serbia in August 1914. They were stopped at of the army, and the com- the battle of Cer Mountain. Two subsequent pleted the process. The Austrian army—or invasions that same year met with failure. In the Austrian part of the army—really ceased , the Austro-Hungarian Third 18 Averescu, Alexandru

Army, this time accompanied by one German between June and September 1918, and in and two Bulgarian armies, again invaded the final defeat at Vittorio Veneto in Italy, Serbia. The Central Powers overran the 500,000 men surrendered or deserted. By exhausted Serbs. Austro-Hungarian forces this time the war was clearly over, and occupied most of Serbia. At the beginning of most troops were trying to go home. There 1916, they occupied Montenegro and estab- is a certain poignancy in accounts of forma- lished a front against the Italians in Albania tions leaving the front en masse and trying roughly along a line north of Vlore¨ to Lake to get home with railways working only . intermittently. There is little evidence that In 1916, Austro-Hungarian reserve troops units containing Balkan peoples, mainly resisted Romanian attempts to break into Romanians and Serbs, were any more or . The Austro-Hungarian First less reliable than other Habsburg troops. Army together with some German forma- Bosnian units were especially feared by tions counterattacked across the Transylva- their enemies on the Italian and Russian nian Alps and swept into Wallachia. At the Fronts. But this was the final act in a story same time, a Bulgarian-German force of an army that reached back over six centu- attacked Romania in Dobrudja. Through ries and that by war’s end in November 1918, 1918, Austro-Hungarian forces maintained like the state itself, had ceased to exist. occupation duties in Montenegro, Romania, Hedley P. Willmott and Serbia. The occupation regime in Serbia See also: Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914; was especially rigorous. Romania, Invasion of, 1916; Serbia, Invasions Evidence of the progressive collapse of of, 1914; Serbia, Invasions of, 1915 Austria-Hungary is provided in three mat- ters. First, throughout 1917, there were a Further Reading growing number of industrial incidents that Gumz, Jonathan E. The Resurrection and Col- escalated after the halving of the flour ration lapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, in January 1918. Strikes spread and work- 1914–1918. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- ers’ councils sprang up, and military censors versity Press, 2009. noted throughout society and the armed Rothenberg, Gunther E. TheArmyofFrancis forces an increased political edge to inci- Joseph. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- dents, especially in the military disturbances sity Press, 1976. of . Second, by war’s end, the Scheer, Tamara. Zwischen Front und Heimat, ¨ physical state of the army and its soldiers Osterreich-Ungarns Milita¨verwaltungen im Ersten Weltkrieg. Frankfurt am Main: bordered on desperate. The average weight Peter Lang, 2009. of ordinary rank-and-file soldiers with the was as little as 120 pounds, per- haps 30 to 40 pounds underweight. Most of Averescu, Alexandru the troops were without leather boots, full (1859–1938) uniforms, adequate underwear, and protec- tive clothing for mountain warfare and Romanian army general Alexandru were reduced to eating their transport ani- Averescu was born on March 9, 1859, in mals. Third, after May 1918, there were Ismail, Bessarabia. Averescu enlisted in the increasing problems of desertion from the Romanian army in 1876 and fought in the army. An estimated 400,000 men deserted war against Turkey during 1877–1878. Averescu, Alexandru 19

After the war, Averescu remained in the defensive actions in the Carpathians and the army and was commissioned a lieutenant in defense of Marasti. Although he held the Sir- 1891. Promoted to captain in 1896, he stud- eth line, Russian forces collapsed and Roma- ied at the Military Staff College in Turin, nia was forced to sue for peace. Italy. During 1895–1898, Averescu was In February 1918, following the defeat of military attache´ in Berlin. He was promoted Romania, Prime Minister Ionel Bra˘tianu to colonel in 1901 and to brigadier general (1864–1927) resigned and King Ferdinand in 1906. In 1907, Averescu accepted an I appointed Averescu prime minister, with appointment as minister of war. He oversaw the task of negotiating a settlement with the the suppression of the great peasant uprising Central Powers. Averescu knew von Mack- that year. Advanced to major general in ensen and was strongly opposed to Bolshev- 1912, he was Romanian army chief of staff ism; Ferdinand hoped these factors might in the Second Balkan War of 1913. allow a more generous settlement, but the With the beginning of World War I, Aver- resulting Treaty of Bucharest was nonethe- escu became a strong advocate of Romanian less extraordinarily harsh. Czar Ferdinand intervention on the Allied side, which was sufficiently displeased with the treaty occurred in . He then took thatherefusedtosignitandforcedAver- field command of the and forces escu from office. in Dobrudja to defend the southern border After the war, Averescu established the with Bulgaria. Averescu planned a daring People’s League Party, which won the 1920 strategy of striking across the Danube River elections. He served twice as prime minister, and taking German General August von from 1920 to 1921 and from 1926 to 1928. Mackensen’s forces in the rear. Promoted to field marshal in 1930, Averescu Averescu’s (1849–1945) crossing of the was appointed a member of the Crown Danube failed due to poor weather, the Cen- Council by King Carol II in 1937. He died tral Powers’ river flotillas, and the fortuitous in Bucharest on October 2, 1938. presence of Bulgarian army units at the point Brandon H. Turner and Spencer C. Tucker of attack. Averescu then assumed command See also: Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918; Roma- of the Second Army, restoring his military nia, Peasant Uprising, 1907; Romania in reputation in a series of defensive actions World War I back toward the Sireth River. The Second Army became the only Romanian army still Further Reading in the field. In , Averescu became a Alexandrescu, Vasile. Romania in World War national military hero when his Second I: A Synopsis of Military History. Bucha- Army, supported by the Russian Fourth rest: Military Publishing House, 1985. Army, broke through the Central Powers’ Seton-Watson, R. W. A History of the Rouma- defenses on a 20-mile-wide front at Marasti nians: From Roman Times to the Comple- and advanced up to 12 miles. This offensive tion of Unity. Cambridge: Cambridge forced the Central Powers to transfer five University Press, 1934. infantry and two cavalry divisions to this Torrey, Glenn. Romania and World War I: A area and to modify their own offensive Collection of Studies. Portland, OR: Center plans. Later Averescu was responsible for for Romanian Studies, 1998. B

Balkan Entente, 1934 were not interested in confronting Nazi Germany in . Also by then, The Balkan Entente of 1934, or Four Power all members of the Balkan Entente were Pact, was an effort by Greece, Romania, aligned economically with Nazi Germany. Turkey, and Yugoslavia to promote better The Balkan Entente was basically a defen- relations among the Balkan states. It grew sive arrangement. None of the signatories of out of a series of four conferences held in the Balkan Entente ever implemented any of Athens in 1930, Istanbul in 1931, Bucharest its provisions. In 1954, three of the members in 1932, and Salonika in 1933. The Balkan of the former Balkan Entente, Greece, Turkey, Entente itself was signed by the four states and Yugoslavia, revived the idea of a Balkan in Athens on February 9, 1934, after mutual assistance agreement. Like the Balkan preliminary talks in Belgrade. The pact Entente,theBalkanPactof1954provedtobe guaranteed mutual security and pledged to ephemeral. maintain the territorial status quo. The pact Richard C. Hall mainly was directed against Bulgaria, which See also: Balkan Pact, 1954; Little Entente harbored revisionist claims against all of the signatories. Some effort was made to obtain Further Reading the Sofia government’s adherence to the Hall, Richard C. The Modern Balkans: A His- pact. The Bulgarians, however, were not pre- tory. London: Reaktion, 2011. pared to abandon their nationalist aspirations, Jelavich, Barbara. The History of the Balkans. especially those in regard to Greek and Yugo- Vo l. 2, Twentieth Century.Cambridge: slav Macedonia. To a lesser degree, the pact Cambridge University Press, 1983. was also intended to provide the Greeks and Kerner, Robert Joseph, and Harry Nicholas Yugoslavs with security against Albanian Howard. The Balkan Conferences and the territorial claims. Albania itself provided little Balkan Entente, 1930–1935.Westport, CT: threat, but by the early 1930s, Italian influ- Greenwood Press, 1970. ence had come to dominate the country. Benito Mussolini’s (1883–1945) aggressive intentions throughout the Mediterranean Balkan League region were well known. The signatories of the pact intended the Balkan Entente to be a In 1912, the young, independent nations of southeastern European counterpart to the Lit- Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia tle Entente. Romania and Yugoslavia were formed a military alliance, named the members of both. Balkan League, for the purpose of attacking Nevertheless, by 1938, the Balkan their former subjugator, Turkey. The mili- Entente was virtually defunct. The Munich tary conflicts that ensued heightened nation- Crisis indicated that Britain and France alist tensions in the Balkans as well as

20 Balkan Pact, 1954 21 among Western European powers with inter- in 1913; in this Second Balkan War, Turkey ests in the region. Only two years later, the won back a portion of its territory. aspirations of the Balkan League countries Overall, the Balkan Wars did little to and the heated international conflicts they satisfy nationalist aspirations in the region. engendered helped ignite the diplomatic At the end of the Second Balkan War, crisis that started World War I. Great Britain intervened in hopes of ending At the turn of the century, the newly inde- conflict between the Balkan nations. The pendent Balkan countries, after hundreds of London Conference, as it was called, was years of domination by the Turkish Ottoman not particularly successful. Rather than abat- Empire, were hotbeds of nationalist senti- ing tensions, the conference aggravated the ments. At the same time, the regional situation by granting Austria the land powers of Turkey and Austria were intent between Serbia and the Adriatic Sea, effec- on exerting their influence on the smaller tively cutting Serbia off from the sea and Balkan states, and moreover, the larger dashing any hopes of Serbian expansion. In European powers—France, Britain, Ger- June 1914, it was an angry Serbian nationalist many, and Russia—all believed that they who took revenge on Austria by assassinating had vital national interests of their own in the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand, an the Balkans. event that helped spark the outbreak of The political instability in the region first World War I. led to military conflict in 1912. The First Richard C. Hall Balkan War was indirectly brought on by See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bal- Italy’s successful bid to assert its imperialist kan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Bulgaria in designs on Turkish territory along the the Balkan Wars; Greece in the Balkan Wars; Libyan coast. The Italian victory exposed Montenegro in the Balkan Wars; Serbia in the Turkey’s military weakness, a weakness Balkan Wars that the Balkan countries were happy to exploit. To this end, Bulgaria, Greece, Further Reading Montenegro, and Serbia formed the Balkan Geshov, Ivan. The Balkan League. Translated League in October 1912. by Constantin C. Mincoff. London: J. The league was quite successful in its Murray, 1915 initial military efforts. All four countries Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– invaded simultaneously, and though both 1913: Prelude to the First World War. London: Routledge, 2000. sides had about equal forces, the league’s tactics proved superior. The four armies Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: quickly pushed the Ottoman forces back Harvard University Press, 1938. and forced Turkey to surrender all of its European possessions, with the exception of Constantinople (Istanbul). The Balkan Balkan Pact, 1954 League’s victory, however, was short-lived. Its members, joined by Romania, soon The Balkan Pact of 1954 was a security went to war with one another over the con- arrangement among Greece, Turkey, and quered territory, and the league disinte- Yugoslavia. NATO members Greece and grated. A second round of battles followed Turkey were geographically separated from 22 Balkan War, First, 1912–1913

the other NATO allies by the strong Soviet See also: Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); presence in Eastern Europe. Since its 1948 Yugoslav-Soviet Split break with the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia was isolated and vulnerable between both Cold Further Reading War factions. It had NATO allies Greece and Hall, Richard C. The Modern Balkans: A History. London: Reaktion, 2011. Italy on its southern and northern borders. Soviet allies Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria Junkovic, Banimir M. The Balkans in International Relations. London: Palgrave, threatened on the eastern borders. 1988. The Yugoslav dictator attempted to end this isolation by reaching an accommodation with Greece and Turkey. On February 28, 1953, Yugoslavia signed a Balkan War, First, 1912–1913 Treaty of Friendship with Greece and Turkey in . A more detailed agree- Fighting in the First Balkan War began on ment ensued the next year. On August 9, October 8, 1912, between Montenegro and 1954, in Bled, Yugoslavia, representatives the Ottoman Empire. On October 18, Bulga- from Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia signed ria, Greece, and Serbia entered the war, all a Treaty of Alliance, Political Cooperation, siding with Montenegro. In many ways the and Mutual Assistance. This agreement pro- armies of the Balkan League were similar. vided for mutual military assistance in the They all followed European models for event of an attack against any of the signees. staff work, training, logistics, communica- It was to remain in force for 20 years and tion, and sanitation. Many officers had could be renewed. The agreement also pro- received education at Great Powers military vided for the establishment of a Balkan Con- schools. They all depended upon con- sultative Assembly to establish the basis for scripted peasants to fill their ranks. They all increased economic cooperation. This provi- had a variety of equipment from European sion had the potential to facilitate economic sources. development in a region sorely in need of The Bulgarians had the largest army it. The Balkan Pact of 1954 replicated to a among the Balkan allies, with around degree the Balkan Entente of 1934, although 350,000 men after mobilization. Volunteers Romania did not affiliate this time. from the Macedonian revolutionary organi- Unfortunately, the Balkan Pact did not zations supplemented the Bulgarian ranks. endure. Disagreement over the future of The Greeks were able to field around Cyprus undermined the pact. Also, by 110,000 men. Alone among the Balkan 1955, the foreign policy of Soviet Russia allies, the Greeks possessed a substantial and its allies in regard to Yugoslavia had navy, which, in addition to eight destroyers, moderated. The new Soviet dictator, 19 torpedo boats, and one submarine, Nikita S. Khrushchev (1894–1971), visited included the formidable armored Belgrade in May 1955. Tito began to pursue Georgios Averof. The Montenegrin army a policy of nonalignment. Although the signa- essentially was a partially trained militia tories never formally repudiated the Balkan consisting of most of the males of military Pact, in 1960, both Greece and Yugoslavia age in the country. This amounted to around indicated that they considered it defunct. 36,000 men. Montenegrin immigrants in the Richard C. Hall United States returned home to add to the Balkan War, First, 1912–1913 23

Rearguard of the Ottoman army on the road (Greece) during the First Balkan War, November 1912. (adoc-photos/Corbis)

Montenegrin force. The Serbian army had a modern armored cruiser, the Mecidiye;and mobilized strength of 230,000 men. a number of other vessels. The Ottomans had the largest single army, The Ottoman armies were deployed as with the potential of 450,000 men. This First (also Eastern or Thracian) Army army, however, lacked the homogeneity of under the command of Abdullah Pasha the Balkan forces. Armenian, Greek, and (1846–1937) and the Second (Macedonian Slavic soldiers in the Ottoman army could or Western) Army led by Ali Risa Pasha not be expected to fight loyally for the Otto- (1860–1932). The most important theater man sultan. Although the Young Turk was in Thrace. The Bulgarians committed regime had implemented some reforms the majority of their forces to confront the after 1908, these were not yet fully realized. main Ottoman army, which was positioned Also, the Ottoman forces were distributed to defend the Ottoman capital. Unwisely, throughout the empire. Some were fighting the Ottoman commander initiated an offen- an insurgency in Yemen, some were still in sive, which the Bulgarians easily deflected. Ottoman North Africa, and others were in They responded with a strong offensive , Mesopotamia, and Syria. At the through northeastern Thrace. The Bulgarian beginning of the war, they had approxi- armies were under the nominal command mately 300,000 in their European provinces. of Czar Ferdinand (1861–1948) but were The Ottomans also had a navy that included led by deputy commander in chief General a modern light cruiser, the Hamidiye;a Mihail Savov (1857–1928). The Bulgarian 24 Balkan War, First, 1912–1913

First Army led by General Vasil Kutinchev The Army of Epirus led by General (1859–1941) and General Radko Dimi- Constantine Sapountzakes (1846–1931) triev’s (1859–1918) Third Army overcame moved into Epirus and besieged the impor- Ottoman resistance at Kirk Killase (Lozen- tant town of Janina (). A unit of grad) and at a massive battle raging from Italian volunteers led by Ricciotti Garibaldi Buni Hisar (Pinarhisar) to Lyule Burgas (1847–1924), the son of Giuseppe, partici- (Lu¨le Burgaz). This later event was the larg- pated in this campaign. The Greeks did not est European battle between the Franco- immediately surround the town, so it was Prussian War and World War I. able to withstand their initial assaults. An At the same time, General Nikola Iva- uneasy condominium ensued in that city. nov’s Second Army first masked and then The Greek navy seized the Aegean Island surrounded and besieged the Ottomans at of on October 20. This effectively Adrianople (Edirne). They did not immedi- closed the straits. The Greeks then held the ately attempt to take the well-fortified Ottoman fleet at bay and occupied most of former Ottoman capital. The Bulgarian the rest of the , including offensive thrust the Ottomans to their final and . defensive positions at Chataldzha (C¸ atalca), The Montenegrins had two objectives, about 20 miles outside of Constantinople. the and the northern The presence of the Bulgarian First and Albanian town of Scutari (Shkode¨r). In pur- Third Armies outside of Constantinople suit of these objectives, they divided their caused some disconcert among the Great forces into three groups. The nominal com- Powers, especially the Russians. Ottoman mander of all the Montenegrin forces was forces finally rallied on November 16–17 King Nikola (1841–1921). The Eastern and pushed back a Bulgarian attempt to Division commanded by Brigadier Janko cross the Chataldzha lines and take Constan- Vukotich (1866–1927) advanced into the tinople. Smaller Bulgarian units, mean- sanjak of Novi Pazar, while most of the rest while, proceeded against little opposition of the Montenegrin forces advanced toward into the Rhodopes and and Scutari (Shkode¨r). The Division led by on toward Salonika. Crown Prince Danilo (1871–1939) moved In the western theater, the Greek army along the eastern shore of Lake Scutari advanced in two directions against slight toward its objective, while Brigadier Mitar opposition. The main thrust of the Greek Martinovich’s (1870–1954) Coastal Divi- army was directed at Salonika. The Army sion proceeded along the western shore of of under the command of Crown the lake. Despite several direct assaults, Prince Constantine (1868–1923) soon over- Scutari held firm. The Montenegrins fought ran its namesake region, defeating a small bravely but without many of the apparatus Ottoman force at Yanitsa on November 1. of a modern army. This undoubtedly ham- After negotiations with the Ottoman com- pered their ability to take Scutari. mander of Salonika, Hassan Tahsin Pasha The Serbian chief of staff, Vojvoda Rado- (1845–1918), the Greeks entered Salonika mir Putnik (1847–1917), planned an all-out on November 8, only a day ahead of the attack on the Ottomans. He arrayed their Bulgarian unit moving south from Bulgaria forces in four main groups. The largest across the Rhodopes with the same group, the Serbian First Army, commanded objective. An uneasy condominium ensued. by Crown Prince Alexander (1888–1934), Balkan War, First, 1912–1913 25 advanced from the north into Macedonia. negotiate a peace settlement, the ambassa- Meanwhile, the Serbian Second Army dors of the Great Powers credentialed to under General Stepa Stepanovic´ (1856– Great Britain convened nearby to direct the 1929)—the main part of the Serbian course of the peace settlement and to protect army—moved south from Bulgarian their own interests. The London ambassa- territory into Macedonia in order to cut off dors’ conference, on the insistence of any Ottoman units retreating south. It easily Austria-Hungary and Italy, recognized the defeated the Ottomans at Kumanovo in independence of an Albanian state that northern Macedonia and then, after engage- some Albanian notables had proclaimed in ments at and Bitola (Monastir), Vlore¨ (Valona) on November 28, 1912. proceeded to occupy most of the rest of This state blocked Serbian and Montenegrin Macedonia. The Serbian Third Army com- claims to territories on the eastern shore of manded by General Bozhidar Jankovich the Adriatic Sea. These claims had the overran Kosovo, the emotional center of strong support of Russia. At the same time, . It proceeded on to the Austrians demanded that Serbian troops Skoplje and from there crossed over the evacuate those portions of northern Albania Albanian Alps into Albania. On Novem- occupied that autumn. The Great Powers ber 28, elements of the Serbian Third Army were able to forestall the outbreak of war reached Durre¨s (Durazzo) on the Adriatic between Austria-Hungary and Russia over coast. This was the cause of great disconcert this issue. Talks between the Balkan allies for the Austro-Hungarians and Italians. Two and the Ottomans soon stalled, mainly over smaller Serbian units entered the sanjak of the issue of Adrianople, and hostilities Novi Pazar. Having achieved their initial resumed on February 3, 1913. aims quickly and without heavy losses, the Fighting during this second round mainly Serbs agreed both to a Bulgarian request to occurred at the three besieged cities of Adri- send troops to participate in the siege of anople, Janina, and Scutari. On March 6, AdrianopleandtoaMontenegrinpleafor Janina fell to the Greeks. On the 26th, the help at Scutari. The Serbian Second Army Bulgarians, with some Serbian help, took went to Thrace to help the Bulgarians at the Adrianople. The Montenegrins and assisting end of October 1912. Elements of the Serbian units bogged down around Scutari. Serbian Third Army had assisted the Monte- A major assault in February failed. Only on negrins at Scutari since . In April 23, after the departure of the Serbs , the Serbs sent an additional under pressure from the Great Powers, did 30,000-man force and some artillery to the Montenegrins succeed in entering the help the Montenegrins. city after three days of negotiations with By the time the warring parties agreed to the exhausted defenders. Nevertheless, the an armistice on , the only terri- major powers, especially Austria-Hungary, tories in Europe remaining under Ottoman refused to sanction a Montenegrin occupa- control were the besieged cities of Adriano- tion of Scutari because the London Ambas- ple, Janina, and Scutari; the Gallipoli sadors Conference had assigned it to the Peninsula; and that part of eastern Thrace new Albanian state. After threats and a behind the Chataldzha lines. show of force, together with the promise of While the Balkan allies and the Ottomans generous subsidies, the Montenegrins assembled in London on December 16 to evacuated Scutari. Elsewhere, elements of 26 Balkan War, Second, 1913

the Serbian First Army fought with the rem- Hellenic Army General Staff. AConcise nants of the Ottoman Second Army in cen- History of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. tral Albania. Also, the Bulgarians deflected Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. Ottoman attacks at Bulair on the Gallipoli Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Peninsula and an Ottoman landing at the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938. port of Sharkoi on the . The Ottomans intended these efforts to take the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. pressure off of the defenders of Adrianople The Other Balkan Wars. Washington, DC: and possibly even to break through to them. Carnegie Endowment, 1993. Also fighting resumed at the Chataldzha posi- Kira´ly, Be´la K., and Dimitrije Djordevic, eds. tions. After the fall of the three besieged East Central European Society and the cities, both sides were exhausted. On Ottoman Balkan Wars. Boulder, CO: Social Science initiative, the Bulgarians agreed to an armi- Monographs, 1987. stice on April 15. The other Balkan allies did not participate in this second armistice. On Balkan War, Second, 1913 May 30, 1913, the Balkan allies and the Ottomans signed a peace treaty in London. With the Treaty of London, the Ottoman The Second Balkan War, or Intra-Allied Empire ceded its European territories west of War, in the summer of 1913 was a brief but a straight line drawn between Enos and bloody conflict in southeastern Europe Media (-Midye). This result clearly was between Bulgaria and its erstwhile Balkan preliminary. By the time of the signing of League allies Greece, Montenegro, and Ser- the Treaty of London, friction among the bia. The main issue among the allies was the Balkan allies over the division of Macedonia disposition of Macedonia. During the war, had risen to a great degree. The Second Bal- the Ottoman Empire and Romania took ad- kan War ensued soon thereafter. vantage of Bulgaria’s dire situation to join Richard C. Hall in the fight against Bulgaria in order to real- ize specific territorial claims against Bulga- See also: Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913; ria and to prevent an enlarged Bulgaria Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Balkan from dominating the Balkan Peninsula. Wars, 1912–1913, Naval Campaigns; Bulgaria By the time of the signing of the Treaty of in the Balkan Wars; Chataldzha, Battle of, London on May 30, 1913, ending the Balkan 1912; Greece in the Balkan Wars; Janina, Siege of, 1912–1913; London, Treaty of, 1913; War, deep divisions had emerged within the Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912; Balkan League. The main problem was the Montenegro in the Balkan Wars; Scutari, Siege disposition of Macedonia. The Serbs sought of, 1912–1913; Serbia in the Balkan Wars compensation for Albania in Macedonian areas assigned to Bulgaria by the alliance Further Reading treaty but occupied by Serbia during the Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The previous autumn fighting. The Bulgarians Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. refused to consider a Serb demand to revise Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. the March 1912 treaty, preferring to rely on Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– Russian arbitration. At the same time, 1913: Prelude to the First World War. the Bulgarians and Greeks were skirmis- London: Routledge, 2000. hing near Seres and Nigrita over eastern Balkan War, Second, 1913 27

Macedonian territories. On May 5, 1913, the much of southeastern Macedonia. Greek Greeks and Serbs signed an agreement forces quickly overran and captured Bulgar- directed against the Bulgarians. A feeble Rus- ian troops stationed in Salonika to enforce sian attempt at arbitration in June never had a Bulgarian claims to that city. Bulgarian chance for implementation. forces retreated from the Greeks and Serbs On the night of June 29–30, Bulgarian toward their prewar frontiers. At the battle deputy commander in chief General Mihail of Kalimantsi on July 18, 1913, Bulgarian Savov (1857–1928), frustrated by Russian troops gained a defensive success and inactivity and by worried about growing dis- prevented the Serbian army from entering content in the army’s ranks, launched prob- the territory of prewar Bulgaria. ing attacks on the orders of Czar Ferdinand By then, however, the situation for (1861–1948) against Greek and Serbian Bulgaria had worsened to the east and the positions in Macedonia. After serving in north. Taking advantage of the situation, the ranks since October 1912, many Bulgar- Romanian and Ottoman troops joined in the ian soldiers were eager for demobilization. attack on Bulgaria. The Romanians objected The Bulgarian army command wanted to to the establishment of a strong Bulgaria on use the army or let it go home. This order their southern frontier and sought compen- was given without the direct knowledge of sation in the town of and in southern the Bulgarian government, which was strug- Dobrudja (Dobrudzha). The Ottomans gling to persuade St. Petersburg to uphold its sought to recover Adrianople. The Bulgar- arbitration obligations from the March 1912 ians found themselves attacked on all sides. Bulgarian-Serbian Treaty. The Bulgarian With their entire army committed to the prime minister, (1858–1949), fight against the Greeks and Serbs, they countermanded the attack order, and Gen- lacked forces with which to oppose eral Savov complied. This caused Czar Fer- the invading Ottomans and Romanians. dinand to fire General Savov and replace The Ottomans reoccupied Adrianople on him with First Balkan War hero Radko July 23 without having to fire a shot. Roma- Dimitriev. This retraction of orders and nian units advanced against no opposition change of command had the effect of caus- almost all the way to Sofia. The result was ing great initial confusion in the Bulgarian a Bulgarian catastrophe. army. While some units fought, others With no aid forthcoming from any Great stood aside. The Greeks and Serbs utili- Power, the Bulgarians had to seek terms. zed the Bulgarian attacks to implement Toward the end of the fighting, the Bulgarians their alliance, and the Second Balkan War did gain two small successes. In the north, the ensued. Bulgarian town of Vidin held out against a In southern Macedonia near Shtip, from Serbian attack. In the south, elements of the July 1 to July 4, the Serbian First and Third Bulgarian Second Army surrounded the Armies inflicted heavy casualties on the Greek army advancing up the River BulgarianFourthArmyandforceditback in Gorge. Only the signing of an armi- to the Bergalnitsa River. At the same time, stice on July 31 saved the Greek army and its King Constantine’s (1868–1923) Greek commander King Constantine from being army defeated General Nikola Ivanov’s surrounded at Kresna Gorge. (1861–1940) Bulgarian Second Army at These late successes did not ameliorate on July 4 and squeezed it out of the peace terms for Bulgaria. In the Treaty 28 Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes

of Bucharest (August 10, 1913) with southeastern Europe had come under Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia, and the Ottoman domination by the end of the four- Treaty of Constantinople (September 30, teenth century. Only Montenegro main- 1913) with the Ottoman Empire, the Bulgar- tained a precarious independence from ians had to acknowledge complete defeat Ottoman rule. By the first half of the nine- and the loss of much of the gains from the teenth century, Greece, Serbia, and Romania First Balkan War. For the second time in established independent regimes. 35 years, the Bulgarian dream of Macedonia After their defeat of the Ottoman Empire turned into a nightmare. The Second Balkan in the Russo Turkish War of 1877–1878, War left Serbia as Russia’s only important the Russians established a large Bulgarian client on the Balkan Peninsula. It also reor- state in the of iented Bulgaria from Russian patronage March 3, 1878. Objections from Austria- toward Austria-Hungary and Germany. Hungary and Great Britain caused a revision Both of these consequences were important of the settlement at the Congress of Berlin in in the development of World War I. Russia July 1878. San Stefano Bulgaria was tri- had to support Serbia in or risk sected into a Bulgarian principality under exclusion from the Balkan Peninsula. the nominal suzerainty of the joined the Central Powers in sultan, the Ottoman province of Eastern September 1915. Rumelia with an Orthodox Christian gover- Richard C. Hall nor, and Macedonia under the direct rule of the Ottoman sultan. Montenegro, Romania, See also: Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Bucha- and Serbia received formal rec- rest, Treaty of, 1913; Constantinople, Treaty of, 1913; Greece in the Balkan Wars; Kali- ognition as states independent of all ties to mantsi, Battle of, 1913; Montenegro in the the Ottoman Empire. Thereafter, all the Balkan Wars; Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Balkan states sought to overturn the Berlin Wars; Romania in the Balkan Wars; Serbia in settlement to realize their nationalist goals the Balkan Wars within the Ottoman Empire. The political elite of all of these states were convinced Further Reading that only by attaining their nationalist objec- Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– tives could they develop as modern states. In 1913: Prelude to the First World War. this thinking, Germany and Italy served as London: Routledge, 2000. examples. These states, including Bulgaria, Hellenic Army General Staff. AConciseHis- Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia, all har- tory of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. bored irredentist aspirations against the Ottomans. Many of these aspirations over- Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: lapped, especially in Macedonia. Bulgarian, Harvard University Press, 1938. Greek and Serbian nationals all claimed Macedonia as a part of their national irre- dentas. All of the Balkan states sponsored Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes cultural efforts as was as armed bands in Macedonia. The First Balkan War of 1912–1913 was a For some time these rivalries precluded sharp and bloody conflict in southeastern the formation of a Balkan alliance directed Europe that led to World War I. Most of against the Ottomans. The Young Turk Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes 29

revolution in 1908 and its objective of an 1909, Bulgaria and Serbia signed an alliance Ottoman revival, however, engendered in March 1912. This alliance contained pro- closer cooperation among these Balkan visions for the rough division of Ottoman states. An opportunity for the realization of territories. It recognized Bulgarian claims their nationalist objectives arose when the in Thrace and Serbian claims in Albania. It weakness of the Ottomans became apparent also included a provision for a partition of during the Italo-Ottoman War of 1911– Macedonia into a Bulgarian zone and a 1912. The Albanian uprisings that had “contested zone” in northwestern Macedo- begun in 1910 also demonstrated the feeble nia to be arbitrated by the Russian czar condition of the Ottoman state. if Macedonian autonomy proved to be With the support of Russia, which sought unworkable. Bulgaria and Serbia then to regain the position lost in southeastern signed bilateral agreements with Greece Europe during the Bosnian Crisis of 1908– and Montenegro during the spring and 30 Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes

summer of 1912. Other than the Bulgarian- the Balkans by seeking compensation in Serbian agreement, the Balkan allies made Bulgarian Dobrudja (Dobrudzha). After little effort to arrange division of any territo- their military successes against the ries conquered from the Ottomans. The Bul- Ottomans, the Bulgarians were reluctant to garians in particular had little confidence in part with any of their own territory. A Great the Greek army and were convince that Powers ambassadors’ conference in St. they could realize their objectives in Mac- PetersburgonMay8,1913awardedthe edonia ahead of the Greeks. Bulgaria’s fail- northeastern Bulgarian town of Silistra to ure to delineate its claims in Macedonia Romania. This decision left both Bulgaria with Greece led to great complications after and Romania dissatisfied. When the Bulgar- the First Balkan War and was a major ians became embroiled in conflict with their cause of the Second Balkan War. allies, the Romanians utilized the circum- While the First Balkan War arose from stances to seize not only Silistra but all of the strong desire of the Orthodox Christian Bulgarian Dobrudja. governments in the Balkans to realize their After the signing of the treaty of London, nationalist claims to Ottoman territory, the the Bulgarians quickly transferred the bulk Second Balkan War came about because of of their army from Thrace to Macedonia to conflicting claims to Ottoman territory, espe- enforce their claims against the Greeks and cially Macedonia. During the initial phase of Serbs. Discontent at the long time of service the First Balkan War, Serbian troops overran without respite emerged in the Bulgarian northern Albania and most of Macedonia. In ranks. The command urged the government December 1912, Austria-Hungary made its to use the army or to send it home. On opposition to a Serbian presence in northern the night of June 29–30, Czar Ferdinand Albania clear. The realization that they could (1861–1948) ordered General Mihail Savov not realize their claims to northern Albania (1857–1928) to take action. Savov then made the Serbs determined to hold on to the ordered the army to undertake local attacks parts of Macedonia they had occupied, to improve its tactical position. These despite the 1912 treaty with Bulgaria. In attacks against the Greeks and Serbs began 1913, the Serbs requested a revision of the the Second Balkan War. 1912 treaty. The Bulgarians, still fighting at Richard C. Hall Adrianople, ignored the Serbian request. By See also: Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911; March 1913, Bulgarian and Greek soldiers Contested Zone (Macedonia), 1912; Savov, were skirmishing in contested regions of Mihail (1857–1928) Macedonia. On May 5, Greece and Serbia concluded an alliance directed against Further Reading Bulgaria. Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– Meanwhile, the Romanians pressed 1913: Prelude to the First World War. their claims for compensation from Bulga- London: Routledge, 2000. ria. As the largest Orthodox Christian state Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan in southeastern Europe, the Romanians Wars, 1912–1913.Cambridge,MA: regarded themselves as the “gendarme” of Harvard University Press, 1938. the Balkans. As the extent of the Balkan Thadden, Edward C. Russia and the Balkan League victories became clear, the Roma- Alliance of 1912. University Park: Pennsyl- nians sought to maintain their position in vania State University Press, 1965. Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences 31

Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, regain eastern Thrace, which remained its Consequences only possession in Europe. The Balkan Wars created major popula- The two Balkan Wars changed the map of tion movements. Victorious Bulgarian southeastern Europe. A fragile Albanian armies in Thrace and Serbian armies in state emerged, largely dependent on the Kosovo and the sanjak of Novi Pazar com- Great Powers. They did not determine its mitted atrocities against the Muslim popula- final borders until the Council of Florence tions of these regions. This caused some in February 1914. Even then, Greek and Muslims to seek safety in Constantinople Serbian armed bands encroached on the and in Albania. After the Second Balkan territory of the new state. War, pro-Bulgarian moved The big winners were Greece and Serbia. out of Greek- and Serbian-controlled Greece obtained clear title to Crete and areas. Some Bulgarians also left southern also obtained Epirus, including the city of Dobrudzha after the Romanian occupation. Janina; a large portion of southern and The Balkan Wars were the first armed western Macedonia, including Salonika; conflicts on European soil in the twentieth and the Aegean Islands. These areas added century and in many ways presaged World around two million people to the Greek pop- War I. Mass attacks against entrenched posi- ulation. Serbia acquired Kosovo and much tions, concentrated artillery barrages, and of Macedonia, almost doubling its territory military use of airplanes made their first and adding almost two million to its appearances in European warfare. Losses to population. Significantly, much of this new disease among both civilians and military population was not Serbian. Serbia and personnel were significant. These presaged Montenegro divided the sanjak of Novi the great influenza epidemic of World War Pazar between them. Montenegro also I. The larger European powers mainly gained small areas on its southern border ignored the lessons of the Balkan Wars. with the new Albanian state. Bulgaria, even There was not enough time between the after defeat in the Second Balkan War, end of the Second Balkan War and the open- gained the Rhodope region, central Thrace ing of World War I to process information. including the insignificant Aegean port of Nor did many of the General Staffs of the Dedeagach, and a piece of Macedonia Great Powers think that the experience of around Petrich. Much of the population of the Balkan states had anything to teach these regions was not Bulgarian. These peo- them. ple included Greeks, (Bulgarian- The two wars resulted in at least speaking Muslims), and Turks. Romania 150,000 military dead, with the Bulgarians obtained southern (Bulgarian) Dobrudja and Ottomans suffering the heaviest losses. (Dobrudzha). In this region of mixed ethnic- Many more soldiers were wounded and ity, there were relatively few Romanians. missing. The armies of the Balkan League The Ottoman Empire, which had held large killed thousands of mainly Muslim civilians European territories since the fourteenth during the First Balkan War. Ottoman century, was almost totally eliminated from armies in retreat vented their frustration on Europe by the Treaty of London. In the Sec- local Orthodox Christian populations. ond Balkan War, the Ottomans managed to During the Second Balkan War, Bulgarian 32 Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Naval Campaigns

troops killed Greek civilians and Greek and Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863–1914) Serbian soldiers killed Bulgarian and in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb terrorist. pro-Bulgarian Macedonian civilians. These This time, the Third Balkan War metamor- wars also brought about the deaths from dis- phosed into World War I. ease of tens of thousands of civilians. Within the next five years, all of the par- The Balkan Wars left a legacy of frus- ticipants in the Balkan Wars would become tration for the Bulgarians and Ottomans, involved in further disastrous and costly providing a basis for continued conflict in conflicts. Many of the same battlefields of World War I. For the Bulgarians, the loss of the Balkan Wars, such as Gallipoli and Macedonia for a second time, was especially Doiran, again saw fighting. During World frustrating. San Stefano and Bucharest War I, the populations of southeastern became conflated. They sought redress on Europe again made great sacrifices for the the side of the Central Powers in World nationalist aims of the political elite. War I, where they would again lose Macedo- Richard C. Hall nia for a third time. Likewise, the Ottomans See also: Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Greece sought to regain some of their lost posses- in the Balkan Wars; Montenegro in the Balkan sions, and contemplated war against Greece Wars; Romania in the Balkan Wars; Serbia in in the spring of 1914. They too found them- the Balkan Wars selves fighting on the side of the Central Powers in World War I. Further Reading Montenegro had almost doubled its popu- Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– lation and territory in the Balkan Wars. 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Montenegrin gains, however, were not the London: Routledge, 2000. result of the success of Montenegrin arms. Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan The wars had demonstrated the antiquated Wars, 1912–1913.Cambridge,MA: nature of King Nikola’s (1841–1921) per- Harvard University Press, 1938. sonal regime and the deficiencies of the International Commission to Inquire into the Montenegrin army. In the competition Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. The Other Balkan Wars. Washington, DC: between the Montenegrin Petrovich dynasty Carnegie Endowment, 1993. and the Serbian Karageorgevic´ dynasty for Kira´ly, Be´la K., and Dimitrije Djordevic, eds. leadership of the Serbian national cause, East Central European Society and the the latter emerged as the clear winner as a Balkan Wars. Boulder, CO: Social Science result of the Balkan Wars. Monographs, 1987. The Balkan Wars also imparted a sense of inflated national success among the Greeks, Romanians, and Serbs. On two occasions Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, during the Balkan Wars, Austria-Hungary Naval Campaigns had resorted to threats of force against Ser- bia to protect Albania. The Austrians would The naval campaigns of the Balkan Wars make one more such threat in were of secondary importance to the land before finally resorting to force. Less than a fighting. Of the Balkan allies, only Greece year after the signing of the Treaty of had a significant navy. The pride of the Bucharest, war again erupted in south- Greek fleet was the armored cruiser Geor- eastern Europe after the assassination of gios Averof. In addition the Greeks had Balli Kombetar 33

16 modern destroyers, 19 old torpedo boats, November 17, 1912, and thus prevent the and a small submarine, the Delphin.The Bulgarian occupation of Constantinople. Bulgarians had only six torpedo boats and a Also the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye gunboat, the Nadezhda. All of the Bulgarian managed to elude the Greek blockade vessels operated only in the Black Sea. The of the Dardanelles on December 22, 1912. Serbs and Montenegrins had no navies. The It proceeded to cruise the Mediterranean. Ottomans had a number of older warships, It sunk the Greek auxiliary cruiser Makedo- including two armored , six armored nia in Syra harbor in the on Janu- ships, 11 torpedo destroyers, and 30 torpedo ary 15 and attacked a Greek transport ship ships. Its modern vessels were the light carrying Serbian troops at San Giovanni di cruiser Hamidiye and the armored cruiser Medua, Albania, on March 18, 1913, caus- Mecidiye. ing heavy casualties. While the Hamidiye’s The Greek navy assumed two main objec- exploits heartened the Ottomans, they had tives. The first was to blockade the Ottoman little effect on the outcome of the war. coast and to contain the in the Richard C. Hall Dardanelles and thus prevent the transport See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; of Ottoman reinforcements from Anatolia Greece in the Balkan Wars; Ottoman Empire to the Balkan Fronts. This was a major fac- in the Balkan Wars tor in Bulgarian calculations for an alliance with the Greeks. The second Greek naval Further Reading objective was the seizure of the Aegean Fotakis, Zisis. Greek Naval Strategy and Policy, Islands from the Ottomans. In these two 1910–1919. London: Routledge, 2005. tasks, the Greeks succeeded. By the end of Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– 1912, the Greeks had taken all of the Aegean 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Islands except , which they occupied London: Routledge, 2000. inMarch1913.TheGreeksalsousedtheir Hellenic Army General Staff. AConciseHis- navy and merchant marine to transport Bul- tory of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. garian troops to Dedeagach and Serbian Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. troops to San Giovanni di Medua, (Alba- nian: She¨ngjin) Albania. The largest naval engagement of the Bal- Balli Kombetar kan Wars occurred on December 16, 1912, at the Dardanelles. At that time Greeks The Balli Kombetar (BK) or National Front defeated an Ottoman attempt to break out was a nationalist resistance movement in into the Aegean. A second attempt two Albania during World War II. It arose in days later also failed. Neither fleet suffered 1942 out of concerns by conservative Alba- extensive damage, but the Greeks managed nian nationalists about the growth of the to contain the Ottomans in the Dardanelles. Communist resistance movement. The BK Despite the overall Greek success, also opposed the return of King Zog the Ottomans did enjoy some successes (1895–1961), who had fled Albania during with their navy. Naval fire from Ottoman the Italian invasion of 1939, and sought to warships in both the Black Sea and the include Kosovo in its postwar borders. Sea of Marmara helped to thwart the They also represented the established eco- Bulgarian attack on the Chataldzha lines on nomic and social interests of the country. 34 Berlin, Treaty of, 1878

A meeting between BK and Communists Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern took place at Mukaj in failed History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. to result in a lasting arrangement. Soon afterward in September, most of the Italian Berlin, Treaty of, 1878 occupation troops in Albania surrendered to the Germans. About the same time, the BK The Treaty of Berlin was the final act of the was undercut by the establishment of a pro- Congress of Berlin, June 13–July 13, 1878, Zogist movement, the Legeliteri, who advo- by which Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, cated the return of the king. Increasingly the Germany, and Italy revised the Treaty of BK found itself constrained by the better- San Stefano, signed earlier on March 3, equipped, Communist-led Partisan army that Russia had imposed on a defeated (ANLA), which received Allied help. This Ottoman Empire. caused the BK to rely on German support. On April 24, 1877, Russia, the self- By 1944, the BK was in a position not declared protector of the Slavic nationalities ˇ unlike that of the Cetniks in neighboring in the Balkans, declared war on the Ottoman Yugoslavia. Both were anti-Communist Empire. By the end of 1877, Russia, after nationalists whose anti- forced fighting in the Balkans and the Caucasus them to compromise their relations with Mountains, had defeated the Ottoman their occupiers. The German withdrawal armies and was advancing on Constantino- from the Balkan Peninsula beginning in ple. On January 31, 1878, Russia accepted October 1944 doomed the BK. The BK an Ottoman truce offer. On March 3, at San always found greater support in the Stefano, Russian negotiators dictated a conservative north of Albania. Fighting con- treaty that recognized the independence tinued there until the end of 1944. By 1945, of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and a the Communists were in control of all Alba- “Greater” Bulgaria. nia. The Communists opposed the BK on the The Great Powers, alarmed at an indepen- left, and the Legeliteri opposed them on the dent and pro-Russian “,” right. Because of this and its reliance on called the Congress of Berlin to modify this the Germans, the BK failed to develop an treaty. They established two separate effective resistance alternative to the Com- autonomous principalities, Bulgaria and munists in Albania. Eastern Rumelia, and returned the Macedo- Richard C. Hall nian region to Ottoman rule, undoing Rus- See also: Albania in World War II; Partisans, sia’s plans for a Greater Bulgaria. The new Albania; Zog, King of the Albanians (1895– treaty also recognized the independence of 1961) Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. Finally, Austria-Hungary would administer the Otto- Further Reading man province of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Fischer, Bernd. Albania at War, 1939–1945. the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, territorially still a West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University part of the Ottoman Empire. A provision of Press, 1999. the treaty that would serve as a model for Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. the League of Nations’ Minorities System Vol. 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: provided special legal status to some reli- Cambridge University Press, 1983. gious groups and to non-Turkish minorities. Bessarabia 35

The three newly independent states sub- it remained part of the Russian Empire until sequently proclaimed themselves kingdoms 1918. Bessarabia was briefly independent (Romania in 1881, Serbia in 1882, and following the end of World War I but chose Montenegro in 1910). Bulgaria united to join Romania. This decision was confirmed with Eastern Rumelia in 1885 and by the Allied powers, which formally awarded proclaimed full independence in 1908. the territory to Romania in 1920 as an addi- Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, tional buffer against Communist Russia. The sparking another major crisis. Russian government, however, continued to Robert B. Kane regard Bessarabia as its own territory. In June 1940, in accordance with the See also: Pleven, Siege of, 1877; Russo- German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union annexed Bessarabia and, that August, formed much Further Reading of it into the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Albrecht-Carre, Rene. A Diplomatic History of Republic (MSSR), although portions of it Europe since the Congress of Vienna.New were also awarded to the Ukrainian Soviet York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. Socialist Republic (SSR). The Soviets also Langer, William L. European Alliances and deported significant numbers of Bessara- Alignments, 1871–1890.2nded.New bians to Siberia. Romania retook Bessarabia York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1950. following the Axis invasion of the Soviet Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for the Mastery Union in June 1941 in which Romanian of Europe, 1848–1918. Oxford: Oxford forces participated. Approximately 65,000 University Press, 1954. of 75,000 Jews living in Bessarabia perished during the Holocaust. Bessarabia The Soviet Union regained the region at the end of World War II. Although Romania Bessarabia is a southeastern European became a Communist state and entered the territory covering some 17,600 square Soviet bloc after the war, there was contin- miles in present-day Moldavia and , ued acrimony between the Soviet Union bounded by the , Danube, and Dneister and Romania over Bessarabia. With the Rivers and the Black Sea. Its population in collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the 1945 was approximately 2 million. Molda- MSSR declared itself independent and vians made up about 50 percent of the popu- became the Republic of . Many in lation, while Ukrainians were 20 percent; Romania continued to believe, however, the remainder were Russians, Germans, that Moldova should be part of Romania. Bulgarians, and Jews. Spencer C. Tucker Until 1812, Bessarabia, which was named See also: Romania in World War I; Romania for the Bassarab dynasty that ruled much of in World War II; Transnistrian War, 1991 Wallachia in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, formed the eastern boundary of Further Reading Moldavia, a vassal state of the Ottoman Cioranescu, George. Bessarabia: Disputed Empire. In the Treaty of Bucharest of Land between East and West. Munich: Ion May 1812, Russia annexed Bessarabia, and Dumitru Verlag, 1985. 36 Bihac´

Dobrinescu, Valeriu Florin. The Diplomatic forces to his economic and political advan- Struggle over Bessarabia.Ias¸i: Center for tage. When the Bosnian Army Fifth , Romanian Studies, 1996. stationedintheBihac´ pocket, attempted King, Charles. The Moldovans, Romania, Rus- to enforce the rule of Sarajevo, Abdic´ sia and the Politics of Culture. Stanford, maintained his independence with Serbian CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2000. assistance. Throughout the war, extensive secret commercial undertakings among Bihac´ the Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs in Bihac´ undoubtedly enriched Abdic´ and his collabo- Bihac´ is a city in the Cazinska Krajina rators. This confused concept of all for all region of northwestern Bosnia of around and all against all became emblematic of the 40,000 inhabitants that was the center of Yugoslav Wars of 1991–1995. The joint extensive fighting during the Yugoslav Bosnian-Croat offensive of August 1995 Wars, 1991–1995. During World War II, effectively ended the APWB and the rule of Bihac´ was a part of the independent state of Fikret Abdic´, who then fled to Croatia. There Croatia (NDH). It was the scene of Ustasˇa in 2000, the Croatian government put him on atrocities. In 1942, it briefly served as the trial. He served 10 years of a 15-year sen- Partisan headquarters, and on November 26, tence. After his release, he resided in Croatia. 1942 was the scene of the first Partisan As of this writing, the Sarajevo government political conference. A German offensive continued to regard him as a traitor. restored the city to NDH control, lasting Richard C. Hall until 1945. In the early Tito years, Bihac´ See also: Izetbegovic´, Alija (1925–2003); was a center of resistance to the efforts of Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, the regime to collectivize agriculture. 1991–1995, Consequences During the Yugoslav Wars, Bihac´ and the surrounding region formed an island of Bos- Further Reading niak control amidst Serbian forces in Bosnia Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: Death and Croatia. A local Bosniak businessman of a Nation. New York: Penguin, 1998. and politician, Fikret Abdic´ (1939–), was Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan. The Yugoslav the leading figure in Bihac´ during this time. Wars (2): Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia Abdic´ was a charismatic individual known 1992–2001. Botely, Oxford: Osprey, 2006. as “Babo” (Daddy), who had been convicted U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan of corruption in 1987 and imprisoned. At the Battlegrounds: A Military History of the beginning of the fighting in Sarajevo in Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols.Wash- April 1992, he participated in a failed ington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, attempt to oust the Izetbegovic´ government. 2002–2003. He then returned to his home base in northwestern Bosnia. Black Hand Isolated from the Bosnian government in Sarajevo, Abdic´ ruled Bihac´ as his The Black Hand was a common name own fiefdom. He proclaimed this to be the for the Serbian nationalist organization Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia dedicated to the establishment of a Serbian (APWB). From Bihac´ he seems to have state including the Serbian populations interacted with both Croatian and Serbian of the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. Black Sea Campaign, 1941–1944 37

Although Serbia achieved independence In late 1916, Serbian prime minister Nic- n 1878, nationalists were outraged that ola Pasˇic´ (1845–1926) decided to destroy Austria-Hungary controlled Slavic territory the Black Hand, probably both to remove a in the Balkans. Relations with Austria- threat to his authority and to keep its activ- Hungary worsened after 1903 and especially ities a secret. Crown Prince Alexander also after Vienna’s 1908 annexation of Bosnia- feared the power of Apis and his organiza- Herzegovina. Two days later, a group of tion. The group’s leaders were arrested and Serbian nationalists formed a semisecret, brought to trial at Salonika in . nationalist public patriotic society, the Nar- They stood accused of plotting the assassi- odna Odbrana (National Defense). nation of Crown Prince Alexander and of On May 9, 1911, a new group met to form seeking to overthrow the Serbian monarchy. Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Unification or Death), While many received prison sentences, Apis also known as the Crna Ruka (Black along with Rade Malobabic´ and Ljubomir Hand). This group was led by Colonel Dra- Vulovic´ were executed by firing squad on gutin Dimitrijevic´ (1876–1917), known as June 26. The organization survived, how- “Apis” after the ancient Egyptian bull god. ever, and was reborn as the , It was prepared to employ violent methods another secretive Serbian nationalist group to achieve the goal of a . that continued on in the new state of Yugo- Organized into cells, the group took part in slavia. In 1953, the Serbian Supreme Court comitadji (guerrilla) warfare in Macedonia, exonerated all of the Salonika defendants. anti-Austrian operations in Bosnia, and Timothy L. Francis political assassinations. Trading on the pres- See also: Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin (1876–1917); tige of , the Black Hand Sarajevo Assassination, 1914; Serbia in World became a major force in Serbian domestic War I politics. It attempted the assassination of Austrian emperor Franz Joseph in 1911 and Further Reading organized the assassination of Archduke Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. 3 vols. London: Oxford University 1914, supplying weapons to the young Bos- Press, 1952–1957. nian terrorists. This was done apparently in Cassels, Lavender. The Archduke and the the expectation that the resulting crisis Assassin: Sarajevo, June 28th 1914.New would force Russian intervention to support York: Stein and Day, 1985. Serbia and allow Serbia to make gains at MacKenzie, David. The “Black Hand” on the expense of Austria-Hungary. Trial: Salonika, 1917. Boulder, CO: East After checking three Austro-Hungarian European Monographs, 1995. invasions in 1914, the Serbs retreated from Remak, Joachim. Sarajevo: The Story of a Politi- their country in the face of a combined cal Murder. New York: Criterion, 1959. Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and German onslaught in the fall of 1915. The remnants of the Serbian army recuperated on the Black Sea Campaign, 1941–1944 Greek island of Corfu. In the summer of 1916, they formed a contingent in the The Black Sea campaign involved Soviet Entente force at Salonika where they fought forces defending against attacking Axis along the Balkan Front. powers led by Nazi Germany. Within the 38 Black Sea Campaign, 1941–1944

Axis coalition, and taking part in action began with a numerical superiority in ships within the Black Sea Theater, were the navies within the theater, German air power, par- and armies of Bulgaria, Romania, and Italy. ticularly the diving bombing Stukas, eventu- During World War II, Hitler’s Germany sur- ally took its toll. By 1943, the Black Sea prised the Soviet armed forces when it Fleet had been reduced to one battleship, attacked on June 22, 1941, during Operation the ; four cruisers; one destroyer Barbarossa. Overall, the intent was to drive leader, the Kharkov; eight other destroyers; the Soviet Communists far enough from and 29 submarines. By 1944, the surface Europe as to allow two strategic objectives. vessels of the Soviet fleet were unable to One was resource-oriented, and the second mount any sustained operations due to dam- was concerned with the military defense of ages inflicted and the inability to generate the German homeland. The first strategic repairs. objective was to secure the agricultural Axis forces had successfully pushed resources of the Ukraine located just north of the Soviets back across the Black Sea to the Black Sea and to secure the the Caucasus during 1941–1943, taking the resources of the Middle East and those located naval port of Sevastopol on July 4, 1942. in and around the Caucasus region located on Joining German forces in driving the Soviets the eastern side of the sea—with a particular back to the Caucasus were the Romanian focus on the oil fields around Baku, military units the 10th and 19th Infantry Azerbaijan. To the German leadership, eco- Divisions and 3rd Mountain Division. nomic self-sufficiency was essential for During this time, the Kharkov and two national security. The second strategic objec- destroyers were sunk by Stukas. Stalin then tive was to push Soviet air power out of ordered that any further use of large ships range of the German homeland. would have to be authorized by his office. On the opening day of Operation Barba- The tide began turning against the Axis rossa, German aircraft conducted powers in 1944 and the Soviets pushed mine-laying operations off the home port of back across the region, retaking the area the Soviet Black Sea fleet at Sevastopol around Odessa in March and then forcing located on the Crimea. Four days later, on the surrender of Axis forces near Sevastopol June 26, 1941, the Soviets bombed and on May 9, 1944. shelled the Romanian port at Constant¸a James Brian McNabb with nine naval aircraft of the Black Sea See also: Romania in World War II Fleet in conjunction with a surface flotilla ledbytheMoskva and Kharkov. In this Further Reading engagement, the Soviet destroyer leader Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Cristian Moskva was sunk by mines while attempting Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- to dodge incoming rounds from coastal bat- nian Armed Forces in the European War, teries. The Romanian destroyers Regina 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour, Maria and Marasti were involved in the bat- 1995. tle and conducted operations against the Glantz, David M. When Titans Clashed: How Kharkov and the Moskva. the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence: As the war progressed, Soviet submarines University Press of Kansas, 1995. also raided Axis shipping along the Bulgar- Roba, J. Louis. Seaplanes over the Black ian and Romanian coasts. While the Soviets Sea: German Romanian Operations, 1941– Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria 39

1944. Bucharest: Editura Modelism International Ltd., 1998. Stolfi, Russell H. S. Hitler’s Panzers East: World War II Reinterpreted. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.

Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria (1894–1943)

Czar of Bulgaria whose country, though nominally an Axis power, remained autono- mous throughout the war years, Boris III was born Boris Klemens Robert Maria Pius Ludwig Stanislaus Xaver, prince of Saxe- and Gotha, duke of Saxony, and prince of Tirnovo, at the royal palace in Sofia on January 30, 1894. His father was Czar Ferdinand (1861–1948), who had Boris III was the last real king of Bulgaria and been ruling since 1887. His mother, Princess played an important role during World War Maria Luisa of Bourbon Parma (1870– II. (Library of Congress) 1899), died while giving birth to his young- est sibling. Boris was educated by palace besetting the kingdom. He was an unwilling tutors and married Princess Giovanna of junior partner in the Axis alliance during Savoy (1907–2000), daughter of King Vic- World War II. Pressured into joining the tor Emmanuel III (1869–1947) of Italy, in alliance by Germany, Boris regained the 1930. They had two children, Maria Luisa southern Dobrudja (Dobrudzha; ) (1933–) and Crown Prince Simeon (1937–). region from Romania in 1940, which led to Boris rose to power following his father’s his being known as the “King Unifier” and abdication on October 3, 1918, at the end of the “Liberator .” World War I. Bulgaria was then in desperate By 1941, Boris had little choice but to straits. The 1919 Treaty of Neuilly involved commit to the and allow loss of territory and the payment of repara- German troops to cross through his country tions. As a consequence of his country’s en route to the Soviet Union. Unlike the many problems, Boris experienced an other Balkan states, Bulgaria remained exceptionally stormy reign. The were autonomous during the war. Although it did filled with internal political strife, and eco- not invade Yugoslavia or Greece, its troops nomic problems forced Bulgaria to depend did garrison parts of Macedonia and western on Germany for supplies. Thrace. In December, Bulgaria declared war Boris favored a neutralist course for his on the United States and Britain, but Boris country. He proved to be an adept diplomat infuriated Adolf Hitler by withholding and an intelligent yet cautious leader who Bulgarian troops from the war effort and was genuinely respected by his people for refusing to declare war on the Soviet Union his skillful handling of the many problems or send Bulgarian Jews to the death camps. 40 Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, 1878

His actions helped save 50,000 Jews. Boris independence to Romania, Serbia, and and Giovanna also arranged for transit visas Montenegro; established an autonomous permitting thousands of other Jews to go to “greater” Bulgaria; and made Bosnia and Palestine. Herzegovina an autonomous province. How- Boris’s continuous obduracy regarding ever, the European powers believed that this German policies led to a stormy meeting treaty would upset the balance of power in with Hitler at the latter’s Wolfsschanze the Balkans and met in Berlin from June 13 headquarters near Rastenburg on August 14, to July 13, 1878, to modify its provisions. 1943, in which Boris bluntly said that Bul- The resulting Treaty of Berlin, among other garia would follow its own path. He returned things, allowed Austria-Hungary to administer to Sofia depressed over the probable even- Bosnia and Herzegovina (and the Sanjak of tual fate of his country. Boris died at the Novi Pazar), although these provinces royal palace in Sofia two weeks later, on remained territorially a part of the Ottoman , 1943, most likely from an embo- Empire. lism, although there were suspicions he had In June 1878, Austria-Hungary mobilized been poisoned. A regency then took power over 82,000 troops to occupy the provinces on behalf of the underage Czar Simeon II, and established a reserve army in . who reigned until he was deposed on The Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzego- September 9, 1946. vina at the time consisted of roughly Annette Richardson 40,000 troops and about 53,000 local mili- tia. The Austro-Hungarian troops met spo- See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Bulgaria in radic fierce opposition from portions of World War II; Military League (Bulgaria); Radomir Rebellion, 1918 both the Muslim and Orthodox populations and fought pitched battles near Cˇ itluk, Sto- Further Reading lac, Livno, and Klobuk. Despite setbacks at Crampton, R. J. A Concise . Maglaj and Tuzla, the Austro-Hungarian Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, army occupied Sarajevo, the Bosnian 1997. capital, in October 1878. Resistance to the Groueff, Stephan. Crown of Thorns: The Reign occupation force ended after three weeks of of King Boris III of Bulgaria, 1918–1943. fighting and cost the Austro-Hungarians Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1987. over 5,000 casualties. Lalkov, Milcho. Rulers of Bulgaria.Sofia: Tensions remained in certain parts of the Kibea Publishing, 1997. country, particularly Herzegovina, and a large number of Muslim dissidents left. With Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, the establishment of relative stability, Austro- 1878 Hungarian authorities instituted a number of social and administrative reforms intended to In 1878, Austria-Hungary occupied the make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a “model Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzego- colony.” Habsburg rule eventually led to the vina in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin. codification of laws, the introduction of new After defeating the Ottoman Empire in political practices, and the start of moderniza- the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878, tion, aimed at establishing the province as a Russia imposed the Treaty of San Stefano stable political entity that would help dissipate on the Ottoman Empire. The treaty granted rising South Slav nationalism. Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909 41

In 1908, Austria-Hungary formally Austro-Hungarian claims by Britain and annexed the territory, which precipitated a Germany at the Congress of Berlin. As the new Bosnian crisis and created the Condo- provinces were inhabited chiefly by Serbs, minium of Bosnia and Herzegovina that and as a route across that region would lasted until the end of World War I. afford Serbia the most convenient form of Robert B. Kane the long-desired access to the Adriatic, the Serbian agents at the Congress of Berlin See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Bosnian tried to protest against the arrangement. Crisis, 1908–1909; Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878; But the congress would not even hear the Sarajevo Assassination, 1914 protest. From the beginning of the occupation, Further Reading Austria-Hungary counted upon ultimately Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans.2 obtaining permanent possession. Serbia, vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University however, continued to hope that the prov- Press, 1983. inces, or at least such a portion of them as Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The would give access to the Adriatic, would Establishment of the Balkan National someday be in its hands. The crisis in States, 1804–1920. Seattle: University of 1908–1909 sprang from the fact that Serbia Washington Press, 1977. believed that it must prevent the consumma- Langer, William L. European Alliances tion of annexation by Austria-Hungary or and Alignments, 1871–1890.NewYork: give up permanently its long-cherished Knopf, 1950. hopes. Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- Soon after the proclamation of annexa- tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University tion, Serbia called a part of the reserves to Press, 1976–1977. the colors and lodged a vigorous protest with the powers, demanding either a return to the status quo ante or compensations cal- Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909 culated to assure the independence and material progress of Serbia. Serbian newspa- The Bosnian Crisis was a regional crisis that pers demanded a strip of territory extending resulted from the Austrian annexation of across Novi Pazar and Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908. to the Adriatic. The Government of the It produced significant tension between Dual Monarchy refused to receive the Ser- Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire bian protest. It denied that Serbia had any and, for several weeks early in 1909, threat- right to raise a question as to the annexation. ened to cause a general European war. For a time, the attitude of the powers was By article 25 of the Treaty of Berlin of uncertain. With the exception of Germany, 1878, Austria-Hungary was permitted to whose attitude at first was extremely occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzego- reserved, all of the powers objected to the vina. This arrangement was made in conse- action of Austria-Hungary, but apparently quence of an understanding between Russia more to the form than to the fact of annexa- and the Dual Monarchy, entered into on the tion. As the controversy developed, Ger- eve of the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877– many came quickly and decidedly to the 1878, and of the support given to the support of its Austro-Hungarian ally. 42 Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909

In Russia, public opinion expressed itself Germany promptly refused to take part, strongly in support of Serbia. The Russian while Austria-Hungary hastened to make government, which at first had shown a dis- known that it would refuse to receive any position to do no more than record a formal such proposition. Learning that France and protest against the infraction of the Treaty Britain were not inclined to lend their sup- of Berlin, responded by supporting the port, Russia quickly dropped the proposal. demand first made by Turkey for an The crisis was brought to a close in a international conference to consider the manner that involved a triumph for Austria- matter. The British and Italian governments Hungary over Serbia and for Germany and then supported this demand with consider- Austria-Hungary over Russia—a triumph able vigor, while France sought to play a that left behind it much bitterness of spirit conciliatory role. in the states that were forced to yield. The Austria-Hungary declared that it was not humiliation that Russia and Serbia were opposed on principle to a conference, but compelled to endure was undoubtedly a made its acceptance depend upon the pro- very considerable factor in determining the gram for the conference, which, it insisted, whole course of events which from that must be agreed upon in advance. It took the date led directly to World War I. The precise position that the conference ought not to dis- manner in which Serbia was forced to yield cuss the validity of the annexation, but was at the time veiled in a good deal of mys- should confine itself to registering the mea- tery, giving rise to numerous conflicting sure as a fait accompli. Russia, after consid- accounts of just what happened. Complete erable exchange of opinion with the other information is not yet available. It is clear, powers, submitted a project for a program, however, that Russia, under some form of which included an item dealing with advan- strong pressure from Germany, was forced tages to be accorded to Serbia and Monte- to abandon Serbia. The subsequently negro. Austria-Hungary, in reply, did not asserted that he stood beside his ally, flatly reject the Russian proposal, but sug- Austria-Hungary, “in shining armor,” while gested that the advantages for Serbia and Prince Berhard von Bu¨low (1849–1929) Montenegro should be economic only. declared that the “German sword had been While the discussion was in progress, the thrown into the scale of European decision.” Austro-Hungarian government endeavored Even then Serbia yielded only under con- to prevent the calling of the proposed straint from all the powers. Her humiliation conference by settling its controversy with was recorded in the declaration she was Turkey. Such a settlement was arranged in forced to send to Vienna (March 31, 1909): principle on January 12, 1909. After that, Austria-Hungary claimed that there was no Serbia recognizes that the situation cre- longer any occasion for the meeting of a ated in Bosnia-Herzegovina does not conference. involve any injury to the rights of Serbia. Popular feeling in Serbia did not In consequence, Serbia will conform to abate. There was a strong demand that the decision which the powers are going opposition to the annexation should be to take in regard to article 25 of the treaty pushed vigorously. To avert the danger of of Vienna. Serbia, conforming to the war, Russia proposed to the powers a collec- advice of the powers agrees to renounce tive de´marche at Vienna and at Belgrade. the attitude of protest and opposition Bosnian Forces 43

which she has taken since the month of JNA forces in case of a foreign invasion of October of last year. She agrees to modify Yugoslavia. By the end of the 1980s, when the line of her political conduct in regard national tensions had reemerged in Yugo- to Austria-Hungary and to live in the slavia, the Bosnian TO forces and their re- future on good terms with it. In conform- sources were largely under Serbian control. ity with this declaration and confident Also, the president of Bosnia-Herzegovina of the pacific intentions of Austria- since December 20, 1990, Alija Izetbegovic´ Hungary, Serbia will bring back her (1925–2003), discouraged the formation of army, in the matter of organization, distri- distinctly Bosnian forces in order not to bution, and of state of activity, to the sit- aggravate the delicate national balance in uation existing in the spring of 1908. Bosnia-Herzegovina among the Bosniak, She will disband the volunteer bodies Serb, and Croat populations. He also sought and will prevent the formation of irregu- to maintain good relations with the Serbian- lar bands upon her territory. dominated JNA. This meant that in the fall Robert B. Kane of 1990, when the Serbian TO and other Serbian-led organizations in Bosnia began See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; to attack Bosniak and Croatian areas of Black Hand; Sarajevo Assassination, 1914 Bosnia, the Bosnian state was woefully Further Reading unprepared to respond militarily. Bridge,F.R.From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The The problem became acute after the Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1866– Bosnian declaration of independence on 1914. London: Routledge, 1972. March 3, 1992. Fighting erupted throughout Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The Annexation of the country between pro-government and Bosnia, 1908–1909. Cambridge: Cam- pro-Serbian forces. On May 20, 1992, the bridge University Press, 1937. remaining Bosnian TO organization became the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH). The new army had limited military resources to draw upon. Bosnian Forces While most Bosnian males had received military training due to compulsory service Bosnian forces constituted the military in the JNA, most heavy weapons remained effort of the Bosnian government in the under Serbian or pro-Serbian JNA control. Yugoslav Wars of 1991–1995. Bosnia- Initially the Bosnian forces contained mem- Herzegovina was most the most ethnically bers of all three nationalities. The initial mixed of all the Yugoslav . Bosnian force that was hastily cobbled together had Muslims (Bosniaks) constituted around about 80,000 lightly armed men in four 44 percent of the population, Serbs around army corps under the command of Rasim 31 percent, Croats around 17 percent, and Delic´ (1949–2010), a former career officer others the remainder. in the JNA. The origins of the Bosnian forces lie in Initially the ARBiH was multinational. the establishment by the Yugoslav People’s As the fighting intensified, however, and as Army (JNA) of a territorial defense system the news of widespread atrocities became (TO). This was essentially a militia estab- known, national fissures emerged. As the lished at the republic level to supplement Bosniaks became the chief victims of the 44 Bosnian Revolt, 1876

, murder, and rape, so did to the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. the sense of ethnic Muslim identity grow On July 5, 1875, peasants near , among Bosniak soldiers in the ARBiH. As Herzegovina, supported by urban workers many as 3,000 volunteers arrived from Mus- and the middle class, rebelled after Ottoman countries to supplement its ranks. At the tax collectors increased taxes. By August, same time, Serbian presence in the ARBiH, the number of insurgents had grown to never strong, diminished. Most Croats about 12,000, and the revolt had spread joined separate units, which at times cooper- across most of Herzegovina. On August 18, ated with the ARBiH and at other times the rebellion spread to nearby Bosnia. fought it. During much of this time, the Bosnian insurgents blockaded a number of ARBiH struggled in the field, largely large cities and Ottoman fortresses and because of the lack of sufficient arms and quickly cleared a portion of territory in equipment. By January 1995, the ARBiH southwestern Bosnia along the Austrian had expanded to almost 200,000 men. It border of Ottoman troops. received some aid from Muslim countries The insurgents generally wanted the and from NATO. It participated in the suc- Ottoman administration to transfer land to cessful operations of the summer and fall the peasants, establish a democratic system of 1995 in cooperation with the Croatian of government, and unify Bosnia and army. Herzegovina with Serbia and Montenegro, Richard C. Hall respectively. The liberal middle class limited its demands to the incorporation of See also: Izetbegovic´, Alija (1925–2003); Bosnia into Serbia and Herzegovina into JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army); Storm, Operation; Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995; Montenegro. Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes The uprising aroused public sympathy throughout the Balkans and in Russia. The Further Reading rebels received moral, material, and finan- Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: cial support from several countries and Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin, numerous volunteers from Russia, Serbia, 1998. Croatia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Italy. Tarnstrom, Ronald. Balkan Battles. Lindsbrog, After Great Power mediation between the KS: Trogen, 1998. Bosnians and Ottoman authorities failed, Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan. The Yugoslav Milan Obrenovic´ (1854–1901) of Serbia Wars (2): Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia and Prince Nicholas of Montenegro (1841– 1992–2001. Botely, Oxford: Osprey, 2006. 1921) declared war on the Ottoman Empire U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan on June 18, 1876. This war ended in early Battlegrounds: A Military History of the November 1876 after Russia forced the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols. Ottoman sultan Abdulhamid II to sign a Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2002–2003. truce with Serbia. However, the rebellion in southwest Bosnia continued and had cleared southern Bosnia of Ottoman forces by Bosnian Revolt, 1876 mid-1877. Because of Ottoman atrocities during The revolt that began in August 1876 in the the rebellion, Russia declared war on Ottoman province of Bosnia eventually led the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877. Bosnian War, 1992–1995 45

This war ended on January 31, 1878, with a officially ended with the signing of the Russian victory. Russia imposed the Treaty Dayton Peace Agreement in Paris. of San Stefano on the defeated Ottoman In April 1992, the former people of Empire, but the European powers, believing Yugoslavia, including the Bosniaks, Croats, that this treaty would upset the balance of and Serbians, began fighting for control of power in the Balkans, revised the treaty at areas in the region of Bosnia-Herzegovina. the Congress of Berlin, June 13–July 13, In May 1992, the Bosnian Serb army began 1878. The resulting Treaty of Berlin left their siege and shelling of Sarajevo, the Bosnia and Herzegovina territorially a capital of Bosnia. After internal fighting part of the Ottoman Empire but allowed between Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks, Austria-Hungary to occupy the provinces these two groups signed a peace agreement, for administrative purposes. creating the Federation of Bosnia and Robert B. Kane Herzegovina in March 1994. In July 1995, Serbian troops under See also: Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, 1878; General Ratko Mladic (1942–) invaded the Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909; Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901); Russo- region of Srebrenic´a in eastern Bosnia. In Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, what later became known as the Srebrenica Treaty of, 1878 Massacre, the Serbian troops murdered roughly 7,779 Bosniak males in one week. Further Reading Soon afterward, the Bosniak-Croatian alli- Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The ance began regaining ground against Establishment of the Balkan National the Serbian forces. With NATO arbitration, States, 1804–1920. Seattle: University of the war officially ended on December 14, Washington Press, 1977. 1995, with the signing of the Dayton Peace Milojkovic-Djuric, Jelena. The Eastern Ques- Agreement. tion and the Voices of Reason: Austria- Immediately following the peace agree- Hungary, Russia, and the Balkan States, 1875–1908. Boulder, CO: East European ment, the Office of the High Representative Monographs; New York: Columbia Univer- in Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed by sity Press, 2002. the . The office was formed Pavlowitch, Stevan K. A History of the Bal- to oversee the implementation of the aspects kans, 1804–1945. London: Longman, 1999. of the peace agreement. In addition, in 1993, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was formed by the United Nations to prosecute war crimes in Bosnian War, 1992–1995 the former Yugoslavia. Controversial in nature, the court has convicted numerous The Bosnian War took place in Bosnia and people for crimes in the Bosnian and Herzegovina from April 6, 1992, to Septem- Kosovo wars. ber 21, 1995. During this time, over 100,000 In May 2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina people were killed and over 1.8 million brought a lawsuit against Serbia and Monte- more displaced. The war resulted from a negro for inciting ethnic hatred and actively combination of political, social, and reli- participating in the . It gious elements stemming from the disinte- was the first time a nation charged another gration of Communist Yugoslavia, and it nation with genocide. On February 26, 46 Bosnian War, 1992–1995

2007, the International Court of Justice The Bosnian War demonstrates the ter- ruled that Serbian leaders failed to prevent rible power of war and the resulting human the massacre, but ultimately exonerated the rights catastrophes. The sheer number of country of direct responsibility for genocide. killings and displacements demonstrates the In doing so, the court prevented further need for further human rights legislation lawsuits against Serbia for monetary and enforcement. reparations. Richard C. Hall Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913 47

See also: Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995; Sre- prisoners taken as a result of related hostil- brenica Massacre, 1995; Yugoslav Wars, ities on June 25, 1991, or later were to be 1991–1995 released. The Brioni Agreement was significant in Further Reading that it guaranteed the continued engagement Broz, Svetlana, Ellen Elias Bursac, and Laurie Kain Hart. Good People in an Evil Time: of the EC in the Yugoslav situation through Portraits of Complicity and Resistance in the legal establishment of the European the Bosnian War. New York: Other Press, Community Monitor Mission (ECMM). 2004. Furthermore, although it effectively sus- pended Slovenia’s bid for independence for Brioni Agreement three months, the Brioni Agreement paved the way for Slovenia’s full independence from Yugoslavia by extending a set of EC- The Brioni Agreement ended the 11-day war issued prerequisites. After the Brioni Agree- between Slovenia and the former Yugoslavia ment was signed, the JNA withdrew its that began on June 25, 1991. Signed on forces from Slovenia but repositioned them July 7, 1991, on the Adriatic island of in Croatia, where violence continued until Brioni, the agreement called for a cease-fire 1995. and the removal of all Yugoslav People’s Mary Kate Schneider Army (JNA) forces from Slovenia. It was negotiated by the European Community’s See also: JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army); (EC) Ministerial Troika (the troika was Slovene War, 1991. comprised of representatives from the , , and Portugal) in Further Reading coordination with Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Lukic, Re´ne´o, and Allen C. Lynch. Europe from the Balkans to the Urals: The Disintegration and Yugoslavia. of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Oxford: All parties agreed to the following princi- Oxford University Press, 1996. ples: (1) only the people of Yugoslavia may Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: determine their future; (2) the situation in Death of a Nation, New York: TV Books, Yugoslavia was a fundamentally new situa- 1996. tion, requiring ongoing monitoring and Woodward, Susan L. “The Yugoslav Wars.” negotiations; (3) negotiations on the future The Brookings Review 10 (1992): 54. of Yugoslavia would begin by August 1, 1991; (4) the Collegiate Presidency must continue to exercise the full capacity of its Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913 constitutionally derived rights, particularly those concerning the Federal Armed Forces; The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on and (5) no party would engage in unilateral August 10, 1913, between Bulgaria on one action. Furthermore, the Brioni Agreement hand and Greece, Montenegro, Romania, transferred control of Slovenia’s borders and Serbia on the other, ended the Second to the Slovenian police, who were to act Balkan War. By , the Balkan in accordance with Yugoslav federal League of 1912 had fractured because of a guidelines. Customs and air traffic control dispute between Bulgaria, and Greece and remained under Yugoslav control, and all Serbia over the disposition of territories 48 Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918

seized from the Ottomans during the First Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan Balkan War, especially Macedonia. On the Wars, 1912–1913.Cambridge,MA: night of 29-30 June 29–30, Bulgarian troops Harvard University Press, 1938. undertook preemptive attacks on Greek and Rossos, Andrew. Russia and the Balkans: Serbian positions in southeastern Macedo- Inter-Balkan Rivalries and Russian Foreign Policy 1908–1914. Toronto: University of nia. The Second Balkan War ensued, and Toronto Press, 1981. Ottoman and Romanian forces joined in the attacks on Bulgaria. With most of its army committed in Mac- Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918 edonia, Bulgaria could not oppose the Otto- man and Romanian invasions. The new The Treaty of Bucharest temporarily ended Bulgarian government of Romanian participation in World War I. (1854–1929) sought a way out of this catastro- Romania entered the war in August 1916, phe. On July 20, 1913, the Bulgarians began after the success of the Russian Brusilov talks in Nisˇ, Serbia. These continued until offensives weakened the Austro-Hungarian July 24, when they shifted to Bucharest. At army. France and Russia guaranteed Roma- Bucharest, the Bulgarians had to cede nia territorial compensation in Transylvania, southern Dobrudzha to Romania, southeastern Bukovina, and the . Macedonia to Greece, and Macedonia west of In response to Romanian entry, former the Vardar River watershed to Serbia. The German chief of staff General Erich von Montenegrin delegation was present in Falkenhayn (1861–1922) organized a com- Bucharest mainly to support the Serbs. In bined German, Austrian, and Bulgarian doing so, the Montenegrins sought a favorable force that struck Romania on three fronts division with Serbia of the sanjak of Novi and seized the capital of Bucharest on Pazar. The Treaty of Bucharest left Romania December 5. The loss of 310,000 men in as the largest and strongest power in the Bal- four months impelled Romania to sign the kans. It also greatly increased the territories Armistice of Foc¸sani in . of Greece and Serbia. For Bulgaria, the Treaty Hostilities resumed the following year, and of Bucharest was a disaster. The Treaty of Austrian and German armies defeated most Bucharest superseded the ephemeral Treaty of the remaining Romanian units in a of London. Bulgaria went to war two years summer offensive. In March 1918, Romania later on the side of the Central Powers largely agreed to a second armistice. to reverse the Bucharest decision. The Treaty of Bucharest was signed in the Richard C. Hall Romanian capital on May 7, 1918, just three months after Russia signed the Treaty of See also: Balkan War, Second, 1913; Bulgaria Brest Litovsk. As with that treaty, the Treaty in the Balkan Wars; Constantinople, Treaty of, 1913; Greece in the Balkan Wars; Montenegro of Bucharest imposed ruthless terms on the in the Balkan Wars; Romania in the Balkan loser. It stipulated that Romania cede passes Wars; Serbia in the Balkan Wars in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria- Hungary, leaving Romania’s northern bor- Further Reading der practically indefensible. Romania also Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– had to cede the Dobrudja (Dobrudzha) 1913: Prelude to the First World War. region on the Black Sea to Bulgaria, leaving London: Routledge, 2000. eastern Romania open to invasion from the Bukovina 49 sea. The northern half of Dobrudja, north of German industrialists, to discredit Kuhl- the city of Constanta, was to be ruled as a mann, but the campaign was unsuccessful. German-Austria-Bulgarian mandate, while An intimidated Romanian parliament Bulgaria annexed outright the southern signed the Treaty of Bucharest, but King half. (Bulgaria had lost southern Dobrudja Ferdinand I (of the Hohenzollern dynasty) to Romania through the 1913 Treaty of delayed affixing his signature to it. The Bucharest that concluded the Second Balkan change in Germany’s military fortunes in War.) Strategically, the loss of the northern the summer of 1918 made it easier for half hurt Romania more, as it meant the Romania to postpone ratification, and it loss of all three mouths of the Danube never actually completed the process. In River. In compensation, the treaty author- October, Romania officially renounced the ized Romania to annex Bessarabia, which treaty and reentered the war. had become a Soviet republic in Decem- Despite its poor performance in the war, ber 1917, then an independent republic in Romania benefited greatly from the Allied March 1918. victory. The subsequent The Treaty of Bucharest also imposed with Hungary and the Treaty of Neuilly harsh economic terms. Germany received a with Bulgaria not only reversed the Treaty 90-year lease on Romanian oil fields and of Bucharest, but brought Romania signifi- nearly unlimited rights to export Romanian cant territorial gains. grain and raw materials. In the span of Michael S. Neiberg 18 months, the Germans seized 1 million See also: Bessarabia; Dobrudja; Romania in tons of oil and 2 million tons of grain. World War I These resources helped make possible the Ludendorff offensives and sustained the Further Reading German war economy. Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. The one-sided terms of the treaties of Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Bucharest and Brest Litovsk eroded any lin- Kitchen, Martin, “Hindenburg, Ludendorff, gering Allied sentiment for a lenient peace and Rumania.” Slavonic and East European toward the Central Powers. But even these Review 54 (1976): 214–30. terms were not enough for the German mili- Torrey, Glenn E. Romania and World War I: tary. Generals (1865– A Collection of Studies.Portland,OR: 1937) and (1847– Center for Romanian Studies, 1998. 1934) demanded outright annexation of Romania. German diplomat Richard von Kuhlmann (1873–1948) objected, believing Bukovina that it was important to respect the ambi- tions of Germany’s allies. Furthermore, Ger- Bukovina is a historical region in Central many had promised southern Dobrudja to Europe that has been divided between Roma- Bulgaria early in the war, and Kuhlmann nia and Ukraine since 1944. From the 500s argued that it was important to honor that until the mid-1300s, the region was part of pledge. Ludendorff and Hindenburg had several successive states until it became the already lost a similar battle with Kuhlmann nucleus of the Principality of Moldavia. The over annexing Lithuania. The generals Treaty of Ku¨c¸u¨k Kaynarca, ending the began a media campaign, supported by Russo-Ottoman War of 1768–1774, awarded 50 Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars

Bukovina to the Hapsburgs, who annexed the June 1941 and August 1944, Romanian and province in January 1775 and first officially German authorities murdered or caused the used the name “Bukovina.” During the death of about 60,000 Bukovinian Jews, 1800s, the province experienced several approximately 50 percent of the prewar administrative arrangements until it became Jewish population. The Soviet army returned a separate province in February 1861, a status in late August 1944. The 1947 Paris Peace that lasted until . By 1900, Treaty formally awarded northern Bukovina Ukrainians composed the majority in the to the Soviet Union, which again became a northern part of the province, and Romanians part of the Ukrainian SSR (Ukraine after inthesouthernhalf.Theprovincealsohad 1991), and southern Bukovina to Romania, substantial German and Jewish minorities confirming the permanent division of the and small numbers of Poles, Hungarians, historical region. Slovaks, and Slovenes. Robert B. Kane During World War I, the Austro- See also: Bessarabia; Romania in World Hungarian and German armies fought sev- War II eral battles in Bukovina against the Russians and drove them out in 1917. With the col- Further Reading lapse of Austria-Hungary in October 1918, DeLuca, Anthony R., and Paul D. Quinlan. both the Romanian National Council and Romania, Culture, and Nationalism: A the Ukrainian National Council claimed the Tribute to Radu Florescu.Boulder,CO: region. In late 1918, Romanian troops East European Monographs, 1998. occupied Bukovina, despite Ukrainian Dima, Nicholas. From Moldavia to Moldova: protests, and the 1919 Treaty of Saint The Soviet-Romanian Territorial Dispute. Germain awarded the province to Romania. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, During the interwar years, the Romanian 1991. government attempted to “Romanize” the Georgescu, Vlad, and Matei Calinescu. The Ukrainians but relented somewhat in the Romanians: A History. Columbus: State University Press, 1991. 1930s to improve relations with the Soviet Union. Gold, Hugo, ed. History of the Jews in Buko- vina. Tel Aviv: “Olamenyu,” 1958–1962. On June 26, 1940, the Soviet Union Originally published in German. English demanded that Romania cede to it northern translation on the Internet. Bukovina and, two days later, occupied this region, which it then incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars Following the 1940 Soviet occupation, about 250,000 Romanians fled northern For the Bulgarian state established after the Bukovina to Romania, and the Soviet secret Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878, the Bal- police, the NKVD, killed or deported to kan Wars represented an opportunity to rec- Siberia most of those who did not. In tify the settlement of the Congress of 1940–1941, about 170,000 Germans were Berlin. Bulgarian nationalists had been resettled to German-occupied western overjoyed by the Treaty of San Stefano of (Warthegau). March 1878, which established a large Bul- In late June 1941, the Romanian army garian state in southeastern Europe. The reoccupied northern Bukovina. Between Austro-Hungarians and the British objected Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars 51 to this big Bulgaria because they feared it Macedonia in any future Balkan settlement. would result in Russian domination of the Having accomplished the alliance with entire region. Serbia, the Sofia government turned to The Congress of Berlin trisected San Athens. On May 30, 1912, a Bulgarian- Stefano Bulgaria. A Greek alliance was signed. This did not con- under the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman tain any territorial provisions, primarily sultan ruled the region between the Danube because the Bulgarians were confident that River and the Balkan Mountains with its their army would occupy any disputed areas capital at Sofia. The autonomous Ottoman in southern Macedonia and western Thrace province of Eastern Rumelia, south of the before the Greeks could arrive. At the end of Balkan Mountains, had a Christian governor August 1912, the Bulgarians came to an in . Macedonia returned to full agreement with the Montenegrins. Ottoman rule. After the Congress of Berlin, In conjunction with its Greek and Serbian every Bulgarian government strove to over- allies, Bulgaria declared war on the Ottoman turn the Berlin settlement and reestablish Empire on October 17, 1912. The initial San Stefano Bulgaria. The Young Turk seiz- phase of this First Balkan War exceeded all ure of power in 1908 in Constantinople Bulgarian expectations. The Geshov raised concerns in Sofia that reforms might government initially had intended to seek strengthen the Ottoman Empire and prevent Russian intervention to end the war after a the realization of a San Stefano Bulgaria. short time of fighting. The successes of Then the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 offered Bulgarian arms at Lozengrad and Lyule the opportunity to realize Bulgarian nation- Burgas–Buni Hisar, however, caused the alist objectives while the Ottomans were titular commander in chief of the army, distracted and weakened by the war with Czar Ferdinand (1861–1948), and his Italy. The government of Ivan E. Geshov deputy commander in chief, General Mihail (1849–1924) decided that the time was Savov (1857–1928), as well as many in the right to realize Bulgarian nationalist objec- government to conclude that total victory tives in the Balkans. over the Ottomans was possible. The Bul- With Russian approval and assistance the garians pursued the retreating Ottomans to Bulgarians began talks with Serbia in the the Chataldzha lines. Czar Ferdinand hoped autumn of 1911. After some difficult nega- to make a triumphal entry into Constantino- tions they reached an agreement which they ple. The defeat at Chataldzha, however, signed on March 13, 1912. The open section made the Bulgarian army command realize of this treaty provided for mutual military that their forces were exhausted and overex- assistance. The secret part divided Macedo- tended. With some sense of relief, they con- nia into two parts, one indisputably Bulgar- cluded an armistice with the Ottomans on ian, the other, the so-called “contested December 3, 1912. Peace negotiations zone,” left to the arbitration of the Russian between the Balkan allies and the Ottomans czar. This marked the first time since the began in London on December 16. Congress of Berlin that the Bulgarian The London Peace talks did not last long. government had conceded the possibility The Bulgarians insisted on obtaining that it would not obtain all of Macedonia. Adrianople, which they had besieged since Nevertheless, most Bulgarian political October. They also hoped to establish a and military officials expected to gain all presence on the Sea of Marmara. After the 52 Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars

Young Turks seized power in Constantino- and cultural institutions throughout ple on January 23, 1913, they denounced Macedonia. In despair, Geshov resigned. the armistice. The war recommenced on The ardently pro-Russian Stoyan Danev February 3. (1858–1949) replaced him. Finally the With the help of the Serbian Second Russians somewhat reluctantly agreed to Army, the Bulgarians captured Adrianople take up their arbitration responsibilities. on March 26, 1913. This represented the Up until this time, most Bulgarians had final Bulgarian triumph of the Balkan Wars. supported the war effort. A notable excep- At this point the Bulgarians anticipated a tion was the leader of the Bulgarian Agrar- national state even larger than that estab- ian Union, Aleksandu˘r Stamboliski (1879– lished at San Stefano. Even as Bulgarian 1923). By the spring of 1913, however, troops entered Adrianople, however, Bulga- many of the peasant soldiers in the Bulgar- ria’s relationship with the Balkan allies was ian army were becoming impatient. Unrest eroding. During the initial phase of the war, emerged in the ranks. The army command Serbian troops had occupied most of Mac- sought to use the soldiers or to disperse edonia while the bulk of the Bulgarian them before the unrest spread throughout army fought in Thrace. When the Austro- the army. Hungarian government indicated that it Before Bulgarian prime minister Stoyan would not tolerate a Serbian presence on Danev could begin his journey to St. Peters- the Adriatic Sea in northern Albania, the burg for the arbitration process, Bulgarian Serbs sought compensation in Macedonia. troops acting on the orders of Czar Ferdi- Meanwhile, the lack of a clear territorial nand and Deputy Commander in Chief agreement with Greece led to clashes Savov attacked Greek and Serbian positions between Bulgarian and Greek troops in in eastern Macedonia on the night of southeastern Macedonia around Nigrita. June 29–30, 1913. The Greeks and Serbs Possession of Salonika became a focus of immediately launched counterattacks. In Bulgarian and Greek hostility. Also, the this situation, Danev resigned on July 13. Romanians raised the issue of compen- The Russians then lost interest in pursuing sation for Bulgarian Balkan War gains. The the arbitration process. In the absence of Romanians demanded southern Dobrudja any Russian help, the pro-Austrian Vasil (Dobrudzha), including the Danubean port Radoslavov then assumed the responsibility of Silistra. of prime minister. The Bulgarians found The Sofia government made little effort to themselves in a precarious situation. Greek deal with these issues, preferring instead to forces soon wiped out the Bulgarian contin- rely on the support of Russia. This proved gent isolated in Salonika. Meanwhile, the to be a mistake. In April 1913, the St. Peters- Bulgarian Second Army, wedged between burg Ambassadors conference awarded Sili- the Greeks and the Serbs in the southeastern stra to Romania. This alienated both the corner of Macedonia, suffered a major Bulgarians, because of the loss of a Bulgar- defeat as it retreated northward. To the ian city, and the Romanians, because they north, the Serbs inflicted a defeat on the wanted all of southern Dobrudja. Hostilities Bulgarian Third Army at Bregalinitisa. between Bulgarian and Greek troops esca- By mid-July, however, as the Bulgarians lated in southern Macedonia. The Serbs assumed positions along their prewar fron- began to establish permanent administrative tier, they were able to halt the Greek and Bulgaria in World War I 53

Serbian advance. At Kilimantsi, the Bulgar- Bulgaria had no friends among its neighbors ians achieved a major defensive victory and lost Russian patronage. The country did over the Serbs. This was ultimately to no make some territorial gains. Western Thrace avail. The Ottoman army, set on retaking and the Rhodope region became a part of the Adrianople, crossed the frontier on July 12 country, adding about 10,000 square miles, and quickly reoccupied that city. Then on including the Aegean port of Dedeagach, July 14, the Romanian army, determined to and 130,000 people to the country. The obtain southern Dobrudja, crossed the Dan- Balkan Wars, begun in triumph, ended in ube in three places and advanced into central disaster for Bulgaria. In an effort to over- Bulgaria. With all of their forces engaged in come the Balkan War defeat and obtain fighting the Greeks and Serbs, the Bulgar- Macedonia, Bulgaria intervened in World ians could not oppose these two invasions. Wars I and II on the German side. Neither The Ottoman advance into Bulgarian effort succeeded. territory was particularly upsetting to the Richard C. Hall Bulgarians, because it revived memories of See also: Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913; the 500 years of Ottoman domination of Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Bulgaria. With enemies all around, and Second, 1913; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, with no help forthcoming from Russia or Causes; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Conse- any other great power, the Sofia government quences; Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913; Cha- asked for an armistice. Even as the Sofia taldzha, Battle of, 1912; Constantinople, government agreed to talks, the Bulgarian Treaty of, 1913; Dimitriev, Radko (1859– army succeeded in trapping the oncoming 1918); Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria (1861– Greek army in Kresna gorge. This was too 1948); Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913; London, Treaty of, 1913; Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, late to affect the outcome of the war. Battle of, 1912; Savov, Mihail (1857–1928) Peace talks ensued in two separate ven- ues. In Bucharest, the Bulgarians met with Further Reading Greek, Romanian, and Serbian represen- Crampton,R.J.Bulgaria, 1878–1918. tatives. They conceded the loss of most of Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, Macedonia and southern Dobrudja in the 1983. Treaty of Bucharest, signed on August 19, Hall, Richard C. Bulgaria’s Road to the First 1913. In Constantinople, the Bulgarians World War. Boulder, CO: East European met with the sultan’s government. There Monographs, 1996. the Bulgarians accepted the loss of most of Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan eastern Thrace, eliminating the gains of Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: 1912. They signed the Treaty of Constanti- Harvard University Press, 1938. nople on September 30, 1912. The Balkan Wars were a catastrophe for Bulgaria. In the two wars, the Bulgarians Bulgaria in World War I lost 32,000 dead, 110,000 wounded, and 34,000 dead of disease. In addition, large Bulgaria was the smallest of the four Central numbers of Bulgarian civilians died of chol- Powers in terms of population, economy, era and typhus epidemics. Over 100,000 ref- and military forces. However, Bulgaria ugees flooded into Bulgaria from Greek- and made important contributions to the Central Serbian-occupied parts of Macedonia. alliance. When World War I began in 54 Bulgaria in World War I

Bulgarian Army unit holding a thanksgiving mass just after an armistice went into effect, ending Bulgarian participation in World War I, September 29, 1918. (Francis A. March, History of the World War, 1918)

August 1914, the Bulgarian government, led warring alliances recognized the strategic by Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov (1854– importance of Bulgaria and sought its inclu- 1929), proclaimed neutrality. The country sion on their respective sides. The price of was exhausted from the strenuous efforts of Bulgaria’s participation on either side was the First Balkan War in 1912–1913 and the Macedonia. Because Serbia had secured catastrophic defeat of the Second Balkan most of Macedonia as a result of the Balkan War in the summer of 1913. Nevertheless, Wars, the Central Powers held a distinct many Bulgarians demonstrated traditional advantage. They could promise Bulgaria pro-Russian sentiments. The popular Balkan the immediate acquisition of Macedonia. War hero Radko Dimitriev (1859–1918) The best the Entente could offer, however, resigned his post as Bulgarian minister in was eastern Thrace, then in Ottoman hands, St. Petersburg and accepted a commission and a portion of Macedonia at the end of in the Russian army. Others also volunteered the war provided that Serbia received com- for service with the Russians. Czar Ferdi- pensation in Austria-Hungary. Serbian nand (1861–1948) and Prime Minister reluctance to surrender any of Macedonia Radoslavov, however, inclined toward the stymied Entente efforts to attract Bulgaria. Central Powers. The Bulgarians negotiated with both sides Almost all Bulgarians perceived in World until the summer of 1915. War I an opportunity to reverse the disas- Entente defeats in Galicia and Gallipoli trous Treaty of Bucharest of 1913, which persuaded Czar Ferdinand and Radoslavov had ended the Second Balkan War and that the time was propitious for Bulgaria deprived Bulgaria of its national goals in to join the Central Powers and obtain Macedonia. When the Ottoman Empire Macedonia. On September 6, 1915, at entered the war in October 1914, both German military headquarters in Pless, the Bulgaria in World War I 55

Bulgarian representatives signed an alliance of Salonika without fighting on May 26, with Germany and Austria-Hungary that 1916. Later that summer, Bulgarian troops provided for a German-Austrian-Bulgarian occupied portions of northern Greece, attack on Serbia. Concurrent negotiations including Seres on August 19 and Drama with the Ottoman Empire obtained for Bul- and the port of on September 12. garia the cession of the lower River The Bulgarians also assumed occupation valley in eastern Thrace. This territory pro- duties in Serbia to free German soldiers for vided access to Bulgaria’s Aegean port at the Western Front. Dedeagach. In August 1916, following the Romanian On October 14, 1915, Bulgaria, in accor- declaration of war against Austria-Hungary, dance with the Pless agreement, declared Bulgaria joined the other Central Powers in war on Serbia. Two days later, the Bulgarian an attack on Romania. Bulgarian troops First and Second Armies joined the ongoing advanced into the Dobrudzha against Roma- Austro-Hungarian and German invasion of nian and Russian opposition, seizing the that country. This invasion soon over- Black Sea port of Constant¸a in October. whelmed the Serbs, who had to retreat Together with German and Turkish units, Bul- across the Albanian mountains to the Adri- garian forces also crossed the Danube and atic Sea in the face of overwhelming force. overran Wallachia. These attacks effectively Macedonia, the Bulgarian irredentist goal knocked Romania out of the war and restored since the Treaty of Berlin, quickly came southern Dobrudzha, taken by Romania under Bulgarian rule. Bulgarian forces during the Second Balkan War, to Bulgaria. repulsed a British and French attempt With the reoccupation of southern launched from Salonika to assist the Serbs. Dobrudzha, Bulgaria had accomplished its Despite strong Bulgarian objections, the major war aim. Bulgarian policy now German high command refused to sanction became largely defensive. Bulgarian admin- the Bulgarian army to cross the Greek fron- istrative authorities, however, did little to tier in pursuit of the defeated British and endear themselves to the populations in the French troops. At this point the Germans new territories. The Bulgarian regime there did not want to involve Greece in the war. was often harsh, corrupt, and inefficient. The Germans also thought that the contain- In the autumn of 1916, an Entente offen- ment of Entente soldiers around Salonika sive launched from the Salonika positions was preferable to their utilization on the succeeded in taking a portion of south- Western Front. This failure to destroy the western Macedonia, including the city of British and French allowed the Entente Bitola (Monastir). An attempt to advance forces to regroup and augment their forces farther into Macedonia, however, met strong around Salonika with Italian, Russian, and Bulgarian resistance and failed to break Serbian troops, where they posed a threat to through the Bulgarian positions. the Central Powers’ southeastern flank for By 1918, the Bulgarian situation had the remainder of the war. begun to deteriorate. The country had still In 1916, the Germans withdrew their not recovered to any great degree from the objections to a Bulgarian advance into human and material loses of the Balkan Greece. Some German troops even arrived Wars. Accompanying this was the growth to participate. Greek forces surrendered of discord between Bulgaria and Germany. Fort Rupel on the Struma River northeast Much of the food and raw materials 56 Bulgaria in World War I

produced in Bulgaria left the country, required to demobilize their army and turn legally and illegally going to Germany to all their equipment over to Entente forces. sustain the German war effort. Bulgarians Furthermore, Bulgarian troops had to also began to dislike their allies because of evacuate all occupied Greek and Serbian German control of Bulgarian transportation territories, including Macedonia. Finally, and communication facilities. In addition, Bulgarian communication and trans- differences with Austria-Hungary and portation systems were made available for Germany arose over the disposition of Entente operations. northern (Romanian) Dobrudzha. All these Meanwhile, many of the disaffected sol- issues contributed to Bulgaria’s disaffection diers streaming back toward Sofia accepted with the war. The Treaty of Bucharest, the loose leadership of the Bulgarian signed in May 1918 between the Central Agrarian Union, the peasant-based political Powers and Romania, granted all of the party that had opposed the war from its Dobrudzha to Bulgaria but gave Germany onset. These soldiers, together with some control of much of the transportation infra- Agrarian Union peasants, sought to structure of the territory as well as consider- inflict retribution on those responsible for able economic concessions throughout Bulgaria’s catastrophe. The disorganized southeastern Europe. This satisfied no rebels proclaimed a republic in Radomir, a one. Conflict also developed between the small town southwest of the capital. Ragtag Bulgarians and the Ottomans. The Ottomans formations of soldiers and peasants reached demanded the return of the territories they the outskirts of Sofia, where on Septem- had ceded to Bulgaria at the beginning of ber 30, a hastily collected force, including the war. Finally, having been at war off and military cadets and German troops, defeated on since 1912, the Bulgarian population and dispersed them. With the signing of the began to suffer from profound war- armistice and the abdication of Czar Ferdi- weariness. On June 20, 1918, Prime Minis- nand on October 4, the major goals of the ter Radoslavov resigned, ostensibly over his soldiers were accomplished. The war was failure to obtain a clear title to all of over, and the main culprit responsible for it Dobrudzha in the Treaty of Bucharest. in their view, Czar Ferdinand, had fled to A government more conciliatory to a negoti- Germany. Ferdinand’s elder son succeeded ated settlement with the Entente, led by him as Czar Boris III (1894–1943). Aleksandur Malinov, replaced him. The Bulgarians were the last to join the An Entente offensive in September 1918 Central Powers and the first to leave. Within quickly overwhelmed Bulgarian forces at a month of the Bulgarian armistice, the Dobro Pole and broke through Bulgarian Ottoman and Habsburg Empires likewise lines into Macedonia. Although some units gave up the fight. The Germans realized continued to resist fiercely, much of the that with the defeat of Bulgaria, the war Bulgarian military effort collapsed. By Sep- was lost. On October 3, 1918, the chief of tember 25, British and French troops had the German General Staff, General Paul crossed into Bulgaria proper. The same day, von Hindenburg (1847–1934), recognized the Bulgarian czar and government decided that because of the collapse of the Macedo- to seek an armistice. On September 29, the nian Front, “there was no longer a prospect Bulgarians signed the armistice at Salonika. of forcing peace on the enemy.” Forty-eight According to its terms, the Bulgarians were hours later, the Germans contacted U.S. Bulgaria in World War II 57 president Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), nation’s foreign policy and was largely seeking his mediation to end the war. responsible for the nation’s neutrality on World War I devastated Bulgaria demo- the outbreak of World War II in Septem- graphically, materially, and psychologically. ber 1939. Boris hoped that peace might be The army lost 101,224 dead and 144,026 quickly achieved in Europe, and he also wounded. In addition, some 60,000 refugees took note of the fact that although the flooded the country from Dobrudja, Mac- Bulgarian people were largely pro-Soviet, edonia, and Thrace. The Treaty of Neuilly the officers of the army were pro-German. imposed reparation payments of 1.5 million The weakness of Boris’s policy, however, gold francs to the Entente powers as well as was the popular desire to attain additional the transfer of specified quantities of live- territory in the Balkans. In World War I, stock and railroad equipment to Greece, Bulgaria had joined the Central Powers in an Romania, and Yugoslavia. Bulgaria also attempt to recoup territorial losses from the had to deliver 50,000 tons of coal annually Second Balkan War. The country’s defeat in to Yugoslavia. The war shattered the dream that conflict led to a peace settlement that of a greater Bulgaria that would include had further reduced Bulgarian territory. By Dobrudja, Macedonia, and Thrace. This 1940, the nation remained the only former was the third time in 41 years that Bulgaria Central Power that had not regained some of had failed to achieve a unified state. The the land lost through the World War I peace fourth failure of national unification, World treaties. Popular sentiment to redress this sit- War II, would effectively end that dream. uation was high. Germany partially fulfilled Richard C. Hall these territorial ambitions on September 7, 1940, through the Treaty of Craiova, which See also: Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; granted the area of the southern Dobrudja Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria (1861–1948); Macedonian Front, 1915–1918; Neuilly, region to Bulgaria. Treaty of, 1920; Zhekov, Nikola (1864–1949) German interest in Bulgaria was the prod- uct of the increased strategic importance of Further Reading the country. By late 1940, German plans Crampton,R.J.Bulgaria, 1878–1918. New for the invasion of Greece and those for the York: East European Monographs, 1983. conquest of the Soviet Union rendered Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The Bulgaria much more significant to the Axis Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: cause. On March 1, 1941, Sofia entered Indiana University Press, 2010. into an agreement whereby Bulgaria joined Vlahov, Tushe. Otnosheniya mezhdu Bu˘lgar- the Tripartite Powers and allowed German iya i tsentralinite sili prez voinite 1912– troops to move through Bulgarian territory. 1918 g. Sofia: Bu˘lgarskata komunisticheska Unlike governments in other regions of partiya, 1957. eastern Europe, however, the government of Bulgaria remained autonomous. Bulgaria in World War II Sofia stayed noncommitted militarily until December 13, when it declared war In 1940, Bulgaria had a population of on the United States and Great Britain; the 6,341,000 people. It was ruled by both a country never declared war on the Soviet czar and a popularly elected parliament. Union. Bulgaria’s military participation in Czar Boris III (1894–1943) dominated the World War II was limited to the Balkans and 58 Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” 1944–1945

centered on the acquisition of territory. Bul- Germany, a new government acceded to garian troops did not take an active part in Soviet demands on September 8 after Germany’s invasion and conquest of Yugo- Moscow had declared war on Bulgaria three slavia or Greece, but the army did occupy days earlier. Red Army troops subsequently both the Yugoslav and Greek portions of occupied the country and appointed members Macedonia and most of western Thrace. of the Fatherland Front to the government. Beyond these actions, Bulgaria contrib- The new government, eager to please uted little to the Axis cause and often Moscow, committed 450,000 Bulgarian opposedGermanrequestsinboththemili- troops to the Red Army for operations tary and civilian sectors. Military operations in Yugoslavia and Hungary, at a cost of were confined to garrison duties in Macedo- 32,000 killed and wounded. As operations nia and Thrace, despite Berlin’s attempts to unfolded, Communist officials in Bulgaria persuade Sofia to commit troops against the began the process of firmly fixing the coun- Soviet Union. Boris and his government try in the Soviet sphere of influence. also compromised little on the issue of the Eric W. Osborne Jews, who formed about 1 percent of the See also: Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria (1894– nation’s population. By the end of the war, 1943); Bulgaria in World War I; Bulgarian most of Bulgaria’s Jews had escaped exter- “Fatherland War,” 1944–1945 mination, although the government had con- fined them to labor camps to appease Berlin. Further Reading Boris’s opposition to German authority Groueff, Stephan. Crown of Thorns: The Reign increased after the defeat of Italy, which of King Boris III of Bulgaria, 1918–1943. led him to seek a withdrawal from the war. Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1987. Bulgarian fortunes declined after Miller, Marshall L. Bulgaria during the Sec- August 28, 1943, with the death of Czar ond World War. Stanford, CA: Stanford Boris III. His successor, Simeon II, was a University Press, 1975. child, and the regency that governed in his stead was less effective than Boris had Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” been. Political unrest was compounded by 1944–1945 popular instability due to declining Axis for- tunes and a weakening of the Bulgarian The Fatherland War was the name bestowed home front. On , 1943, Sofia by the Communist regime on the Bulgarian experienced its first heavy attack by Allied military effort during World War II in the bombers, and by late 1943, food and con- fall of 1944 and the winter and spring of sumer goods were in short supply. 1945 fighting alongside the Soviet Union. Support for a coalition known as the Communist historiography often ignored the Fatherland Front and composed partially of earlier Bulgarian military participation in the Communists subsequently began to rise, as war alongside Nazi Germany. During the the Soviet Red Army marched toward Bul- German alliance, Bulgarian forces assumed garia’s northern border in the spring of occupation duties in Greece and Yugoslavia. 1944. Efforts by Sofia to secure a peace set- Although they met some guerilla resistance, tlement with the Americans or the British they largely avoided extensive combat. failed. Amid mounting Soviet pressure for The Communist-dominated Father- a Bulgarian declaration of war against land Front seized power in Bulgaria on Bulgarian Horrors, 1876 59

September 9, 1944. The next day, Bulgaria Dimitrov, D. “Uchastieto na Bulgariya vuv voi- declared war on Germany. Few German nata sreshtu hitleriska Germaniya v razvursh- units remained in the country then, but Bul- vashtiya etap na vtorata svetnova voina (Noemvri 1944–yuli 1945),” Istoricheski garian occupation forces fought against their Pregled (Sofia), 51/4 (1995): 27–38. former allies as the Germans began to with- Miller, Marshall L. Bulgaria during the Sec- draw from the Balkans. General Ivan Marinov ond World War. Stanford, CA: Stanford (1896–1979) then assumed command of the University Press, 1975. Bulgarian army. The Bulgarians then came under the rule of Soviet marshal Fedor I. Tolbukhin’s (1894–1949) Third Ukrainian Bulgarian Horrors, 1876 Front. They fought alongside Soviet units through eastern Yugoslavia and southern Bulgarians were the last people in the Hungary until the end of the war, advancing Balkans to achieve their independence from into central Europe as far as and the Ottoman Empire, and that independence Vienna. During this time, the Bulgarians sus- came with the price of the Bulgarian Horrors tained heavy losses in combat against German of 1876. Casualty estimates vary, but tens of and Hungarian forces. These amounted to thousands of Bulgarians were killed by around 32,000 dead, much greater than the Turks following a demonstration on May 2, losses incurred in occupation duties in Greece 1876, in which rebels issued a declaration and Yugoslavia while Bulgaria fought on stating, “From today on, we make known in the side of the Germans. the name of the Bulgarian people before all The participation of the bulk of the Bul- the world that we demand: Freedom or garian army in this campaign had two dis- death to the people!” tinct advantages for the new Communist- Throughout the mid-nineteenth century, led government in Sofia. With the army people in Bulgaria began quietly protesting was outside of the country, the Communists against Greek dominance in their churches extended their control throughout Bulgaria. and Turkish dominance in their government. The highly nationalist Bulgarian officer Instead of making a strong bid for their own corps was not present to oppose the imple- freedom, however, they supported other mentation of Communist rule. Also, the Balkan people as they rose in revolt against high casualties incurred in the campaign the Turks. By the 1830s, some Bulgarians served to weaken the traditionally anti- felt strong enough to act on their own behalf, Communist military. The new Communist- and small, unorganized guerrilla activity leaning government in Sofia replaced the started taking place in the mountains. losses among junior officers and NCO with As the independence movement in loyal Communist cadres, who often had Bulgaria grew, it divided into two factions: served in the Bulgarian Partisan movement. reformers who wanted to improve their Richard C. Hall status within the Ottoman Empire, and revolutionaries who demanded complete See also: Bulgaria in World War II; Partisans, independence. The latter group led revolts Bulgaria throughout the Balkans during the 1830s Further Reading and 1840s, and by the 1860s, their activities Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford had intensified, with young revolutionaries University Press, 2007. inciting riots at community meetings 60 Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885

in small Bulgarian villages. A young Walker, Dale L. Januarius MacGahan: The revolutionary named George Benkovski Life and Campaigns of an American War (1843–1876) planned such a meeting on Correspondent. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1988. May 2, 1876, in the town of in central Bulgaria. The proclamation of “Freedom or death to the people!” stirred Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885 up the townspeople, and a young school teacher sewed a flag with the motto “Liberty The Bulgarian-Serb War was fought from or Death.” The Bulgarians assembled in the November 14, 1885, to March 3, 1886. square, listened to Benkovski’s inflamma- After the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877– tory speeches, and then scattered to kill 1878, Russia imposed the Treaty of San Turks wherever they might find them. Stefano on the Ottoman Empire in Mistakes on the side of the rebels resulted March 1878. The treaty granted independence in the organization of more than 5,000 Turk- to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro and ish soldiers, and they began overwhelming established an autonomous “greater” Princi- villages where the rebels were hiding. pality of Bulgaria. The European powers, Towns and villages fell, and by the time the believing that the treaty would upset the bal- looting, burning, and killing was finished, ance of power in the Balkans, met in Berlin thousands of Bulgarians lay dead. Turks from June 13 to July 13, 1878, and modified estimated the deaths at a mere 3,000, but a its provisions. The resulting Treaty of Berlin, British consular agent set the number at among other things, reduced the size of 12,000. An American investigator later Bulgaria by allowing the Ottoman Empire to claimed 15,000 Bulgarians were killed, retain Eastern Rumelia. Alexander of while Bulgarian historians now put the num- Battenberg (1857–1893), nephew of Czar ber somewhere between 30,000 and 60,000. Alexander II (1818–1881), became the ruler Nonetheless, Russia and the other European of the reduced Bulgaria. powers were enraged at the events in the On September 18, 1885, Bulgarian Balkans, which came to be known as the nationalists in Eastern Rumelia staged Bulgarian Horrors. These feelings eventu- a bloodless coup and declared its unification ally resulted in European intervention, the with Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878, and the approved the coup, but Czar Alexander III in 1878. (1845–1894) disapproved of this action and Richard C. Hall withdrew all Russian officers and advisers See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Russo- from Bulgaria, leaving the Bulgarian army Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, without officers above the rank of captain. Treaty of, 1878 Serbia opposed this territorial increase of Bulgaria. The Serbian king, Milan Obre- Further Reading novic´ (1854–1901), who was having domes- Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford tic problems, demanded that Bulgaria cede University Press, 2007. some of its territory to Serbia. The European Perry, Duncan M. Stefan Stambolov and the Emer- powers attempted to discourage him, but gence of Modern Bulgaria, 1870–1895.Dur- Milan declared war on Bulgaria on Novem- ham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993. ber 13, 1885. Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885 61

Following the declaration of war, the Ser- governor-general of Eastern Rumelia, still a bian army crossed the lightly defended part of the Ottoman Empire. Over time, the northwest border of Bulgaria in three col- Bulgarian government merged the adminis- umns, intending to converge on Sofia, the tration and military forces of Eastern Rumelia Bulgarian capital. Opposing Bulgarian with its own and, on September 6, 1908, forces slowed the Serbian advance through declared total independence, including the mountains sufficiently for Alexander to Eastern Rumelia. move his main army into prepared defenses Ironically, neither ruler survived the out- at Slivnitsa, about 20 miles northwest of come of the war for long. In August 1886, Sofia. The three Serbian center divisions a group of army officers, encouraged by the arrived at Slivnitsa on November 16 and Russian government, forced Alexander to halted to recover from the fierce fighting in abdicate. A three-man regency found a new the Dragoman Pass. The Morava division to ruler, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Gotha- the south was at Tran, some distance from Coburg (1861–1948), whom the National its objective Bresnik, and the northern col- Assembly elected as prince in July 1887. umn had bogged down along the Danube. The defeat so damaged Obrenovic´’s position Between November 17 and November 19, as ruler of Serbia that he abdicated in the Bulgarian and Serbian armies fiercely March 1889, and the Serbian crown passed fought each other in front of the village, to a regency in the name of his son and, by nightfall of November 19, the Alexander (1876–1903). Bulgarians had defeated the Serbians. Robert B. Kane On November 20, the defeated Serbian See also: Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of army began to retreat back to Serbia. After Bulgaria (1857–1893); Berlin, Treaty of, limited rearguard actions along the way, it 1878; Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901); Russo- crossedintoSerbiabyNovember24.The Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, main Bulgarian army crossed into Serbia and Treaty of, 1878; Slivnitsa, Battle of, 1885 converged on , where the Serbian army had dug in on the heights west of the town. Further Reading On November 27, the Bulgarian army, led Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans.2 personally by Prince Alexander, outflanked vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University the Serbian right, and the remaining Serbian Press, 1983. armyfledtoNisˇ. Austria-Hungary intervened Jelavich, Charles. Tsarist Russia and Balkan on November 28, and the two leaders agreed Nationalism: Russian Influence in the Inter- nal Affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879– to a cease-fire. Serbian casualties totaled 1886. Berkeley: University of California 6,800, compared to 2,300 Bulgarians. Press, 1958. The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The March 3, 1886, in Bucharest, Romania, Establishment of the Balkan National restored peace and the prewar borders States, 1804–1920. Seattle: University of between the two countries. By the following Washington Press, 1977. , signed on April 5, Pavlowitch, Stevan K. A History of the 1886, between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Balkans, 1804–1945. London: Longman, Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II (1842–1918) 1999. recognized the prince of Bulgaria as the C

Carol I, King of Romania Carol was almost forced to abdicate over (1839–1914) the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. Carol sought to gain independence for King of Romania, sometimes referred to as Romania by secretly allying with Russia Charles I, Karl Eitel Friedrich was born the beginning in 1875. This policy culminated second son of Prince Karl Anton (1811– in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. 1885) of Hohenzollern- and The Congress of Berlin in 1878 confirmed cousin to the king of on April 20, Romanian independence, and on March 26, 1839, in Sigmaringen. He was educated 1881, Carol I was proclaimed king of inDresdenandBonnandservedinthe Romania. Prussian army. Carol faced the challenge of negotiating The ruler of Wallachia and Moldavia, Romania through the difficult waters of Prince Alexandru Cuza (1820–1873), was late-nineteenth-century European diplo- overthrown in a coup d’e´tat in 1866. Karl macy. Romania’s geographic location in was advanced as a candidate to succeed southeastern Europe had significant ramifi- him,whichprovedsatisfactorytothe cations for the major European powers. governments of France, Russia, and the Austria and the Ottoman Empire saw the Ottoman Empire. A plebiscite in April country as a buffer against Russian ambi- 1866 overwhelmingly approved the selec- tions in the Balkans. Russia, which had tion, and Karl ascended the throne as Carol previously assumed a protectorate over I, Prince of Wallachia and Moldavia, on Romania, was interested in securing an out- May 22, 1866. let on the Mediterranean. Britain sought to When Carol became prince, Romania was maintain the status quo in the Balkans part of the Ottoman Empire. In order to be while France enjoyed close ties with recognized by the sultan as hereditary Romania, which translated into support for prince, Carol agreed to accept Wallachia . and Moldavia’s status as an autonomous As Europe split into two hostile armed principality within the Ottoman Empire, camps, the Romanian government divided which meant that all foreign affairs would over the alliance with which it should cast continue to be handled by Constantinople. its lot. Conservatives favored the Triple Alli- Carol’s first actions as prince were to secure ance, while liberals advocated the Triple the integrity of his territories and to begin Entente. Carol sought to play each side off the process of governmental reform. In against the other. But on October 30, 1883, 1866, he approved a liberal constitution despite tensions over Romanians living in modeled on that of , although it Transylvania, Carol concluded a secret alli- did impose restrictions on Jews. A pro- ance with Austria-Hungary and Germany. German monarch in a country, However, relations with Vienna had been

62 Carol II, King of Romania 63 strained by the First Balkan War in 1912, by eldest child of and Austro-Hungarian support for Bulgaria, and Princess Marie (1875–1938) of Great Brit- by Hungary’s treatment of Romanians in ain. Carol’s upbringing was controlled by Transylvania. Thereafter, while ostensibly his great-uncle , who remaining affiliated with the Triple Alli- encouraged his fixation on German milita- ance, Carol took a more neutral stance, rism, including service in a German army forced by growing pro-Entente sentiment in regiment in . Carol toured the front his country. He did present a proposal to in the Second Balkan War but took little his crown council on August 3, 1914, that part in World War I, save as a diplomatic Romania enter World War I on the side of envoy to Russia in January 1917. He pro- the Central Powers, but the council rejected voked scandal by deserting and eloping this, probably to Carol’s relief. The mon- with “Zizi” Lambrino (1898–1953) in Sep- arch’s position became increasingly diffi- tember 1918, although the marriage was cult, as early Russian military successes later annulled by the Orthodox Church. against Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia During the early 1920s, Carol appeared to led to a rising tide of sentiment for interven- have reformed, marrying Helen of Greece in tion in the war on the Entente side. Carol March 1921 and fathering a son, Michael. died in , Romania, on October 10, However, he associated himself with a single 1914, and was replaced on the throne by political party, the National Peasants, and he Ferdinand I (1865–1927). played little role in running the country, Dino E. Buenviaje apart from founding the Romanian Boy Scouts. Before long, he met a divorce´e, See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Romania in Lupescu (1895–1977), for whom he the Balkan Wars; Romania in World War I abandoned (Magda) his marriage in Further Reading August 1925 and went into exile in Paris, for- Castellan, Georges. A History of the Roma- mally renouncing the throne in favor of his nians. Translated by Nicholas Brady. New son. His father, Ferdinand, died in 1927, and York: East European Monographs, 1989. in May of the following year, Carol attempted Hamilton, Richard F., and Holger H. Herwig, a coup but was thwarted by British intelli- eds. The Origins of World War I. Cambridge: gence. On June 6, 1930, he successfully Cambridge University Press, 2003. returned to Bucharest and disbanded the Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. regency to seize the throne from his son. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Carol’s reign was disastrous for Romania. Kellog, Frederick. The Road to Romanian He alienated the upper classes by persecut- Independence. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue ing the surviving members of his family, University Press, 1995. exiling his siblings Nicholas and Ilena and his ex-wife Helen, allowing his mistress Lupescu to choose his advisers, and encour- Carol II, King of Romania aging political gridlock by playing off one (1893–1953) political party against the other. Carol II allowed Corneliu Zelea- Romanian monarch who reigned from 1930 Codreanu’s (1899–1938) Iron Guard to to 1940, Carol was born on October 15, encourage , at least until it began 1893, at Sinaia, Romania. Carol was the attacks on Lupescu, who was Jewish. His 64 Ceausescu, Nicolae

Portugal. He married Lupescu in 1952 and died in Estoril, Portugal, on April 4, 1953. Margaret Sankey

See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Iron Guard; Romania in World War II

Further Reading Bolitho, Hector. Roumania under King Carol. New York: Longmans, Green, 1940. Easterman, Alexander Levvey. King Carol, Hitler and Lupescu. London: V. Gollancz, 1942. Quinlan, Paul D. The Playboy King: Carol II of Romania. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995.

Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918–1989)

Carol II, king of Romania from June 1930 until First secretary of the Romanian Communist September 1940, in full regalia. Carol was Party (PCR) during 1965–1989 and known more for his status as a playboy than during 1974–1989, for his ruling ability. He went into exile in Nicolae Ceausescu was born the third of 1940 after being forced to abdicate. (Library 10 children to peasant parents on January 26, of Congress) 1918, in Scornicesti. He received only a rudimentary primary schooling before he subsequent 1933 banning of the Iron Guard movedtoBucharestatage11toworkasa led to the assassination of two prime minis- shoemaker’s apprentice. Joining the out- ters. To restore order, after the national elec- lawed Union of Communist Youth (UCY) tions in February 1938 failed to establish a in 1933, he became a regional secretary in political majority for any party, Carol II 1936 and secretary of the central committee declared himself dictator and named the in 1938. Ceausescu was first arrested in Orthodox patriarch Miron Christea (1868– November 1933, charged with inciting 1939) as his prime minister. Carol was a strike and distributing Communist unable to protect Romania from the effects pamphlets. Upon his fourth conviction in of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact July 1940, he was imprisoned until of August 1939 and was forced to cede part August 1944. In the Tirgu- prison camp, of Transylvania to Hungary, Bessarabia to he became a prote´ge´ of Romanian Workers’ the Soviet Union, and the southern Dobrudja Party leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej region to Bulgaria. (1901–1965) and future premier Ion Maurer Carol II fled the country with Lupescu and (1902–2000). the royal art collection in September 1940, After the postwar Communist takeover, leaving his son Michael as king under the Ceausescu occupied various party posts. He control of General . He spent became regional secretary for in the rest of his life in exile in and November 1946, deputy in the Ministry of Ceausescu, Nicolae 65

Agriculture during 1948–1950, and deputy surveillance. Upon the retirement of Premier minister of the armed forces during 1950– Maurer in 1974, Ceausescu assumed the 1954. Appointed in 1952 to the Romanian newly created office of president of the repub- Workers’ Party (PMR) Central Committee, lic. Natural disasters such as poor harvests he was made secretary in 1954 and a Polit- and the 1977 earthquake combined with reck- buro member in 1955. Upon Gheorghiu- less trade practices and economic misman- Dej’s death in 1965, Ceausescu became agement led to an immense foreign debt first secretary of the renamed PCR, backed crisis and domestic shortages. In response, by Prime Minister Maurer. Ceausescu imposed strict rationing for As with Gheorghiu-Dej, Ceausescu food and electrical power and, to boost the both supported rapid industrialization and country’s workforce, forbade abortion and con- minimized Soviet control. In 1967, he estab- traception. His regime also began a systemat- lished diplomatic relations with the Federal ization campaign to resettle villagers in agro- Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) industrial centers, a movement that led to mas- and maintained relations with Israel after the sive discontent and the destruction of historical Six-Day War. Romanian diplomats also landmarks. As his popular support eroded, acted as negotiating brokers between the Ceausescu increasingly surrounded himself Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV, with sycophants and appointed family mem- North Vietnam) and the United States. Ceau- bers to strategic posts. His wife Elena (1916– sescu’s popularity rose at home and abroad 1989) became a Central Committee member when he opposed the 1968 Soviet intervention in July 1972, a member of the Politburo and in Czechoslovakia, a stance that led to U.S. head of the PCR’s personnel section in 1973, president Richard M. Nixon’s visit to Roma- and first deputy prime minister in 1980. nia in August 1969 and Ceausescu’s return In the 1980s, Romania’s international visits to the United States in 1970, 1973, and relations deteriorated as growing condemna- 1978. He also visited the People’s Republic tion of human rights abuses accumulated. of China (PRC) and the Democratic People’s This compelled Ceausescu to renounce Republic of Korea (DPRK, North Korea) in Romania’s MFN status in 1988 before it June 1971, followed in April 1972 by meet- could be revoked by the U.S. government. ings with Egyptian president Unrest spread throughout Romania, marked and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) by brutally repressed miners’ strikes (1977, head Yasser Arafat. Subsequently, Romania 1983, and 1986), the protest marches achieved most-favored nation (MFN) trade of 1987 in Ias¸i and Brasov, and, in status with the United States in 1975 and March 1989, an internationally released was admitted to international organizations letter signed by six senior PCR members in including the International Monetary Fund the name of the National Salvation Front (IMF) and the World Bank. (NSF). Shortly after Ceausescu’s Novem- Internally, the liberal tendencies of ber 1989 reelection for another five-year Ceausescu’s early government in freeing term, antigovernment demonstrations in political prisoners detained under Gheorghiu- Timisoara in December 1989 left 122 dead Dej and deposing pro-Soviet members of the after an army intervention. Returning (the Romanian secret service) from a state visit to Iran on December 20, soon gave way to nationalism, a personality Ceausescu denounced the demonstrators cult, and even more stringent Securitate and called for a pro-government rally in 66 Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914

Bucharest. This evolved into another protest 180,000 soldiers around Volhevo in north- and led to the defection of much of the army. west Serbia. Ceausescu and his wife fled the capital in a The Austrians had allocated about helicopter but were eventually captured and 200,000 men for the pending invasion. In detained in the Targoviste military garrison. early August, the Austro-Hungarians, com- There they were tried by a tribunal of the manded by General Oskar Potiorek (1853– NSF and executed on December 25, 1989. 1933), made some preliminary attacks Anna M. Wittmann across the Danube River, which the Serbians repulsed with heavy losses to the invaders. See also: Warsaw Pact On August 12, Austro-Hungarian troops Further Reading crossed the River to the west of Loznitsa and Lyeshnitsa and the Deletant, Dennis. Ceausescu and the Securi- tate: Coercion and Dissent in Romania, River north of Shobotz. By August 14, the 1965–1989. New York: Sharpe, 1995 Austro-Hungarian forces had established a Fischer, Mary Ellen. Nicolae Ceausescu: A 100-mile front, intending to converge on Study in Political Leadership. Boulder, Volhevo. CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989 The Austro-Hungarians possessed modern rifles and twice as many machine guns and artillery as the Serbians, and had Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914 better munitions stocks. The Serbian army was critically short of modern rifles and The Battle of Cer Mountain was fought artillery and had just begun to replenish the between the Serbian army and the invading munitions that it had used in the recently Austro-Hungarian army during August ended Second Balkan War. As many as 15–24, 1914, around Cer Mountain and sur- 50,000 Serbian soldiers went to the front rounding villages and towns in northwest with only pitchforks and a standard-issue Serbia near the Croatian border. The Ser- greatcoat and the traditional Serbian cap. bians won, making the battle the first Allied However, many Serbians were experienced victory over the Central Powers in World veterans of the Balkan Wars and were highly War I. motivated and better trained than their On July 28, 1914, a month after the Austro-Hungarian counterparts. assassination of Austrian archduke Franz About 11:00 p.m., on August 15, fighting Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war erupted when Serbian soldiers first encoun- on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian army tered Austro-Hungarian outposts on the shelled Belgrade, the Serbian capital, the slopes of the Cer. By the morning of next day and Serbian towns along the August 16, the Serbians had seized the Bosnia-Serbian border for two weeks, using Divacha range and dislodged the Austro- the shelling as cover to construct pontoon Hungarians from their positions in Borino bridges across the Sava and Drina Rivers. Selo, who, after heavy casualties, retreated To oppose an Austrian invasion, Serbian in some disorder. chief of the general staff Field Marshal Between August 17 and August 20, the (1847–1917) and generals Serbians fought well against the Austro- Stepa Stepanovic´ (1856–1929) and Pavle Hungarians and captured a number of vil- Jurisich Sturm (1848–1922) deployed lages and towns that the Austro-Hungarian Cˇ etniks 67 army had taken in its initial advances across Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Serbia: The History of theDrinaandSavaRivers.TheSerbian an Idea. New York: New York University army generally managed to stop repeated Press, 2002. Austro-Hungarian advances and repulsed the Austro-Hungarians with heavy losses. Cˇ etniks In the early morning of August 19, the Ser- bians routed the Austro-Hungarians from Rashulijacha, causing them to withdraw Bands of irregular guerrilla fighters called ˇ back across the Drina River on August 20. Cetniks (from the Serbo-Croat term cˇetnici) Many Austro-Hungarian soldiers, fleeing in have come to be known for their ferocity in panic, drowned in the river. battle and their espousal of Serbian national- ˇ With the Austro-Hungarians retreating ism. The Cetnik tradition originated during from Cer, the Serbians sought to recapture the time of the Ottoman Empire, when ˇ Sabac, now heavily fortified. On August 21 bands of Cetniks were formed to fight the and 22, the Serbian army fought its way to Turkish occupiers. These bands were first the western approaches of the town and, by organized into recognizable military forma- the evening of August 23, had completely tions during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). encircled the town. The next day, they dis- During World War I, they became an inte- covered that the Austro-Hungarians had gral part of the Royal Serbian Army, often withdrawn the previous night. By 4:00 p.m. operating as behind enemy , August 23, the Serbian army reached the lines. This army was one of the first in banks of the Sava River, ending the first Europe to have such guerrilla detachments Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia. in its ranks. During World War II and the ˇ The Serbians suffered 3,000 killed and Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, Cetnik 15,000 wounded. The Austro-Hungarian bands in Serbia and Montenegro emerged forces had about 7,000 dead and 30,000 under the command of General Drazˇa wounded. The Serbians discovered that Mihajlovic´ (1892–1946), who decided to Serbs, Croats, and Bosnian Muslims, stay on to fight the Germans and Italians serving with the Austro-Hungarian army, after the capitulation of the government in had murdered hundreds of Serbian men, . After liberating areas of Serbia ˇ women, and children in the villages occu- toward the end of 1941, the Cetniks were pied by the Austro-Hungarian army. driven into Montenegro and Bosnia by supe- Robert B. Kane rior German forces. A complicated and bitter civil war then See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans broke out between the Cˇ etniks and the Com- during World War I; Balkan War, Second, munist Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito. Ini- 1913 tially supported by the Western Allies, the ˇ Further Reading Cetniks were later abandoned because of Fryer, Charles E. J. The Destruction of Serbia their alleged collaboration with the Axis in 1915. Boulder, CO: East European occupiers. The British government also cal- Monographs, 1997. culated that the entirely Serb Cˇ etniks would Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, not be able to resolve the deep divisions of War, and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. the Yugoslav peoples in the postwar period. New York: Viking, 2000. Increased Western political and military 68 Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912

assistance was then made available to Tito’s black flag with a white skull and cross- Partisans. By the end of 1944, Mihajlovic´’s bones, with the words “Freedom or Death” Cˇ etniks had been defeated and discredited inscribed below it, and use of the three- by the Communists. fingered, or Orthodox, salute. A symbol of In April 1946, Mihajlovic´ was tried and mourning for Cˇ etniks in the past, beards executed as an alleged collaborator and have also been grown by today’s Cˇ etniks. traitor by the new Communist Yugoslav Their oath has remained, as before: “For government. In parts of Serbia, Cˇ etnik anti- King and Country.” Communist bands were in existence until Marko Milivojevic the early 1950s. Large numbers of Cˇ etniks See also: Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” fled Yugoslavia after the war and settled in (1892–1946); Nedic´, Milan (1877–1946); North America and Western Europe; during Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 the 1960s and 1970s, they occasionally undertook acts of terrorism in Yugoslavia. Further Reading A number of paramilitary forces calling Ramet, Sabrina P. The Three : themselves “Cˇ etniks” emerged in Serbia, State-Building and Legitimation, 1918– mainly in response to the rebellion of the 2005. Bloomington: Indiana University Krajina Serbs in Croatia in 1990. These Press, 2006. forces later fought in Croatia and Bosnia, Tomashevich, Jozo. The : War and where they are alleged to have committed Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. many war crimes against non-Serbs. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. These contemporary Cˇ etniks, particularly those loyal to the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) and led by Vojislav Seselj (1954–), claim to be the latter-day followers of Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912 Mihajlovic´ and one of his surviving commanders in exile, Momcilo Djuic The battle of Chataldzha (Turkish: C¸ atalaca) (1907–1999). They have also called for the was an important battle between the restoration of the exiled crown prince of Bulgarian and Ottoman armies during the Yugoslavia, Aleksandar Karageorgevic´. First Balkan War in 1912. The Chataldzha Early supporters of the new nationalist fortifications were the final defensive lines agenda of Serbian president Slobodan for Constantinople, taking their name from Milosˇevic´,Seselj’sCˇ etniks later fell out a village and railroad station located in the with their onetime ally, mainly because of center of the positions. They were located his alleged betrayal of the Bosnian and in Thrace, about 20 miles outside the Otto- Croatian Serbs. Bitterly hostile toward both man capital, and extended about 30 miles communism and Tito’s Yugoslavia, which from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora. they claimed was opposed to the interests The Ottomans had constructed the fortifica- of the Serbs, Serbia’s new Cˇ etniks also tions during the Russo-Ottoman War of strove to bring about the establishment of a 1877–1878. They consisted of trenches, royalist and Orthodox “Greater Serbia” on machine gun and light artillery positions, the ruins of the Yugoslav federation. and heavy artillery to the rear. Natural Modern Serb Cˇ etniks have used an insig- obstacles, such as marshes, lakes, and arms nia copied from earlier Cˇ etnik models—a of the seas, were also a part of the lines. Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912 69

The Ottoman First, Second, and Third in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, Corps manned the positions, with around pinned the Bulgarians down. The Bulgarians 140,000 men and artillery pieces. Nizam did succeed in taking an Ottoman position Pasha (?–1913) commanded the Ottoman but were unable to hold it in the face of a forces. determined counterattack. This was the After their victory at Lyule Burgas–Buni closest they came to Constantinople. Hisar, the Bulgarian First and Third Armies At 1400 hours on November 18, General slowly advanced to Chataldzha. The first Dimitriev ordered the attacks discontinued. Bulgarian patrols arrived at Chataldzha on The Bulgarians suffered 1,482 dead, 9,120 November 9. By November 14, most of the wounded, and 1,401 missing. Ottoman First and Third Armies were in front of the losses were much lower. After the battle, lines. The commander of the Bulgarian the Bulgarians were ready for the armistice. Third Army, General Radko Dimitriev After the renewal of fighting on Febru- (1859–1918), assumed command of both ary 5, 1913, several engagements occurred armies. The Ottomans formally requested in front of the Chataldzha lines. On Febru- an armistice on November 12. Nevertheless, ary 9, an Ottoman offensive launched in the Bulgarian commander in chief, Czar conjunction with an offensive at Bulair, suc- Ferdinand, was determined to enter Con- ceeded in advancing 15–20 kilometers in stantinople. That same day, he ordered an the face of limited Bulgarian resistance. attack. Others in the Bulgarian command, The Bulgarians then occupied strong defen- however, were not convinced this was a sive positions that blocked further Ottoman good idea. A Bulgarian presence in Con- advance. Minor engagements occurred stantinople would undoubtedly aggravate along the lines for the following month. Bulgaria’s traditional Russian ally. The Additional fighting occurred at Chataldzha Russians had long had their own pretensions in conjunction with the final Bulgarian assault to the ancient imperial capital. The Bulgar- on Adrianople. A Bulgarian attack began on ian armies were at the end of a tenuous March 25. The Bulgarians succeeded in retak- logistical system, with the besieged city of ing some of the land they had lost in February, Adrianople astride their supply lines. with heavy casualties on both sides. Fighting Finally, cholera had broken out in the Bul- continued until April 3. On April 15, an armi- garian ranks. Deputy Commander in Chief stice brought an end to the fighting in the First General Mihail Savov (1857–1928) traveled Balkan War. to Dimitriev’s headquarters on November 15 Richard C. Hall to discuss the situation. The two Bulgarian See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bul- generals agreed to make an attempt on the garia in the Balkan Wars; Dimitriev, Radko Chataldzha lines. The czar again ordered an (1859–1918); Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, Bat- attack on November 16. tle of, 1912; Ottoman Empire in the Balkan At 0500 hours on a foggy November 17, Wars; Savov, Mihail (1857–1928) the Bulgarians began their attack. General Dimitriev ordered a full frontal assault all Further Reading along the lines. No tactical subtlety was Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The employed. Effective Ottoman artillery, sup- Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. plemented by fire from Ottoman warships Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. 70 Cherniaev, M. G.

Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars: Prelude to the ardor of the Russian Pan Slavs for inter- the First World War. London: Routledge, vention in the Balkans. In 1877, they would 2000. succeed in bringing Russia into direct con- frontation with the Ottomans in the Russo- Cherniaev, M. G. (1824–1898) Ottoman War. This was an important step in the end of Ottoman rule in southeastern Mikhail Grgorevich Cherniaev (Cher- Europe. nyayev) was a Russian soldier who led the Richard C. Hall Serbian forces in their unsuccessful war See also: Montenegro in Balkan Events, against the Ottoman Empire in 1876. Born 1876–1878; Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878; into the family of a military officer family Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876 stationed at Bendery, Bessarabia, on Octo- ber 22, 1824, he embarked on a military Further Reading career that took him to the fighting in the Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. Crimean War as well as to the Caucasus Vol. 1, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centu- and to Central Asia. ries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Cherniaev’s most notable military Press, 1983. achievement was his march across the cen- MacKenzie, David. The Lion of Tashkent: The tral Asian steppes and the subsequent con- Career of General M. G. Cherniaev. Athens: quest of Tashkent in 1865. This began the University of Georgia Press, 1974. process that brought most of modern Kyr- MacKenzie, David. The Serbs and Russian gyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Pan-Slavism, 1875–1878. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. Uzbekistan under Russian control. In 1875, Serbian peasants in Bosnia-Herzegovina revolted against Ottoman rule. This captured Cold War in the Balkans the imagination of Pan Slavists in Russia. They sought a means to liberate their fellow The Cold War developed in the years fol- Orthodox Slavs from Ottoman rule, and in lowing the close of World War II and ended doing so expand Russian influence into the with the collapse of the Soviet Union in Balkans. December 1991. The defining aspect of the Cherniaev became a prominent Russian Cold War was the confrontation between advocate for intervention in the Balkans on the United States and the Soviet Union and behalf of the Serbs. In 1876, he obtained the associated allies and coalition partners the position of commander in chief of the lining up on either side. During the war Serbian army. His military efforts met with against Hitler’s Germany, the United States, no success in the Balkans. After suffering Great Britain, and the Soviet Union were several defeats at the hands of the Ottomans, allies, and the leaders of each—Franklin he resigned his command in October 1876. Roosevelt, , and Josef Serbia had to conclude an armistice. Stalin—had developed an effective working Cherniaev eventually returned to Russia. relationship in pushing back and ultimately He died on his estate near Mogliev on defeating the Third Reich. August 3, 1898. While Cherniaev proved to With Roosevelt’s death in April be an incompetent commander for Serbia, 1945, coupled with the loss of the unifying his failures by no means diminished effect of a common enemy as Germany Cold War in the Balkans 71 surrendered, the three great victors of World simply made a mark on the sheet of paper War II lost the unity of purpose that had and passed it back in what was taken as aided in the successful prosecution of the silent agreement to what Churchill had war. Within the United States, with Roose- proposed. velt gone from the scene, two schools of When the U.S. leadership received word thought arose regarding the nature of the of this informal agreement, presidential postwar world. One such school of thought counselor Harry Hopkins persuaded Roose- hoped that continued cooperation between velt to send a cable to Stalin that stated: “In the U.S.– alliance and the this global war there is literally no question, Soviet Union would provide a secure foun- political or military, in which the United dation upon which global peace and pros- States is not interested in.” Some analysts perity might be built; while the other and historians argue that when the concepts school doubted the desire for cooperation embedded in this October 1944 cable were on the part of the . The optimis- relayed to Stalin, this marked the actual tic point of view was soon tested in beginning of the Cold War. For in the com- the unforgiving realm of mid-twentieth- munication, President Roosevelt had century international politics, as both sides informed Stalin that the United States attempted to maneuver for maximum advan- reserved the right to weigh in on any tage in terms of both security and economic international decision including those prospects. involving the Balkans and southeastern As the defeat of Nazi Germany became Europe. What caused great concern in the apparent, Churchill met with Stalin in Kremlin was that the United States and its Moscow in October 1944 and discussed the allies would be denying the Soviet Union nature of postwar Europe. The British the same right within Western spheres of leader, in the spirit of the wartime leadership influence; this is, in fact, what took place in informality, presented a sheet of paper to Italy. In short, the United States introduced Stalin that became known as the “percent- a postwar policy perspective that denied the ages agreement” regarding the disposition Soviet Union equal status to the United of postwar southeastern Europe and the Bal- States, at least from the Russian perspective. kans. Churchill advocated for a 90 percent From the American perspective, it British role in Greece (in accord with the had become apparent that Soviet Russia United States) and a 10 percent role for the intended to work for the destruction of capi- Soviet Union. British interests continued to talism and the Western way of life, and to rely on sea power, and the Eastern Mediter- extend the Kremlin’s version of communism ranean was a fundamental interest for the around the globe. Irrespective of ideological United Kingdom as World War II was draw- concerns, it also became apparent to ingtoanend.IntermsofHungaryand American leaders that the modus operandi Yugoslavia, he proposed a 50/50 split for Stalin was to quietly enter into prolonged between Britain and the Soviet Union. discussions regarding an issue while the Acknowledging the interest of Stalin in the Soviet army advanced; once the army was Black Sea, Churchill listed a 90 percent in place, Stalin would then begin to nego- Soviet level of influence in Romania and a tiate seriously. This was not lost on the 75 percent level in Bulgaria. Churchill later Americans, as Harry Truman stated after would write that Stalin, using a blue pencil, taking the reins of the presidency: “they 72 Cold War in the Balkans

confront us with an accomplished fact and 1954, the Soviet Union’s control in the Bal- then there is little we can do.” kans was largely confined to the Black Sea At the close of World War II, Moscow and area by virtue of Moscow’s control in Bul- the Red Army enjoyed a preponderance of garia and Romania. influence in southeastern Europe and the The leader of Albania, Enver Hoxha Balkans except in Greece and Turkey; and (1908–1985), had developed closer ties to within the United States, a determination the Soviets than had Tito, but after Stalin’s developed that it would be necessary for death in 1953, Albania’s relationship with the security of Western interests to block Moscow weakened as Khrushchev attempted the expected Soviet attempts at expansion. to focus on improving relations with Tito While the Soviets consolidated gains in and Yugoslavia. By 1956, Hoxha left for Romania and Bulgaria, it supported a leftist China to visit with , and the Peo- armed insurgency in Greece. As a result, ple’s Republic of China soon became Alba- the United States committed sizable re- nia’s largest supplier of aid. Moscow became sources as part of the Truman Doctrine to extremely displeased with Albania, and in fight the Kremlin’s destabilizing efforts in November 1961, every Warsaw Pact nation Greece and Turkey. Thus, socialist govern- broke relations with Albania. ments came to power or were put into Even within the Black Sea region, as wit- powerbytheSovietUnioninalmostallof nessed in Romania during the 1960s and the Balkan states with the exception of 1970s, Moscow’s influence also dissipated Greece and Turkey, who became aligned as Russia’s share of Romania’s foreign with the United States and, eventually, trade fell from 40 percent in 1965 to 16 per- the North Atlantic Treaty Organization cent by 1974. Moreover, Romania was the (NATO). Bulgaria and Romania, mean- only Eastern Bloc state to participate in the while, became members of the Soviet-led 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, as Warsaw Pact. Unfortunately for the designs the nation became more open to the West within the Kremlin, Yugoslavia and Albania and to China. By the time of the Soviet became exceedingly independent-minded Union’s collapse in 1991, the level of influ- and circumvented Moscow’s attempt at cre- ence the Kremlin enjoyed in the Balkans ating extended access into the eastern immediately after the close of the Second Mediterranean. World War had receded considerably as the At the beginning of the Cold War, Yugo- Balkan states struggled to find their own slavia was arguably the most anti-Western way and to lessen the impact of great nation in Europe, and Belgrade was select- power politics upon the region. ed as headquarters by Stalin of the Comin- James Brian McNabb form. However, the leader of Yugoslavia, See also: Hoxha, Enver (1908–1985); NATO Josip Broz Tito, was also one of the most in the Balkans; Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); independent-minded leaders in all of Europe Truman Doctrine; Yugoslav Overflight and found himself in significant conflict Incidents, 1946; Yugoslav-Soviet Split with the wishes of the Kremlin. Exploiting this fissure, the United States supported Further Reading Yugoslavia’s break from the Cominform in Boll, Michael M. Cold War in the Balkans: 1948. Tito then entered into the “Balkan American Foreign Policy and the Emer- Pact” with Greece and Turkey, and by gence of Communist Bulgaria, 1943–1947. Constantine I, King of Greece 73

Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1984. Kuniholm, Bruce. The in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey, and Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980. Rajak, Svetozar. “Chapter 10: The Cold War in the Balkans, 1945–1956.” In The Cambridge History of the Cold War, edited by Melvyn Leffler and Arne Westad, vol. 1, Origins, 1945–1962. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Resis, Albert. “The Churchill-Stalin Secret on the Balkans, Moscow, October, 1944,” American His- torical Review 83 (April 1978): 368–87.

Constantine I, King of Greece (1868–1923) Constantine I, king of Greece during World Born in Athens on July 21, 1868, Constan- War I. (Library of Congress) tine was the first modern Greek king born on Greek soil. He was the eldest son of nearly cost George I the throne. In 1909, King George (1890–1947), born Prince disgruntled Greek army officers forced William of Denmark and brother of Queen Constantine into exile, but he returned to Alexandra of England, who was brought to Greece when Eleuthe´rios Venize´los (1864– Athens in 1863 to establish a new dynasty. 1936) became premier in October 1910. Constantine’s mother was Grand Duchess Constantine restored his military reputation Olga of Russia, daughter of the Grand in 1912 when he led the army to victory Duke Constantine (1851–1913) and grand- overTurkeyintheFirstBalkanWarand daughter of Czar Nicholas I. secured Salonika. Constantine (1827–1892) was educated In March 1913, Constantine became king privately within the royal palace and became after the assassination of his father. During fluent in English, French, German, and the early period of his reign, Constantine classical Greek. He joined the Greek army was immensely popular. In 1913, he again as a lieutenant, and soldiering soon became led the army to victory, defeating a badly a passion. After studying at the Leipzig and weakened Bulgaria and annexing Kavala, Heidelberg universities in Germany, Con- after Salonika the second-most important stantine served for a time as an officer in port in the northern Aegean. Constantine the German army. In 1889 he married had ended Ottoman rule in southern Mac- Sophia, sister of Kaiser Wilhelm II. edonia, Epirus, and the islands of the archi- In 1897, Constantine led the Greek army pelago, and some Greeks dared to hope that to defeat in fighting against Turkey, which he might secure Constantinople itself. 74 Constantine I, King of Greece

World War I, however, brought crisis for established a rival Greek government in Greece. The population was torn in their Crete and Salonika. At the same time, how- loyalties. Greeks were grateful to France, ever, the Allies continued to negotiate with Britain, and Russia for helping them secure Constantine. their freedom a century before, but they On December 1, French sailors and also admired Germany, with which Constan- marines landed from ships at Athens and tine also had strong ties. In November 1914, were attacked and driven off by Greek Turkey entered the war on the side of the royalist troops and civilians. This fiasco led Central Powers. A victorious Ottoman the Entente to act, although Constantine Empire would be a major blow to Greek remained in power for a time because of aspirations, and Premier Venize´los wanted his friendship with French premier Aristide Greece to join the war on the side of the Briand. The latter’s departure from office Entente. The king favored Germany, but rai- brought Allied intervention in June 1917. son d’e´tat, most notably Allied naval power Constantine was forced into exile in Swit- in the Mediterranean, led him to demand zerland with his eldest son, Crown Prince Greek neutrality. George, who was strongly pro-German. In 1915, the Allies pressed Greece to join Constantine’s younger son Alexander their side, promising Turkish territory if (1893–1920) stayed behind in Greece to act Greece would participate in operations in his absence, and Venize´los returned to against the Dardanelles. Constantine Athens as premier. refused, whereupon Venize´los resigned in Alexander died in October 1920 from the March and Constantine took real power bite of a pet monkey, and his younger himself; but Venize´los won the June 1915 brother, Paul (1901–1964), declined the elections and returned to the premiership. throne. Subsequently, Venize´los sought to Sharp differences between Venize´los and renew his mandate. The November 1920 Constantine led to political chaos in Greece elections brought a crushing defeat for him and created the conditions for Allied inter- and his followers, with the result that Con- vention. In October, Venize´los invited in stantine returned to Greece that December the Allies, who landed troops at Salonika. to a tumultuous reception. However, Con- Constantine then demanded that Venize´- stantine’s decision to continue an imperialist los resign. Following the Allied defeat in war against Turkey in western Anatolia, the Gallipoli campaign at the end of 1915, which ended in the complete defeat of the Constantine sided with the Central Powers. Greeks, proved his undoing. In Septem- While he mobilized the Greek army against ber 1922, the army forced him to abdicate Bulgaria, he also failed to honor a 1913 in favor of the crown prince as King George treaty pledging support to Serbia if Bulgaria II. Constantine, Sophia, and some other invaded that country. In May 1916, he members of the royal family settled in surrendered Fort Rupel to Bulgaria, Palermo, Sicily, where Constantine died on opening eastern Macedonia to the threat of January 11, 1923. Central Powers attack and imperiling the Spencer C. Tucker Allied position at Salonika. In August, the See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; Bulgarians seized the port of Kavalla. Mean- National Schism (Greece), 1916–1917; Veni- while, with Allied assistance, Venize´los ze´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936) Contested Zone (Macedonia), 1912 75

Further Reading Talks began on September 6 in Constanti- Clogg, Richard. A Short History of Modern nople. The Bulgarians had little basis for nego- Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University tiation. The Ottomans regained almost all the Press, 1979. territory the Bulgarians had taken in the battles Hibben, Paxton. Constantine I and the Greek of Lozengrad, Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, and People. New York: Century, 1920. Adrianople during the First Balkan War. The Leontaritis, George B. Greece and the First Bulgarians retained western Thrace, with a World War: From Neutrality to Interven- small Aegean port at Dedeagach, and the tion, 1917–1918. New York: Columbia Uni- northeastern corner of Thrace on the Black versity Press, 1940. Sea. Immediately after the signing of the Me´las, George M. Ex-King Constantine and treaty, the Bulgarians and Ottomans began the War. London: Hutchinson, 1920. negotiations for an alliance directed against Valti, Luc. Mon Ami le Roi: La Verite´ sur Con- Greece and Serbia. As soon as the Balkan stan tin de Gre`ce. Paris: E´ ditions de France, Wars were concluded, the two losing states in 1938. the Balkan Wars sought to reverse its dictates. Willmore, J. Selden. The Story of King Con- These negotiations did not succeed. The two stantine as Revealed in the Greek White Book. London: Longmans, Green, 1919. recent enemies never could overcome their dis- trust of each other. The talks eventually became, however, a basis for the Bulgarian- Constantinople, Treaty of, 1913 Ottoman agreement of September 3, 1915, which was a part of Bulgaria’s entry into The Treaty of Constantinople, signed on World War I on the side of the Central Powers. September 30, 1913, between Bulgaria and Richard C. Hall the Ottoman Empire, ended the Second Bal- kan War between these two states. The See also: Balkan War, Second, 1913; Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of London of May 1913 ended the Balkan Wars First Balkan War between the Balkan allies and the Ottoman Empire. This treaty limited Further Reading Ottoman presence in Europe to the territory Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– east of a line from Enez on the Aegean Sea 1913: Prelude to the First World War. to Midya on the Black Sea. Bulgaria London: Routledge, 2000. obtained much of western Thrace, including Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan the important city of Adrianople (Edirne, Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: Odrin). The Balkan allies soon fought Harvard University Press, 1938. among themselves over the division of Otto- Rossos, Andrew. Russia and the Balkans: man spoils. The Ottomans took advantage of Inter-Balkan Rivalries and Russian Foreign this conflict to enter the war against Bulgaria Policy 1908–1914. Toronto: University of on July 12 and to reoccupy much of the Toronto Press, 1981. territory they had lost to Bulgaria. They entered Adrianople on July 23and crossed Contested Zone (Macedonia), the prewar Bulgarian frontier several days 1912 later. The Ottomans preferred to deal with the Bulgarians separately from the Greeks, The Contested Zone was an area of north- Romanians, and Serbs. western Macedonia in the Ottoman 76 Corfu Channel Incident, 1946

of Kosova and Monastir, extending from Lake Further Reading Ohrid in a northeasterly direction along the Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan southeastern edge of the Shar Mountains as Wars 1912–1913.NewYork:Russell& far as the Serbian frontier, including the cities Russell, 1969. of Skoplje and Kumanovo. Russos, Andrew. Russia and the Balkans: This territory was delineated in the secret Inter-Balkan Rivalries and Russian Foreign annex of the Bulgarian-Serbian alliance Policy 1908–1914. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981. agreement of March 1912. In the event of a successful war against the Ottoman Empire, Thadden, Edward C. Russia and the Balkan Alliance of 1912. University Park: Pennsyl- if Macedonia could not obtain autonomy, vania State University Press, 1965. then Bulgaria and Serbia would divide it. The treaty allotted the region northwest of the Contested Zone to Serbia, and the region Corfu Channel Incident, 1946 southeast of the zone to Bulgaria. The treaty assigned the disposition of the contested The Corfu Channel Incident consisted of zone to the arbitration of the Russian czar. three separate events in 1946, involving He could divided it between Bulgaria and Ser- British ships in the channel bia or assign it all to one or the other, accord- between Corfu and the Albanian coast and ing to his own predilections. Both Bulgaria the new Communist government of Albania and Serbia accepted this arraignment as a On May 15, 1946, Albanian forts fired on means to facilitate the alliance agreement. the cruisers HMS Orion and HMS Superb as In order to persuade the Bulgarians to they were crossing the Corfu Channel, fol- accept the agreement, the Russians gave lowing an inspection of the strait. The ships them private assurances that they would were not hit, but the British government for- obtain the eastern bank of the Drin River at mally demanded an official apology from the town of Struga north of . the Albanian government. The Albanians The Bulgarians anticipated that they would refused, claiming that the British ships had receive most, if not all, of the Contested entered Albanian . Zone. When Austro-Hungarian objections On October 22, 1946, the cruisers HMS to the Serbian presence in northern Albanian Mauritius and HMS Leander and the and the Adriatic coast forced the Serbs to destroyers HMS Saumarez and HMS Volage withdraw from these regions, they sought sailed northward through the Corfu Channel compensation in Macedonia, including the to test the Albanian reaction to their right of entire Contested Zone. This brought them innocent passage. As the ships passed close into conflict with their Bulgarian allies. to the Albanian coast near the Bay of Russian diplomacy failed to resolve the prob- Saranda, the Saumarez hit a mine, which lem. Before the Russian czar could exercise blew off its bow. As the Volage began tow- his arbitration obligations, the Bulgarians ing the Saumarez south to Corfu harbor, it attacked their Serbian allies on June 29, also hit a mine, blowing off its bow. After 1913. This brought about the Second Balkan 12 hours, both ships managed to reach War and the complete defeat of Bulgaria. Corfu harbor. The two ships suffered 44 Richard C. Hall dead and 42 injured, and the Saumarez was See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes damaged beyond repair. Corfu Declaration, 1917 77

On November 12–13, 1946, the Royal See also: Cold War in the Balkans; Hoxha, Navy carried out an additional minesweeping Enver (1908–1985) operation in the Corfu Channel in Albanian territorial waters without the consent of the Further Reading Albanian government. The ships, covered by Gardiner, Leslie. “The Eagle Spreads His an aircraft carrier, cruisers, and other war- Claws: A History of the Corfu Channel Dis- pute and of Albania’s Relations with the ships, discovered and cut the moorings of 22 West, 1945–1965” (book review by David contact mines. The minefield appeared to Floyd). International Affairs 43, no. 2 have been deliberately designed and not ran- (April 1967): 372–73. domly placed. British authorities at Prifti, Peter R. Socialist Albania since 1944: examined two of the cut mines and deter- Domestic and Foreign Developments. mined that they were German, but without Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1978. any rust and marine growth. They had been Wright, Quincy. “The .” freshly painted, and the mooring cables were American Journal of International Law 43, recently lubricated. The examiners concluded no. 3 (July 1949): 491–94. that two Yugoslav minelayers at the request of the Albanian government had laid the mines around October 20. Corfu Declaration, 1917 The Albanian prime minister Enver Hoxha (1908–1985) complained to the The Corfu Declaration was a manifesto United Nations about the British incursion issued on July 20, 1917, by representatives into Albanian waters. On December 9, of the Serbian, Croatian, and Slovenian peo- 1946, Britain accused Albania of laying the ples announcing their intention to form a mines and demanded reparations for the ear- united kingdom after the war. The declara- lier incidents. The Albanian government tion was the product of a conference on the denied the British allegations in a reply, Adriatic island of Corfu during July 7–20, received by the British on December 21. 1917. Corfu was controlled by the Serbian Britain brought a case against Albania to government-in-exile and protected by the the International Court of Justice. In Decem- Allied navies. Attending the conference were ber 1949, the court directed Albania to pay members of the Yugoslav Committee and some £800,000 ($1,904,679) to Britain. representatives of the Serbian government- The Albanian government refused to pay in-exile. Ante Trumbic´ (1864–1938) led the anything. Britain then broke off talks aimed Yugoslav Committee, representing Croats at establishing diplomatic relations with the and Slovenes. In 1914, lands inhabited post–World War II Albanian government. by both these peoples were part of the The two countries ultimately restored diplo- Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nicola Pasˇic´ matic relations in 1991. Five years later, (1845–1926) led the Serbia government-in- Albania agreed to pay $2 million to Britain exile. Representatives of the Kingdom of in delayed reparations. Britain, in return, Montenegro were also present. gave the Albanian government 1,574 kilo- The agreement had 13 points. Among grams of gold, looted by the Axis powers them was the decision by these Slavic peo- and awarded to Albania by a postwar com- ples to create a united state following the mittee, that Britain had held since 1948. defeat of the Central Powers. A constitu- Robert B. Kane tional monarchy under the Karageorgevic´ 78 Corfu Incident, 1923

dynasty of Serbia, it would be known as the Boundary Commission, created by the Lon- Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. don Conference of Ambassadors, estab- There was to be full equality among all lished its borders with Greece, Serbia, and the ethnic groups politically, linguistically, Montenegro in early 1914. During World religiously, and legally. Both the Cyrillic War I, Italian and Serbian forces occupied alphabet used by the Serbs and the Latin the country. In January 1920, French, Brit- alphabet used by the others were permitted. ish, and Greek delegates at the Paris Peace A constitution was to be drafted after the Conference developed a plan to partition war, providing for both universal male Albania among newly established Yugo- suffrage and secret ballot. slavia, Italy, and Greece to end the conflict The new pact enabled the many south Slavic between Italy and Yugoslavia over Albania. parties to present a united front to the Western However, both the Albanians and the United powers, forestalling any territorial ambitions States objected, and, in , U.S. by Italy. On December 1, 1918, the Kingdom president Woodrow Wilson officially recog- of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugo- nized an independent Albania. slavia in 1929) came into being. The official boundary between Albania A. J. L. Waskey and Greece remained disputed. The two nations submitted their dispute to the See also: Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; Mac- Conference of Ambassadors, an intergov- edonian Front, 1916–1918; Serbia in World War I ernmental agency, founded in 1919 by Brit- ain, Italy, France, and Japan to resolve Further Reading international disputes. The League of Bannan, Alfred J., and Achilles Edelenyi. Nations authorized the conference to estab- Documentary History of Eastern Europe. lish a commission to determine the boun- New York: Twayne, 1970. dary between the two countries. Several Djokic, Dejan. : Histories of a countries, including Italy, provided small Failed Idea, 1918–1992. Madison: Univer- military detachments to help the commis- sity of Wisconsin Press, 2003. sion conduct the survey. General Enrico Hudson, Kate. Breaking the South Slav Tellini (1871–1923) of the Italian army was Dream: The Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia. selected to head the commission. Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 2003. From the beginning, the Greek govern- ment and the commission were at odds Corfu Incident, 1923 with each other. The Greek delegate eventu- ally accused Tellini of favoring Albania’s The Corfu Incident was a crisis between claims. Then, on August 27, 1923, unknown Greece and Italy in 1923 that developed assailants murdered Tellini and three of his after unknown assailants killed three Italian assistants—Major Luigi Corti, Lieutenant army officers, sent to settle a boundary dis- Luigi Bonacini, and their Albanian inter- pute between Greece and Albania, and their preter—near the Greek town of Ioannina Albanian interpreter in northern Greece near the Greek-Albanian border. Some sour- near the Albanian border. ces attributed the attack to Greek national- The Treaty of London, ending the First ists, but the Greek government officially Balkan War on May 30, 1913, made Albania stated that Albanian bandits had killed the an independent state, and an International men even though they had not been robbed. Cretan Crisis, 1896 79

On August 29, 1923, the Italian govern- eventual union with Greece. The history of ment issued an ultimatum to Greece in Crete, the largest and most populous of the which it demanded 50 million lire in repara- Greek islands, goes back to the Minoan civ- tions and the execution of the killers. How- ilization (c. 2700–1420 BC), regarded as the ever, the Greek government could not earliest recorded civilization in Europe. identify the killers and refused to pay the Over time, Mycenae, Rome, the Byzantine indemnity. Benito Mussolini, the Fascist Empire, , , and, since 1669, the leader of Italy, then ordered Italian military Ottoman Empire had ruled the island. forces to bombard and occupy Corfu, a Christian Cretans joined the Greek War of Greek island that occupied a strategic posi- Independence of 1821, but the Ottomans tion off the very southern coast of Albania reconquered the island by 1828. Crete was at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea. The Ital- not included in the Greek state established ian military action on August 31, 1923, by the London Protocol of 1830. The Otto- killed at least 15 civilians. mansultancededtheislandtoMuhammad Greece now appealed to the League of Ali of Egypt, but the 1840 Convention of Nations, which condemned the Italian attack London returned Crete to the Ottomans. and occupation. The Conference of Ambas- The Cretans revolted against Ottoman sadors mediated the dispute, and Italy and rule in 1841, 1858, and 1866. These succes- Greece agreed to accept its decision. The sive rebellions gained the Christian Cretans conference ordered Greece to apologize some privileges, such as the right to bear and pay reparations to Italy, which the arms, equality of Christian and Muslim Greek government did. In exchange, the worship, Christian councils of elders with Italian forces would leave Corfu, which jurisdiction over education and customary they did on September 27, 1923. and family law, and, after the 1866 revolt, Robert B. Kane control of local administration. Despite these concessions, the Christian Cretans See also: Corfu Channel Incident, 1946 wanted to ultimately unite with Greece. Further Reading In the summer of 1878, the Cretans Barros, John. The Corfu Incident of 1923: Mus- rebelled again. This time, the British inter- solini and the League of Nations. Princeton, vened and converted the 1867–1868 Organic NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965. Law into the Pact of Halepa. According to Brecher, Michael, and Jonathan Wilkenfeld. A this agreement, Crete became a semi- Study of Crisis. Ann Arbor: University of independent parliamentary state, governed Michigan Press, 1997. by a Christian Ottoman governor, within Costa, Nicolas J. Shattered Illusions: Albania, the Ottoman Empire. Greece and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: East In 1889, disputes between the liberals and European Monographs, 1998. conservatives in the Cretan parliament led to Massock, Richard G. Italy from Within.New another revolt and the abrogation of the Pact York: Macmillan, 1943. of Halepa. Ottoman sultan Abdulhamid II’s (1842–1918) government sent troops to the Cretan Crisis, 1896 island and used the insurgency as a pretext to establish martial law. In September 1895, In 1896, a crisis on the Greek island of Crete the Cretans revolted again, during which led to the independence of Crete and then its they massacred a number of Muslims. In 80 Crete, Battle of, 1941

March 1896, the sultan replaced the Chris- May 1940 in order to secure key bridges in tian governor with a Muslim. By the their invasion of the Netherlands and Bel- summer of 1896, the Ottoman forces had gium. The assault on Belgium in particular lost military control of most of the island. provided a spectacular example of what the In November 1896, Greece dispatched new tactics of vertical envelopment might troops to the island to help the Cretans. accomplish when German paratroopers cap- After a new Cretan insurrection began in tured two key bridges over the Albert Canal early 1897, the Ottoman Empire declared as well as the formidable bastion of Fortress war on Greece in April 1897 and defeated Eben Emael. German chancellor Adolf the Greek forces in Crete. Britain, France, Hitler developed the plan, which his field Italy, and Russia now intervened and forced commanders had greeted with considerable the sultan to withdraw his troops. The four skepticism. powers established a committee of four admi- The Germans sent a force of just 78 men rals to govern the island until Prince George against Eben Emael with its 1,200-man of Greece arrived on December 9, 1898, to garrison. Landing directly on top of the fort govern the island as an autonomous state in gliders, the Germans employed 56 hollow- within the Ottoman Empire. Greek-speaking charge explosives to blow up its armored tur- Muslims began leaving the island. In 1908, rets and casemates. The tiny attacking force the Cretan deputies declared union with secured its objective in only 28 hours. The Greece, an act formally recognized interna- vital bridges at Veldwezelt and Vrownhoven tionally in the 1913 Treaty of London. were also taken by coup de main, all of Robert B. Kane which allowed the German ground forces to move forward. See also: Abdulhamid II (1842–1918); Greco- The first large-scale invasion by airborne Ottoman War, 1897; Greek War of Indepen- dence, 1821–1832 forces in history, however, occurred a year later on the island of Crete. Beginning in Further Reading late 1940, Hitler acted in the Balkans to Georgios, Prince of Greece. The Cretan counter Soviet moves there and to shore up Drama: The Life and Memoirs of Prince his southern flank before invading the Soviet George of Greece, High Commissioner in Union. In November 1940, he forced Hun- Crete (1898–1906). Edited by A. A. Pallis. gary and Romania to join the Axis and New York: R. Speller, 1959. accept German troops. Bulgaria followed Koliopoulos, John S., and Thanos M. Veremis. suit in March 1941, and in April, the Greece: The Modern Sequel, from 1831 to Germans conquered Yugoslavia. the Present. New York: New York Univer- German troops also came to the aid of the sity Press, 2002. hard-pressed Italians in Greece. The Greeks Woodhouse, C. M. Modern Greece: A Short had the bulk of their divisions fighting the History. 5th ed. London: Faber and Faber, 1991. Italians in Albania and had only three divi- sions and border forces in Macedonia, where the Germans attacked. The British Crete, Battle of, 1941 Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to Greece was unprepared to deal with German armor The Germans had employed small air- and the Luftwaffe, and during April 26–30, borne forces with spectacular success in the BEF was precipitously evacuated from Crete, Battle of, 1941 81

Greece. Many of the 43,000 British troops Malerne. This was sufficient, for they were taken off were landed on Crete. British then able to bring in mountain troops by naval units were savaged by the Luftwaffe. transport aircraft and to expand the perim- The Royal Navy lost 26 vessels, including eter. The Luftwaffe was able to hit Crete two destroyers, to German air attack, and and the Royal Navy units offshore with many other ships were badly damaged. impunity. The British withdrew to the coast In May 1941, the Germans invaded Crete. on May 28. Thus, in little more than a This operation, dubbed Merkur (mercury), week of fighting, the British were forced was conceived and planned by the head of into another evacuation. The few cutoff ele- German paratroopers, Generalleutnant Kurt ments that remained were forced to surren- Student (1890–1978). He saw it as the forerun- der on May 31. ner of other, more ambitious airborne opera- British and forces sustained tions against the island of Malta or even Suez. 3,479 casualties (1,742 dead) and 11,835 pris- Hitler saw it only as a cover for his planned oners. The Cretans also paid a heavy price. invasion of the Soviet Union, to secure the They fought the Germans with what little German southern flank against British air means they had and suffered savage reprisals assault and protect the vital Romanian oil fields both in the battle and during the subsequent at Ploest¸i. The invasion would be conducted by occupation. The Germans sustained 6,700 parachutists and mountain troops brought in by casualties (3,300 dead) and 200 transport air- transport aircraft. British prime minister craft destroyed. Although there were concerns Winston Churchill’s decision to try to hold in the Luftwaffe that codes might have been Crete, unprepared and bereft of Royal Air broken, nothing was done. Force (RAF) fighter support, ignored reality. Hitler was furious at the heavy German Major General Bernard Freyberg (1889– losses and removed Student from command 1963) commanded British forces on Crete, during the battle. Never again did Hitler with a corps centered on the Second New employ paratroops in airborne assault in Zealand Division. Ultra intercepts provided significant number. From that point on, Freyberg with advance knowledge of Student’s men were used mainly as elite German intentions and identified the infantry. Ironically, the Allies now embraced German drop zones and targeted airfields. paratroop operations. Ironically, the intercepts actually also ham- The Battle for Crete also demonstrated pered Freyberg’s dispositions because they that warships without fighter support were revealed that the Germans were sending a defenseless against attacking aircraft. Brit- seaborne force as well. The latter turned ish admiral Andrew Cunningham’s Mediter- out to be only a small-scale operation easily ranean Command smashed the German blunted at sea, but the threat led Freyberg to amphibious operation of May 21–23 sent to divert some of his scant resources from the reinforce the airborne troops on Crete, sink- three airfields to the coast, which probably ing a number of the small craft shuttling cost him the battle. Freyberg also made a troops and killing several hundred Germans. major blunder in not releasing stocks of But the Luftwaffe then mauled the Royal weapons and not forming a Cretan home Navy ships, sinking three cruisers and six guard before the invasion. destroyers; six other ships, including two Merkur began on May 20. The Germans battleships and an aircraft carrier, were barely managed to secure one airfield, at heavily damaged. More than 1,800 British 82 Crimean War, Balkan Operations

sailors died. Churchill ignored this lesson, The Ottoman war council accepted a stra- which would cost the Royal Navy two tegic plan in which the Balkan front would capital ships in the South China Sea in remain in an active defense around the December 1941. Hitler’s aggressive Balkan Danube River, conducting only limited moves barred Soviet expansion in the region attacks and harassment raids, while the Cau- and secured protection against possible Brit- casian front would launch attacks deep into ish air attack from the south. These goals Russian territory and try to capture domi- accomplished, he was ready to move against nant ground blocking Russian approach the Soviet Union. roads while keeping the fortresses secure. Spencer C. Tucker A renegade Habsburg officer, O¨ mer Lu¨tfu¨ Pasha (Omar Latas; 1806–1871), was See also: Germany in the Balkans during chosen to defend the Danubean region. World War II; Greece, Invasion of, 1941; Greece in World War II While the ill-equipped and poorly led Otto- man Army of the Caucasus suffered a series Further Reading of blunders and defeats, the Army of the Kiriakopoulos, G. C. The Nazi Occupation of Danube under the able command of O¨ mer Crete, 1941–1945. Westport, CT: Praeger, Pasha launched medium-sized surprise 1995. attacks to Kalafat and Oltenitsa within MacDonald, Cullum. The Lost Battle: Crete Wallachia with remarkable efficiency. The 1941. New York: Free Press, 1993. Russian commander in chief, Prince Mikhail Pack,S.W.C.TheBattleforCrete. London: Gorchakov (1792–1861), ordered his local Ian Allan, 1973. commanders to attack decisively to the Thomas, David. Nazi Victory: Crete 1941. recent Ottoman gains. Ottoman troops beat New York: Stein and Day, 1973. the overconfident Russian attacks and inflicted heavy casualties. The arrival of the first group of allied sol- Crimean War, Balkan diers at Gallipoli and Constantinople forced Operations the Russians to change their strategic plans. The main idea was now to capture Edirne The Russian General Staff prepared and rec- before the allied troops could come into ommended bold plans immediately before action. The initial part of the plan was car- the political crisis which led to war. How- ried out easily by occupying the lightly ever, Czar Nicholas I (1796–1855) gave defended Dobrudja. However, the second approval to the safest alternative, the occu- part of the plan, the capture of Silistra, pation of the Principalities (Moldavia and turned out to be impossible, even though Wallachia) and being ready to launch attacks the expected allied units failed to arrive on on the Caucasian front. The main aim was a time. political push to force the Ottomans to The Russian attacks on Silistra started on accept Russian demands. Nicholas ordered May 16, 1854. The victorious commander his commanders to begin the invasion of of the previous war, Count Ivan Paskievitch the Principalities on May 28, 1853, which (1782–1856), had little regard for the Otto- was duly carried out after a month long con- man military, and his faulty leadership centration with the crossing of the Pruth negated the advantages of the Russians. (Prut) River on July 3. The defenders of Silistra pushed back Croat Forces, 1991–1995 83 three major assaults. The massive toll of of Croatia were largely Croatian police offi- casualties and allied concentration in Varna cers. As the conflict escalated, the ZNG was harbor forced the tactical commander, officially created from 1,000 special police Prince Alexander Gorchakov (1798–1883), officers and 9,000 volunteers on April 12, to abandon the siege and retreat on June 21. 1991, by Croatian president Franjo A hasty Ottoman attack against the Russian Tudjman. The first brigade was formed on garrison in Giorgio speeded up the with- May 1, 1991. Additional volunteers joined drawal and the entire Danube basin, except the ZNG, and on June 15, 1991, Tudjman a portion of Dobrudja, was evacuated by appointed Staff General Martin Sˇ pegelj the Russians. A Habsburg memorandum to (1927–2014) to command the forces. By Russia effectively finished military opera- August 1991, Croat forces in Croatia had tions in the Balkans and the Russian army grown to 60,000 members and four brigades. of occupation pulled back its last unit in Croatia was the second-most populous mid-August. Yugoslav republic, and of approximately Mesut Uyar 4.7 million people, 78 percent were Croats, 12 percent were Croatian Serbs, and 10 per- See also: Dobrudja; Russo-Ottoman War, cent were of other ethnicities. After the 1877–1878 Croat nationalist Tudjman was elected in Further Reading 1990, Croatian Serbs in the Kraijina region Baumgart, Winifred. The Crimean War 1853– of Croatia began to agitate for autonomy, 1856. London: Arnold Pub., 1999. declaring an independent Republic of Ser- Dodd, George. Pictorial History of the Russian bian Krajina (RSK). After a violent clash at War. London: W&R Chambers, 1856. the Plitvice Lakes National Park on Gu¨rel, A. Tevfik. 1853–1855 Tu¨rk-Rus ve Mu¨t- March 31, 1991, the Yugoslav People’s tefiklerin Kırım Savas¸ı.Istanbul:Askeri Army (JNA) was sent to intervene in Matbaa, 1935. Croatia. The JNA’s presence in Croatia sig- nificantly increased as the situation degener- ated into war, and the JNA was vastly better Croat Forces, 1991–1995 armed than the opposing Croat forces. To remedy this imbalance, Sˇ pegelj led Croat Formally known as the National Guard forces in the Battle of the Barracks between Corps (Zbor narodne garde, or ZNG) and September and December 1991, resulting later as simply the (Hrvatska in the successful capture of heavy arms vojska, or HV), these were forces loyal to from JNA barracks throughout Croatia. the government of Croatia who fought in By December 31, 1991, the Croat forces the war for Croatia’s independence from included 230,000 members falling into 60 Yugoslavia. “Croat forces” may also include brigades. Combat brigades ranged in size forces fighting on behalf of Croats during from 500 to 2,500 men. On January 2, the Croat-Bosniak conflict in Bosnia. 1992, the UN-brokered Sarajevo Agreement The war in Croatia began on March 31, ended the first phase of the war. Ethnic 1991, and officially continued until the cleansing and the detention of prisoners in Dayton Peace Agreement was signed on camps continued on both sides through November 21, 1995. In the earliest days of 1992, and full-scale fighting resumed the conflict, combatants fighting on behalf on January 22, 1993, with the Croat-led 84 Croat War, 1991–1995

Operation Maslenica. The final major battle collapsed into its national components. of the war in Croatia was , Throughout this time, the events in Croatia August 4–7, 1995, in which 130,000 ZNG/ were closely interconnected with those in HV personnel decisively defeated the JNA Bosnia. The origins of this conflict date in the RSK, regaining nearly 4,000 square back to World War II, when the Croatian miles of territory under the command of fascist Ustasˇa regime relentlessly persecuted Major General (1955–). its Serbian minority. The Serbs, who had Meanwhile, in neighboring Bosnia, Croat lived in the northwestern (Krajina) and forces organized under the Croatian Defense eastern () regions of Croatia since Council (Hrvatsko vijec´eobrane,orHVO) the end of the seventeenth century, to defend Croat interests in the Croat- responded by joining Cˇ etnik and Partisan Bosniak conflict. The Croat-Bosniak con- units. A bloody conflict ensued throughout flict began on June 19, 1992, and continued the region. After the Partisan victory in through February 23, 1994, officially ending 1945, the regime of Josip Broz Tito (1892– with the adoption of the Washington Agree- 1980) established a federal republic and ment on March 18, 1994. During the con- muted nationalist sentiments. After Tito’s flict, the HVO grew to include 45,000 death, the concept of federal Communism personnel. By 1994, in addition to HVO per- declined, and nationalism returned to the sonnel, 3,000–5,000 ZNG/HV troops were Yugoslav republics. fighting on behalf of Croats in Bosnia. The emergence of Franjo Tudjman Mary Kate Schneider (1922–1999) as in April 1990 brought events in Croatia to the See also: Croat War, 1991–1995; Yugoslav point of war. Tudjman was a former Partisan Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991– 1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, fighter who had become a strong Croatian Consequences nationalist during the later years of the Tito regime. His government promoted a strong Further Reading nationalist position, adopting symbols from Magasˇ, Branka, and Ivo Zˇ anic´. The War in the Ustasˇa past such as the red-and-white Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina 1991– checkerboard (sˇahovnica) and the kuna cur- 1995. New York: Routledge, 2001. rency. These and other Croatian nationalist Thomas, Nigel. The Yugoslav Wars (1): Slo- actions, such as the overt use of the Latin venia and Croatia 1991–1995. Oxford: alphabet, renaming streets, and purging Osprey Publishing, 2006. Serbs from state jobs, especially in the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Office of Rus- police, alarmed the Serbian minority, which sian and European Analysis. Balkan Battle- constituted around 12 percent of the popula- fields: A Military History of the Yugoslav tion. The Serbian population in Krajina and Conflict 1991–1995. 2 vols. Washington DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2002. Slavonia received encouragement and support from the Serbian nationalist government of Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941– Croat War, 1991–1995 2006) in Belgrade. After a positive referen- dum in May 1991, Croatia declared The Croat War of 1991–1995 was a major independence on June 25. The new state component of the Yugoslav Wars, in which was unprepared to defend its new status. the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia By this time, the Serbian communities had Croat War, 1991–1995 85

A Croatian army coming from the front line arrives while Croatian troops leave the recaptured town of Knin, August 10, 1995. Croatian troops were concentrating in the capital of the self-declared “Serb Republic Krajina,” recently retaken by Croatian government forces. (AP Photo/Darko Bandic) already begun to assert their own authority continued in the Krajina region throughout separate from Zagreb and to arm themselves the summer. By July, the Serbs had elimi- with the aid of the Yugoslav People’s Army nated Croatian government units there and (JNA). Like all other Yugoslavs, they had had established a capital at Knin. By Sep- trained in the territorial defense units (TO). tember, the Serbs had expanded their areas They maintained their right to remain in of contrail into northern Dalmatia. Yugoslavia. The Croats themselves failed to The largest arena of combat between Cro- build an effective fighting force based atian government forces and Serbian militias upon the TO. The JNA took control of occurred around the Slavonian city of Vuko- TO resources in Croatia. The Croatian var. The city itself, like much of Slavonia, government was forced to rely upon the had a mixed population including Croats police. and Serbs as well as Czechs, Hungarians, Throughout the spring of 1991, the Serbs Slovaks, Ukrainians, and others left over erected barricades in Krajina. Fighting from the Habsburg era. In August 1991, the between the Croats and Serbs began in the JNA, by then largely a Serbian force, joined summer when the inadequately armed Serbian militias to bring the Zagreb Croatian police attempted to enforce the government–held town under siege. The authority of the Zagreb government in the Croatian forces within the city numbered Serbian regions. The ambush and killing only around 1,800 men. They were heavily of 12 Croatian policemen at the village of outgunned and outnumbered by the sur- Selo on May 1, 1991, marks the rounding Serbs. The Croatian government beginning of the Croatian War. Skirmishing lacked the military resources to relieve the 86 Croat War, 1991–1995

city. The besiegers preferred to use artillery accepted the armistice because they had rather than a direct infantry assault to over- realized their main objective, the establish- come the defenders. At first the JNA and ment of a Serbian entity connected to those the militias failed to coordinate their efforts. in Bosnia and Serbia. The looming crisis in Finally on November 18, the Serbs over- Bosnia also provided incentive for both came the exhausted defenders and took the sides to reach some kind of temporary city. Many civilians died during the siege. accommodation. The Serbian militias massacred many of the When war in Bosnia erupted in April civilian and military wounded in the city 1992, the armistice in Croatia held. The hospital. Some Serbian commanders were Zagreb government utilized the next two later indicted for war crimes for this years to intervene in Bosnia. It also made incident. considerable efforts to acquire arms and During the fall of 1991, fighting also training for its forces. It had not abandoned occurred around the historic city of Dubrov- the concept of sovereignty over all of Cro- nik. The JNA, assisted by some Monte- atia. During this time, the Croats also under- negrin TO forces, surrounded the city by took several limited operations against the the end of October. JNA artillery caused Serbs in the Krajina region. In January 1993 much damage in the old city. JNA troops they seized the Maslenica Bridge near engaged in widespread looting, especially . This reestablished the land route in the tourist hotels. Pleasure craft in the har- between northern and southern Croatia. In bors also suffered damage from JNA artil- September 1993, they attacked some Ser- lery. The massacre at Vukovar and the bian artillery positions near Gospic´.After destruction around caused much some fighting, UNPROFOR took over the outrage and considerable damage to the positions and the armistice held. This was a Serbian cause throughout Europe and the gain for Croatia. United States. Through strenuous effort, the Croats The fighting in Croatia came to a tempo- obtained mainly former Soviet Bloc military rary end due to the efforts of the United equipment from various sources that would Nations. (1917–2002), an enable them to undertake rapid offensive American diplomat acting on behalf of the action. Especially important to the Croat UN, negotiated an armistice signed between plans was the acquisition of 24 MiG fighter theCroatsandSerbsinSarajevoonJanu- bombers, 30 Mi-8 transport helicopters, and ary 2, 1992. An initial effort by the Euro- 8 Mi-24 helicopter gunships. They intended pean Community (EC) in the fall of 1991 to carry out a “” strategy. to end the fighting failed. The Vance effort By 1995, the Croatian government forces established a United Nations Protection had armed and trained to the point that they Force (UNPROFOR) in Croatia to monitor were prepared to attack the Serbs and estab- the armistice and to disarm the two sides. lish government control over all Croatia. In TheUNPROFORarrivedinMarch1992 March 1995, some fighting occurred around and established itself between Croats and Livno. The initial phase of the planned Serbs. The Croats accepted the armistice Croat offensive, however, began on May 1 and the de facto loss of around one-third of when Croat forces quickly overran the Ser- their territory because they lacked the mili- bian of western Slavonia. The opera- tary ability to defeat the Serbs. The Serbs tion ended the next day with the capture of Cypriot Civil War, 1963 87 the salient and the surrender of the Serbian organization, it was able to overcome units there. these deficiencies and ultimately achieve The larger Croat effort began in the its objective of establishing Croatian summer. On July 25, Croatian forces inter- government control over the entire country. venedinnorthwesternBosniatoprevent Praiseworthy as this effort was, the complic- the loss of Bihac´ to the Serbs and their Bos- ity of some members of the Croat forces in nian ally Fikret Abdic´ (1939–). After forc- war crimes cannot be overlooked. The ing the Serbs to withdrawal from Bihac´, the expulsion of the Serbs from Krajina remains Croats then initiated Operation Storm an overt example of ethnic cleansing. (Oluja) on August 4. This was directed at Richard C. Hall the Serbian forces in Krajina. The Croat See also: Bihac´; JNA (Yugoslav People’s offensive quickly overwhelmed the Serbian Army); Storm, Operation, 1995; Tudjman, defenders. Knin, the Krajina capital and Franjo (1922–1999); UNPROFOR; Yugoslav main Croat objective, fell on August 5. Wars, 1991–1995, Causes These attacks occurred in conjunction with an offensive mounted from Bihac´ by the Further Reading Bosnian army against the Bosnian Serb Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: Death forces. The JNA was unable to render any of a Nation. New York: Penguin, 1998. significant assistance to the Serbs in Krajina Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan, The Yugoslav or in Bosnia. By August 8, the campaign had Wars (2), Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia ended. The remnants of the Serbian forces 1992–2001. Botely, Oxford: Osprey, 2006. together with most of the Serbian civilian U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan population began to evacuate into Bosnia Battlegrounds: A Military History of the and on into Serbia. Three hundred years of Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence a Serbian presence in Krajina was over. Agency, 2002–2003. After the success of Operation Storm, the Croats continued their cooperation with the Bosnian government forces in Operation Cypriot Civil War, 1963 Maestral, directed against the Bosnian Serbs. This effort began on September 8 Cyprus negotiated independence from and continued through most of the month. British administration in 1960, but its early Operation Maestral, like Operation Storm, constitution failed to strike a workable com- benefited from NATO’s Operation Deliber- promise between Greek majority and Turkish ate Force, which was directed against the minority interests. Just three years into its ten- Bosnian Serbs. It had begun on August 30 ure as an independent republic, Cypriot civic and lasted until September 20. The Croatian tension erupted into the Cypriot Civil War. army continued to fight in Bosnia in con- In November 1963, President Makarios III junction with Bosnian government forces (1913–1977), a Greek Cypriot and Orthodox until the cease-fire on October 12. The Day- archbishop, proposed a set of constitutional ton Peace Accords established a settlement revisions. While Turkish Cypriot vice that returned Vukovar and eastern Slavonia president Fazil Ku¨c¸u¨k (1906–1984) consid- to Croatia in 1997. ered that plan, Turkey rejected it outright. Although initially the Croatian army suf- Amidst mounting tensions in the capital of fered from lack of heavy weapons and poor Nicosia, on December 21, Greek Cypriot 88 Cyprus War, 1974

police intercepted a Turkish Cypriot couple Grivas, responding to Turkey’s air strikes, along the dividing line between the Greek led the National Guard in sacking two and Turkish quarters of the city (later called Turkish Cypriot villages. Turkey massed the Green Line). Among the gathering troops on its border with Greece and threat- crowd, shots rang out and left the two Turkish ened invasion if Greek Cypriots did not Cypriots dead. Spurred by the news, members meet an ultimatum. In partial compliance, of underground organizations on both sides Grivas resigned from the guard and enteredintoarmedskirmishes.Ku¨c¸u¨kand returned to Greece. Turkish troops did not Turkish Cypriot officials withdrew from the retreat, however. U.S. president Johnson, government. again alerted to the now imminent possibil- As fighting dwindled in the presence of ity of two North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- UN forces, many Turkish tion nations going to war, sent Cyrus Cypriots relocated from remote villages to Vance as special envoy to all three coun- Nicosia’s heavily defended Turkish quarter. tries. In Ankara in November 1967, Vance In June 1964, the Cypriot House of Represen- successfully negotiated for Greece and Tur- tatives (only representing Greek Cypriots) key to remove simultaneously all troops established a National Guard to which men from Cyprus, except those permitted by aged 18 to 59 could be called for service. the 1960 treaties, and for Turkish troops to The idea was to unify and discipline the withdraw from the Greek border. Full- uncontrolled bands of Greek Cypriots roam- scale war was averted and independence ing the countryside. President Makarios reestablished. Makarios, reelected to office invited back exiled Greek general Georgios in February 1968, chose not to dismantle Grivas (1898–1974), a legendary freedom the National Guard. In 1974, it would rise fighter against the British, to lead the National up against him in a coup that in the end Guard. Turkish Cypriots viewed that action as established partition. an attempt to upgrade the National Guard into Richard C. Hall a Greek Cypriot army. In response, Turkey See also: Cyprus War, 1974 began invasion preparations. A warning from U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson dissuaded Further Reading ¨ ¨ Prime Minister Ismet Inonu (1884–1973) Clogg, Richard. A Concise .New from invading the island, although shortly York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. thereafter, Turkish planes fired on Greek Cypri- Jacovides, Andreas J. The Cyprus Question: Its ots who were sacking Turkish Cypriot villages. Dimensions, Implications and Prospects for In July, U.S. diplomat Dean Acheson a Solution. Washington, DC: Center for (1893–1971) met in Geneva with Greek and Mediterranean Studies, 1980. Turkish representatives to hammer out a com- Veremis, Thanos, and Mark Dragoumis. His- promise: Greek Cypriots would get torical Dictionary of Greece. Metuchen, (union) with Greece, Greece would compen- NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1995. sate Turkish Cypriots wishing to emigrate, and Greece would hand over to Turkey the Aegean island of Kastelorrizo. Makarios Cyprus War, 1974 rejected the Acheson Plan; he called its provi- sion of Turkish Cypriot enclaves and a Turkish On July 15, 1974, disaffected Greek Cypri- sovereign military base a form of partition. ots who favored enosis (union with Greece) Cyprus War, 1974 89 launched a coup against Cypriot leader and August 14, with the goal of capturing and archbishop Makarios III (1913–1977). He holding some 40 percent of Cyprus (- was replaced by Nikos Sampson (1935– tially all of the northern third of the island). 2001), a staunch proponent of enosis who It accomplished this by August 16, with its had the backing of Greece’s military junta in occupation extending as far south as Louro- Athens. At the time, the island of Cyprus jina. The Turks disguised their July and was peopled by both Greeks and Turks, and August offensives as “peace operations.” elements of each of those factions sought to As a result of the Turkish invasion and control the entire island for themselves. Tur- occupation, perhaps as many as 200,000 key was outraged by the move and promptly Greeks living in fled their mobilized a force of some 40,000 troops, homes and became refugees in the south. It which invaded northern Cyprus in the pre- is estimated that 638 Turkish troops died in dawn hours of July 20, 1974 at Kyrenia the fighting, with another 2,000 wounded. (Girne). At the time, Greek Cypriots could Another 1,000 or so Turkish civilians were count on only about 12,000 active-duty troops killed or wounded. Cypriot Greeks, together and perhaps another 15,000 ill-trained and ill- with Greek soldiers dispatched to the island, equipped reservists. The Turkish troops had suffered 4,500–6,000 killed or wounded, little trouble seizing and holding about and 2,000–3,000 more missing. 3 percent of northern Cyprus within 48 hours. Meanwhile, the United Nations estab- The Turkish invasion precipitated a flurry lished a permanent cease-fire line, known of international diplomacy, and late on as the Green Line, which effectively divided July 22, the UN Security Council managed Cyprus into a Turkish-controlled northern to broker a cease-fire. Meanwhile, because zone and a Greek-controlled southern zone. of the ease with which the Turks had invaded With the establishment of the Turkish Feder- Cyprus, the Greek military government in ated State of Northern Cyprus in 1975 Athens fell on July 23. The following day, a (which is not recognized by most of the new Greek government under Constantine international community), some 60,000 Karamanlis (1907–1998) was formed, and he Turks living in southern Cyprus migrated to sent delegates to a hastily arranged peace the Turkish-controlled northern zone that conference in Geneva, , which same year. The Green Line continued to occurred from July 25 to July 30. In the mean- exist as of this writing, and some 25,000– time, Karamanlis decided not to pursue any 30,000 Turkish troops remained stationed additional direct military action in Cyprus in the north. The brief war and its inconclu- because Turkish forces were too numerous sive aftermath have radically changed the and had already established a strong defensive population distribution in Cyprus. position in northern Cyprus. Whereas before 1974, Greeks and Turks The Greeks and the Turks were unwilling were relatively well distributed throughout to enter into serious negotiations, however, the island, Cyprus became almost com- and the Geneva talks ended in failure on pletely bifurcated, with most Turks living July 30. Turkey, realizing that it held the in the northern part, and Greeks in the upper hand, decided to launch a full-scale southern part. In May 2004, the two-thirds military offensive from northern Cyprus on of Cyprus controlled by the Greeks entered 90 Cyprus War, 1974

the European Union as the Republic of Greece. London: George Allen & Unwin, Cyprus. The Cypriot territory still controlled 1978. by Turkey was not included in this move. Joseph, Joseph S. Cyprus: Ethnic Conflict and Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr. International Politics: From Independence to the Threshold of the European Union. See also: Cypriot Civil War, 1963 New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.

Further Reading Crawshaw, Nancy. The Cyprus Revolt: An Account of the Struggle for Union with D

Dayton Peace Accords, 1995 of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the . Further requirements maintained The Dayton Peace Accords brought tempo- the capital city of Sarajevo, established a rary peace between the Bosnians, Croats, three-part government, required democratic and Serbs following the break-up of the for- elections, assured refugees right of return, mer Yugoslavia. In November 1995, after excluded war criminals from political life, more than three years of war in Bosnia, and mandated an international peacekeeping President Bill Clinton (1946–) helped force. the leaders of these states negotiate a Following the agreement, the United peace treaty. With estimates of 100,000 to Nations established the UN International 400,000 people dead and the country of Bos- Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia nia in ruins, the process of nation-building (ICTY) to examine charges of ethnic cleans- under the auspices of the United Nations ing and other war crimes. Peacekeeping and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization forces discovered mass graves located outside (NATO) began. Since the creation of the the Bosnian city of Srebrenica, where a International Criminal Tribunal for the reported 7,779 Bosniak males were killed by Former Yugoslavia, 161 people have been Serbian forces in July 1995. The Serbian indicted on charges of ethnic cleansing, war siege and bombardment of the city of crimes, and other acts. Sarajevo, which lasted for nearly three years, The Bosnian War—also known as led to the deaths of thousands of Muslim the Balkan War—began on April 6, 1992. Bosniaks as well. As of March 2006, 161 peo- Three political parties emerged from the ple had been indicted for crimes related to the first Bosnian democratic election in 1990, Bosnian War by the ICTY. with each party representing a major ethnic Richard C. Hall group. These parties, representing the See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Vance- Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs, and Bosnian Owen Plan, 1993; Yugoslav Wars, 1991– Croats, formed an uneasy coalition to main- 1995, Consequences tain state unity. When Bosnia declared independence in April 1992, the Yugoslav Further Reading People’s Army (of Serbia) surrounded Cousens, Elizabeth M., and Charles K. Cater. Bosnia and began its military campaign. Toward Peace in Bosnia: Implementing the Three years later, following involvement Dayton Accords. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rien- by Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbian forces, ner Publishers, 2001. the three groups met with President Bill Morton, Jeffrey S., et al. Reflections on the Clinton in Dayton, Ohio, to reach a peace Balkan Wars: Ten Years after the Break-up agreement. The Dayton Peace Accords of Yugoslavia.NewYork:Palgrave divided Bosnia into the separate republics Macmillan, 2004.

91 92 Dimitriev, Radko

Dimitriev, Radko (1859–1918) Gorlice-Tarno´w. The initial German artillery barrages decimated his soldiers, who had Bulgarian general and diplomat and Russian failed to prepare secure positions. His army army general, Radko Ruskov Dimitriev was also suffered heavy losses in the ensuing born on September 24, 1859, in Gradets, retreat from Galicia, to the extent that the Bulgaria (then Ottoman Empire), Radko Third Army ceased to be an effective force. Dimitriev participated in the April 1876 After this disaster, Dimitriev was relieved Bulgarian national uprising against the of command of the Third Army. A major Ottomans and served in the ensuing Russo- reason for his relief was his failure to Ottoman War of 1877–1878 as a volunteer prepare fortified positions, but he also with a Russian Cossack unit. After the war, squabbled constantly with his superiors at he was among the first graduates of the the Southwestern Front headquarters and at Bulgarian Military Academy in Sofia and Stavka, insisting on the delivery of addi- later attended the Nikolaevski General Staff tional munitions for his troops and, after Academy in St. Petersburg. the initial German attack, demanding an Dimitriev served in the Bulgarian-Serbian immediate withdrawal of his forces. War of 1885 as a staff officer in the Western Dimitriev later served on the Northern Corps and rose in the ranks of the Bulgarian Front, commanding the II and VII Siberian army, particularly distinguished by his pro- Corps and afterward the Russian Twelfth Russian perspective and charismatic person- Army. He retired after the March 1917 revo- ality. His short stature caused some observ- lution but remained in Russia. During the ers to compare him to . During , Red forces shot Dimi- the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, he com- triev along with some 100 other officers as manded the Bulgarian Third Army in its at Rostov-on-Don on October 18, descent upon eastern Thrace, achieving 1918. Dimitriev was an energetic and charis- important victories against the Ottomans at matic leader who commanded the loyalty of Lozengrad and Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar. his subordinates and respect of his peers but He directed the combined Bulgarian First whose victories in the Balkan Wars and and Third Armies during the Bulgarian World War I were overshadowed by his assault on the Chataldzha lines outside Con- defeats. stantinople in November 1912 that failed to Richard C. Hall breach the Ottoman defensive positions. See also: Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912; Lyule Dimitriev commanded Bulgarian armies Burgas–Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912. during the catastrophic Second Balkan War in 1913. Further Reading After the Second Balkan War, Dimitriev Azmanov, Dimitur. Bulgarski visshi, Voena- became Bulgarian minister in St. Petersburg, chalnitsi prez Balkanskata i Purvata but in August 1914, he resigned this post to svetovna voina. Sofia: Voinno izdatelstvo, accept a command in the Russian army. He 2000. led the Russian Third Army against the Rutherford, Ward. The Russian Army in World Austro-Hungarians into Galicia that autumn, War I. London: Cremonesi, 1975. but his Third Army suffered a serious defeat Stone, Norman. The Eastern Front, 1914– in the May 1915 German counterattack at 1917. New York: Scribner, 1975. Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin 93

Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin to assassinate Austrian emperor Franz (1876–1917) Joseph in 1911. Prior to the First Balkan War, Apis carried Born in Belgrade on August 19, 1876, Ser- out a reconnaissance mission behind Turk- bian army colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic´ ish lines in Albania. He contracted an illness attended the lyce´e and the military academy while on this mission and took no part in the in Belgrade. A brilliant and energetic stu- fighting. In mid-1913, Colonel Dimitrijevic´ dent, he was nicknamed “Apis” after the became chief of the Intelligence Department ancient Egyptian bull-headed god, and the in the Serbian General Staff. In this position name stuck. Although he quickly moved he actively plotted political assassinations into a position in the Serbian General to secure his goal of a Greater Serbia. Staff, Dimitrijevic´ above all remained an Although the Black Hand gained influence ardent patriot, dedicated to the creation of a in Serbian domestic politics, relations with Greater Serbia by any means possible, the civilian administration cooled by 1914, including the use of espionage, conspiracy, particularly after the failed attempt to kill and assassination. the Bosnian governor, Austro-Hungarian In 1901, Dimitrijevic´ helped organize the army general Oskar Potiorek (1853–1933), first failed attempt to murder the unpopular that January. and pro-Austrian King Alexander Obrenovic´ In the spring of 1914, Dimitrijevic´ insti- (1876–1903). Dimitrijevic´ was successful in gated a plot against Archduke Franz Ferdi- 1903, when the conspiracy succeeded in nand, possibly fearing that the archduke’s killing Alexander, his wife, and three others. proposed reforms would weaken Slavic The new king, Peter I Karageorgevic´ (1844– unrest in Bosnia. Three young Bosnian 1921), was grateful for his services, and Serbs were recruited in Belgrade, trained Dimitrijevic´ advanced rapidly in the Serbian and supplied in Serbia, and sent to Sarajevo. military. Captain Dimitrijevic´ spent a decade They succeeded in shooting and killing the in various command and staff posts, broken archduke and his wife on June 28, 1914. by language study in Berlin during 1906– This event brought on the crisis that led 1907. From 1910, he taught tactics at the directly to the Great War. Belgrade Military Academy, where he In late 1916, with the Serbian government became a staunch advocate of reform. in exile, Prime Minister Nicola Pasˇic˙ In 1911, Dimitrijevic´, who supported decided to destroy the Black Hand, probably formation of a Greater Serb state organized to remove independent factions within the under the Karageorgevic´ dynasty, helped army. On December 15, Dimitrijevic´ and found Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Unification or his principal partisans were arrested in Death), commonly known as the Black Salonika. They were brought before a mili- Hand. This tightly organized, conspiratorial tary tribunal in May 1917. Condemned to network was established under the larger death on sham charges, Dimitrijevic´ was and public patriotic society Narodna shot on June 26, 1917. Odbrana (National Defense). The Black Timothy L. Francis Hand conducted subversive activities in See also: Black Hand; Sarajevo Assassination, Bosnia and Macedonia and even attempted 1914; Serbia in World War I 94 Djilas, Milova´n

Further Reading the end of the decade, Djilas had grave Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of doubts about both and Yugosla- 1914. 3 vols. London: Oxford University via’s ability to implement self-managed Press, 1952–1957. . Cassels, Lavender. The Archduke and the Because of his calls for increased liberali- Assassin: Sarajevo, June 28th 1914.New zation and his criticism of the Communist York: Stein and Day, 1985. Party that were published in the party daily Remak, Joachim. Sarajevo: The Story of a Borba in April 1954, Djilas was ousted from Political Murder. New York: Criterion, the party and received an 18-month sus- 1959. pended sentence. However, when his article “The Storm in Eastern Europe” appeared in Djilas, Milova´n (1911–1995) a major American magazine supporting the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, he was impris- Milova´n Djilas was a Yugoslav Communist oned for three years. In 1957, his prison sen- revolutionary, advisor to Josip Broz Tito, tence was increased to seven years after the Yugoslavia’s press czar in charge of manuscript of his book The New Class was propaganda, writer, and noted dissident. smuggled to the West and published. This Born to a Serbian family on June 12, 1911 work was the first authentic exposure of in Podbisˇc´e in Montenegro, Djilas studied Eastern bloc Communists as a “new elite” law and philosophy at the University of dedicated to self-aggrandizement and power Belgrade, became a Communist student and therefore not so different from the capital- leader, and was imprisoned during 1933– ists they had replaced. Djilas was released in 1935 for his radical politics. In 1937, he 1961 but imprisoned again in 1962 after the met Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), then publication of the disdainful Conversations head of the illegal , and with Stalin. He received a pardon in 1966, soon became his chief assistant and close was allowed to travel, and held a visiting pro- friend. Tito appointed Djilas to the Yugoslav fessorship at Princeton University in 1968. Communist Party Politburo in 1940. Djilas renounced communism entirely in During World War II, Djilas played a The Imperfect Society, published in 1969, major role in organizing the Partisan Upris- and became a hero among Communist dissi- ing and took an active leadership role in the dents. During the 1990s, he opposed the resistance to the German army occupation. breakup of Yugoslavia and decried the fer- In 1944, he traveled to Moscow, where he vent nationalism that precipitated the bloody held the first of a series of meetings with Balkan conflicts that soon ensued. Djilas Soviet dictator Josef Stalin (1879–1953). died in Belgrade on April 20, 1995. Djilas later described these in his dissident Josip Mocnik manifesto Conversations with Stalin (1962). See also: Partisans, Yugoslavia; Tito, Josip In Yugoslavia’s postwar government, Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslav-Soviet Split Djilas became a cabinet minister in charge of propaganda and was noted for his ruthless imposition of cultural subjugation. He Further Reading greatly influenced Tito’s 1948 decision to Djilas, Milova´n. Conversations with Stalin. break with the Soviet Union in order to pur- Translated by Michael B. Petrovich. New sue an independent, socialist path. But by York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1962. Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918 95

Djilas, Milova´n. Rise and Fall.NewYork: sought a decisive action. The realization Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. that the seizure of the Dobro Pole positions Sulzberger, C. L. Paradise Regained: Memoir could open up the entire line and bring total of a Rebel. New York: Praeger, 1989. victory caused the Entente to plan for battle. On September 14, the Entente began a Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918 heavy artillery attack on the Dobro Pole positions. The next morning French, French The battle of Dobro Pole from September 14 Colonial, and Serbian troops began their to 16, 1918, was the decisive battle on the assaults. After two days of heavy fighting, Macedonian Front. After their 1916 offen- the Entente forces broke through the Bulgar- sive, the Bulgarians lacked the strength to ian positions. The absence of Bulgarian undertake further attacks on Entente posi- commander in chief Nikola Zhekov (1865– tions in Macedonia. They strengthened 1949), who was in Vienna for medical treat- their defenses with new trenches, barbed ment, hindered the Bulgarian response to wire, and strong points, and waited for their this crisis. Two Bulgarian divisions col- German allies to win the war on other fronts. lapsed, and the soldiers rejected attempts of Dobro Pole was a fortified line along a lime- their officers to restore order. While some stone ridge along the prewar Greek-Serbian went home, many surged toward Sofia to border. The name means “Good Field” in punish those responsible for their years of Slavic. This referred to the relatively level suffering. Meanwhile, a supplemental Brit- region behind the Bulgarian positions. ish and Greek attack launched on Septem- Through 1917 and 1918, the strength and ber 18 at Lake Doiran failed. morale of the Bulgarian army had eroded as By September 21, Entente forces had the Germans transferred their forces from reached the Vardar River. This afforded them Macedonia to the Western Front and as the a fairly easy route to the north. The break- quantity and quality of Bulgarian provisions through forced the Bulgarians to withdraw and war materials declined. By the summer their units west of Dobro Pole to avoid being of 1918, all that remained of the German pres- cut off by the Entente advance. With few Cen- ence on the Macedonian Front was the com- tral Powers units available to reinforce the mand and staff structure of the German retreating Bulgarians, and with discontent , which by this time had growing in the Bulgarian ranks, the Bulgarian mainly Bulgarian troops, some specialists, government on September 26 decided to seek and some largely immobile heavy artillery. a way out of the war. On September 29, the Meanwhile, the Entente forces based on Bulgarian delegation in Salonika signed an Salonika had increased. French Colonial, armistice with the Entente. Bulgaria was the Greek, Italian, and Serbian soldiers supple- last country to join the Central alliance, and mented the original British and French con- the first to leave it. In the aftermath of the tingents on the Macedonian Front while armistice, a combination of Bulgarian cadets tons of supplies fortified the resolve and and Germans defeated the mutineers. filled the stomachs of the Entente men. Richard C. Hall After two years of relative inertia on the See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Doiran, Macedonian Front, Entente forces, prodded Battles of, 1915–1918; Macedonian Front, by Serbs eager to return to their homeland, 1916–1918; Zhekov, Nikola (1864–1949) 96 Dobrudja

Further Reading thwarted Bulgarian hopes, and Dobrudja Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The remained Romanian. Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: On September 7, 1940, Bulgaria, with the Indiana University Press, 2010. backing of Nazi Germany, was able to Palmer, Alan. The Gardeners of Salonika.New regain southern Dobrudja. The Germans York: Simon and Schuster, 1965. forced Romania to accept the Treaty of Craiova but mandated an exchange of popu- Dobrudja lation. Some 110,000 Romanians were forced to relocate from the south to the Dobrudja (Bulgarian: Dobrudzha) is a north, and 62,000 Bulgarians were forced Balkan territory located between the lower to leave their homes in northern Dobrudja Danube River and the Black Sea. Dobrudja’s and resettle in the south. Overall, Romania 9,000 square miles are today divided lost 2,970 square miles and 875,000 people between Romania and Bulgaria. In 1945, of Dobrudja to Bulgaria. the aggregate area held some 860,000 peo- Bulgaria, which had not declared war on or ple. The population is principally Romanian participated in the invasion of the Soviet in the north and Bulgarian in the south, with Union, joined the Soviet military campaign pockets of Turks and Tartars dispersed against Nazi Germany in the fall of 1944. throughout. The principal city of Dobrudja Although Bulgaria was not recognized as a is Constant¸a (population 79,000 in 1945), cobelligerent, Soviet treatment of Bulgaria dif- Romania’s principal port. Always of stra- fered from the treatment of Romania and Hun- tegic importance, the area was in dispute gary. Reparations were demanded of both, and between the Byzantine and Bulgarian Romania was forced to return Bessarabia to Empires but fell to the Turks in 1411. It the Soviet Union. With the support of the remained part of the Ottoman Empire until Soviet Union, the Paris Peace Treaties of the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. The 1947 confirmed Bulgaria’s retention of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 assigned the bulk territory it had gained in southern Dobrudja of Dobrudja to the through the Treaty of Craiova. During the and a smaller southern section to the new policy of forced collectivization and Bulgari- autonomous Principality of Bulgaria. zation under Bulgarian premier Vulko While Bulgaria was hard-pressed by the Chervenkov (1900–1980) in the early 1950s, Serbs during the Second Balkan War in more than 100,000 Turks were displaced 1912, Romania occupied the southern sec- from Dobrudja and immigrated to Turkey. tion to a line between Silistra and . Bernard Cook The Treaty of Bucharest in 1913 confirmed See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Romania in Romanian control over all of Dobrudja, but the Balkan Wars; Romania in World War I Bulgaria refused to reconcile itself to the loss of the southern portion, the richest agri- Further Reading cultural land of Bulgaria. When Romania Crampton, R. J. A Concise History of Bulgaria. joined the Entente in 1916, Bulgaria, one of Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, the Central Powers, invaded Dobrudja with 1997. the intention of regaining its lost territory. Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. The defeat of the Central Powers, however, Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Dodecanese Campaign, 1944 97

Dodecanese Campaign, 1944 would open the way to the Dardanelles and the Balkans. He also sought to induce The islands of the southern Aegean Sea off Turkey to join the war and to remove the the southwest coast of Anatolia were stain of Britain’s defeat in World War I at known through much of their history as the Gallipoli. The original plan for an invasion Eastern or Southern (“scattered”). of the Dodecanese, prepared by the Middle The islands include , , East Command, was known as Operation Kassos, Haliki, (Castlerosso), Mandibles, but it was subsequently renamed Alimia, , (Simi), Nissyros, Kos Operation Accolade. Churchill appealed to (Cos), , Astypalea, , Tel- President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882– endhos, , Lipsi, , Arki, and 1945) and to General Dwight D. Eisenhower Agnthonissi. Early in the twentieth century, (1890–1969) for aid to liberate the Dodeca- the Young Turks revoked the historic privi- nese. The Americans, who were preparing a leges enjoyed by the islanders, who were landing on the Italian peninsula at Salerno, part of the Ottoman Empire. Twelve islands rebuffed him. Roosevelt also suspected that (dhodkeka nisia)joinedinafailedprotest the British hoped to open a new front in the against the loss of these privileges, and the Balkans. Coincidentally, the Combined name of Dodecanese stuck as a term for all Chiefs of Staff meeting in Quebec ordered these islands, even though they exceeded most of the landing ships in the Middle 12 in number. East to the Indian Ocean, which starved the In 1912, as a consequence of the Italo- operation of needed assets. Turkish War, the Dodecanese Islands passed When Italy surrendered on September 8, to Italian control. In 1941, the Germans 1943, three British operatives led by Major joined their Italian allies in garrisoning the Lord George Jellicoe (1918–2007) para- islands, which were inhabited chiefly by chuted onto Rhodes. They contacted Italian Greeks. The Italians had naval and air authorities there and urged them to take the bases on Rhodes, the strategic key to the Germans prisoner. However, Admiral Inigo area. There was also an airfield on Kos, a Campioni (1878–1944), commander of seaplane base and naval batteries at Leros, Italian forces in the Aegean, hesitated. The and an air base on Scarpanto. Germans, meanwhile, acted swiftly and When Italy surrendered on September 8, soon subdued the Italians. 1943, the Dodecanese were occupied by The British nonetheless proceeded with two poorly equipped Italian divisions total- some landings, and by October 1943—with ing 37,000 men; Italian morale was very a force of 5,000 men and a small flotilla— low. The Germans had one division of they secured several islands, among them 7,000 men, which was well equipped with Kos, Samos, Patmos, and Leros. They were and artillery. The local Greek popula- not able, however, either to gain air superi- tion was excited at the prospect of liberation ority or take Rhodes, and as long as the by the Allied powers. Germans were secure at Rhodes, the British British prime minister Winston L. S. could not hold the Dodecanese. Churchill (1874–1965) ordered that opera- On October 3, 1943, the Germans went on tions be conducted against the Dodecanese the offensive, attacking Kos. Heavy bomb- Islands. He believed that success there ing of the island by Stuka aircraft reduced 98 Doiran, Battles of, 1915–1918

the British defenses, and soon the British Further Reading force there surrendered. Churchill refused Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War. to consider a withdrawal, instead ordering Vol. 5, Closing the Ring. Boston: Houghton that Leros and Samos be held at all costs. Mifflin, 1951. Indeed, the British reinforced Leros. On Gander, Marsland L. The Long Road to Leros. November 12, the Germans attacked Leros London: Macdonald, 1945. with overwhelming force, taking it four Greene, Jack, and Alessandro Massignani. The days later. The British troops remaining in Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1940– the Dodecanese then withdrew. 1943. London: Chatham, 1998. Among British units involved were the Holland, Jeffrey. The Aegean Mission: Allied Long Range Desert Group, the Special Operations in the Dodecanese, 1943. West- port, CT: Greenwood Press, 1988. Boat Squadron, the Raiding Forces’ Levant Schooner Flotilla, the King’s Own, the Molony, C. J. C., et al. The Mediterranean and Middle East. United Kingdom Military , and the Durham Light Series, edited by J. R. M. Butler. Vol. 5, Infantry. The Greek navy provided seven History of the Second World War. London: destroyers to assist the more numerous Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1973. British vessels. In the offensive, the British Pitt, Barrie. Special Boat Squadron. London: lost four cruisers damaged and two subma- Century Publishing, 1983. rines, six destroyers, and 10 small coastal Smith, Peter, and Edwin Walker. War in the vessels and minesweepers sunk. The Royal Aegean. London: William Kimber, 1974. Air Force flew 3,746 sorties and lost 113 aircraft out of 288 involved. The British army lost in all about 4,800 men, while the Doiran, Battles of, 1915–1918 Italians lost 5,350. German casualties totaled some 1,184 men, 35,000 tons of The Battles of Doiran were a series of three shipping (between late September and late main engagements between Bulgarian November 1943), and 15 small landing forces and British and Greek units around craft and ferries. The operation failed as a Lake Doiran located along the 1914 Greek- consequence of Campioni’s hesitation, Serbian frontier in southern Macedonia German aggressiveness, noncooperation by during World War I. Lake Dorian had the Americans, and the inadequacy of Brit- already been the location of a sharp battle ish resources. Holding the islands, however, between the Bulgarian Second Army and stretched German resources, ultimately the Greek army on July 6, 1913, during the tyingdownsome60,000Germanswho Second Balkan War, in which the Greeks might have been better employed elsewhere. forced the Bulgarians to retreat to the north. After the war, the British governed the During World War I, initial fighting in this Dodecanese until 1947. The islands were area developed on December 8–10, 1915, as then turned over to Greece. elements of the Bulgarian Second Army A. J. L. Waskey pushed the British Expeditionary Force See also: Germany in the Balkans during back across the Greek frontier. Earlier that World War II; Greece in World War II; Italy fall, British and French troops had landed in the Balkans during World War II at Salonika. These units had moved north Doiran, Battles of, 1915–1918 99 along the line of the Vardar River in an effort First Army positions around Lake Doiran. to link up with the hard-pressed Serbian By September 20, the attacks died away. army in . After this The Bulgarian lines held everywhere. The Bulgarian success, because of the demands Bulgarians achieved a major defensive vic- of their German allies, they halted at the tory against the Entente attack. They had lit- Greek frontier. tle time to enjoy this success, however. The Over the next year, the Bulgarian First French and Serbian breakthrough of the Army established defensive positions all Bulgarian positions to the west at Dobro along the old Serbian-Greek frontier, includ- Pole forced the Bulgarians to retreat all ing formidable ones around the northern along the line. British airplanes harassed edge of Lake Doiran. These were located the retreating Bulgarians and caused numer- along the ridge line and included trenches, ous casualties. Nevertheless, the Bulgarians barbed wire, machine gun nests, and artil- still celebrate their September 1918 victory lery. The area remained relatively calm at Doiran as illustrative of Bulgarian through 1916. military prowess, even though it had little On April 24, 1917, after two days of artil- impact on the outcome of the war. lery fire, the British 122th Division and two Richard C. Hall Greek regiments attacked the Bulgarian See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Dobro positions west of the lake. This attack was Pole, Battle of, 1918; Macedonian Front, intended to take pressure off of the hard- 1916–1918 pressed Romanians and Russians. The 9th Pleven Division of the Bulgarian First Further Reading Army held its ground. Another attack on Falls, Cyril. Military Operations, Macedonia. May8and9hadthesameresult.The 2 vols. Nashville, TN: Battery Press, 1996. Entente forces made no appreciable gains. Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The The British attempted another attack in Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: April 1918, without success. Indiana University Press, 2010. The final major engagement at Doiran Nedev, Nikola. Doiranskata epopeya 1915– occurred in September 1918 as a part of the 1918. Sofia: Aniko, 2009, great Entente offensive that succeeded in Wakefield, Alan, and Simon Moody. Under the knocking Bulgaria out of the war. On Sep- Devil’s Eye: Britain’s Forgotten Army at tember 18, 1918, four British Divisions, the Salonika 1915–1918. Stroud, Gloucester- Greek Cretan Division and a regiment of shire: Sutton, 2004. French attacked the Bulgarian E

EAM/ELAS The KKE soon became the dominant group within the EAM. Georgios Siantos EAM (Greek National Liberation Front) and (1890–1947) was appointed as the acting ELAS (Greek People’s Liberation Army) leader as Nikolaos Zachariadis (1903–1973), refer to the Greek leftist resistance move- the KKE’s leader, was interned at Dachau. ment and its military arm during the Axis During the autumn of 1941, EAM expanded occupation of Greece during World War II. its influence throughout Greece. In Febru- (Note: The abbreviations are from the ary 1942, EAM formed its military wing, the Greek words for the noted groups.) Greek People’s Liberation Army (ELAS), Leftist Greeks founded the Greek Com- which fought German, Italian, and Bulgarian munist Party (KKE) on November 4, 1919. occupation forces starting in summer 1942. During the interwar years, the KKE sup- In October 1943, the ELAS attacked the ported the formation of labor unions, played non-Communist National Republican a prominent role in strikes and antiwar dem- Greek League (EDES) and the National onstrations, and supported the formation of and Social Liberation movement (EKKA), Popular Front movements after 1933. In resulting in civil war. By spring 1944, the 1936, General (1871– ELAS had destroyed the latter group, forced 1941) seized control of the government, out- the remaining EDES fighters to evacuate to lawed the KKE, and imprisoned or exiled Corfu, and liberated a large area of the over 2,000 KKE members. When the Greek mainland from Axis control. In Germans invaded Greece in April 1941, the March 1944, EAM established the Political KKE was in a state of disarray. Committee of National Liberation (PEEA) After the German conquest, several hun- and, in April, held elections to the PEEA’s dred KKE members escaped and went parliament in which women were, for the underground. Following the German inva- first time, allowed to vote. sion of the Soviet Union, a reconstituted The establishment of a government of KKE attempted to form an anti-Fascist resis- national unity, under George Papandreou, tance organization but received little support in May 1944, temporarily ended the civil from the center and rightist parties. Never- war. After liberation in October 1944, the theless, the KKE established the EAM on tensions between EAM and the rightist, September 27, 1941, with representatives of nationalist republican forces, supported by the KKE, the Socialist Party of Greece Britain, escalated. Because of disagreements (SKE), the Union for People’s about the disarmament of ELAS, now num- (ELD), and the Agricultural Party of Greece. bering about 50,000, and the formation of a The EAM formally called for the liberation national army, the EAM ministers resigned of Greece from the Nazis and Italians. on December 1.

100 EDES 101

The EAM organized a demonstration in EDES Athens on December 3, 1944. Police fired on the crowd, killing 25 protesters and wounding EDES (National Republican Greek League) 148 others. This clash escalated into a month- was the largest of the non-Communist resis- long conflict, the “December events,” between tance groups during the Axis occupation of ELAS and British and Greek governmental Greece during World War II. (Note: The forces. The British and Greek government abbreviations are from the Greek words for victory led to the Varkiza Agreement of the noted groups.) February 1945, which disbanded ELAS. In On September 9, 1941, Colonel Napoleon April, SKE and ELD left EAM, leaving the Zervas (1891–1957), a former army officer KKE as the only party in the EAM. with centrist political views, established The government conducted a “white ter- EDES. Politically republican oriented, it ror” campaign against EAM-KKE supporters strongly disliked the exiled king, George II during the rest of 1945, which eventually led (1890–1947), and had some vague leftist/ to the outbreak of the in socialist tendencies. March 1946. Former ELAS fighters formed On the same day, Komninos Pyromaglou the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), (1890–1980), a friend and assistant of exiled which fought Greek government forces, (1883–1953), arrived in backed first by Britain and then the United Greece from Nice to form a republican States, until 1949. During the Cold War, the organization with socialist content. After Greek government outlawed the KKE, vilified contacting Zervas, Plastiras took command EAM/ELAS as Communist subversive of EDES and, in October, established a groups, and accused them of various crimes five-member Executive Committee. As the against their political rivals. After Andreas organization grew, EDES contacted British Papandreou (1919–1996) came to power in headquarters in Cairo, looking for funds, 1981, the government recognized EAM as a weapons, and guidance. wartime resistance movement and honored EDES was initially limited to Athens but former ELAS fighters with state pensions. steadily grew with the support of many Robert B. Kane prominent Venizelist and Republican mili- tary figures. EDES contacted EAM and See also: EDES; Greece, Invasion of, 1941; Greek Civil War; Papandreou, George (1888– tried to establish some form of cooperation. 1968) The negotiations failed over the Commu- nists’ demands to merge EDES with its mili- Further Reading tary force, the Greek People’s Liberation Army (ELAS), and their distrust of Zervas’s Averoff-Tossizza, Evangelos. By Fire and Axe: The Communist Party and the Civil War in pro-British attitudes. Greece, 1944–1949.NewRochelle,NY: On July 23, 1942, after intense British Caratzas Brothers, 1978. pressure and more than a month after the Kousoulas, D. George. Revolution and Defeat: official appearance of ELAS, Zervas and a The Story of the Greek Communist Party. handful of companions set out for the Valtos London: Oxford University Press, 1965. Mountains in west central Greece. Epirus Leeper, Reginald. When Greek Meets Greek. remained the primary area of EDES opera- London: Chatto and Windus, 1950. tions to the end of the occupation. 102 Enver Pasha

Supported by British parachute drops, Germans had explicitly exempted EDES EDES quickly gathered some 100 fighters. from its propaganda attacks. The numeri- The first major EDES operation was the cally superior ELAS forces defeated the destruction of the Gorgopotamos viaduct in EDES in Epirus, and EDES’s remaining central Greece by a joint force of British fighters were evacuated to Corfu. After commandos and EDES and ELAS forces, British and government forces defeated the November 25–26, 1942. Although the oper- ELAS in Athens in January 1945, EDES ation, one of the greatest sabotage acts in forces returned to Epirus, where a portion occupied Europe, was successful and greatly of them assisted in the expulsion of the boosted the prestige of the nascent Greek Cham Albanians. resistance, it also caused a significant rift Robert B. Kane between EDES and ELAS. The British See also: EAM/ELAS; Greece, Invasion of, loudly lauded EDES’s role in the operation 1941; Greek Civil War; Papandreou, George and generally ignored the contribution of (1888–1968) the ELAS forces although the ELAS fighters outnumbered the EDES fighters, presaging Further Reading the future problems between the two resis- Averoff-Tossizza, Evangelos. By Fire and Axe: tance groups. The Communist Party and the Civil War in Making relations between the two guer- Greece, 1944–1949.NewRochelle,NY: rilla groups worse, the ELAS several times Caratzas Brothers, 1978. accused EDES and other rival organizations Leeper, Reginald. When Greek Meets Greek. of collaborating with the occupation London: Chatto and Windus, 1950. forces. As a result, ELAS attacked EDES Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece: The forces, numbering about 10,000 fighters, in Experience of Occupation, 1941–44.New October 1943, triggering a civil war. In addi- Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001. tion, Stylianos Gonatas, initially an EDES political leader in Athens, supported the col- laborationist . In Febru- Enver Pasha (1882–1922) ary 1944, the EDES and the 12th German Army, at the height of the fighting between The chief of general staff and the war minis- the two resistance groups, declared an armi- ter of the Ottoman Empire during World stice to fight the ELAS. On the other hand, War I, Enver was one of the leading figures EDES accused ELAS for its pro-Soviet of the military wing of the Committee of views and crimes against non-Communists. Union and Progress (CUP), and after the The two groups agreed to a fragile truce raid (1913), he became the in February 1944 with the establishment of leader of the military wing of the CUP. His a government of national unity under influence in joining the war alongside the George Papandreou (1919–1996). However, Germans propelled him to become the pri- in December, two months after the libera- mary actor in the side in tion, ELAS forces in Athens attempted to both military and political terms. overthrow the government, and other ELAS Enver was born in Constantinople on units attacked EDES positions in Epirus. November 22, 1882. After graduating from During the fighting in Athens, ELAS again the military high school, the Military Acad- accused EDES of collaboration since the emy, and the General Staff College, he was Enver Pasha 103

(1842–1918), who was forced to declare the Second Constitution (July 23, 1908). Due to his role in restoring the constitution, Enver was celebrated as the “hero of liberty.” Next year, the so-called March 31 affair ended with the deposition of the sultan. Enver served as military attache´ in Berlin during 1909–1911, which gave him the opportunity to observe the military and social structure of Germany. These observa- tions were influential in cementing his admiration for Germany and his strong con- viction for the invincibility of the German ground forces. Enver’s fame in the eyes of the public grew even larger thanks to his successes in Tripoli () against the Italians. He was not able to return to Con- stantinople during the initial phases of the Balkan War. During World War I, Enver Pasha’s charisma The unexpected and humiliating defeats and flamboyant style allowed him to that had been suffered at the hands of Bal- dominate the Ottoman government. Thus he kan nations turned the politics of the empire bears great responsibility for the Ottoman upside down. The disillusioned officer mem- Empire’s ultimate defeat. (Perry-Castaneda bers of CUP decided to overthrow the Library) government, which was labeled by many as too lenient, unpatriotic, and conciliatory. A small group of officer conspirators under assigned to Macedonia as a general staff the leadership of Enver captain (1902). His duties there requiring launched a raid into the offices of the prime struggle against the guerrillas influenced ministry and forced the government to him to embrace their tactics and nationalist resign. ideals. The experience he acquired against ThelossofEdirne(Adrianople)to these guerrilla groups and the fact that he Bulgarians with the signing of the peace joined the CUP in those years formed the treaty of London on May 30, 1913, turned basis for his subsequent military and politi- out to be a serious blow to the prestige of cal career. the new CUP-led regime, which had legiti- In July 1908, while stationed in Macedo- mized its military coup by promising to nia, Enver disobeyed his superiors and took retain Edirne at all costs. Nevertheless, the to the mountains with the army units under regime was saved at the last minute with their command clearly imitating guerrillas the initiation of hostilities between Bulgaria that they had fought against. This would and Greece and Serbia on the night of prove to be the spark that ended the 33-year- June 29. Young general staff officers long authoritarian rule of Abdulhamid II immediately demanded action, while the 104 Epirus

civilian wing of the CUP and the generals success as the leader of the nationalist were still indecisive and wavering. Soon movement in Anatolia meant that conditions the real authors of the coup d’e´tat, hawkish were not suitable for Enver’s return. He later general staff officers led by Enver, forced traveled to Central Asia and tried to organ- the timid leaders to act. Amidst the fear of ize resistance against the Russians among a new war, advancing Ottoman units occu- the Turkic peoples. Motivated by radical pied Edirne without a fight on July 21. Turkish nationalism, he tried to repeat his In 1914, as the new generalissimo of success in Macedonia and Tripoli. He was the empire by combining the offices of war killed in action against the Russians near ministry and the general staff under his Belcivan, in modern Tajikistan, on August 4, authority, Enver initiated a large-scale reor- 1922. ganization of the Ottoman military, includ- Ahmet O¨ zcan ing the forced retirement of the old officers See also: Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913; and the promotion of young officers in their Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars; Young place. These young officers would form the Turks backbone of the military leadership during World War I and the Turkish National War Further Reading for Liberation. Enver’s belief in the Haley, Charles D. “The Desperate Ottoman: supremacy of German military thought and Enver Pas¸a and the .” his conviction for the eventual German vic- Middle Eastern Studies 30, no. 1 (Janu- tory were so strong that he left the command ary 1994): 1–51; 30, no. 2 (April 1994): of the Ottoman army to the German General 224–51. Staff during World War I. It was his idea to Turfan, Naim. Rise of the Young Turks: Poli- create a new front in the East against Russia, tics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse. London: I. B. Tauris, 2000. which would expand the scope of the war theater so that it would be easier for the Ger- Yamauchi, Masayuki. The Green Crescent under the Red Star: Enver Pasha in Soviet mans to achieve victory on the Western Russia (1919–1922). Tokyo: Institute for Front. The Germans naturally welcomed the Study of Languages and Cultures of this idea. In , he personally Asia and Africa, 1991. took command of the Ottoman forces in a large-scale attack against the Russians in Eastern Anatolia, although he did not have Epirus any conventional combat experience. The operation ended terribly when thousands of Epirus is a region of the western Balkan Turkish troops died in freezing weather; Peninsula lying between the Moun- nevertheless, this failure greatly boosted the tains and the . In the past, it German General Staff’s trust of Enver. enjoyed periods of independence under Hel- The CUP leadership, including Enver, lenistic and Byzantine rulers. In modern went into exile in order to escape from pos- times, it has had a complicated existence in sible prosecution after the disastrous end of contention between Albania and Greece. World War I. He first went to Berlin, then In later Ottoman times, the area corre- moved to Moscow, where he sought support sponded to the vilayet of Yanya (Ioaninina, for the Turkish resistance in Anatolia. Janina). During the Balkan Wars of 1912– Mustafa Kemal’s (Atatu¨rk; 1881–1938) 1913, Epirus became the object of a major Epirus 105

Greek offensive. The Greek Army of Epirus recognized the Italian protectorate over invaded the area on October 18, 1912. The Albania. In return, the Italians accepted Greeks conducted siege operations around Greek control of northern Epirus. The agree- the city of Janina. Much of the resistance ment lapsed because of Greece’s involve- came from local Albanians, who sought ment in Asia Minor. Greece’s defeat there inclusion in the new Albanian state. Janina caused it to accept the loss of Northern fell to the Greeks on 6 March 6, 1913. The Epirus for the time being. Treaty of London of May 30, 1913, and Benito Mussolini’s (1883 –1945) attack the subsequent Treaty of Bucharest of on Greece in October 1940 revived the ques- assigned most of Epirus, tion of Epirus. Greek forces not only including Janina, to Greece. Austro- repelled the Italian incursion but advanced Hungarian and Italian insistence on the into Albania to occupy Northern Epirus. establishment of a viable Albania, however, They remained there until the German inva- ensured that the northern area of Epirus sion of Greece in April 1941. Epirus then went to Albania. The Greeks maintained a came under Italian rule until Italy’s surren- strong interest in the region. On March 2, der in September 1943. Then the Germans 1914, Epirote Greeks, with the collusion of took over control of the region. After elements in Athens, proclaimed the Autono- World War II, much of Epirus became a mous Republic of Northern Epirus. The battleground of the Greek Civil War from Greek government was reluctant to sustain 1945 to 1949. The border between Albania this regime, and it formally withdrew its and Greece remained closed during most of forces in June. Nevertheless, Greek irregu- the Cold War, while a formal state of war lars continued to maintain a presence in the existed between the two countries. Only in region. The weak government in Tirana 1987 did the state of war end. At the same was unable to enforce its authority there. time the Greeks abandoned claims to After the outbreak of World War I, the Northern Epirus. Albanian state collapsed. Greek forces Richard C. Hall returned to the region in October 1914. See also: Greece in the Balkan Wars; Greece Northern Epirus was recognized as an in World War I; Greek Civil War; Italy in the integral part of Greece. In November1916, Balkans during World War I; Janina, Siege French troops moving west from Salonika of, 1912–1913 entered Korc¸e¨ and recognized an “autono- mous province,” or based upon the city. Further Reading They soon withdrew this recognition. In Petsalis-Diomidis, N. Greece at the Paris 1917, Italian forces pushed most of the Peace Conference 1919. : Greeks out of the region. After the end of Institute for Balkan Studies, 1978. the war, Epirus again became an area of con- Stickney, Edith Pierpont. Southern Albania or tention between Greece and the Italian- Northern Epirus in European International supported Albanian state at the Paris Peace Affairs, 1912–1923. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1926. Conference. On July 20, 1919, Italy and Greece concluded the so-called Tittoni- Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I. B. Taurus, 1995. Venizalos agreement, by which Greece F

Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria (1854–1929), wavered between the Entente (1861–1948) and the Central Powers, seeking to regain the territorial loses of the Balkan Wars. The was a Bulgarian CentralPowersappearedtobeinthebetter prince and later czar. Born on February 26, position to help Bulgaria realize this goal, 1861, in Vienna, Ferdinand was the fifth and so in the autumn of 1915, Ferdinand fol- youngest son of Prince Augustus of Saxe- lowed his personal predilections and led Coburg (1818–1881) and Gotha and Princess Bulgaria into an alliance with them and an Clementine d’Orle´ans (1817–1907), the attack on Serbia. The Bulgarian collapse in daughter of Louis Philippe, the deposed king September 1918 led to popular unrest, cul- of the French. Ferdinand promoted himself minating in the Radomir Rebellion that to inherit the Bulgarian throne when it forced Ferdinand from the throne. On Octo- became empty after the Russian-supported ber4,1918,heabdicatedinfavorofhis overthrow of Prince Alexander Battenberg son Boris of Tu˘rnovo and fled to Germany. (1857–1893) in 1886, and to general surprise, Ferdinand died in Coburg on September 10, he received the offer of the throne. Thereafter, 1948, having outlived both his son Czar Ferdinand maintained a deep personal suspi- Boris (b. 1894), who died in 1943, and cion of Russia. Prince Kyril (b. 1895), who was executed As prince of Bulgaria, Ferdinand pursued by Bulgarian Communists in 1946. a foreign policy that sought to use the Richard C. Hall Great Power rivalries to Bulgaria’s advan- See also: Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria (1894– tage. He obtained a rapprochement with 1943); Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Bulgaria Russia in 1895. In 1908, he conspired to pro- in World War I claim full independence from the Ottoman Empire for Bulgaria in conjunction with Further Reading Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia- Constant, Stephen. Foxy Ferdinand, Tsar of Herzegovina. At the same time, he assumed Bulgaria. New York: Watts, 1980. the title of czar. During the First Balkan Iovkov, Ivan. Koburgu˘t. Sofia: Partizdat, 1980. War of 1912–1913, Bulgaria initially Madol, Hans Roger. Ferdinand von Bulgarien, achieved significant victories. Ferdinand, der Traum von Byzanz. Berlin: Universitas, who always had theatrical tendencies, 1931. dreamt of an imperial entry into Constanti- nople. In the Second Balkan War, however, Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924 Bulgaria suffered catastrophic defeats that shook Ferdinand’s control. This small independent state, consisting of When World War I began, Ferdinand the city of Fiume and rural areas to its and his prime minister, Vasil Radoslavov north, existed between 1920 and 1924.

106 Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924 107

Known as Rijeka since 1945, it is a part of extraordinary government, an Italian royal present-day Croatia. commissioner, and a group of D’Annunzio Between 1719 and November 1918, loyalists in control for successive short Fiume existed as an essentially autonomous terms. In October, the autonomist Zanella entity with the Holy Roman Empire became provisional president until (Austria-Hungary after 1867). After World March 3, 1922, when Italian Fascists took War I ended, both the Kingdom of Serbs, control. In early March 1922, Italian troops Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) and returned control to the constituent assembly, Italy claimed the city, but the Great Powers still loyal to the Italian annexationists. favored the establishment of an independent On January 27, 1924, Italy and Yugo- buffer state. A South-Slav National Com- slavia signed the , which mittee and an Italian National Council con- allowed Italy to annex Fiume and Yugo- tended for control of the city, leading to its slavia to annex Susˇak. The government-in- occupation by British and French troops. exile of the Free State considered these The Italian poet Gabriele D’Annunzio annexations invalid and continued to act as (1863–1938) and his followers occupied the Fiume’s legal government. After Italy sur- city from September 12, 1919, until late rendered in September 1943, the issue of December 1920, and, a year later, pro- Fiume resurfaced. In 1944, a group of citi- claimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro. zens supported the formation of a confed- On November 12, 1920, Italy and Yugo- eracy of Fiume, surrounding cantons, and slavia signed the , which nearby islands. President Zanella of the affirmed the independence of Fiume. government-in-exile still sought the reestab- D’Annunzio refused to acknowledge the lishment of the Free State. However, Yugo- agreement, and Italian troops expelled him slavian authorities occupied the city, now from the city after fighting from December 24 called Rijeka, on May 3, 1945 and success- to December 30, 1920. In April 1921, the vot- fully obtained the city in the Paris Peace ers approved the plan for a Free State. In the Treaty of 1947. first parliamentary elections, voters gave Robert B. Kane the Autonomist Party 6,558 votes while the Further Reading National Bloc, composed of Fascist, Liberal, Macartney, Maxwell H. H., and Paul Cremona. and Democratic Parties, received 3,443 Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy, 1914– votes. The leader of the Autonomist Party, 1937. London: Oxford University Press, Riccardo Zanella (1875–1959), became the 1938. president. Nicolson, Harold. Peacemaking, 1919.New From April to October 1921, political York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1965. control of Fiume was in a constant state of Woodhouse, John. Gabriele D’Annunzio: Defi- flux with the Italian National Council of ant Archangel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Fiume, the Italian military, a nationalist 1998. G

Gallipoli, 1915 Winston Churchill (1874–1965), but War Minister Field Marshal Horatio Kitchener The largest amphibious landing in history (1850–1916) joined Churchill in supporting until World War II, the Gallipoli campaign the expedition. He saw the operation as a was an Allied operation in 1915 on the repayment to Russia for having eased pres- Gallipoli Peninsula of European Turkey in sure in the East in 1914, even though Russia the battle between the Allies and Turkish was not then fully mobilized. forces for control of the Dardanelles In January 1915, a huge fleet of French Straits. Turkey had entered the war on the and British ships, including 18 battleships side of Germany and the Central Powers. under Admiral Sackville Carden (1857– This created serious supply problems for 1930), gathered at Island 60 miles Russia, as it cut off easy access to its allies from the entrance to the Dardanelles, which from the Black Sea into the Mediterranean. were mined and guarded by Turkish forts British leaders, seeking a way to expedite on both sides. The first attack was launched thewarthathadboggeddowninthestale- on February 19 against the forts at the mate of on the Western entrance of the straits, but the attack was Front, saw a campaign against Turkey as called off due to weather. The second attack offering several advantages. A successful was made on February 25. The defensive attack against the Dardanelles might drive positions were overpowered by the naval Turkey from the war and open a supply bombardment, and the Turkish and German lane to Russia. In addition, an Allied defenders withdrew. victory might draw German troops to the When Carden tried to continue the attack East. French leaders, who wanted the through the straits on March 13, however, major effort on the Western Front, nonethe- the defenders shelled the Allied minesweep- less went along. ers with mobile howitzer batteries. The The initial plan was to force the straits Allied attack was repulsed. Under great with a naval operation alone. Once the fleet pressure from London to continue the had overcome the Turkish shore batteries attack, Carden resigned and was replaced and entered the Sea of Marmara, it was by Sir John de Robeck hoped that Greece, and perhaps Romania (1862–1928). On March 18, Robeck’s forces and Italy, would abandon their neutrality tried once again to force the straits. Attack- and join a Balkan coalition against Turkey. ing in three waves, the Allied fleet was Additionally, the planners believed that the almost successful. However, when three appearance of a British fleet off Constanti- Allied capital ships were sunk by mines nople might bring the downfall of the Turk- and two others were put out of action, ish government and cause that country to Robeck abandoned the attack. switch sides. The prime mover behind the With the failure to force the straits from plan was First Lord of the Admiralty the sea, efforts shifted to an amphibious

108 Gallipoli, 1915 109

landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Sir Ian to prepare the Allied troops, most of whom Hamilton (1853–1947), commander of the had little or no combat experience. There Mediterranean Expeditionary Forces, was was little concern on the part of the Allied charged with that mission. The southern leadership. The Turkish army was held in end of the peninsula was chosen as the such contempt that no serious efforts were point of attack. There were very few efforts made to study its methods, command 110 Gallipoli, 1915

structure, strength, or dispositions, despite Allies, concealed enemy machine-gun nests the fact that the Allies were about to under- and snipers. The Allied landings spear- take a potentially difficult and demanding headed by the 29th Division were well amphibious landing. To make matters planned and executed fairly efficiently worse, maps of the peninsula, some taken because, by luck, they occurred in weakly from tourist guide books, were out of date held areas. Once ashore, however, the troops and often inaccurate, and no detailed recon- were beset by confusion and irresolute lead- naissance of the landing areas had been ership that typified the entire campaign, and undertaken. they failed to press their advantage by a Meanwhile, 84,000 Turkish and German rapid advance inland. The advantage went defenders under the command of German to the defenders, who rushed forces to general Otto Liman von Sanders (1855– counter the landings, and the Allies soon 1929), ably assisted by Turkish colonel found themselves pinned down on the Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), had not been beaches. idle. Well alerted to the probability of an The Anzac Corps, under the command of Allied invasion, von Sanders organized six Sir William Birdwood divisions of the Turkish army in defensive (1865–1951), made a separate landing positions. The peninsula was hilly and north of the promontory of Gaba Tebe rocky, and he made excellent use of the ter- (later called Anzac Cove). The Australian rain, fortifying the hills just beyond the and troops made it to the land- likely Allied invasion beaches and placing ing beaches in good order, but before they the bulk of his troops in locations where could move inland, Turkish troops from the they could be rushed to any eventual Allied 19th Division under Kemal’s forceful lead- landing site. ership occupied the Sari Bahr Ridge that On April 25, 1915, some 75,000 troops dominated the landing sites. The Anzacs went ashore, including 30,000 from gained little ground against the defenders. and New Zealand and some For the next three months, they held this 17,000 from France. The French troops land at terrific cost, while British howitzers went ashore on the Asiatic side of the straits and naval guns had little effect against the at Kum Kale, where they encountered a Turkish positions on the heights. Allied large Turkish force. Advance there proving troops who were dug in near the coast impossible, on the 27th, the French were endured months of inconclusive but costly extracted and transferred to Cape Helles. engagements. Reinforcements were sent to On the European side of the Dardanelles, both sides, and the sweltering summer the Allies selected five landing points from brought high Allied casualties from both which British forces under Lieutenant the fighting and disease. What had been General Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston (1864– envisaged as a swift, decisive action to 1940) would attack the heights in the penin- secure the peninsula degenerated into the sula’s center at Cape Helles, where the horrifying conditions of trench warfare, not shoreline was rent by ravines and gullies, unlike those that prevailed on the Western presenting only a few small strips of beach Front. backed by cliffs. The Turks were well In London, Kitchener, Churchill, and the entrenched on the high ground, and the diffi- British cabinet clung tenaciously to the cult terrain, unmapped and unknown to the hope of a strategic victory in the East Germany in the Balkans during World War I 111 through the first great amphibious operation ensuing economic chaos helped bring on of modern times. Increasing numbers of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Instead of troops were deployed, and some gains were a morale-building victory, the Gallipoli made in the southern peninsula during campaign had brought the British and June. On August 6–10, a new effort was French a costly failure. made to carry the heights at Sari Bahr. James H. Willbanks Fresh troops were landed at Suvla Bay, See also: Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938); north of Anzac Cove, with orders to advance Ottoman Empire in World War I inland against the high ground, but poor leadership resulted in another failure. Further Reading While Allied officers and men milled around Fewster, Kevin, Hatice Basarin, and Vesihi near the landing point, the Turks had time to Basarin. Gallipoli: The Turkish Story. Lon- prepare for the coming attack, which they don: Allen and Unwin, 2004. easily repulsed. By September, it was clear James, Robert Rhodes. Gallipoli: The History that the Gallipoli campaign was a disaster, of a Noble Blunder. New York: Macmillan, but it was not until year’s end that British 1965. authorities could accept the fact and order a Laffin, John. Damn the Dardanelles! The Agony withdrawal. of Gallipoli. London: Osprey, 1980. In October, General Sir Charles Monro Moorehead, Alan. Gallipoli.NewYork: (1851–1933) replaced Hamilton. He con- Harper, 1956. cluded that the Allied situation ashore was Pugsley, Christopher. The ANZACs at Gal- unsatisfactory and that without major lipoli. Melbourne, Australia: Lothian, 2000. reinforcement, the army ashore would be at Travers, Tim. Gallipoli 1915. Stroud, Glouces- serious risk over the winter. Kitchener tershire: Tempus, 2002. arrived on an inspection trip and recom- mended evacuation. On December 7, the cabinet concurred. Monro predicted up to 40 percent losses in an evacuation, but the Germany in the Balkans during withdrawal was completed by January 9, World War I 1918, without loss of life. It was the largest such operation of its kind in history until Germany’s strategy and aims in the Balkans the evacuation of the British Expeditionary from 1914 to 1918 were driven by the need Force from Dunkerque (Dunkirk) during to support its allies—Austria-Hungary, Bul- World War II. garia, and Turkey—and to defeat attempts The Gallipoli campaign proved an expen- by Russia, Britain, and France to dominate sive enterprise. A half million men had the area. German leaders viewed military deployed to the Dardanelles, of whom success in the Balkans as vital to keeping about 252,000 became casualties. Turkish their allies in the war and ensuring contin- records are incomplete, but their official ued access to the Balkans’ strategic casualty record of 151,309 is undoubtedly resources. In the end, however, German suc- far too low. Regardless, the way to Constan- cesses in southeastern Europe did little to in- tinople was still blocked and would remain fluence the war’s outcome. so for the rest of the war. Russia was cut Prewar German military and political off from easy access to its Allies, and the aims in the Balkans were governed by 112 Germany in the Balkans during World War I

alliance politics. German support of Austria- was strengthened by Russia’s defeat in the Hungary’s goals in the Balkans in the years Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and its leading up to the war was central to the con- humiliating diplomatic reversal in the crisis flict’s outbreak and spread in 1914. Yet this surrounding the Austrian annexation of almost unconditional encouragement of the Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1909. The Balkan Dual Monarchy was a comparatively recent Wars of 1912–1913 further destabilized the development. (1815– region, leaving Turkey weaker and Germany 1898), who unified Germany in 1870 and and Austria-Hungary more concerned about forged alliances with Austria and Russia Serbian and Russian ambitions. For after the Balkan crisis of 1877–1878, Germany and Austria, the rising military avoided such a commitment. Germany’s strength of both Serbia and Russia made 1879 alliances were defensive. Bismarck action imperative before the military was content to leave the balance shifted against them. to its own devices in the Balkans, saying The assassination of Archduke Franz famously that the region was “not worth Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914 and the the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier.” ensuing crisis provided the flashpoint for After 1890, however, Bismarck’s succes- the outbreak and spread of war. Russian sors, led by the new kaiser, Wilhelm II mobilization to counter Austria-Hungary’s (1859–1941), nursed greater ambitions in ultimatum to Serbia triggered the opening southeastern Europe. Fears of encirclement German attack on France and Belgium—an by Russia and France, along with the drive action that not only precipitated war with for economic dominance in the Balkans France and Belgium, but also brought and the desire to bolster ties with the Britain into the conflict. Ottoman Empire and gain entry into the The subsequent course of the war dictated Middle East, led a succession of German German actions in the Balkans. Germany’s officials to pursue a more forward policy, central strategic priority was to secure her including encouraging Austria-Hungary to southeastern flank and isolate Russia. The take a more aggressive stance toward Serbia failure of Austria’s initial offensive against and the other small states in the region. Serbia and the deterioration of her strategic At the same time, German and Austro- position in Galicia, along with the stalemate Hungarian military planners began coordi- in the west and Turkey’s and Bulgaria’s entries nating plans for war with Russia and Serbia, into the war on the side of the Central Powers, assuming that such a conflict would escalate forced the German high command to into a general two-front European war. The divert military and economic resources to German General Staff’s approval of the southeastern Europe to bolster their allies. Schleiffen Plan in 1905 reflected a growing The German Eleventh Army, under the com- assumption by the German military that an mand of General Austro-German confrontation with Russia (1849–1945), led the Austro-Hungarian– anywhere in eastern Europe would escalate Bulgarian–German attack on Serbia in Octo- into a two-front war that Germany and the ber 1915. The Eleventh Army remained along Dual Monarchy could win only if Germany the Macedonian Front for the remainder of could defeat France with a lightning attack the war in the west before Russia could fully mobi- The June 1916 Russian offensive, laun- lize. This questionable assumption of war ched under the command of General A. A. Germany in the Balkans during World War II 113

Brusilov (1853–1926), against the Dual Allies continued to strength their base at Monarchy scored spectacular initial suc- Salonika. By the time the Allies launched an cesses and brought the Austrians to the offensive in Macedonia on September 14 brink of collapse. The “Brusilov Offensive” against the Bulgarians at Dobro Pole, German brought Romania into the war on the side forces in France were retreating, Germany of the Allies. The German high command was facing defeat and the Habsburg and was obliged to send massive reinforcements Ottoman monarchies were facing collapse. to halt the Russian attacks and deal with the TwoGermandivisionsthatwererushedto new threat from Romania. Fortunately for Bulgaria arrived too late to help against the the Germans and their allies, they quickly Entente offensive. After Bulgaria left the war halted the Russians and turned to deal with on September 29, the remnants of the German the Romanians, who proved ineffective. Eleventh Army slowly retreated north into Entente forces on the Macedonian Front Austro-Hungarian territory. attempted to support the Romanians with In the end, the Balkans had proved offensives in the Lake Doiran and Struma more of a liability than an asset to the River areas to tie down Bulgarian forces and Germans—their military successes in the prevent a Bulgarian move against southern region notwithstanding. The drain on Romania, but these attacks proved insuffi- Germany’s resources growing out of the cient. Caught in a pincer between German need to constantly prop up their allies ulti- and Austrian forces advancing from the mately contributed to Germany’s defeat. north and a mixed force of German, Bulgar- Walter F. Bell ian, and Turkish troops advancing from the See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans south, the Romanian army and government during World War I; Dobro Pole, Battle of, abandoned Bucharest on December 7, 1916, 1918; Bulgaria in World War I; Macedonian and withdrew to Moldavia on the Russo- Front, 1916–1918; Romania in World War I; Romanian border. The Romanian threat to Serbia in World War I the Central Powers in the Balkans was over. There was little further military activity in Further Reading the Balkans until summer 1918. By this Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The time, most German units and movable Battle of Dobro Pole, 1918. Bloomington: equipment had left the Balkans in order to Indiana University Press, 2010. participate in the great Western Front offen- Herwig, Holger. The First World War: Ger- sives in spring 1918. Only a command and many and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918. London: Arnold, 1997. staff shell remained as Army Group Scholtz. This combined the German Eleventh Army, Strachan, Hew. The First World War, Volume I: To Arms. New York: Oxford University whichbythencontainedmanyBulgarian Press, 2001. units, with the Bulgarian First Army. Although eliminating Romania ended the immediate crisis for Germany and her allies, Germany in the Balkans during the victory did little to improve their overall World War II strategic position. The Russian Revolution and Russia’s subsequent withdrawal from The Balkan Peninsula is bounded by the the war only inflamed home front discontent Black Sea to the east, the Aegean and among the Central Powers. Meanwhile, the the Mediterranean to the southeast, and the 114 Germany in the Balkans during World War II

Adriatic Sea to the west. At the time of Soviet Union scheduled to begin in mid- World War II, six states occupied the Bal- 1941. In addition, Mussolini, without con- kans—Romania, Bulgaria, parts of Hungary, sulting the Germans, had invaded Greece Greece, Yugoslavia, and Albania. The Bal- from Albania in October 1940. The Greeks kans’ northern boundary is considered to be actually drove the invaders back into the Danube and Sava Rivers. During World Albania. Mussolini’s actions further created War II, the Balkans played a central role in an opening for Britain to come to Greece’s the strategy of Nazi Germany and impacted aid and create a front in southeastern the German war effort in ways unforeseen Europe. Germany would have to mount a by Adolf Hitler and the German High Com- military operation against Greece (Opera- mand at the war’s onset. tion Marita) both to rescue its Italian ally Throughout World War II, Germany had and consolidate its southern flank before three objectives in the Balkans: to ensure invading the Soviet Union. access to the region’s resources, particularly The major problem in invading Greece Romanian oil fields; to consolidate its was to get German troops to the Greek fron- southern flank as a base for the war against tier. Germany would need the cooperation of the Soviet Union; and to prevent the western Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Yugo- allies from gaining bases from which they slavia. Opening a diplomatic offensive in could bomb targets in Germany and eastern November 1940, Hitler used a combination Europe. of strong-arm tactics and promises of Between September 1939 and June 1941, economic and territorial rewards to bring Hitler’s approach to the Balkan states Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria into line. evolved depending on the overall military Yugoslavia, however, proved more difficult. situation and Germany’s relations with Although Hitler induced the government Italy and the Soviet Union. Mussolini’s of the regent Prince Paul to join the Axis, Italy, which had occupied Albania in 1939, a coup by the Yugoslav military on nursed ambitions -a`-vis Yugoslavia and March 27, 1941, overthrew Prince Paul’s Greece. The Soviet Union, with whom (1893–1976) government, thus jeopardizing Germany had signed a nonaggression pact the entire German position. Even though in August 1939, also had territorial designs the new government offered to sign a nonag- on its borders with Rumania as well as the gression treaty with Germany and allow traditional Russian dream of controlling the German troops to pass through southeastern Turkish Straits. Yugoslavia and cross into Greece, Hitler, Germany’s swift victories in Poland in incensed by anti-German demonstrations in September 1939 and France and the Low Belgrade, ordered an attack on Yugoslavia. Countries in the spring of 1940 transformed The German conquest of the Balkans took Germany’s position in the Balkans. Hitler only three weeks. On April 6, the Luftwaffe could now assert German dominance over undertook a heavy bombing raid against the small states of the region. The need to Belgrade. Two days later, the German force Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Twelfth Army crossed the Yugoslav frontier Yugoslavia to allow a German military pres- from its assembly areas in western Bulgaria. ence and to make them German satellites On April 10, the XLIV Panzer Corps gained urgency with Hitler’s decision to invaded Yugoslavia from its position in launch Operation Barbarossa against the Romania. At the same time the German Germany in the Balkans during World War II 115

Second Army entered Yugoslavia from the Serbian-based Cˇ etniks and predominately north. Hungarian and Italian units accompa- Croat and pro-Fascist Ustasˇa on the other. nied their German allies. Yugoslav resis- German regular army and SS units commit- tance quickly collapsed. Young King Peter ted massive atrocities in reprisal for guerilla (1923–1970) fled the country, and the attacks as well as against suspected partisans Yugoslavs surrendered on April 18, 1941. and Jews, the Cˇ etniks, and Ustasˇa militias Meanwhile, the German Twelfth Army carried out genocidal against continued on into Greece. It entered Thessa- Jews, and Serbo-Croats viewed as hostile to lonika on April 9. The Germans brushed their own goals. Italy’s surrender to the aside a British force of two divisions and Allies in September 1943 placed a further one armored brigade on the Bulgarian fron- strain on German military resources when tier and quickly occupied the entire country. the latter had to disarm their former allies By April 30, the British withdrew precipi- and take over their areas of occupation. tously by sea, leaving Greece to deal with Hitler’s difficulties in southeastern the Germans alone. The Germans continued Europe intensified in mid-1944 as the Soviet their move south with the conquest of the advance into Romania and Bulgaria threat- island of Crete by means of the first-ever ened to cut off German forces in the airborne invasion, launched on May 20. Balkans. In October, the Germans withdrew The British and New Zealand forces were their troops from Greece, Albania, and once again forced to evacuate the island. southern Yugoslavia. They conducted a By June 1, the Germans were in control of skillful retreat from the western Balkans for Crete. Through his aggressive political and the remainder of the war. After the Red military moves, Hitler had blocked Soviet Army and Tito’s partisans took Belgrade on influence in southeastern Europe, secured October 20, 1944, the Germans retreated to his southern flank for the invasion of the Croatia and Slovenia, where they and allied USSR, and eliminated any chance for Brit- Croatian and Slovenian forces held out ain to create a base in Greece from which until the end of the war in May 1945. they could threaten Germany from the south. The German occupation of the Balkans Axis conquest of the Balkans, however, proved costly in terms of human casualties, created a new set of problems for the both civilian and military, growing from Germans and Italians. From the start until guerilla war and genocide. Military and the Germans’ withdrawal from the Balkans civilian deaths totaled nearly 2 million. in late 1944, the occupiers found themselves It set the stage for a Communist takeover in embroiled in savage guerilla wars in both Yugoslavia and a prolonged civil war in Greece and Yugoslavia. In Yugoslavia in Greece. There were echoes of World War II particular, an uprising of Communist parti- in the Balkans 40 years later in the wars sur- sans, led by Marshall Josip Broz Tito rounding the breakup of Yugoslavia in the (1892–1980), grew into a major insurgency 1990s. that eventually tied down 15 German divi- sions. In addition, the Germans had to deal Walter F. Bell with ethnic and sectarian clashes among See also: Albania in World War II; Bulgaria in Yugoslavia’s Serb, Croat, Albanian, and World War II; Cˇ etniks; Crete, Battle of, 1941; Muslim elements. Civil war raged between GreeceinWorldWarII;HungaryinWorld Tito’s Communists on one side and the WarII;ItalyintheBalkansduringWorld 116 Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941

War II; Romania in World War II; Tito, Josif of the spring and summer of 1940. Italian Broz (1892–1980); Ustasˇa; Yugoslavia in intentions became clearer on August 15, World War II 1940, when the Italian submarine Delfino torpedoed and sunk the Greek light cruiser Further Reading Elli in the harbor of the Greek Aegean island Blau, George E. Invasion Balkans! The German Campaign in the Balkans, Spring Tenos. On October 28, 1940, at 0300 hours, 1941. Shippensburg, PA: Burd Street the Italian ambassador in Athens delivered Press, 1997. an ultimatum demanding that Italian troops Hoare, Marko. Genocide and Resistance in occupy strategic points throughout the Hitler’s Bosnia: The Partisans and the country. The Italians wanted to annex Chetniks, 1941–1943. London: Oxford Uni- northwestern Greek territories to Albania versity Press (for the British Academy), and to take over the and 2006. some of the Aegean Islands. They intended Pavolowitch, Steven K. Hitler’s New Disorder: to first take Epirus and the Ionian Islands, The Second World War in Yugoslavia.New and afterward drive on Thessaloniki. In York: Columbia University Press, 2008. spite of strenuous Italian efforts to gain Shephard, Ben. Terror in the Balkans: German their support, the Bulgarians remained Armies and Partisan Warfare. Cambridge, aloof from the operation. MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. Metaxas immediately rejected the ultima- tum. The Italian attack from Albanian territory into northwestern Greece began Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941 soon thereafter. Lieutenant General Sebas- tiano Visconti Prasca (1883–1961) com- The Greco-Italian War of 1940–1941 origi- manded the Italian forces. Under the nated in the grandiose dreams of the Italian leadership of General Alexander Papagos dictator Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) to (1883–1955), the Greeks responded to the recreate the Mediterranean realm of the Italian attacks with a spirited resistance. ancient Roman Empire. He adopted a hostile The Greek lack of armor and antitank weap- policy toward his eastern neighbors Greece ons made little difference. Poor weather and and Yugoslavia. The Greeks sought protec- inadequate equipment hampered the Italian tion from Mussolini’s expansionist policies advance from the start. They made little in an arrangement with the other Balkan progress. In an effort to shake up the Italian states, the Balkan Entente, in 1934. Later, command, on November 9, Mussolini the Greek dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas replaced General Prasca with General (1871–1941) attempted to thwart the Italians Ubaldo Soddu (1883–1949). Soddu recog- by establishing close relations with Nazi nized that the offensive against the Greeks Germany, especially in the economic realm. had failed. After the partial destruction of This was to no avail. the Julia Division, he ordered his troops to Mussolini indicated his hostile intentions go over to the defensive. towards Greece after April 7, 1939, The Greeks launched their counteroffen- when Italian forces occupied neighboring sive all along the front on November 14. Albania and supported Albanian claims on By this time, the Greeks had concentrated a northwestern Greece (Epirus). Mussolini force in the northwest that outnumbered the was eager to replicate the German successes invaders. The Greeks succeeded in pushing Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941 117 the Italians back into Albanian territory. Ital- became concerned about the fighting ian tanks and trucks were not capable of between Greece and Italy. In general, the advancing over the miserable mountain roads presence of the RAF in Greece was a threat in the region. The lack of adequate port facili- in being to the southern flank of Operation ties in Albania also hampered the ability of Barbarossa—specifically, the RAF could the Italians to maintain logistical support for bomb the vital Romanian oilfields and pro- their soldiers. During their counteroffensive, duction facilities around Ploest¸i. In Decem- Greek troops occupied most of southeastern ber 1940, Hitler decided that he must Albania, including the important cities of intervene on the side of the Italians to Korc¸e¨, Pogradec, and Gjirokaste¨r. Poor logis- remove this potential problem. On Decem- tics, poor weather and Italian reinforcements ber 13, 1949, he issued the instructions for prevented the Greeks from reaching the Operation Marita, the invasion of Greece important port city of Vlore¨.Bymid- through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. December, both sides had reached a stale- The Germans initially counted on the co- mate, with Greek forces occupying almost a operation of Yugoslavia. A coup on March quarter of Albanian territory. General Ugo 26, 1941, ousted the pro-German regime. Cavallero (1880–1943) replaced General The then became an Soddu in mid-December. By this time British additional goal of Operation Marita. This aid had begun to bolster the Greeks. A Royal operation began on April 6. Within a week, Air Force (RAF) contingent of antiaircraft German, Hungarian, and Italian forces had guns, bombers, and fighters arrived. The Brit- overrun Yugoslavia. Despite British assis- ish undertook missions to harass the Italian tance, Greece surrendered on April 20. rear areas in Albania. No British ground During the Greco-Italian War, the Greeks forces, however, deployed due to Metaxas’s demonstrated a marked ability to conduct fear of provoking the Germans. both defensive and offensive operations in The stalemate continued through most of extremely difficult conditions of terrain and the winter months of 1941. After Metaxas’s weather. Greek morale generally remained death on January 29, 1941, the new Greek high. In contrast, the Italian equipment government authorized the appearance of proved to be of poor quality and little use. British ground forces. Four divisions of Brit- Italian morale remained low throughout the ish troops began to arrive in March. In mid- campaign. The Italians sustained 165,000 March, the Italians attempted an offensive. casualties, including over 40,000 dead and By that time, German intervention was missing. The Greeks lost 13,408 dead and looming. The Italians wanted to make some 42,485 wounded in the fighting. gains before the appearance of German Richard C. Hall forces. They achieved little in the face of See also: Balkan Entente, 1934; Greece, Inva- determined . sion of, 1941; Greece in World War II; Italy in Mussolini’s failure in Greece initially the Balkans during World War II; Metaxas, gave his German ally Adolf Hitler (1889– Ioannis (1871–1941) 1945) little cause for concern. The appear- ance of the RAF in Greek air fields, how- Further Reading ever, was an entirely different matter. With Burgwyn, H. James. Mussolini Warlord: Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of Soviet Failed Dreams of Empire, 1940–1943. Russia, scheduled for the next spring, Hitler New York: Enigma Books, 2012. 118 Greco-Ottoman War, 1897

Cervi, Mario. The Hollow Legions: Mussoli- their destination on time, and 40,000 person- ni’s Blunder in Greece, 1940–1941. Garden nel and 8,000 pack animals were transported City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. in 20 days. The transportation of baggage Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece.New from the last train station to Alasonya, how- Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. ever, took an inordinate amount of time and effort due to poor road conditions and lack of transportation assets. Greco-Ottoman War, 1897 The initial stage of the campaign showed all the shortcomings of an inexperienced The Ottoman administration tried its best to but excessively enthusiastic army. Officers stay away from war. However the overconfi- andsoldierssometimesrantowardthe dent Greek leadership saw the situation for enemy as if in a race without paying atten- annexing Crete and even expanding on the tion to combat tactics and techniques, and mainland further north as ripe for exploita- the first casualty figures of officers jumped tion. A reinforced battalion-sized Greek para- to abnormally high levels. Instead of con- military force with some Italian volunteers ducting the encirclement maneuver as attacked Ottoman border towers and defeated planned, most units simply tried to push the a border company in Kranya (Krania) on Greek defenders back by frontal assaults. April 9. Even though they were repulsed and The second stage proceeded along the same retreated back to Greece the next day, the lines as the first. Ottoman units pushed the incident forced the administration to declare Greek defenders back without attempting war on Greece on April 17, 1897. encirclement maneuvers, and the Greeks The Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 was safely evacuated their defenses retreating to fought in two separate theaters of operations; their last defensive line. Alasonya-Thessaly and Yanya (Janina)– Although confidence and firmer control Epirus. For the first time, the Ottoman high under fire replaced the combat inexperience command put contingency plans into use. of the Ottoman rank and file, the first battle The plan was simple: strategic defense by an of Velestin (Velestino) was a disaster. In army corps (two infantry divisions) in the this encounter, a forced reconnaissance Yanya region, and strategic offensive by a turned into a futile and bloody assault field army (seven infantry divisions and one which proved that the Ottoman officers cavalry division) in the Alasonya region. especially needed more experience. The The main idea was to force Greeks to operations on the Yanya Front did not go overstretch their initial defensive lines, smoothly, either. In the meantime, an unex- which were very close to the border. The pected Greek assault of April 18 dislocated main body of the Ottoman Alasonya Army the Yanya Corps and defeated the Second would try to fall behind the Greeks before Division. Even though the Yanya Corps they were able to retreat back to the Yenis¸e- gained confidence and recaptured the lost hir Line. Thousands of reserve soldiers ground in two weeks, it remained on the enthusiastically flooded the recruitment cen- defensive afterward. The three pitched ters, and officials encountered difficulties battles—Velestin, C¸ atalca (), and forcingthemtosendhomeexcessnumbers Do¨meke ()—in front of the last of reserves. Thanks to the availability of Greek defensive line turned out to be deci- good railways, most of the units reached sive. The Greek defenders were beaten in Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922 119 detail and lost any chance to safeguard the on July 2, 1917. The Treaty of Se`vres, con- road to Athens. However, thanks to the lim- cluded on August 10, 1920, between the ited nature of Ottoman aims and the timely Allies and the Ottoman Empire, among intervention of the Great Powers, Greece other provisions, allocated these territories was saved from further humiliation. to Greece. Mesut Uyar Meanwhile, after the Armistice of , signed in May 1919, 20,000 See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Greek troops occupied Smyrna. The Greeks Greece in the Balkan Wars of Smyrna greeted the Greek troops as liber- Further Reading ators, and the Turkish army put up little Bartlett, Ellis A. The Battlefields of Thessaly: opposition to the Greek landings. However, With Personal Experiences in Turkey and a Turkish nationalist killed the Greek Greece. London: John Murray, 1897. flag-bearer, resulting in shooting that killed Bigham, Clive. With the Turkish Army in The- between 300 and 400 Turks and 100 Greeks. ssaly. London: Macmillan and Co., 1897. During the summer of 1920, the Greek army von der Goltz, Colmar, Der Thessalische Krieg launched several offensives that extended und die Tu¨rkische Armee. Berlin: E. S. Mit- Greek control over much of western tler und sohn, 1898. Anatolia. Sun, Selim. 1897 Osmanlı-Yunan Harbi. In October 1920, the Greek army renewed Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1965. its advance into Anatolia to pressure Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), the leader of the Turkish nationalists, to sign the Treaty Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922 of Se`vres. The advancing Greeks could not decisively defeat the Turks, who retreated This war, lasting from May 1919 to Octo- in an orderly fashion. ber 1922, between Greece and Turkish In early 1921, the Greek army resumed its nationalists occurred as a result of the parti- advance but met stiff resistance from the tion of the Ottoman Empire after World entrenched Turks. On January 11, 1921, the War I and produced continuing animosity Turkish forces halted the Greek advance at between Greeks and Turks. When World the first battle of Inonu and defeated the War I broke out in 1914, the Ottoman Greeks at the second battle of Inonu on Empire had about 2.5 million Greek- March 30. These Turkish military successes speaking Orthodox Christians in Anatolia. caused the Allies to meet in London to con- King Constantine of Greece (1868–1923) sider amending the Treaty of Se`vres. declared neutrality, but Prime Minister Eleu- In early July 1921, a reinforced Greek the´rios Venize´los (1864–1936) hoped to army launched another major offen- obtain Greek-inhabited eastern Thrace, the sive against Turkish troops along the islands of and Tenedos, and parts of Afyonkarahisar-Kutahya-Eskisehir line. western Anatolia around Smyrna (Izmir). The Greeks broke through the Turkish When he began negotiations with the Allies, defenses and occupied these strategically the king dismissed him. Venize´los, with the important cities but halted for a month. help of the Entente, eventually forced Kemal used this delay to retreat to the east Constantine to abdicate in May 1917. of the Sakarya River and organize defensive Greece declared war on the Ottoman Empire lines about 62 miles from Ankara. 120 Greece, Invasion of, 1941

In early , the Greek army Destruction of, 1922; Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios advanced on the Turkish defenses. From (1864–1936) August 23 to September 13, the fighting see- Further Reading sawed across the Turkish defenses. Then, Clogg, Richard. A Short History of Modern the Greek army tried to capture Haymana, Greece. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge 25 miles south of Ankara, but the Turks University Press, 1986. held out. Exhausted by the ferocity of the Howard, Douglas A. The . battle, the Greeks decided to withdraw Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001. to their lines of June. The Greeks then Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern retreated to Smyrna. Turkey. London: Oxford University Press, In March 1922, the Allies tried to nego- 1961. tiate a cease-fire between the Greeks and Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezul Kural Shaw. His- Turks, but Kemal insisted that Greeks with- tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern draw from Anatolia. The Turks then Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Reaction and defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Dumlu- Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, pinar near Afyon on August 30, 1922. On 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge September 9, Turkish troops occupied University Press, 1977. Smyrna, and the remaining Greek forces evacuated Anatolia. The Turks destroyed Greece, Invasion of, 1941 the city and killed most of the Greeks left. NewsofthemassacreatSmyrnacaused On April 6, 1941, German forces undertook over a million Greeks to leave Anatolia for a massive invasion of Greece. The Italians Greece. In retaliation, Greece forced about had previously invaded Greece on 28 Octo- 500,000 Turks living in Greece to immigrate ber 28, 1940. Within weeks of the unpro- to Turkey. voked Italian aggression, the Greeks not As Kemal’s forces advanced toward the only repelled the Italians, but advanced into Dardanelles and the , Italian and Italian-held Albania. Difficult weather and French forces abandoned their positions at topography imposed a stalemate during the the straits, leaving the British alone. On winter of 1940–1941. Soon after the Italian October 15, 1922, Britain, France, Italy, attack, Britain offered aid to the Greeks. At Greece, and Kemal signed the Armistice of first, Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas Mudanya by which the western allies (1871–1941) agreed only to British air and retained control of eastern Thrace and the material support in order not to antagonize Bosporus and the Greeks evacuated these the Germans. After his death on January 29, areas. The , signed on 1941, the new Greek government accepted a July 24, 1923, recognized the independence British offer of ground troops. of the Turkish Republic, the end of Greek The appearance of British forces in territorial claims in Anatolia, and Greece’s Greece alarmed Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), acceptance of its prewar borders. because he perceived them as a threat to Robert B. Kane the southern flank of the upcoming invasion See also: Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938); Mac- of Soviet Russia, Operation Barbarossa. edonian Front, 1916–1918; Lausanne, Treaty Also the (RAF) bases of, 1923; Se`vres, Treaty of, 1920; Smyrna, in Greece were proximate to the vital Greece, Invasion of, 1941 121

Romanian oil fields at Ploest¸i. Conse- the British and Greek defenders to abandon quently, Hitler decided that the British must the and to withdraw south be eliminated from Greece before the Ger- from Macedonia and Albania. They mans embarked upon Operation Barbarossa. attempted to establish defensive positions The German staff prepared Operation first at the Aliakmon River, then later at Marita for the invasion of Greece. Vital for , near the site of the ancient effort was Bulgaria’s joining the Tripartite battle between the Persians and the Spartans Pact on March 1, 1941. This gave the in 480 BC. But the Germans breached the Germans Bulgarian bases and a long frontier Aliakmon River defense on April 15 and across which to invade Greece. An attempt reached Thermopylae on April 22. By this by the Germans to enlist Yugoslav help point the British force had already decided failed when Serbian officers overthrew to evacuate Greece. the compliant Yugoslav government on On April 23, some members of the Greek March 26, 1941. An enraged Hitler then high command, with its units in Epirus iso- included the invasion of Yugoslavia within lated from the rest of its forces, decided to the scope of Operation Marita. surrender. Despite opposition from some The German invasion of Greece and Greek generals, and without the approval of Yugoslavia began on April 6, 1941. The the Greek government, Greek First Army German Twelfth Army under the command commander General Georgios Tsolakoglou of General (1880–1971) came (1886–1948), surrendered the entire Greek up against the Greek fortifications called army to the German invaders at on the Metaxas Line, which stretched from the April 21, 1941. Tsolakoglou surrendered to Aegean Sea, along the Struma River and the Italians on April 23, at the insistence of curved to the west along the Bulgarian fron- the Germans. Meanwhile, continuing their tier. The Greek Second Army (Western fighting retreat, the British evacuated most Macedonia) was arrayed all along the of their troops from and in an Metaxas Line. The Greek First Army (Epi- operation reminiscent of Dunkirk the pre- rus) was committed to the Albanian Front. vious year. The RAF contingent flew to The Greeks did not intend to defend western Crete and to Egypt, while other forces Thrace beyond the Struma River. General escaped to Crete. By late April, most of the Alexander Papagos (1883–1955) com- British force had successfully evacuated, manded the Greeks. Assisting the Greeks despite a successful German attack on the was a British expeditionary force of around Isthmus of Corinth on April 25 in an effort 50,000 men led by General Henry Maitland to block the British withdrawal. “Jumbo” Wilson (1881–1964), which also The Germans entered Athens on April 27. included Australian and New Zealand By April 30, all the British were captured or troops. These troops arrived from Egypt at gone and the campaign was over. The Ger- the end of March, and deployed with the mans established a collaborationist regime Greek Second Army. under General Tsolakoglou. Greece was par- Within three days of the invasion, German celed out among the Bulgarians, Italians, forces broke through the Metaxas Line at a and Germans. Having swiftly overrun point considered inaccessible by the Greeks. Greece with relatively few casualties, the It immediately headed for Thessaloniki, Germans prepared to invade Crete. which it entered on April 9. This compelled Richard C. Hall 122 Greece in the Balkan Wars

See also: Crete, Battle of, 1941; Greco-Italian legion increased the numbers by another War, 1941; Greece in World War II; Salonika; 70,000. On May 29, 1912, the Bulgarians Tsolakoglou, Georgios (1886–1948) andGreekssignedanallianceagreement. A significant flaw in this arrangement was Further Reading the lack of a clear division of Ottoman terri- Blau, George E. Invasion Balkans! The tories between Bulgaria and Greece. This German Campaign in the Balkans, Spring 1941. Shippensburg, PA: Burd Street was mainly because the Bulgarians were Press, 1997. confident that their armies could gain the Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece.New greater portion of Ottoman territories. Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. Fighting in the First Balkan War began Tarnstrom, Ronald. Balkan Battles. Lindsbrog, on October 18, 1912. The Greek army KS: Trogen, 1998. advanced in two directions. The Army of Thessaly moved north toward Thessalonica (Salonika). After a sharp fight at Giannitsa Greece in the Balkan Wars on November 1, the Army of Thessaly occu- pied much of southern Macedonia and Greece’s defeat in the short 1897 war entered Thessalonica on November 8, one against the Ottoman Empire increased its day ahead of a Bulgarian detachment com- determination to secure territory in Epirus, ing from the north. The Army of Epirus Macedonia, and Thessaly as well as Crete advanced to the northwest. By early Decem- and the Aegean Islands. This defeat also ber, it had attacked the important town of convinced Greek military and political lead- Ionnina (Janina), but it lacked the forces to ers that some kind of alliance with the other fully implement a full siege. Meanwhile, Balkan states would be necessary to accom- the Greek fleet took control of the Aegean plish their nationalist goals. The Young Turk Sea. It blocked the Ottoman navy in the Dar- seizure of power in Constantinople in 1908 danelles and at the same time landed Greek and the possibility of revived Ottoman forces on most of the Aegean Islands. power increased the urgency of realizing The Greeks did not participate in the these goals. December 1912 armistice so that they In 1909, the Athens government began a might continue their efforts to take Ionnina. series of overtures to Sofia for a formal alli- There they increased the numbers of artil- ance. After the Bulgarians signed a treaty lery pieces and troops during December. with Serbia on March 13, 1912, they began Although a major assault on January 20 negotiations with the Greeks. The Greek failed, another attack on March 6 led by navy, which had among its ships eight Crown Prince Constantine (1868–1923) suc- destroyers and the large armored cruiser ceeded. Greek troops entered the city that Georgios Averof, was an important asset to same day. a Balkan alliance, because it could check Meanwhile, the Greeks and Bulgarians the resupply of European forces and the contested the division of southern Macedo- transfer by sea of Ottoman reinforcements nia. Skirmishes between Bulgarian and from Anatolia to Europe. The Greeks had a Greek troops erupted there in the spring of small peacetime army that upon mobiliza- 1913. Salonika in particular was a point of tion would grow to 110,000 men. National contention. Serbian disputes with Bulgaria Guard, Cretan volunteers, and an Italian over the division of northern Macedonia led Greece in World War I 123 to the conclusion of a Greek-Serbian alli- Greece in World War I ance on June 1, 1913. One month later, the Bulgarians launched attacks on Greek and When World War I erupted in the summer Serbian positions in Macedonia. The Greek of 1914, the Greek government was unpre- counterattack inflicted a severe defeat on pared to participate. Even though Greece the Bulgarian Second Army. The Greeks had an alliance with Serbia dating from pushed the Bulgarians out of southern Mac- May 1913, Greek prime minister Eleuthe´r- edonia and eliminated the isolated Bulgarian Venize´los (1864–1936) was unable to garrison in Salonika. The Greek advance up secure Greek intervention on the side of the Struma River, however, almost ended in the Entente, which he personally favored. disaster when Bulgarian forces surrounded The Greek king Constantine I (1868– the Greeks in the Kresna Gorge. The conclu- 1923) and much of the Greek army officer sion of an armistice on July 31, 1913, saved corps, however, were pro-German. Con- the Greeks from defeat. stantine was the German kaiser’s brother- Greece was a big winner in the Balkan in-law. Many senior officers had received Wars. At a cost of around 8,000 dead and military training in Germany. Furthermore, 45,000 wounded, the Greeks gained consider- the Greek army and state were exhausted able territories in Epirus, Thessaly, and Mac- from their efforts in the Balkan Wars of edonia. In addition, the Greeks obtained 1912–1913 and needed time to recover. most of the Aegean Islands and the formal The Greek government was concerned that annexation of Crete. These annexations only with Serbia engaged against Austria- increased the appetite of Greek nationalists Hungary, Bulgaria might use the opportu- for further territories in Thrace and Anatolia nity to attack Greece to gain territories lost as well as the great prize of Constantinople. in the Second Balkan War of 1913. Finally, Richard C. Hall the Ottoman Empire still represented a threat to Greece because of disputes over See also: Balkan League, 1912; Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Second, 1913; Chios and Mytilene in the Aegean Islands. Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Balkan Because of these issues, Venize´los, despite Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences; Balkan his personal inclinations, indicated to Wars, 1912–1913, Naval Campaigns Serbia that Greece would not fulfill its treaty obligations. Further Reading The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the Fotakis, Zisis. Greek Naval Strategy and Pol- war on the side of Austria-Hungary and Ger- icy 1910–1919. London: Routledge, 2005. many on November 1, 1914, provided new Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– incentive for Greek action. In January 1915, 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Lon- the British offered Greece Ottoman territory don: Routledge, 2000. in Asia Minor in return for intervention in Hellenic Army General Staff. AConciseHis- the war and aid to Serbia. The Greek army tory of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. opposed any venture in Asia Minor because Athens: Army History Directorate Publica- of concerns about Bulgaria. Venize´los tion, 1998. attempted to bring Greece into the war to Jowett, Philip S. Armies of the Balkan Wars, participate in the Gallipoli campaign. The 1912–1913. Oxford: Osprey, 2011. Russians had no desire to see the Greeks in 124 Greece in World War I

Constantinople. As a result Venize´los government and army. This division is resigned on March 6. known as the “national schism.” In the autumn of 1915, Venize´los returned The Entente attempted to force the issue to power. At the same time, Bulgaria joined by landing troops in Athens in Decem- the Central Powers and prepared to invade ber 1916. Royalist forces offered strong Serbia. On October 3, 1915, Venize´los con- opposition and compelled the British and sented to Entente landings in Salonika. The French to withdraw. After armed interven- British and French intended to move up the tion against the royalist regime failed, the Vardar River to aid the Serbs. Because of Entente imposed a naval blockade around King Constantine’s opposition to his poli- Greece and expanded their presence in cies, however, Venize´los resigned again on northern Greece. Finally, on June 10, 1917, October 5, just as the first Entente units dis- the French demanded that King Constantine embarked in Salonika. For the time being, abdicate within 24 hours and prepared to they were unwelcome guests in Greece. In occupy Athens. Confronted with over- December 1915, the Bulgarians forced the whelming force, and with no help possible British and French back across the Greek from the Central Powers, Constantine com- frontier. The Entente forces then took mea- plied with the ultimatum. Constantine’s sec- sures to establish themselves in and around ond son Alexander (1893–1920) assumed Salonika. The Entente further violated the throne because his elder brother George Greek neutrality by depositing the remnants (1890–1947) shared his father Constantine’s of the Serbian army on Corfu after its trek pro-neutralist sentiments. King Alexander across the Albanian Alps. agreed to the formation of a national A Bulgarian offensive in May 1916 government under Venize´los. The national brought the war further onto Greek territory. schism of almost a year was over. Greece On 26 May the Greek garrison of Fort Rupel then declared war on the Central Powers on surrendered without a fight to the Bulgar- June 30, 1917, the final European state to ians. This indicated the degree within the enter the war. Greek military of antagonism toward the After a period of training and refitting, Entente presence in Greece. Later that during the spring of 1918, the Greek army summer, a Bulgarian offensive brought joined the other Entente forces on the Mac- much of southeastern Macedonia under edonian Front. Six Greek divisions added Bulgarian control, including the towns of over 290,000 men to the British, French, Drama, Kavala, and . The Bulgarians French Colonial, Italian, and Serbian troops also briefly occupied . already there. By time the Greeks arrived, With both warring sides violating the Russian soldiers on the Macedonian Greek neutrality, a cabal of pro-Entente Front had succumbed to revolutionary Greek military officers decided to act. On ideas and had left the front. The Greek August 30, 1916, with the encouragement army achieved some success against the of Venize´los, they established a pro-Entente Bulgarians at the battle of Yerbichna in government in Salonika in opposition to the May 1918, pushing the Bulgarians out of royal neutralist government in Athens. Veni- fortified positions northwest of Salonika. ze´los, having first toured the Aegean Islands The joint British-Greek effort at Lake to gather support, joined the officers on Doiran in September 1918, however, stalled October 9 and established a separate Greek in the face of determined Bulgarian Greece in World War II 125 resistance. After the conclusion of the Bul- depended heavily upon commercial rela- garian armistice in Salonika on Septem- tions with Nazi Germany. The Greek dicta- ber 29, Greek forces occupied western tor, Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941), admired (Bulgarian) Thrace and entered Constanti- his German counterpart. He had been nople with other Entente troops. among those Greek army officers who Greece’s success in World War I was a favored the Central Powers during World prelude to the disastrous intervention in War I. The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini Asia Minor and war against Turkey during (1883–1945), however, had designs on 1919–1922. It raised national expectations Greece. He aspired to control the eastern and inflated anticipated capabilities. Defeat Mediterranean Sea region. Especially after in that war compelled the Greeks to evacu- the German successes in western Europe in ate Asia Minor and also to leave much of the spring of 1940, he wanted to demon- eastern Thrace and the island of Imbros, strate to Nazi Germany that Fascist Italy which they had occupied at the end of was capable of similar feats of arms. World War I. Nevertheless they did retain During the summer of 1940, the Italians western Thrace. began a series of provocations directed Richard C. Hall against Greece. The most overt of these was the sinking of the Greek light cruiser See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Constan- Helle in the harbor of on August 15, tine I, King of Greece (1868–1923); Doiran, Battles of, 1917–1918; Greco-Turkish War, 1940, by an Italian submarine. Metaxas 1919–1922; Macedonian Front, 1916–1918; refused to respond to these actions. He Salonika; Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936) hoped that his good relations with Nazi Germany would keep Greece out of the Further Reading war. In this hope he was soon disappointed. Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. On October 28, the Italian ambassador in Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Athens presented an ultimatum demanding 1992. that Italian troops be permitted to occupy a Hall, Richard C. “Bulgaria, Romania and number of strategic points throughout Greece.” In The Origins of World War I, Greece. Metaxas famously replied with the edited by Richard F. Hamilton and Holger single negative, “no.” Later that day, Italian H. Herwig. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 2003. troops began the invasion of Greece from bases in Italian occupied Albania. The , George. Greece and the Great Powers. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, Greek armed forces responded vigorously 1978. to the Italian invasion. By mid-November, a Petsalis-Diomidis, N. Greece at the Paris Greek counteroffensive had thrown the Ital- Peace Conference (1919). Thessaloniki: ians out of Greece. Greek forces occupied Institute for Balkan Studies, 1979. much of southern Albania before winter conditions imposed a stalemate. Britain sent some material aid to the Greeks. Meta- Greece in World War II xas, however, refused to allow British military forces into Greece for fear of pro- When war erupted in Europe in 1939, the voking the Germans. Greek government attempted to remain After Metaxas died on January 29, 1941, neutral. By that time, the Greek economy the new Greek government invited further 126 Greece in World War II

German panzer units move southward through Greece in April 1941 despite heavy spring rains and muddy roads. (Library of Congress)

British assistance. Airmen and army person- attacked Greece from Bulgaria on April 6. nel began to arrive in the spring. The appear- They reached Thessalonika on April 9. This ance of British forces in Greece alarmed advance separated Greece from Yugoslavia. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), because he per- It also caused the British and Greeks to ceived them as a threat to the southern abandon the Metaxas Line and retreat to flank of the upcoming invasion of Soviet the south. They attempt to establish a defen- Russia, Operation Barbarossa. Also, the sive position at the Aliakmon River, but that Royal Air Force (RAF) bases in Greece position was breached by the Germans on were proximate to the vital Romanian oil April 15. Then at Thermopylae, near where fields at Ploest¸i. To eliminate this potential the Persians and the Spartans once battled threat, and to help the stricken Italians, the in 480 BC, the British and Greeks attempted Germans prepared Operation Marita for the one more defense. The Germans reached invasion of Greece. A pro-British coup in Thermopylae on April 22. Belgrade on March 26 caused Hitler to By April 23, the British force having incorporate an invasion of Yugoslavia within opted to evacuate Greece, some members Operation Marita. of the Greek high command, with its units The Greeks had most of their forces in Epirus isolated from the rest of its forces, divided between southern Albania and pre- decided to surrender. General Georgios pared defensive positions facing Bulgaria Tsolakoglou (1886-1948, the First Army known as the Metaxas Line. A British force commander, surrendered the entire Greek that arrived from Egypt in March 1941 Army to the German invaders of Greece at supplemented the Greeks. The Germans Larissa on 21 April 1941. Although some Greece in World War II 127

Greek generals opposed the surrender, they Germans determined the occupation were unable to prevent it. Because of government. On 29 April 29, 1941, the Ger- German insistence, Tsolakoglou surren- mans appointed General Tsolakoglou to be dered to the Italians on 23 April. These sur- the prime minister of the collaborationist renders occurred without the sanction of government in Athens. The previous prime the Greek government. The British contin- minister, Alexander Koryzes (1885–1941), ued with their fighting retreat. They suc- who had succeeded Metaxas, committed ceeded in evacuating most of their troops suicide in the wake of Greece’s disastrous from Piraeus and Volos in an operation rem- defeat. Tsolakoglou’s position was similar iniscent of Dunkirk the previous year. Most to that of Henri Pe´tain (1856–1951) in went to Crete. The RAF contingent flew to France and of Milan Nedic´ (1877–1946) in Crete and to Egypt. In an effort to block the Serbia. Tsolakoglou proved to be an incom- British withdrawal, the Germans undertook petent ruler who garnered little popular sup- a successful attack on the Isthmus of Corinth port. During his rule, Greece began to with airborne forces on 25 April 25. By experience food shortages and inflation. then, however, most of the British had suc- The occupiers looted much food and ceeded in getting away. King George II material from Greece. The poor condition (1890–1947) and some of his ministers fled of the Greek economy caused the Germans to Crete, and afterwards to Egypt. He spent to replace Tsolakoglou with a civilian eco- the war in Great Britain. On April 27, nomics expert, Konstantinos Logothetopou- German forces entered Athens. By los (1878–1961) on December 2, 1942. April 30, all the British either were captured Ioannis Rhallis (1878–1946) replaced him or had evacuated Greece. On May 20, on April 7, 1943, and remained in office German paratroops attacked British and until the German withdrawal in Octo- Greek forces on Crete. By June 1, German ber 1944. Cooperation with the Germans, and Italian troops had established control however, yielded few tangible results. By over the island and seized most of the the end of 1941, famine gripped the country Aegean Islands. due to German expropriation of food re- The Germans and their allies divided sources. As many as 250,000 Greeks died Greece into zones of occupation. The Bul- of starvation during the most intense part of garians, who had not participated in the the famine from 1941 to 1943. invasion, took southeastern Macedonia and Armed opposition to foreign rule soon most of western Thrace. The Germans emerged throughout Greece. The resistance reserved for themselves southern Macedo- quickly attracted British support. The most nia, including Thessaloniki, the city of important resistance organization was the Athens,astripoflandinThraceonthe National Liberation Front (EAM). It was Turkish border, most of Crete, and three largely guided and led by members of the Aegean Islands near Turkey, Chios, , Greek Communist Party. In this respect it and Samos. The Italians took all of the was the Greek counterpart of the Yugoslav remainder, which included the eastern tip Partisan movement. It formed in the fall of of Crete, most of mainland Greece, and the 1941. The armed component of EAM was Ionian Islands. the National Popular Liberation Army Even though the Italians technically con- (ELAS), which was established in Decem- trolled most of mainland Greece, the ber 1942. These two organizations are 128 Greece in World War II

usually referred to collectively as EAM/ 1944. Because of these actions, over 60,000 ELAS. EAM/ELAS was the largest Greek Greek Jews perished. resistance movement. The main EAM/ When the Italians left the war in Septem- ELAS leader was Stephanos Saraphis ber 1943, EAM/ELAS managed to seize (1890–1957). Because he was not a Com- most of their equipment and supplies. By munist, he never achieved the dominance the end of 1943, EAM/ELAS and EDES over his organization that Josip Broz Tito had come into conflict against each other. (1892–1980) enjoyed in Yugoslavia. It oper- EAM/ELAS easily dominated EDES. As a ated throughout the country, and appealed result, EAM/ELAS established political not only to Communists but also to all control of much of Greece. By 1944 the those Greeks intent on fighting the foreign Germans and the collaborationist govern- occupation. ment only maintained a presence in the The other main resistance movement was major cities and in the transportation routes the National Republican Greek League linking them. After the defection of Bulgaria (EDES). The leader of this nationalist and and Romania to the Allies in the fall of royalist organization was Colonel Napoleon 1944, the German position in Greece Zervas (1891-1957). It was much smaller became impossible to sustain. In Octo- than EAM/ELAS and mainly limited to Epi- ber 1944, German forces began a systematic rus. EDES was somewhat analogous to the retreat out of the country. As they left, Cˇ etnik movement of Dragoljub Mihailovic´ EAM/ELAS spread its control throughout (1893–1946) in Yugoslavia. Even though it Greece. did receive some British aid, its numbers In the wake of the German with- were too few for it to mount a serious threat drawal,theBritisharmylandedinAthens to the occupying forces. on October 18, 1944, with a number of The Axis forces responded to resistance anti-Communist Greek politicians in tow. quickly and ruthlessly to any sign of resis- They intended to ensure that the Communist tance. The Bulgarians brutally suppressed a EAM/ELAS movement would not establish general uprising in southeastern Macedonia a postwar government. A pro-EAM/ELAS around Drama in September 1941. The Ger- mutiny among Greek Royalist forces sta- mans and Italians committed atrocities in tioned in the Middle East had alerted their campaigns against resistance fighters. the British to the danger of a Communist The Greeks were undeterred by these actions. takeover of Greece. Initially EAM/ELAS Upon entering Greece, the Germans cooperated with the British, but by Decem- imposed severe restrictions on the Greek ber 1944, this had ended. Athens became Jewish community. With the assistance of the arena of heavy fighting between EAM/ the Bulgarians, they deported the Jewish ELAS forces and the British. A number of populations of Salonika, Greek Macedonia, collaborationists eager to redeem them- and Thrace beginning in March 1943. Most selves supported the British. As many as of these died in Auschwitz. After the Italian 10,000 people died in this . surrender of September 1943, the Germans A cease fire on January 11, 1945, ended the extended their control to the Italian zones fighting but not the hostility. Outright civil of mainland Greece. The remaining Greek war began anew the next year between Jewish communities from Athens and the British supported Royalist forces and the Aegean islands were deported in March Communist-led antigovernment guerillas. Greek Civil War 129

World War II had a devastating effect on broad democratic republican movement Greece. As many as 500,000 people died against fascism, the EAM quickly won the from starvation, actions of the occupiers of support of many non-Communists. civil strife. Much of the infrastructure was Between 1942 and 1944, left-wing and damaged. Three more years of heavy fight- right-wing resistance groups fought the Ger- ing in the Greek Civil War loomed before mans, and, by the end of 1943, ELAS with peace would finally come to Greece. about 20,000 men controlled much of Richard C. Hall northern Greece and had limited German control to the main towns and connecting See also: Greece, Invasion of, 1941; Greek roads. EDES had about 5,000 men, almost Civil War; Metaxas, Ioannis (1871–1941); Tsolakoglou, Georgios (1886–1948) all of them in Epirus. EKKA only had about 1,000 men. Further Reading Each resistance group accused the others Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. of collaborating with the Germans, leading to Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, a fratricidal conflict to establish the leadership 1992. of the Greek resistance. ELAS units burned Mazower, Mark. Hitler’s Europe: How the villages and executed suspected collaborators Nazis Ruled Europe. New York: Penguin, and, in spring 1944, destroyed the EKKA. In 2008. October 1943, ELAS attacked the EDES, Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece.New precipitating open conflict until a British- Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. sponsored cease-fire in February 1944. Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New In March 1944, the EAM, controlling York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. much of the country, established the Politi- cal Committee of National Liberation (PEEA), essentially a third Greek govern- Greek Civil War ment. In May 1944, representatives from all political groups met in and formed The Greek Civil War was fought between a government of national unity, mainly Greek Communists and non-Communist because (1879–1953), the military organizations during the period Soviet leader, directed the KKE to avoid 1942–1949. In April 1941, the Germans harming Allied unity. George Papandreou occupied Greece. Greek king George II (1888–1968) became its prime minister. (1890–1947) and his government left and By autumn 1944, with the Soviet army established a government-in-exile in Egypt. advancing into Romania, the Germans The German occupation led to the formation began withdrawing from Greece. British of several resistance movements by late troops, commanded by General Ronald Sco- 1941, including the National Liberation bie (1893–1969), landed in Greece in early Front (EAM), founded in September 1941 October, and entered Athens on October 13. by the Communist Party of Greece (KKE); Papandreou followed a few days later. The the liberal Greek National Republican king stayed in Cairo, pending a referendum League (EDES); and the National and Social to decide the future of the monarchy. Liberation (EKKA). The largest group was The Papandreou government now the EAM and its military wing, the Greek attempted to disarm the resistance organiza- National Liberation Army (ELAS). As a tions. Fearing that the disarmament of 130 Greek Civil War

Rebels are paraded through the streets of Langadia, east of Salonika, Greece, after capture by Greek government forces, February 12, 1948. The bloody, five-year Greek Civil War pitted the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) against U.S.- and British-backed nationalists. (AP Photo)

ELAS, now numbering 50,000, would leave Papandreou resigned and General ELAS defenseless against the right-wing Nikolaos Plastiras (1883–1953), a firm militias, EAM submitted an alternative anti-Communist, became prime minister. plan. When Papandreou rejected the plan, On January 15, 1945, Scobie agreed to a EAM withdrew from the government. On cease-fire in exchange for ELAS’s with- December 1, General Scobie directed the drawal from Athens and Thessaloniki and dissolution of ELAS, but the KKE refused. its demobilization in the Peloponnese. On December 3, a large EAM demonstra- During the fighting in Athens, the KKE tion in Athens led to full-scale fighting executed up to 8,000 “collaborators” and between ELAS and the government. British suspected collaborators, and the withdraw- forces intervened as the Greek government ing Communists took another 20,000 hos- had few forces to oppose ELAS. By Decem- tages with them. As a result, support for the ber 12, ELAS controlled most of Athens and KKE declined, and most of the prominent Piraeus, but the British and government non-Communists in EAM left the organiza- forces slowly regained control. A Decem- tion. At the same time, right-wing extremist ber 24 conference, presided over by Winston gangs executed known and suspected Churchill (1874–1965), the British prime Communists. minister,failedtoprovideasolutionasthe In February 1945, the various Greek fac- more moderate members felt that the EAM/ tions signed the Varkiza Agreement, which ELAS demands were too excessive. called for the complete demobilization of By early January, British and Greek all guerrilla and paramilitary groups, forces had driven the ELAS from Athens. an amnesty for all political offenses, Greek Civil War 131 a referendum on the monarchy, and a gen- had extended its operations to the Pelopon- eral election as soon as possible. The KKE nesus and close to Athens. now changed its objective to peacefully By 1947, the Greek army had grown to establishing a “people’s democracy.” How- 90,000 men with British training, equipment, ever, the new Greek army and right-wing and money. When Britain announced that it extremists continued their war against the could no longer afford this burden, President ex-members of EAM. Many ELAS mem- Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) announced bers hid their weapons, and 5,000 escaped that the United States would now assist to Yugoslavia. Greece. By early 1948, American money, In February 1946, the KKE, despite the advisers, and equipment had begun to arrive lack of support from Stalin, renewed armed in Greece, enabling the Greek army to launch struggle in Greece. On March 31, 1946, the a series of major offensives in central Greece. day of the national elections, ELAS veter- These offensives inflicted some serious ans, now the Democratic Army of Greece defeats on the DSE, raising army morale and (DSE), infiltrated into Greece from Albania lowering the morale of the DSE. and Yugoslavia and attacked Litochoro. By Until 1948, Yugoslav leader Josip Broz late 1946, the DSE had about 10,000 fight- Tito (1892–1980), loyal to Stalin, had sup- ers, mainly in the mountains of northern ported the DSE. In June 1948, the Soviet Greece. Average Greek citizens found them- Union broke off relations with Yugoslavia, selves between DSE fighters who killed but the DSE leaders chose to remain loyal members of right-wing gangs and these to Stalin. In July 1949, Tito closed the gangs and the army who imprisoned Yugoslavian-Greek border to the DSE guer- and killed Communists and Communist rillas and disbanded their camps inside sympathizers. Yugoslavia. The split with Tito led to a In 1947, the DSE launched large-scale witch hunt for Tito sympathizers inside the attacks across northern Epirus, Thessaly, KKE, leading to disorganization and demor- and Macedonia, and the army responded alization within the DSE and a decline of with massive counteroffensives. However, support for the KKE. when the army arrived, the DSE fighters In August 1949, the new commander of had melted back into the mountains and the Greek army, General Alexander Papagos their safe havens in Albania and Yugoslavia. (1883–1955), launched a major offensive In December 1947, the KKE formed a Pro- against DSE forces in northern Greece, visional Democratic Government and resulting in heavy DSE losses. By Septem- moved to full-scale conventional war in an ber 1949, most of its fighters had surren- attempt to seize a major town as its seat of dered or escaped into Albania, but the government. Albanian government now prohibited DSE In response, the government banned the military operations from Albanian territory. KKE, suppressed its press, cracked down On October 16, the KKE agreed to a cease- on KKE members and sympathizers, and fire that ended the civil war. increased the size of the army. In Decem- Although the Greek government had pre- ber 1947, the DSE lost 1,200 fighters in a vented a Communist takeover, the civil war major battle around Konitsa. Still, the DSE, left Greece with a legacy of political divi- with about 20,000 fighters and a network of sion and personal animosities, extensive sympathizers and informants across Greece, devastation, deep economic problems, client 132 Greek Military Coup, 1909

status to the United States, and suspicions of They initiated their actions on August 14, its northern neighbors, which lasted into the 1909, in the Goudi Barracks with a set of 1980s. Yet, unlike Albania and Yugoslavia, demands sent to the government. The situa- Greece did not undergo 40 years of Commu- tion stalemated for the next several weeks. nist rule and its attendant consequences. The A decisive figure in the person of Eleuthe´r- West hailed the end of the civil war as an ios Venize´los (1864–1936), the prime minis- early victory in the Cold War, although Sta- ter of autonomous Crete, then went to lin had not actively supported the Commu- Athens in December 1909 to resolve the nist insurgency in Greece. situation. Only the next year, when new Robert B. Kane elections were held in August and a government came into being in October, See also: EAM/ELAS; Greece in World War II was the Greek political situation resolved. Further Reading Venize´los represented a republican sensibil- Averoff-Tossizza, Evangelos. By Fire and Axe: ity and advocated an active foreign policy. The Communist Party and the Civil War in Nevertheless, he endeavored not to antago- Greece, 1944–1949.NewRochelle,NY: nize conservative and royalist elements in Caratzas Brothers, 1978. the military and politics. He introduced a Kousoulas, D. George. Revolution and Defeat: new constitution and initiated diplomatic The Story of the Greek Communist Party. contacts with the Bulgarian govern- London: Oxford University Press, 1965. ment that would lead to the formation of the Leeper, Reginald. When Greek Meets Greek. Balkan League. London: Chatto and Windus, 1950. The British and French sent missions to reorganize respectively the Greek navy and army. The Greek military coup of 1909 led Greek Military Coup, 1909 to the participation of Greece in the Balkan Wars and the national schism of World War Also known as the Goudi Coup, for the I. Echoes of this issue resounded through Athenian neighborhood where it began, the Greek Civil War of 1945–1949 and the the Greek military coup of 1909 initiated Greek military coup of 1967. the division between liberal republican Richard C. Hall forces and conservative monarchal forces that marked Greek politics through much of See also: Greco-Ottoman War, 1897; Greek the twentieth century. Civil War; Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864– 1936) The Greek military had been humiliated by its rapid defeat in the war against the Further Reading Ottoman Empire in 1897 and by its lack of Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. success in irregular operations in Macedo- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, nia. The leaders of the 1909 coup were 1992. members of the Military League, who Papacosma, S. Victor. The Military in Greek sought to emulate the Young Turk coup the Politics: The 1909 Coup d’E´ tat. Kent, OH: year before. They wanted to modernize the Kent State University Press, 1977. military and adopt a more aggressive foreign Stavrianos,L.S.The Balkans since 1453. policy. They also sought to limit the role of New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, the monarchy in the military. 1958. Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832 133

Greek War of Independence, sovereignty for local villages. In response, 1821–1832 groups in the Peloponnesus and western Greece (Rumeli) rose against their local A revolt against the Ottoman Empire, the Islamic ruler Ali Pasha (1744–1822) in April. Greek War of Independence from 1821 to The Greeks proclaimed their independence 1832 culminated in the creation of an inde- at Epidauros on January 13, 1822, after an pendent Greece under the protection of earlier uprising in Morea. Lacking military European powers. hardware and political unity, the indepen- By the sixteenth century, the Ottoman dence movement managed to survive initial Empire was in control of Asia Minor and the reprisals and form a more united revolutio- majority of the Balkan region, including nary government. In 1822, a national Greece. Although many Greek professionals assembly was created, followed by regional preferred to remain under Ottoman rule, a assemblies. By mid-1822, Greek forces had class of dedicated independence enthusiasts achieved great success. They now held most agitated for a separate Greek state. Greek of the Peloponnesus, including the islands of writers in the late eighteenth century began , , and , as well as an area to express a sense of Greek national identity north of the Gulf of Corinth. That region in their work. The popular author Rhigas included the important cities of Athens, Velestinlis stirred his generation to revolt by Thebes, and Mesolonghi. clamoring for a war of liberation for all Bal- The Greeks fought the Turkish armies of kan people. All were influenced by both the the Ottoman sultan alone until 1825. In Febru- American Revolution and the French Revolu- ary that year, the sultan’s troops were aided by tion that had taken place decades earlier. the Egyptian Army of Muhammad Ali (1769– In 1814, professional Greek merchants 1849) and regained control of continental began to establish societies geared toward Greece. In response, the governments of the the liberation of Greece. Backed by Russia, United Kingdom, Russia, and France deman- such groups as the Filiki Etairia (Friendly ded the withdrawal of the Egyptians and an Society—FE) became more popular as the armistice with the sultan with the Treaty of Ottoman Empire attempted to crack down London for Greek Independence (1827). on political dissent. FE, led by Alexander When Egyptian reinforcements landed at Ypsilantis, who served as a Greek military Navarino, the three allied governments sent liaison to the czar in Moscow, claimed to a far larger naval force that destroyed the have the full backing of the Russian state. Ottoman-Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Unable to stem the tide of revolution, the Navarino on October 20, 1827. The involve- Ottomans watched as Ypsilantis orches- ment of European powers in the indepen- trated an abortive revolt on March 6, 1821. dence war, particularly Russia and Great FE troops marched into the Danubian princi- Britain, convinced Ottoman rulers to toler- palities in the hope of starting a full-scale ate the new Greek independence movement uprising in the Balkans. The movement stimu- or face a trade cutoff. In 1828, one of the lated the outbreak of other localized revolts in many Russo-Ottoman Wars helped to hasten the region against the rule of Sultan Mahmud Greek independence. II (1792–1828). The latter had sought to The independence of Greece was guaran- enhance imperial authority at the expense of teed by its allies in the London Protocol 134 (Montenegro)

of 1830, although fighting and political tur- to insist that Montenegrins and Serbs were moil continued for a few more years. Greece separate peoples. During the , finally emerged as a sovereign political state they pressed for Montenegrin autonomy in 1833 under Otto of , a monarch within the Yugoslav state. approved by its allies. When the Italians invaded Montenegro in Jason Newman April 1941, some Greens collaborated with them. There was a dynastic connection See also: Navarino, Battle of, 1827; Ypsilantis between Italy and Montenegro. The queen (1815–1867), Alexander (1792–1828) of Italy, Elena (1873–1952), was the daugh- Further Reading ter of the last Montenegrin king Nikola Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. (1841–1921). By the end of 1941, the Ital- New York: Cambridge University Press, ians found that cooperation with the better- 2002. armed and more numerous Cˇ etniks was Dakin, Douglas. The Greek Struggle for more effective. This undercut the activities Independence. Berkeley: University of of the Greens. After the Germans replaced California Press, 1973. the Italians in occupying Montenegro in Paroulakis, Peter. The Greeks: Their Struggle September 1943, some Green elements con- for Independence. Darwin, Australia: tinued to cooperate. Many of them withdrew Hellenic International Press, 1984. with the Germans a year later. Woodhouse, C. M. Modern Greece: A Short The Yugoslav Wars of 1991–1995 revived History. 5th ed. Boston: Faber and Faber, the Green cause. Under the leadership of 1991. Milo Djukanovic´ (1962–), Montenegro gradually separated itself from the destruc- Greens (Montenegro) tive Serbian nationalist policies of Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006). After a referendum The Greens (zelenasˇi) were Montenegrins passed on May 21, 2006, Montenegro real- who opposed unification with Serbia in the ized the Green program and declared new Serb, Croat, and Slovene state in 1918. independence on June 3, 2006. The name came from ballots used in the vot- Richard C. Hall ing for the Grand National Assembly in Pog- See also: Italy in the Balkans during World dorica in November 1918. Those who War II; Montenegro in World War I; Nikola, favored Montenegrin separatism marked King of Montenegro (1841–1921); Yugo- green ballots, while those who wanted union slavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II with the new South Slav state used white bal- lots. The Whites won overwhelmingly, in part Further Reading due to the occupation of the country by the Banac, Ivo. The National Question in Yugo- Serbianarmy.Thelosers,whothenwere slavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ithaca, mainly rural and tribal, rebelled at the begin- NY: Cornell University Press, 1984. ning of 1919. They besieged but Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Black Moun- lacked the arms and numbers to prevail tain: A . Ithaca, NY: against Whites and their Serbian allies. This Cornell University Press, 2007. so-called “Christmas Rebellion,” which took Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in place during the Serbian Orthodox Christmas Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Stanford, CA: season, soon collapsed. The Greens continued Stanford University Press, 2001. H

Handschar SS Division the ostensibly independent Croatian government, led by Ante Pavelic´ (1889– This unit was a mountain infantry division 1959). The Croatian government initially of the Waffen SS, consisting mostly of Mus- had problems with the idea but eventually lim Bosnians; the first non-German Waffen agreed on March 5, 1943. By mid-1943, the SS division during World War II. The name division numbered 26,000 men, including came from the curved Turkish scimitar 2,800 Catholic Croats. (“Handschar” in German), a historic symbol The new division was officially desig- of Bosnia. nated as the “13 SS Frei.Gebirgs Division On April 6, 1941, the German army (kroatien).” It received its full name, “13 invaded Yugoslavia and quickly occupied Waffen-Gebirgs-Division der SS ‘Handschar’ the country. The Germans established the (kroatische Nr. 1),” in May 1944. The division pro-Nazi independent state of Croatia, had two infantry regiments, an artillery regi- including Bosnia-Herzegovina, whose ment, a reconnaissance company, a panzerjager population consisted of Catholic Croats, company, an antiaircraft company, a pioneer Orthodox Serbs, and Muslim Croats and battalion, and other support units. The division occupied portions of Slovenia and Serbia. had three commanders during the war: Standar- Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Italian- tenfuhrer Herbert von Obwurzer (1888–1945), controlled Albania occupied other portions March 9, 1943–August 1, 1943; Oberfuhrer of the former Yugoslavia. Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig (1899–1946), SS-Reichsfuehrer Heinrich Himmler August 1, 1943–June 1, 1944; and Oberfuhrer (1900–1945), fascinated by Islam and Desiderius Hampel (1895–1981), June 1, believing Muslims to be fearless warriors, 1944–May 8, 1945. targeted the Muslims of Bosnia for a Cro- The members of the Handschar Division atian SS division. Later, about 10 percent wore the regular SS uniform with a divisio- of the future division’s men would be nal collar patch showing an arm, holding a Catholic Croats. Himmler also believed that scimitar over a swastika; a Croatian arm- the Croats were of Aryan, not Slavic, shield (red-white chessboard) on descent, making them racially acceptable arm; the oval mountain troop “Edelweiss” for the SS. Finally, the Nazis hoped to use patch on the right arm; and the Muslim fez the creation of a Muslim SS division as in field gray (normal service) or red (“walk- the first step in gaining the support of the ing out”) with the SS eagle and death’s head world’s 350 million Muslims against the emblazoned. Non-Muslim members could Western Allies. wear the standard SS mountain cap. To form the division, Himmler, on Febru- By September 1943, the completed divi- ary 13, 1943, obtained Adolf Hitler’s appro- sionhadarrivedinoccupiedFranceforits val. Himmler also needed the approval of initial training. At Villefranche, some

135 136 Herzegovina Revolt, 1875

malcontents, led by three Communists who Herzegovina Revolt, 1875 had infiltrated the division, mutinied and killed five German officers. The majority of the The most significant rebellion in Herzego- troops did not participate in the rebellion, and, vina against the Ottoman Empire occurred in fact, either had no idea that the mutiny had in mid-June 1875 because of the harsh treat- occurred or actively helped suppress it. The ment by the Bosnian rulers of the Ottoman Germans executed 14 soldiers as mutineers. province of Bosnia of the mostly Catholic The division completed its training in and Orthodox population. Silesia by mid-February 1944 and returned In the 1870s, the Ottoman sultan Abdul to Bosnia for action against Josef Tito’s Par- Mecid I (1823–1861) announced a number tisans. Operating in northeastern Bosnia, of reforms that included new rights for the western Serbia, and southern Sirmium, the empire’s Christian subjects, a new basis for division participated in several anti-Partisan army conscription, and an end to the hated operations. With the advance of the Soviet tax-farming system. However, the powerful army to the Croatian border in late 1944, the Bosnian landowners either resisted or division transferred to southern Hungary and ignored the reforms. These landowners fought as a front-line unit. Many Muslims often instituted more repressive measures, now deserted and returned to Bosnia to pro- which included a steadily increasing tax bur- tect their homes and families. The remaining den, against their Christian subjects. men fought valiantly against overwhelming On June 19, 1875, the Catholics in the odds but were slowly driven out of Hungary Gabela and Hrasno districts of lower Herze- into Austria. The remnants of the division sur- govina, ignited by overtaxing, rebelled rendered to British troops on May 8, 1945. against the Ottoman authorities. On July 9, Postwar Yugoslavian authorities extradited Orthodox Christians around the village of 38 officers, mostly German and Yugoslav Nevesinje in eastern Herzegovina also Volksdeutsche, for trial as war criminals and rebelled. A general uprising of the entire executed10ofthem. Christian population in Bosnia and Herzego- Robert B. Kane vina subsequently ensued. More than 150,000 people took refuge in Croatia. The See also: Partisans, Yugoslavia; Pavelic´, Ante (1889–1959); Ustasˇa Ottomans responded with both government troops under the recently appointed Bosnian Further Reading governor and irregular troops led by local landowners. Bishop, Chris. Waffen-SS Divisions, 1939–45. London: Amber Books, 2007. Because the Ottoman authorities could not suppress the uprisings, the unrest quickly Blandford, Edmund L. Hitler’s Second Army: The Waffen SS. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks spread to the Christian populations of the International, 1994. other Ottoman provinces in the Balkans. The Herf, Jeffrey. Nazi Propaganda for the Arab Ottoman military committed many atrocities World. New Haven, CT: Yale University during its attempts to suppress the unrest in Press, 2009. the Balkan provinces. These atrocities led to Mousavizadeh, Nader. The Black Book of Russian intervention intheBalkanstoprotect Bosnia: The Consequences of Appease- the Slavic Orthodox population and the ment. New York: Basic Books, 1996. Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. Russia The Holocaust in the Balkans 137 defeated the Ottoman Empire and imposed 1945), six million Jews were murdered. It significant losses of Ottoman territory in the was an act of genocide, an attempt to fully Balkans with the March 1878 Treaty of San eliminate, through state-sponsored, system- Stefano. Concerned about the establishment atic murder, an entire group of people. of an independent “great” Bulgaria, Otto von Although the Jews were the principal target, Bismarck (1815–1898), the prime minister of the Holocaust also involved the deaths of Germany, called a European conference in others, namely those deemed by the Nazis Berlin the following July to rewrite the origi- to be destructive to the fabric of German nal treaty. The new Treaty of Berlin still society, including gypsies, the mentally and severely reduced Ottoman territories and physically disabled, homosexuals, and power in Europe but allowed Austria- political dissidents. During World War II, Hungary to occupy and govern Bosnia and the Nazi policy toward the Jews became Herzegovina, although the provinces nomi- known as “the Final Solution.” It was called nally remained under Ottoman sovereignty. this for it was their desire to put to an Austria-Hungary officially annexed the prov- end, once and for all, the age-old “Jewish ince in 1908. Question,” the Judenfrage,inEurope.The Robert B. Kane solution involved complete and total exter- mination of European Jewry. During the See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Bosnian invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Crisis, 1908–1909; Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 the implementation of the policy began. The majority of the killing was done by the Further Reading German SS and mobile killing units known Aksanok, Virginia. Ottoman Wars, 1700– as the Einsatzgruppen. Initially, the annihi- 1870: An Empire Besieged. Harlow, UK: lation effort involved random, uneven acts Pearson Longman, 2007. of violence. During 1942, the Nazis con- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and Its structed death camps in Poland to facilitate Successors, 1801–1927. London: Cam- and effectuate the killing process. As the bridge University Press, 1936. Nazis advanced across Europe, they were Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the assisted in committing mass death by non- Ottoman Empire.NewYork:M.Evanand German collaborators. Company, 1972. Earlier in 1941, the German army moved Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezul Kural Shaw. History to the southeast. The Germans and Italians of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. attacked Yugoslavia and Greece. Romania Vol. 2, Reform, Reaction and Republic: and Bulgaria had already joined the Axis The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Powers. Jewish communities in the Balkan 1977. region were subsequently at risk for dis- crimination, ghettoization, deportation, and extermination. The fate of the Balkan Jews The Holocaust in the Balkans during the Holocaust was similar to that of Jews elsewhere. There were varying levels The Holocaust primarily refers to Nazi of protection and persecution in the region. Germany’s effort to destroy Europe’s nine On the whole, the fate of individual Jews in million Jews. In the end, under the direction the Balkan countries was often more secure of German chancellor Adolf Hitler (1933– than in Central and Eastern Europe, where 138 The Holocaust in the Balkans

Bulgarian policemen oversee the deportation in , Yugoslavia, of Macedonian Jews to the German death camps in March 1943 in Bulgaria-occupied Skopje. (AP Photo/U.S. Hol- ocaust Memorial Museum, Courtesy of Jewish Historical Museum, Belgrade)

their numbers were larger. While still tragic, including Jews. The government addition- many Jews from this area of Europe were ally accepted Jewish refugees from neigh- saved due to the noncooperation of their boring nations. This protection continued to governments or fellow citizens with the some degree after September 1943, when German orders for deportation and extermi- the Italians withdrew from the war and nation. Violence by angry mobs and betrayal German units occupied Albania. The local of Jewish communities was less common population protected many Jews. Albanians here, although there were still occurrences treated them as part of the wider community of such behavior. and regarded Jewish refugees who came to their country as “guests.” The inclusion and Albania protection of Jews was compatible with the Albania, unlike other European countries, Albanian customs of hospitality, known as had a Muslim majority. It was also a country . Around 2,000 Jews survived the war that actively sought to protect the Jewish in Albania population within its borders. Compared with Jewish communities in neighboring Bulgaria countries, Albania’s Jewish population was Bulgaria joined the Axis powers in 1941 to very small. In 1937, the Jewish population allow Germany passage to Greece in return numbered around 300. for an annexation of former territory from In Albania, the Italian occupation neighboring Greece and Yugoslavia. At the regime proactively safeguarded its citizens, time, less than 1 percent of Bulgaria’s The Holocaust in the Balkans 139 population was Jewish, about 50,000– Greece 55,000 persons. The majority of those lived Jews had been in Greece since ancient in the capital city of Sofia. times. At the time of World War II, the Jew- Unlike many other European countries, ish population of Greece numbered about Bulgaria did not have a significant problem 76,000. About 3,500 Jews lived in the with anti-Semitism historically. Nevertheless, capital of Athens and about 2,000 on the anti-Jewish legislation was implemented in island of Corfu. There was also an old 1940, but the impact was generally less Sephardic settlement in Salonika (Thessalo- harsh. Economic and social restrictions were niki) of about 55,000 that could trace its ori- imposed on the Jewish community. To mini- gins to the fifteenth century. mize Jewish concentration in urban centers, The Greek Jewish community was very many Jews were dispersed throughout the traditional, with little formal education and country. Some Jewish men of working age large, close-knit families. Most Jews were were deported to slave-labor camps within employed in professions involving trade the country, but none to death camps. Due to and commerce and spoke Ladino. Despite a shortage of medical personnel during the increasing anti-Semitic propaganda, about war, Jewish doctors and pharmacists were 13,000 Jews fought in the Greek army at allowed to be released from labor camps and the time of the German invasion. The area given assignments in Bulgarian territories. of Salonika was occupied by German forces Some leniency for converts to that were fully intent on the destruction of and for Jewish war veterans was also pro- the Jewish community there. vided. Bulgarians did enact a law that Restrictions on the Jewish community in required Jews to wear a plastic yellow button, Greece began in July 1942 with the intro- but that law was revoked quickly. duction of forced labor and ghettoization. In 1944, the Bulgarians overturned their The Germans were able to subdue the Jew- anti-Jewish laws after years of resisting ish population by promising them relocation pressure from the Germans to deport their to Poland, offering them Polish money, and Jews. The Bulgarian Jews were largely convincing their chief rabbi to go along spared. The Jews of Bulgaria were consid- with German orders to save their lives. ered Bulgarian by their government. The After the deportations began, over 60,000 Bulgarian Orthodox Church also protested Jews were killed, mostly at Auschwitz, anti-Jewish treatment. This explains why so exterminated in the gas chambers. The pro- few lives were lost. Those who were killed, cess began immediately upon arrival. were killed because they were of a differing Putting up a strong resistance to the Ger- nationality. In 1943, Jews from the annexed mans, the internal population of Greece was territories, including Thrace in Greece and less likely to aid in the Final Solution than in Macedonia in Yugoslavia, were deported by other locations. In Athens, Greeks assisted the Bulgarian government to Treblinka and local Jewish leaders in disappearing into the were all subsequently murdered at the mountains. Others were able to survive by death camp. joining the Greek resistance movement. Today, however, there remain few Jews in Some avoided it through intermarriage with Bulgaria. More than 40,000 Bulgarian Jews non-Jews. lists 313 Greeks immigrated to Israel after World War II and amongst the righteous gentiles for their efforts the establishment of a Communist government. to save the Jews. Among the notable was 140 The Holocaust in the Balkans

Archbishop Damaskinos Papandreou (1891– and commercial property. Religious proper- 1949) of Athens. He spoke out on behalf of ties, including synagogues, cemeteries, and Greece’s Jewish citizens. He encouraged his residences for rabbis, were seized. Jewish fellow Greeks to do all they could to protect agricultural properties were seized and turned them, to hide them, and to aid their escape. over to the state and then Jews were expelled Quoting the Apostle Paul, he publicly pro- from rural areas. Skilled Jews were used to claimed, “In our national consciousness, all train Romanian workers, but unskilled Jews the children of Mother Greece are an insepa- were not as lucky. They were made to work rable unity: they are equal members of the in labor camps under difficult conditions. national body irrespective of religion ...Our Non-Jewish Romanians were permitted by holy religion does not recognize superior or law to take any Jewish living quarters they inferior qualities based on race or religion, as desired as their own. Jews were prohibited it is stated: ‘There is neither Jew nor Greek.’ ” from marrying non-Jews and prohibited from Despite his courageous efforts, between 80 having Romanian names. At one point, Jews and 90 percent of Greek Jews were murdered were even prohibited from converting to in the Final Solution. Greece, in fact, suffered Christianity. These were facets of the larger one of the highest percentages of losses of its program of homogenizing Romania’s people Jewish population during World War II. known as “” and protecting “Romanian blood.” Romania In addition to state-sanctioned discrimi- Romania had one of the largest Jewish nation, Romania’s Jews were subjected to populations in Europe at the start of World sporadic violence and pogroms. The Bucha- War II. It had a population of over 700,000. rest of January 1941 resulted in the According to the 2004 International murder of about 120 Jews. Later, in Commission on the Holocaust in Romania June 1941, several thousand Jews were Final Report, which was prepared under the killed in the Ias¸i pogrom. Many Romanian direction of Elie Wiesel (1928–), a Holo- Jews were deported to Transnistria in the caust survivor from Sighetu Marmatiei in western Ukraine. Many died of starvation Transylvania, approximately 280,000 to and disease. Others were simply massacred. 380,000 Jews died in Romania or in lands What Jewish life remained in Romania controlled by Romania. Under the dictator- was difficult and desperate. In a curious ship of General Ion Antonescu (1882– turn, Antonescu refused to comply with 1946), Romania enthusiastically partici- German orders to deport Romania’s Jews to pated in the elimination of its Jewish popu- the death camps. Although a confirmed lation and Jewish communities in occupied anti-Semite, it appeared he had his own territories. As in other countries, Jews were agenda and was not prepared to follow the first subjected to anti-Semitic legislation orders of an invading government. In this and then received harsher treatment. Begin- regard, many Romanian Jews escaped a ning in 1940, laws were passed to start the worse fate. process of removing Jews from the economy and from national life. Jews were expelled Yugoslavia from government service, schools, and the Yugoslavia originally tried to preserve its arts. Legislation was also enacted to provide neutrality. After a pro-German government for Romanian control over Jewish personal was overthrown by pro-British officers, Horseshoe, Operation, 1998 141

Germany and Italy invaded the country in agreement with the Germans and the Jews the spring of 1941 and partitioned the coun- living there were deported and perished in try. Macedonia was given to Bulgaria to Treblinka. control, while Croatia was a German satel- Bonnie K. Levine-Berggren lite that was created by the German See also: Albania in World War II; Bulgaria government. The Croatian government was in World War II; Greece in World War II; an extremist, nationalist government that Romania in World War II; Yugoslavia in served at the whim of German authority, a World War II true “puppet” state ironically called, “the In- dependent State of Croatia.” Further Reading Consequently, Croatia initiated many of Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The War against the the discriminatory practices against the Jews, 1933–1945. New York: Holt, Rine- Jews that were found in Germany as soon hart, and Winston, 1975. as they took power in 1941 and immediately Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the Euro- set in place the mechanisms for genocide. pean Jews. New York: Holmes and Meier Jews were forced to wear the yellow Star of Publishers, 1985. DavidasinGermany.Theybelievedthe Mojzes, Paul. Balkan .Lanham, Jews were an inferior race and sought their MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011. destruction. Ultimately defeated by the Soviets and Yugoslav partisans, the Ger- Totten, Samuel, and William S. Parsons, eds. Centuries of Genocide.4thed.NewYork: mans left the country in 1945. Only 76,000 Routledge, 2013. Jews lived in Yugoslavia, which was less than one-half of 1 percent of the population. The Jewish community was engaged in Horseshoe, Operation, 1998 industry, trade, and commerce, with the Jews in Serbia and Croatia being financially Operation Horseshoe is the name sometimes more successful than in other regions. They given to the attempt by Serbian armed units enjoyed full civic and economic freedoms to squeeze the Albanian population out of until the 1930s, when a few laws were most of Kosovo by applying force on three passed restricting their access to higher sides. The Serbian failure in the Yugoslav education and business licenses. Wars and especially the expulsion of most In Serbia, which had no tradition of anti- of the Serbian population from Croatia put Semitism prior to the German occupation, pressure on the Belgrade government to Jews were rounded up by the Germans and maintain control of the heavily Albanian shot by the thousands. By mid-1942, Jews region of Kosovo. were eliminated from Serbia. In Croatia, The Kosovo insurgency began in 1996 deportation began in 1942 to Auschwitz, when a well-armed and well-organized whilesomeoftheJewswereeithershotor Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) began to died in forced labor camps. Croatia killed attack Serbian police and civilians. By almost 50 percent of its Jewish population 1998, the insurgency had gained control of in their own labor camps. About 60,000 considerable territory in Kosovo. The Yugoslav Jews perished during this period. government of Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941– The Macedonian region was under the con- 2007) undertook a counterattack sometimes trol of the Bulgarians as part of an termed Operation Horseshoe. After the 142 Hoxha, Enver

expulsion or murder of much of the Kosovo Further Reading Albanian population, the Serbian govern- Judah, Tim, Kosovo: War and Revenge.New ment’s intention was then to repopulate Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000. Kosovo with Serbian refugees from Croatia. Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan. The Yugoslav The Serbian offensive began on Febru- Wars (2), Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia ary 28, 1998. Using heavy weapon and air 1992–2001, Botely, Oxford: Osprey, 2006. power, the Serbs drove the KLA back, kill- Wolfgram, Mark A. “Operation Horseshoe Did ing a number of civilians and forcing several Not Exist.” http://www8.georgetown hundred thousand from their homes. Most of .edu/cct/apsa/papers/wolfgram.doc. these fled to Albania and Macedonia. Threats of United Nations sanctions and Hoxha, Enver (1908–1985) NATO airstrikes caused Milosˇevic´ to feign compliance with demands to withdrawal Founder of the Albanian Communist Party Serbian forces from Kosovo. At the same and Albanian head of state (1944–1985), time, Serbian military units continued to Enver Hoxha was born on October 16, attack Kosovar civilians. Renewed violence 1908, in Gjinokaster, Albania. Hoxha stud- at the beginning of 1999 led the Serbs to ied at a French secondary school in Korc¸e¨, again force the Albanian population from Albania, and then at the University of Kosovo. In response, NATO began on Montpellier in France. While in France, he March 24 its “Allied Force” air campaign began writing for a Communist newspaper. against Serbian targets in Kosovo and Serbia. In 1934, he became a secretary in the The Serbs forced an additional 200,000 Albanian consulate in Brussels, but his con- Kosovo Albanians into Albania and Macedo- sular appointment was canceled in 1936 nia. Many died in the difficult conditions of because of articles he wrote criticizing the the refugee camps. These expulsions ended Albanian monarchy. He then returned to only when NATO ground forces entered Albania to teach French in Korc¸e¨. Kosovo two days after Milosˇevic´ signed a In 1939, the Italian army invaded Albania, peace agreement on June 10, 1999. He was ousted the monarchy, and established a pup- indicted for war crimes in Kosovo. pet regime. Hoxha was fired from his teach- Whether Operation Horseshoe began in ing position for refusing to join the Albanian February 1998 or in January or March 1999 Fascist Party. He opened a retail tobacco remains unclear. Whenever it began, or storeinTiranathatalsoservedasafront whether it even really existed, the Serbian for his Communist activities. In 1940, he actions associated with Operation Horse- became the founder and head of the Alba- shoe remain one of the most notorious nian Communist Party, also serving as editor examples of ethnic cleansing in post–World of the party’s newspaper.During World War War II European history. Overall at least II, Hoxha assembled a guerrilla force of 300,000 Kosovo Albanians were displaced 70,000 men that fought the occupying during this time. Italian army and then the Germans who Richard C. Hall arrived to assist their ally. In 1944, the See also: Milosˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006); Italians withdrew their forces from Albania. Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences Soon thereafter, the Communists established Hoxha, Enver 143 a provisional Albanian government in Octo- (1893–1976) as the only true Stalinist remain- ber 1944 with Hoxha as prime minister and ing in power. Shortly after Mao’s death in defense minister. 1976, relations between China and Albania The Western Allies recognized this began to cool as Hoxha criticized the new government in 1945, expecting that Albania Chinese leadership. The PRC ended all assis- would later hold free elections. When elec- tance programs to Albania in 1978. tions were held and the Communists were As Hoxha’s health declined in the late the only candidates, Great Britain and the 1970s, preparations began for a succession United States rescinded their recognition. of leadership. In 1980, he appointed Ramiz The country’s leaders proclaimed a People’s Alia (1925–2011) as the party’s first secre- Republic in Albania in January 1946. tary, bypassing longtime premier Mehmet Yugoslav Communists had assisted their Shehu (1913–1981). Hoxha tried to per- Albanian comrades during the war, and the suade Shehu to step aside voluntarily. two states engaged in a monetary and cus- When this failed, he had the Politburo toms union after World War II. Suspicious publicly rebuke Shehu, who allegedly of his neighbor’s desires to make Albania a committed suicide in 1981. Hoxha died province of Yugoslavia, however, Hoxha in Tirana on April 11, 1985, his nation the cut all ties with Yugoslavia in 1948. That most cut off from the outside world in all same year, he renamed the Albanian Com- Europe. munist Party the Workers’ Party. He relin- John David Rausch Jr. quished the premiership to Mehmet Shehu See also: Albania in World War II; Partisans, in 1954 but remained in control as head of Albania; Yugoslav-Soviet Split the party with the title of first secretary. In 1961, Hoxha cut his nation’s ties with the Soviet Union in response to Soviet Further Reading leader ’s (1894–1971) de- Halliday, Jon, ed. The Artful Albanian: Mem- Stalinization campaign. At about the same oirs of Enver Hoxha. London: Chatto and time, the Soviet Union severed relations with Windus, 1986. the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Orizio, Riccardo. Talk of the Devil: Encoun- Hoxha then began relying on the PRC for ters with Seven . Translated by economic support, viewing Mao Zedong Avril Bardoni. New York: Walker, 2002. I

Ilinden Uprising, 1903 to appeals for help. The Great Powers applied pressure to force Bulgaria to remain The Ilinden, or St. Elijah’s Day, Uprising inactive. Also, the Sofia government was took place in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia reluctant to support a movement that it did and Thrace in August 1903. It is sometimes not directly control. As a result, the revolt called the Ilinden-Preobrazhenski (St. sputtered through September. By October, Elijah’s Day–Transfiguration Feast Day) it was over. Casualties were high. As many uprising because it began on St. Elijah Day, as 8,816 men, women, and children perished August 2 according to the old calendar in the revolt, 200 villages were burned, and (August 15, new style); and because on 30,000 refugees fled, mainly to Bulgaria. August 6 (August 19, new style), a republic The revolt was ill conceived, ill timed, was proclaimed at Krushevo in the Ottoman and ill led. Nevertheless, it had several province of Monastir (Bitola) in Macedonia important consequences. In the aftermath and a revolt erupted in the Ottoman province of the revolt, the Austro-Hungarians and of Adrianople. Russians reached the so-called Mu¨rzteg In 1893, the predecessor of the Internal agreement. At a hunting lodge in Mu¨rzteg Macedonian Revolutionary Organization Styria, Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz (VMRO) was founded in Salonika. It estab- Joseph (1830–1916) and Russian tsar lished cells throughout Macedonia in Nicholas II (1861–1918) reaffirmed the order to prepare for a general uprising. The status quo in the Balkans and sanctioned a uprising began on Ilinden, August 3. In largely stillborn reform program for the Krushevo, a “Republic of Krushevo” was European provinces of the Ottoman Empire. proclaimed. On August 6, pro-Bulgarian The Ilinden Uprising also motivated the elements in the Adrianople province Sofia government to strengthen its position revolted and proclaimed a “Republic of in the Balkans so that it could respond ,” named after the local mountain more directly to a future revolt. In 1904, range. Initially the rebels enjoyed some Bulgaria and Serbia reached an economic local success. Undoubtedly most of the and political agreement. While this proved Slavic-speaking Christian population and to be transient, in 1912, they formed the many of the Vlachs supported the uprising. alliance that served the basis for the First The other peoples in Macedonia, among Balkan War. This war ended Ottoman rule them Jews, Greeks, Slavic-speaking Mus- in almost all of Europe. Finally, modern lims, and Turks, were less enthusiastic. Macedonian historiography recognizes the Ottoman authorities responded quickly Ilinden Uprising as an import effort for against the lightly armed rebels with their national identity and independence carried regular army as well as with irregular forces. out by Macedonians as distinct from The Bulgarian government failed to respond Bulgarians. Richard C. Hall

144 Iron Guard 145

See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; and the Iron Guard was subsequently Macedonia; VMRO declared illegal in 1933 by Prime Minister Ion Duca (1879–1933). This did not Further Reading discourage the Iron Guard activists, who Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria 1878–1918: A His- assassinated Duca in retaliation, and the tory. Boulder, CO: East European Mon- movement flourished. graphs, 1983. Between 1934 and 1937, the Iron Guard Perry, Duncan. The Politics of Terror: The assumedamassfollowingandwonupto Macedonian Revolutionary Movements, 25 percent of all votes in multiple elections, 1893–1903. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1988. though under an assumed name of the All for the Fatherland Party. Realizing that the Rossos, Andrew. Macedonia and the Macedo- nians: A History. Stanford, CA: Hoover movement could no longer be successfully Institution Press, 2008. banned or controlled, King Carol II (1893– 1953) invited Codreanu in February 1937 to form a government, an offer he refused. Iron Guard In response, King Carol declared all parties illegal and assumed dictatorial powers, The Iron Guard was an extreme right-wing arresting Codreanu and several other legio- (Fascist) organization that existed in Roma- naries in the process. Codreanu and his 13 nia from 1927 to 1941. Also known as the followers were assassinated in 1938, pre- Legion of the Archangel Michael (LAM), it sumably during an escape attempt, and the professed anti-Communist and anti-Semitic Iron Guard once again retaliated by killing views and became infamous for its role in Prime Minister Armand Calinescu (1893– the Romanian Holocaust. 1939). After a temporary exile and multiple (1899–1938), persecutions, (1907–1993), the the founder of the Iron Guard, initially new leader of the Iron Guard, and other helped establish the League of National legionaries were allowed to return to Christian Defense in 1922, but he later Romania in April 1940. broke up with it and formed the LAM in Though the violence against Jews was not 1927. In its early days, Codreanu declared novel to the movement, the Iron Guards that the LAM had no program and only committed their most gruesome acts embraced a fierce belief in God while pro- between their return in 1940 and the final moting nationalism and anticorruption. In crackdown on the movement in 1941. spring 1930, Codreanu and his followers During these months, at least 600 Jews formed a new militant organization called were slaughtered, though the number was Garda de Fier (“The Iron Guard”) to combat probably higher. Many were tortured, Communist and antinationalist forces; yet humiliated, and brutally beaten before they since only the LAM joined it, this in effect were murdered. Ion Antonescu (1882– was but a change of name. At the same 1946), who received full dictatorial powers time, LAM agitators went to the countryside on September 6, 1940, initially attempted in hopes of mobilizing peasant masses in to form a government with the Iron Guard support of their organization and oftentimes leaders, but the relationship turned sour against the Jews. Pogroms followed in quickly. The situation worsened when the multiple towns and villages across Romania, Iron Guards broke into the prison and 146 Italy in the Balkans during World War I

brutally murdered 64 former politicians and Italy in the Balkans during officers who were incarcerated for their sus- World War I pected involvement in Codreanu’s murder. In this tense environment, Antonescu pre- After achieving national unity in 1861, the pared to crush the Iron Guards with Hitler’s Italian government continued to harbor approval, while Sima was preparing a coup aspirations to territories beyond the Italian to oust Antonescu. Peninsula. Many of these were in the Balkan On January 21, 1941, the legionaries’ riot Peninsula. They included Dalmatia, at that broke out in Bucharest, and a massacre fol- time ruled by the Habsburg Empire, and lowed. Also known as the Bucharest pog- Albania, then under the authority of the rom, this violence directly touched at least Ottoman Empire. During the Balkan Wars 1,360 Jews, of which 1,107 were tortured of 1912–1913, Italy and its nominal ally or murdered, and six synagogues were Austria-Hungary cooperated at the London desecrated. It was also the most gruesome Ambassadors Conference to insure Great of all prior cases; dead bodies were hanged Power support for an independent Albania. on meat hooks with their intestines out and The Treaty of London of May 30, 1913, had “Kosher meat” signs on them. The riot confirmed Albanian independence. This was put down three days later, over 9,000 thwarted the attempts of Balkan allies Iron Guards were arrested, and the move- Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia to take ment was crushed. Sima, however, along over this territory. After the outbreak of with many others, went into exile in Spain, World War I, the fragile new Albanian state from where he continued his political collapsed. In early December 1914, before engagements until his death in 1993. they entered the war themselves, the Italians Irina Mukhina sent troops to occupy the city of Vlore¨ See also: Carol II, King of Romania (1893– (Valona) and the Adriatic island of Sazan 1953); Romania in World War II (Saseno) off of Vlore¨. This action was intended to maintain Italy’s interests in Albania as Greek, Montenegrin, and Serbian Further Reading troops occupied parts of the country, and to Ioanid, Radu. The Holocaust in Romania: The insure that Austro-Hungarian influence did Destruction of Jews and Gypsies under the not increase there. Antonescu Regime, 1940–1944. Published After the outbreak of the war in the in Association with the United States Holo- summer of 1914, the Italians negotiated caust Memorial Museum. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000. with both belligerent alliances. On April 26, 1915, they agreed to enter the war Klepper, Nicolae. Romania: An Illustrated History. New York: Hippocrene Books, on the side of the Entente. In return, Italy 2002. was to receive the Balkan areas of Vlore¨ Livezeanu, Irina. Cultural Politics in Greater and Sazan as well as a protectorate in central Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, Albania. Italy was also to obtain most of and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930. Ithaca, Dalmatia. This brought Italy into direct NY: Cornell University Press, 1995. competition with Serbia, which also sought Morgan, Philip. , 1919– to gain Habsburg Adriatic territories. Balkan 1945. London: Routledge, 2003. interests remained subordinate to Italy’s Italy in the Balkans during World War I 147 desire to acquire Austrian Alpine territories. Greek and Serbian (Yugoslav) claims at a Nevertheless, in order realize their Albanian minimum. On July 20, 1919, Italy and Greece ambitions, the Italians expanded their pres- concluded the so-called Tittoni-Venizalos ence to Vlore¨’s hinterland. 80,000 Italian agreement, by which Greece recognized the troops landed at Vlore¨ in the autumn of Italian protectorate over Albania. In return, 1915. At the end of 1915, they established the Italians accepted Greek control of a line of control in the north along the northern Epirus. The establishment of a viable Shkumbin River. After they defeated and Albanian central government as a result of the overran Montenegro and Serbia, Austro- Congress of Lushnje¨ in 1920 and Italian Hungarian forces occupied Albania north domestic instability led the Italians to sign of that river. In June 1917, the Italians pro- an agreement on September 3, 1920, with claimed a protectorate over Albania. At the the new Albanian government to withdraw same time, they extended their control over from Albania. The island of Sazan remained southern Albania to expel Greek irregular under Italian control. The Italians would and pro–King Constantine forces from return within 20 years. northern Epirus. Italian forces in Albania Nor did the end of the fighting in 1918 also made contact other Entente forces indicate the conclusion of Italian efforts in along the Macedonian front, which then Dalmatia. The Paris Peace settlement stretched from the Adriatic Sea at the refused to honor the commitment made in mouth of the Shkumbin River to the Aegean the 1915 Treaty of London to give Dalmatia Sea near the mouth of the Struma River. to Italy. Instead Dalmatia became a part of In response to the pleas of their Entente the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and allies, the Italians dispatched the 35th Slovenes (Yugoslavia). The border between Infantry Division to Salonika to buttress the the two states remained contentious until Entente effort there. They would have pre- the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo of ferred to add this division to the Italian November 12, 1920, which assigned to forces in Albania, which engaged in regular Italy Istria, the Adriatic islands of Cres, Las- conflict with the Austro-Hungarians. This tovo, and Losˇinj, and the Dalmatian city of division assumed positions in the bend of Zadar (Zara). Italian Adriatic holding grew the Cherna River in the central part of the further in 1924 when Italy annexed the free Macedonian Front. For most of the war, it city of Fiume (Rijeka). Benito Mussolini made little headway against the Bulgarians. (1883–1945) did not abandon Italy’s Balkan It did participate in the great Entente offen- interests. After taking power in Rome in sive of September 1918, which broke 1922, he gradually restored the Italian through the Bulgarian positions further east protectorate over Albania and adopted a at Dobro Pole and resulted in the withdrawal hostile position toward Greece and Yugo- of Bulgaria from the war. slavia. Italy returned in force to the region The armistice of November 11, 1918, did beginning in the spring of 1939. not end the Italian effort in the Balkans. Richard C. Hall They continued to maintain considerable See also: Albania in the Balkan Wars; Albania forces in Albania. The Rome government in World War I; Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924; intended to establish a protectorate over as London, Treaty of, 1913 much of Albania as possible and to prevent 148 Italy in the Balkans during World War II

Further Reading Alexander in Marseille in 1934. During the Burgwyn, H. James. The Legend of Mutilated 1930s, the Italians established a virtual Victory: Italy, the Great War and the Paris protectorate in Albania through the govern- Peace Conference. London: Greenwood, ment of King Zog (1895–1961). 1993. In April 1939, seeking to emulate his Sifka-Theodosiou, Aneliki. “The Italian Pres- German ally’s annexation of Czechoslova- ence on the Balkan Front (1915–1918),” kia the previous month, Mussolini ordered Balkan Studies 36, no. 1 (1995): 69–82. Italian forces to invade and occupy Albania. Villari, Luigi. The Macedonian Campaign. When they landed on April 7, 1939, they London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1922. met some Albanian resistance, which they quickly overcame. Italian king Victor Italy in the Balkans during Emmanuel III (1869–1947) assumed Zog’s World War II title of king of the Albanians. The conquest of Albania was insufficient The Italians had long harbored ambitions in to sate Mussolini’s appetite for Balkan the Balkans. Even before World War I, they territory. He utilized the presence of Alba- had aspired to areas of the Austro- nian minorities in Greece and Yugoslavia to Hungarian Adriatic coast and to Ottoman raise territorial claims. The overwhelming Albania. The Treaty of London of 1915 German successes in western Europe in promised most of these areas to Italy in May and June 1940 and Italy’s futile inter- return for participation in the war on the vention in the war against France led Musso- side of the Entente powers. Only Woodrow lini to seek military glory and “living space” Wilson’s (1856–1924) adamant refusal at in the Balkans. Since Germany had strong the Paris Peace conference in 1919 to trans- economic ties to Yugoslavia, Mussolini fer large populations of Albanians and decided to act against Greece. In a rapid to Italian control prevented the campaign he sought to overrun the Greek terms of the treaty from begin realized. All mainland and seize control of most of the Italy obtained was the port of Zara (Zadar) Ionian and Aegean Islands. and a few Adriatic Islands. In 1923, they The Italians intended to provoke the also annexed the port of Fiume (Rejeka) Greeks by undertaking a number of attacks, after it had endured a brief period of including the sinking of the Greek light independence. cruiser Helle on August 15, 1940. Finally, None of these gains were enough to on October 28, after the Greek government satisfy the aspirations of Benito Mussolini rejected an Italian ultimatum to allow Italian (1883–1945). He spoke of reestablishing the troops to occupy a number of strategic Roman Empire and called the Mediterranean points throughout the country, the Italians Sea “our lake.” In pursuit of this aim, invaded northwestern Greece from bases in Mussolini adopted disruptive polices in Albania. The Italian forces quickly bogged the Balkans, especially toward the new Yugo- down because of the rugged terrain and the slav state. After King Alexander (1888–1834) fierce resistance they encountered. A Greek established his personal regime in Yugoslavia, counteroffensive threw the Italians out Mussolini harbored anti-Yugoslav Croatian of Greece and out of about a quarter of fascists (Ustasˇa). Italian agents were also Albania. The Italian-Greek War stalemated involved in the assassination of King through much of the winter of 1940–1941. Italy in the Balkans during World War II 149

Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini on the Greek front, observing Italian troops on the Narta Mount, March 1941. (Roger Viollet/Getty Images)

The arrival of British airmen and soldiers Macedonia to Albania. Italy also assumed a drew the attention of German dictator zone of influence in the new Ustasˇa-ruled Adolf Hitler (1889–1945). He decided to state of Croatia. intervene on behalf of his beleaguered ally. Expansion into the Balkans soon proved The Germans prepared Operation Marita to be far beyond the resources of Mussoli- for an attack on Greece. A coup by a pro- ni’s Italy. In the summer of 1941, resistance British cabal of officers to Italian rule emerged throughout the in Belgrade on April 26 forced the inclusion region. This was especially the case in of Yugoslavia in the plans for the operation. Montenegro and in Bosnia, then under Cro- German, Hungarian, and Italian troops atian rule. Italian troops initially responded invaded Yugoslavia on April 6. The Yugo- with brutality. While that temporarily suc- slavs surrendered on April 17. German and ceed in suppressing the outbreaks, the Ital- Italian troops continued on into Greece. ians realized that they lacked the means Greek forces surrendered on April 20. and the will to continue that way. By the The defeat of Greece and Yugoslavia fall of 1941, local Italian commanders made the realization of an Italian empire in sought arrangements with Serbian resistance the Balkans possible. The Italians occupied forces (Cˇ etniks). They supplied weapons much of Greece. They annexed much of Slo- and exchanged intelligence. By the winter venia and most of the Adriatic Coast. of 1942, they began to cooperate in military Montenegro was restored as a kingdom operations against the Communist Partisans. with Victor Emanuel assuming his father- Although the Italian occupation forces in in-law King Nikola’s (1841–1921) old title. Greece and Yugoslavia frequently behaved They attached parts of Kosovo and with great brutality and occasionally 150 Izetbegovic´, Alija

perpetrated horrific atrocities, in comparison Thomas,N.,andK.Mikulan.Axis Forces in to the Germans, they appeared relatively Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Oxford: Osprey, benign. Jews and others seeking to escape 1995. harsh conditions in German-ruled areas of Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Greece and Yugoslavia frequently sought Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford refuge in the Italian areas. University Press, 2001. Nevertheless, by 1943, the Italians were becoming exhausted from their efforts in the Balkans and their failures in North Izetbegovic´, Alija (1925–2003) Africa and Soviet Russia. Whole areas nominally under Italian occupation were In September 1996, Alija Izetbegovic´ was devoid of Italian military presence. Strong elected to the new tripartite presidency of resistance movements developed even in Bosnia and was selected as the presidency’s previously quiescent Albania. The coup in chairperson. Izetbegovic´ was born on Rome ousting Mussolini on July 25, 1943, August 8, 1925, in Bosanski Samac, a town and the subsequent Italian surrender on in northeastern Bosnia. His homeland had September 8 meant doom for the Italian long been subjected to instability resulting empire in the Balkans and for many of the from intense ethnic and religious differences Italian servicemen stationed there. The Ger- on the Balkan Peninsula. In Izetbegovic´’s mans moved quickly to occupy strategic youth, Bosnia was a part of the Kingdom of locations in the Italian-occupied territories Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which had and to disarm the Italian armed forces. The emerged after the Habsburg dynasty col- Germans met shows of Italian reluctance or lapsed in World War I. resistance with great brutality. Most Italian During World War II, the Nazis annexed troops were interned or killed. A few man- Bosnia and terrorized the country. After the aged to escape and join local Albanian, war, Communists led by Josip Broz Tito Greek, and Yugoslav resistance groups. (1892–1980) came to power, and Bosnia Mussolini’s dreams of an Italian empire in and Herzegovina became a member republic the Balkans ended tragically for Italians of Tito’s Yugoslavia. Izetbegovic´, who, like and for Balkan peoples. Tito, had fought against the Nazi Party, Richard C. Hall now opposed the Communists and joined the Young Muslims to protect Islam. His dis- See also: Cˇ etniks; Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924; sent resulted in the government arresting Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941; Nikola, King of Montenegro (1841–1921); Partisans, Alba- him, and in March 1946, he was sentenced nia; Partisans, Yugoslavia; Ustasˇa; Zog, King to five years at hard labor. of the Albanians (1895–1961) In 1951, Izetbegovic´ began studying law in Sarajevo. After receiving his degree, he Further Reading became a legal adviser to a construction Burgwyn, H. James. Mussolini Warlord: company. Around 1980, he retired from this Failed Dreams of Empire, 1940–1943. position and began writing about Islam. In New York: Enigma Books, 2012. 1984, his book Islam between East and Pavlowitch, Stavan K. Hitler’s New Disorder: West promoted the religion as a bridge The Second World War in Yugoslavia.New between modern Western Europe and tradi- York: Columbia University Press, 2008. tional Eastern European culture. By this Izetbegovic´, Alija 151 time, Tito had died, but Izetbegovic´’s writ- tried to reach a negotiated settlement with ings still raised government retribution. Yugoslavia. After Croatia seceded, however, In 1983, he and several other prominent it was clear that continued membership in Muslims were sentenced to prison for Yugoslavia would mean domination by disloyalty. Serbs,whowerenowthemostpowerful When Izetbegovic´ was released in 1989, group in the Yugoslav nation. conditions in Yugoslavia were changing dra- In April 1992, the United States and the matically. The age-old ethnic and religious European Community recognized Bosnia’s tensions grew, expressed through nationalist independence. The Serbs, however, contin- and anti-Communist fervor that eventually ued to attack Bosnian cities as they began led to independence movements in many of “ethnic cleansing,” forcing Muslims and Yugoslavia’s provinces, particularly Croatia Croats out of areas by relocating or killing and Bosnia. In 1990, Izetbegovic´ and other them. Izetbegovic´ entered negotiations with Muslim activists organized the Stranka the Serbs, but at one point, while on his Demokratske Akcije (SDA), or Party of way back to Bosnia from Portugal (the site Democratic Action. They demanded the of the talks), they captured and threatened establishment of a market economy, multi- to kill him. An international protest led to party democracy, and a united Bosnia. In his release after one night in captivity. November, Bosnia held an open election, Throughout 1992, the situation in Bosnia and Izetbegovic´ ran as the SDA’s candidate worsened. Izetbegovic´ tried to get the West for the governing seven-member council. to intervene with military assistance, if nec- He received 37 percent of the vote and thus essary, to stop the ethnic cleansing, but he won a seat. In December, he was chosen obtained only a limited and uncoordinated president of the council, making him response. In 1993, the United States and president of Bosnia. The question remained Britain proposed a plan that would divide as to what Bosnia’s relationship would be Bosnia into provinces, each of them autono- with the other Yugoslav states. mous and distributed among Muslims, In 1991, a civil war erupted in neighbor- Serbs, and Croats. Izetbegovic´ did not like ing Croatia. The following year, amid this the plan because it would allow the Serbs turmoil, Bosnian Serbs declared their to keep land they had captured from independence from Bosnia, claiming more the Bosnians and thus reward aggression. than half of that state’s territory. While Cro- Bosnia’s position, however, was weak, so atia, meanwhile, issued a declaration of he reluctantly agreed to the proposal. The independence from Yugoslavia and thus has- Bosnian Serbs, though, rejected it and tened the fall of that nation, Bosnia decided demanded a completely independent state to hold its own referendum on nationhood. carved from Bosnia. Bosnians voted overwhelmingly to break By 1994, Izetbegovic´ was presiding over from Yugoslavia. Serb extremists in the Ser- a desperate situation. Although the Bosnian bian areas then joined with the Yugoslav Serbs had a falling out with the Yugoslav army, surrounded Sarajevo with roadblocks, Serbs who had supported them, they contin- and bombarded it. ued to battle Bosnia with great success. Izetbegovic´ had hoped to avoid blood- In addition, although Western European shed. All during 1991, he had contained rad- nations and the United States condemned icals within his own Muslim community and Serb aggression, they did little to stop it 152 Izetbegovic´, Alija

and restricted their military action to occa- Citing health reasons, Izetbegovic´ sional air strikes against the Bosnian Serb announced in June 2000 that he would step army. Izetbegovic´ was able to exert his down in October, two years before his term authority only over a small portion of Bos- expired. He was replaced by Martin Raguz nian territory, as the Serbs controlled most (1958–). Izetbegovic´ died on October 19, of it. Late in 1994, a precarious truce took 2003, of complications from injuries received hold in Bosnia, one that ultimately led to a from a fall at his home. more permanent peace, when in Novem- Neil A. Hamilton ber 1995 Izetbegovic´ and Croat and Serb See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Dayton leaders signed a peace accord known as the Peace Accords, 1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991– (1995), ending the fight- 1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; ing in Bosnia. Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences The agreement called the establishment of a tripartite presidency, with represen- Further Reading tatives from each of the three groups. In the Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey ensuing election, held in September 1996, through History. New York: St. Martin’s Izetbegovic´ was elected as the Bosnian Press, 1993. representative to the presidency. As the Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- recipient of the largest number of votes, slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. Izetbegovic´ was also appointed to serve New York: Verso, 1993. a two-year term as chairperson of the Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: Death presidency. of a Nation. New York: TV Books, 1996. J

Janina, Siege of, 1912–1913 their lines completely around the city and the lake of the same name north of the city, The siege of Janina (Albanian: Janine¨;Greek: leaving the north open. For that reason the Ioa´nnina; Turkish: Yanya) was a protracted garrison continued to receive reinforcements engagement during the First Balkan War, and supplies from the Albanian hinterland. 1912–1913. Janina was the seat of the Otto- The Greeks did not sign the armistice, man vilayet of the same name. Although the mainly in order to continue their siege oper- mixed population of the city was predomi- ations at Janina. The first Greek assault on nately Greek, the countryside was mainly the fortress on December 14 took some for- Albanian. Janina was the southern counterpart ward Ottoman positions, but not Fort Bijan. of Scutari (Shkode¨r), a fortified city on a lake. After seizing Koritsa northeast of Janina on Together, Janina and Scutari marked the December 20, 1912, the Greeks were able northern and southern expectations of to expand their lines around the northeastern Albanian nationalists. The Ottomans had for- corner of Janina and restrict the flow of rein- tified the city under the direction of General forcements and supplies into the city. The Colmar von der Goltz (1843–1916). Fortified Ottomans maintained an active defense, positions protected the west, south, and east launching counterattacks against the Greek of the city. The most important of these was positions. Another full frontal Greek Fort Bizani (Bijan), southeast of the city. At assault on the city failed on January 22. the beginning of the First Balkan War, there Crown Prince Constantine (1868–1923) then were two Ottoman divisions and about assumed command of the besieging forces. 90 big guns in the city, under the command Another attack began on March 5. It pushed of Brigadier General Esat Pasha (1862– past Fort Bijan and soon overwhelmed the 1952). It was the main objective of the Greek exhausted defenders. Esat Pasha surrendered campaigninEpirus. the morning of the next day. The Greeks The Greek Army of Epirus, under the took around 8,600 Ottoman prisoners and command of General Constantine Sapund- 108 guns at a cost of 500 dead and wounded. zakes (1846–1931), reached the city at the Another 2,800 Ottomans died in the final bat- beginning of November. An Italian volun- tle. Much of the Ottoman garrison was able to teer legion under the command of General escape to the northeast. The conclusion of the Ricciotti Garibaldi (1847–1924), the son of siege enabled the Greeks to shift much of Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi their army eastward for the looming confron- (1807–1882), soon joined the Greeks. By tation with Bulgaria over Macedonia. that time, Albanian irregulars and Ottoman Richard C. Hall troops retreating from Macedonia had sup- See also: Albania in the Balkan Wars; Balkan plemented the garrison. The besieging War, First, 1912–1913; Greece in the Balkan forces lacked sufficient numbers to extend Wars

153 154 JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army)

Further Reading The roots of the JNA derive from the Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The National Liberation Army (NLA), the “Par- Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913, tisans,” which used some nationalist rhetoric Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. against the occupation but was politically Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– organized as the military expression of a 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Lon- Communist political movement. The Parti- don: Routledge, 2000. san resistance movement benefited from Hellenic Army General Staff. AConciseHis- commanders with experience in the Royal tory of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, YugoslavArmyandgeneralswhohad Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. fought in the . In addition to locally organized resistance units typical JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) of guerilla warfare against a stronger occu- pying force, the Proletarian Brigades were The JNA, Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija,is formed with soldiers drawn from across the common abbreviation for the Yugoslav Yugoslavia and were designed to be used People’s Army, which existed between 1945 throughout the country. The Proletarian and 1992 as the military arm of the Socialist Brigades were intentionally and openly Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The JNA designed to be a political component of the grew out of the Yugoslav partisan army of Communist movement in Yugoslavia. World War II and lasted until the Socialist Despite large numbers of occupying Axis Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed forces and numerous German offensives into civil war in the 1990s. In 1992, the JNA against concentrations of Partisan forces, transitioned into being the military of the the NLA was able to seize territory through- Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (composed out the war and eventually use conventional of Serbia and Montenegro, which were not warfare tactics to drive the Axis forces universally recognized under the name from Yugoslavia with heavy Soviet and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). Western ally support. Germany, Italy, and Hungary invaded Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) had become Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941, after Serbian the leading figure of the Partisan resistance military officers led a coup against the forces during World War II. The mass- Yugoslav government, which had bowed resistance, guerilla-warfare nature of the under German pressure to join the Tripartite Partisans led to an inherent blurring Pact, the Axis powers of World War II. An of military-civilian distinctions in the armistice was reached 11 days later, with NLA that existed alongside the administra- the Serbian-dominated Royal Yugoslav tive structures created by the resistance Army surrendering, but guerilla warfare re- government of the Communist movement, sistance movements were formed and lasted the Anti-Fascist Council of the People’s until the end of the war. The largest Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). The resistance movements were the Cˇ etniks, a popular support for the NLA during the Serbian nationalist movement, and a Com- war,whichhadnotreliedsimplyonanti- munist Party movement, both of which occupation nationalism, provided an impor- eventually came into conflict with each tant source of political legitimacy for the other, as well as the forces of the puppet Communist-led government after the war. governments set up by Germany. Alternative political movements were JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) 155 ruthlessly suppressed. On March 1, 1945, easily without international consequence, the NLA was formally renamed the Yugo- bringing Yugoslavia under the Soviet Union’s slav Army, which would later be renamed control. Costs aside, conventional resistance the Yugoslav People’s Army on Decem- by a country the size of Yugoslavia to the ber 22, 1951. asymmetric threat of the Soviet Union in the The JNA operational doctrine was rooted 1960s seemed futile at best. Instead, under in the independent foreign policy of Yugo- the new doctrine, the JNA during the 1970s slavia, the experience of the NLA during and 1980s was designed to fight an asymmet- World War II, and the increased threat of ric war by using delaying actions at the bor- invasion from the Soviet Union after the ders of the country long enough that the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The mass of the public could form into resistance greatest military threats, as during World units throughout the country, but particularly War II, were assumed to come from much in the urban centers and mountainous regions more powerful countries since Yugoslavia throughout Yugoslavia. was sandwiched both geographically and The goal of the doctrine was to deter inva- politically between NATO and the Warsaw sion by having a military strategy designed Pact during the Cold War. After World War around rapid mass-mobilization of the popu- II, Yugoslavia positioned itself as a non- lation and eventual widespread guerilla war- aligned Communist state, having split with fare resistance that would cause any the Soviet Union over economic, territorial, invasion to be long and costly. In practice, and political issues. Yugoslavia continued the JNA would briefly delay a massive inva- to receive economic and military aid that sion long enough to be joined by a militia had begun during World War II and contin- (fighting independently as the Territorial ued into the early 1950s from the United Defense Force [TDF], not subordinate to States and other Western powers. Until the the JNA) composed of a majority of the pop- thawing of relations with the Soviet Union ulation. Weapon stores, even if not fully during the late 1950s, Yugoslavia invested modern, would be established throughout heavily in a traditional conventional military theentirecountryandwouldbeimmedi- through enormous domestic expenditure and ately available to the TDF—e.g., each large military aid from the United States (approx- factory would have its own weapon store. imately 500,000 active military with large The JNA would then fight in concert with mobilization capacity). By the 1960s, the the militia, attacking and defending invad- size of the JNA had been cut by more ing forces from all sides. As a last resort, than half as the perceived external threat the JNA would divide itself into smaller declined. units and would switch to guerilla warfare A new vision of the JNA was developed alongside the mobilized population. As a under the doctrine of Total National Defense small country with a potentially overwhelm- in 1969 after the 1968 invasion of Czecho- ing threat, Yugoslavia was also unable by the Warsaw Pact. Unable to politically to join the NATO alliance resume massive military spending, the to deter aggression. The technological Yugoslav government saw the invasion as a advantage of the Soviet military was also warning that the Soviet Union might begin something Yugoslavia could not hope to see the invasion of Yugoslavia as some- to compete with through conventional war- thing that could be achieved quickly and fare. The role of the JNA was therefore 156 JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army)

transformed into an important piece of a from the JNA loyal to the increasingly inde- broader deterrence strategy focused on pendent republics. The JNA successfully increasing the perceived costs of invasion. seized the weapon stores of the Croatian By delaying any overwhelming invasion TDF, but the JNA’s attempts to neutralize long enough to arm and organize the the TDF of Slovenia in 1990 was only parti- minimally trained population, uncertainty ally successful and had actually intensified would be introduced for the invader and the political crisis. Croatian and Slovenian the possibility created of a massive occupa- officers in the JNA began working to build in- tion force needed to deal with a lengthy dependent military organizations with arms guerilla war. smuggled into the country. By the summer The political fragmentation of Yugoslavia of 1991, the JNA had failed in an attempt to began in January 1990 after the revolutions maintain a unified Yugoslavia by preventing across Eastern Europe in 1989, but political Slovenian independence and transformed tensions between constituent republics had into simply the army of Serbia fighting a war been increasing dramatically for the decade for territory in Croatia and Bosnia. On after Tito’s death on May 4, 1980. The JNA, May 20, 1992, the JNA was officially trans- ideologically supportive of communism as formed into the military of the new Federal an institution, had played a role in keeping Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the the country unified throughout Tito’s leader- former republics of Serbia and Montenegro. ship and played a political role in attempting Brian G. Smith to squash the increasing political conflicts See also: Partisans, Yugoslavia; Tito, Josip between the republics of Yugoslavia after his Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslav Wars, 1991– death. A struggle for power and autonomy 1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, between constituent republics and the federal Consequences government, politically supported by escalat- ing use of nationalism during the 1980s, led Further Reading to Slovenian and Croatian declarations of Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. Vol. independence and a multisided war for 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cam- territory beginning in June 1991. Multiparty bridge University Press, 1983. elections held in Slovenia and Croatia in Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and 1990 were seen as a threat to the JNA, which the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- had a Serb-dominated officer corps. wood Press, 1998. The Territorial Defense Forces and their Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: weapon stores would have helped Slovenia Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin and Croatia develop separate militaries USA, 1996. K

Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913 attack and contain the Greek army, then advancing up the Struma River valley. It was The battle of Kalimantsi was an important too late, however, to save Bulgaria. With engagement between the Bulgarian Fourth Ottoman and Romanian forces moving unop- Army and the Serbian Third Army during posed into southeastern and northeastern the Second Balkan War in 1913. In the ini- Bulgaria, respectively, the Bulgarians had to tial round of fighting in the Second Balkan accept an armistice on July 31, 1913. War, the Bulgarian had suf- Richard C. Hall fered heavy losses in a defeat by the Serbian See also: Balkan War, Second, 1913; Bulgaria First and Third Armies around the Bregali- in the Balkan Wars; Savov, Mihail (1857–1928) nitsa River in southeastern Macedonia. On July 13, the Fourth and Fifth Armies came Further Reading under the unified command of General Mihail Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– Savov (1857–1928), the former deputy com- 1913: Prelude to the First World War. mander in chief of the Bulgarian army. He London: Routledge, 2000. established strong defensive positions on the Skoko, Savo. Drugi Balkanski rat 1913, Bulgarian side of the old Bulgarian-Ottoman Knjiga druga. Tok i zavrshetak rata. frontier in southeastern Macedonia on the Belgrade: Vojonoistorijski institute, 1968. Kalimantsi plateau. The Serbian Third Army under the command of General Bozˇidar Jankovic´ (1849–1920) began its attacks on Karadzˇic´, Radovan (1945–) July 18 in pouring rain against the Bulgarian Fourth Army. An allied Montenegrin division Radovan Karadzˇic´ served as the president of participated in the attacks. The Bulgarians the former self-declared but unrecognized held their positions, pushing the Serbs back Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzego- with bayonet charges. By July 19, the main vina until July 1996. Karadzˇic´ was born on fighting had ended, although some fighting June 19, 1945, in Petnjica, Yugoslavia. He continued in the area for the remainder of trained as a psychiatrist and worked in state the war. Nevertheless, the Serbs were unable hospitals and then with Unis Co. In 1990, to proceed further. he cofounded the Serbian Democratic This was an important defensive victory Party. He was the leader of the self- for the Bulgarians. The Serbs and Montene- declared Serbian republic that was created grins lost around 2,700 dead and over 5,000 within Bosnia after Bosnian president Alija wounded. Bulgarian casualties were prob- Izetbegovic´ declared the republic’s indepen- ably similar. The victory prevented a Ser- dence from Yugoslavia in early 1992. bian invasion of Bulgaria. It also allowed Karadzˇic´ denied that he and his associates the Bulgarians to shift some forces south to officially endorsed the Serbian ethnic

157 158 Karageorge (George Petrovic´)

cleansing campaigns that were conducted in Fogelquist, Alan F. Handbook of Facts on: The efforts to create huge Serbian-held regions Break-Up of Yugoslavia International within Bosnia, repeatedly claiming that Policy and the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Whitmore Lake, MI: AEIOU Publishing, Serbian forces were merely trying to protect 1993. Serbian enclaves from attacks by the Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- nation’s Muslims. Karadzˇic´ agreed to resign slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. from office in July 1996 following his New York: Verso, 1993. indictment on war crimes charges. He Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: appointed as his successor Biljana Plavsic´ Death of a Nation. New York: TV Books, (1930–), who in September 1996 was 1996. elected president of the Bosnian Serb region Republika Srpska. Karageorge (George Petrovic´; In August 1997, Karadzˇic´ rejected a U.S. 1768–1818) offer that would have allowed him to avoid extradition and prosecution for war crimes by relocating to another, undisclosed coun- Karageorge, also known as “Black George” try. He continued to maintain a large and because of his long black hair, was a legen- active following of hard-liners in Serbia dary leader and founder of the core of the and to dominate affairs in Serbia, many feel modern Serbian state. Under his direction, in violation of the Dayton Agreement. rebel forces and local village chiefs In late December 2001, the Serbian achieved local autonomy then independence of Bosnia and Herzego- from the Ottoman Empire. Although the vina, still a dominant force in Bosnian Serb period of independence for Serbia under politics, expelled Karadzˇic´, along with his Karageorge was brief, he cleared a path for closest aide and former Bosnian parliamen- later Serbian nationalists to seize and secure tary speaker Momcˇilo Krajisnik (1945–). the country’s autonomy. On July 21, 2008, Serbian authorities Born George Petrovic´ on November 14, arrested the disguised Karadzˇic´ in Belgrade. 1768, Karageorge was a peasant in Serbia They turned him over to the International who spent much of his youth herding goats. Criminal Tribunal at The Hague, Nether- In 1787, he moved to Austria and joined lands. As of 2011, he remained there as the the Austrian army. He earned distinction as legal case against him proceeded. a soldier on campaigns in Italy and against Richard C. Hall the Turks. By the early 1790s, he had returned to Serbia and settled down as a live- See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Dayton stock trader and father of seven sons, one of Peace Accords, 1995; Srebrinica Massacre, whom, Alexander, would someday rule 1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Serbia as a prince. Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences The province of Serbia had long been chafing under the rule of the Ottoman Further Reading Turks. Imbued with strong nationalist senti- Cigar, Norman L. Genocide in Bosnia: The Pol- ment, the Serbians longed for autonomy icy of “Ethnic Cleansing.” College Station: and the restoration of an independent Ser- Texas A&M University Press, 1995. bian state, although it had been centuries Karageorge (George Petrovic´) 159 since such a state existed. As the Ottoman Serbians. A constant undercurrent of Empire began to show signs of weakness in diplomatic negotiations among the great the early nineteenth century, nationalist fac- European powers was the power struggle tions within Serbia launched campaigns between Karageorge and Serbia’s other against the Turks to claim their independence. chiefs and military leaders, foremost In 1804, Karageorge, now a seasoned sol- among them Milosˇ Obrenovic´ (1780– dier, helped organize the rebel chiefs and 1860), the future Prince Milosˇ. priests against the rebellious Turkish Janis- By the end of 1808, Karageorge was saries, an elite military corps that ruled Ser- growing tired of the endless international bia in an arbitrary and cruel manner. The negotiations. He called together a group Serbian rebel force quickly defeated the Jan- of officials and notables at his home issaries, earning for themselves the gratitude and, after three days of traditional celebra- of Ottoman sultan Selim III (1761–1808), tions, had himself proclaimed “hereditary who viewed the as an uncontrol- Supreme Leader.” Almost three weeks later, lable military force. the Russian State Council approved his Karageorge demanded from Selim III actions.Russia recognized Karageorge as Serbian autonomy in return, a proposal that the strongest Serb leader and thus lent lim- Selim decidedly rejected. Encouraged by ited support for his rule. As a ruler, Kara- his military successes, Karageorge began a george quickly worked to consolidate his war of independence against the Turks in power, establishing an appointed council 1805. The following year, he led the Ser- and ending local autonomy, as Karageorge bians to a series of victories against the assumed the power of appointing local Turks, most notably at battles in Misar and chiefs rather than allowing them to be Belgrade. The Serbian cause was aided by elected as was traditional. the outbreak of war between Russia and the The outbreak of the next phase of the Ottoman Empire in December 1806, which Napoleonic Wars put an end to Russian pro- brought Russia into direct involvement in tection or guidance for Serbia, as French Serbian affairs. With tacit promises of Rus- emperor Napoleon I launched a massive sian support, the Serbians continued their campaign against Russia in 1812. Although campaign against the Turks, convinced that theTreatyofBucharest,signedbyRussia the Russians would ensure Serbian indepen- and the Ottoman Empire that same year, dence if they won the war, one of many con- guaranteed Serbia independence, the Turks flicts that made up the Napoleonic Wars. took advantage of Russia’s distraction to Russia did indeed defeat the Turks, but in reconquer Serbia. By October 1813, the the resulting treaty, Serbia’s claims of Turks had invaded Belgrade, and Kara- autonomy were largely overlooked. With george had fled across the border into the Serbia’s status left undetermined, Kara- Hungarian provinces of the Austrian george soon found himself and his country Empire. When he asked to reside in Russia, in the midst of struggles and intrigues the Austrians arrested him and his followers between the , Russia, and kept them jailed in several locations. France, and the Ottoman Empire. In addi- The Turks asked for his return, but the tion, although Karageorge had proven Austrians refused. The Russians finally suc- himself a strong and resourceful leader, ceeded in getting his transfer to the princi- his leadership was contested among the pality of Moldavia. 160 Kemal, Mustafa

Another Serbian independence movement Mustafa Kemal was born Mustafa Rizi in waslaunchedin1815byKarageorge’sold Salonika, Greece, on March 12, 1881. He foe Obrenovic´. Karageorge and his followers began military schooling at age 12. Mustafa hoped to return to Serbia to join in the fight, proved so adept at mathematics that he but Obrenovic´ would not permit it. Never- earned the nickname “Kemal,” meaning theless, Karageorge was smuggled into Serbia “The Perfect One.” The young man liked in June 1817 by the Society of Friends, a the name and made it part of his own, prefer- secret Greek organization working toward ring to be known as Mustafa Kemal and later Greek independence. Their pleas for aid Kemal Atatu¨rk. from Obrenovic´ had been refused, and they Commissioned a lieutenant in 1902, hoped that Karageorge would support and Kemal served ably in a number of staff lead a general insurrection against the Turks posts and combat commands. During the in the Balkans. When Obrenovic´ discovered turbulent years before the outbreak of Karageorge’s presence in Serbia, he ordered World War I, he became active in the emerg- him killed, fearing that his rival would ingreformistYoungTurkmovement.In attempt to oust him from power. Karageorge 1909, he took part in the march on Constan- wasaxedtodeathonJuly25,1817.Obre- tinople to depose Sultan Abdulhamid II novic´ did not stop with his assassination, (1842–1918) but soon after turned his atten- however. In order to placate the Ottoman tion away from politics to military matters. sultan, Karageorge’s head was stuffed and During 1911–1912, he saw action as a sent to Constantinople. His legendary exploits major during the Italo-Turkish War when remained firmly rooted in Serbian minds, the Italians invaded Libya. A year later, as a however, and his heirs rivaled for power with lieutenant colonel, he was chief of staff of a Obrenovic´’s heirs in the decades to come. division based at Gallipoli during the Balkan Michael D. Johnson Wars of 1912–1913. Kemal was overshadowed during this See also: Obrenovic´,Milosˇ (1780–1860); period by the rise of his flamboyant contem- Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1818 porary Enver Pasha (1881–1922), a dashing, Further Reading politically minded officer, leader of the Clissold, Stephen, ed. A Short History of Young Turks, and a remarkably inept gen- Yugoslavia: From Early Times to 1966.Cam- eral. Kemal and Enver disagreed violently bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966. about the encouragement of German influ- Dedijer, Vladimir, et al. History of Yugoslavia. ence in the Turkish government and armed Translated by Kordija Kveder. New York: forces. Unlike his rival, Kemal believed McGraw-Hill, 1974. that Turkey should remain neutral in World Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern War I, doubted the chances of the , 1804–1918.2vols.NewYork: Powers, and resented Enver’s invitation to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. Berlin to send a military mission not only to advise but actually to command Turkish forces. Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938) After a period of exile as military attache´ in Sofia, Bulgaria, Kemal was recalled and, Turkish army general and political leader, with the rank of colonel, appointed to com- and first president of the Turkish Republic, mand the 19th Division based at Rodosto Kemal, Mustafa 161 on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Although in Turks fight for independence. In April charge only of the area reserves and subordi- 1920, Kemal established a provisional nated to German general Otto Liman von government in Ankara. He became president Sanders (1855–1929), Kemal took the initia- of the National Assembly in Ankara and tive that established him as a great soldier successfully directed Turkish forces in the during the Allied amphibious landings of defeat of Greek forces in eastern Anatolia April 1915. He immediately committed his during 1921–1922. troops and led them in a series of fierce With the external threat overcome, Kemal counterattacks to combat the landings that ended the sultanate on November 1, 1922. pinned the Allied troops to the beaches. The Treaty of Lausanne granted almost all When the Allies tried another landing at the concessions that Turkey demanded, and Suvla Bay on August 6, 1915, Kemal was Kemal proclaimed the Republic of Turkey given command of that area as well. By on October 29, 1923, with himself as early 1916, when the Allies had evacuated president. He then set about implementing their forces, Kemal was hailed as the “Savior reforms that limited the influence of Islam of Constantinople.” Subsequently promoted and introduced Western laws, dress, and to general, he took command of XVI Corps administrative functions. and continued his success against the Allies Although an autocrat, Kemal, who took the in defending Anatolia in . He title Atatu¨rk in 1934, encouraged cooperation was the only Turkish general to win victories between the civil and military branches and against the Russians. based his rule on the concept of equality of Kemal’s accomplishments, as well as his all before the law. His achievements in every annoyance at being subordinate to the field of national life were extraordinary and, Germans, so threatened and angered Enver almost singlehandedly, he inspired Turkey to Pasha that he relieved him of command in take its place among the modern nations of 1917, placing him on sick leave. A year later, the world. Atatu¨rk died on November 10, with the German-Ottoman alliance facing 1938, in Istanbul. defeat by the Allies, Enver recalled Kemal to James H. Willbanks command the in Palestine. See also: Gallipoli, 1915; Greco-Turkish War, Outnumbered by General Sir Edmund H. 1919–1922; Ottoman Empire in World War I; Allenby’s (1861–1936) better-equipped Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 British forces, the best Kemal could achieve was to extricate the bulk of his command Further Reading and withdraw first to Aleppo and then to the Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History Anotolian frontier, an orderly retreat that of the Ottoman Army in the First World saved his army. War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000. With the Allied victory in the war and col- Fewster, Kevin, Hatice Basarin, and Vesihi lapse of the Ottoman Empire, Kemal used Basarin. Gallipoli: The Turkish Story. his assignment as inspector general of the London: Allen and Unwin, 2004. armies in eastern and northeastern Anatolia James, Robert Rhodes. Gallipoli: The History of a to strengthen those elements working for a Noble Blunder. New York: Macmillan, 1965. free and independent Turkish nation. On Kinross, Lord. Atatu¨rk: Biography of Musta- May 19, 1919, ignoring the sultan’s attempt pha Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey.New to remove him, Kemal issued orders that all York: William Morrow, 1965. 162 Kosovo, Battle of, 1915

Laffin, John. Damn the Dardanelles! The The retreating Serbian army again Agony of Gallipoli. London: Osprey, 1980. attempted to stop the advancing Bulgarians Macfie, A. L. Atatu¨rk. New York: Longman, near the city of Gnjilane. The Serbs then 1994. tried a desperate counterattack toward Moorehead, Alan. Gallipoli.NewYork: and Kumanovo to join Anglo-French troops Harper, 1956. but were again defeated. On November 24, units of the Bulgarian First Army took Prisˇ- Kosovo, Battle of, 1915 tina. The entire Bulgarian army, supported from the north by parts of the Eleventh This battle was fought between the Serbian German Army, now advanced against the army and the Bulgarian army and portions of Serbians. The battle ended on December 4 the German army in Kosovo between Novem- with the capture of . The Serbs lost ber 10 and December 4, 1915. In early 1915, 30,000 soldiers, 199 guns, 150 cars, and vast the German chief of the general staff Erich quantities of other military equipment. von Falkenhayn (1861–1922) convinced the Following this battle and into early 1916, Austro-Hungarian chief of staff Franz Conrad over 400,000 defeated and worn-out Serbian von Hoetzendorf (1852–1925) to launch a troops and civilian refugees retreated toward second invasion of Serbia. If this invasion suc- the Adriatic coast through Albania in what ceeded, Serbia would be knocked out of the became known as the “Great Serbian Retreat.” war, and Germany and Austria-Hungary Allied ships transported about 130,000 Ser- would have a rail link to their other ally, the bian soldiers and 60,000 Serbian refugees to Ottoman Empire. In September, Bulgaria, eye- various Greek islands, including Corfu. ing Serbian territory that the Bulgarians felt About 70,000 soldiers and 140,000 civilians was theirs, signed a treaty of alliance with died in Albania of starvation, extreme Germany and quickly mobilized its army. weather, and Albanian reprisals during the Combined German and Austrian-Hungarian retreat. forces invaded Serbia in October 7 and occu- Robert B. Kane pied Belgrade, the capital, two days later. See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Serbia, On October 14, 1915, the Bulgarian army Invasions of, 1915; Serbia in World War I crossed the Serbian border across the northern border toward Nisˇ and across the southern Further Reading border toward Skopje and drove the Serbian Adams, John Clinton. Flight in Winter. army back along both fronts. In early Novem- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ber, Marshal Radomir Putnik (1847–1917), 1942. the Serbian commander in chief, attempted Fryer, Charles. The Destruction of Serbia in to pull his two incomplete armies together to 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- halt the Bulgarian advance. However, on graphs, 1997. November 10, the Bulgarian First Army Krunich, Milutin, and Leah Marie Bruce. Ser- crossed the River and struck bia Crucified: The Beginning.Boston: the weakened Serbian army in the direction Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918. of Nisˇ and Prisˇtina. For two days, the greatly Mitrovic´,Andrej.Serbia’s Great War, 1914– outnumbered Serbian army held Prokuplje 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- but eventually had to retreat. sity Press, 2007. Kosovo Liberation Army 163

Kosovo Liberation Army The crackdown drove many Kosovars into the arms of the KLA, and the group’s mem- The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA; Ush- bershipswelledtoanestimated35,000 tria Clirimtare e Kosoves) was a guerrilla fighters. In early 1999, the Serbs began a force that fought for Kosovo’s independence heightened military campaign to destroy from Yugoslavia, and later from Serbia. the KLA, burning entire villages, driving Most of the group’s members were ethnic tens of thousands of civilians from their Albanians, who make up approximately homes, and causing many civilian casu- 90 percent of Kosovo’s 2 million people. alties. The North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- Although the KLA officially disbanded in tion (NATO) responded to this aggression July 1999, many of its commanders and by launching air strikes against Yugoslavia fighters joined forces with the National Lib- to help prevent further attacks on Kosovar eration Army in Macedonia and other satel- Albanians. lite organizations to continue their fight for By the onset of the NATO air strikes, the an independent Kosovo. KLA’s force had dwindled to roughly 3,000 The KLA formed around 1990 as a small fighters. However, by June 1999, a ground- band of peasants committed to the liberation swell of volunteer fighters from Albania of Kosovo. The province had been an and from among fleeing refugees brought autonomous region from 1974 to 1989, and the KLA force within Kosovo to an esti- its degree of home rule was virtually equiva- mated 17,000—with another 5,000 volun- lent to that of any republic of the former teers in training in Albania. Although Yugoslav federation. However, Kosovo’s the KLA remained far outnumbered by autonomy was rescinded in 1989 by the heavily armed Yugoslav military, the Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosˇevic´ NATO air war hindered the mobility of (1941–2006), who cited a need to suppress the Yugoslav troops, further equalizing the separatism and protect non-Albanian ethnic battlefield. On June 9, NATO and Yugoslav minorities living in Kosovo. For several officials signed the Military-Technical years, most Kosovar Albanians followed a Agreement, paving the way for the complete policy of nonviolence in their efforts to have withdrawal of Serbian troops and the demili- their autonomy restored. As severe repression tarization of the KLA. against ethnic Albanians by Serbian police Despite the agreement, factions within the and Yugoslav army forces continued unabated KLA remained divided over the prospect of through the mid-1990s, the KLA began to disarmament under any peace plan negoti- carry out well-planned attacks against care- ated between NATO and the Yugoslav fully chosen Serbian targets. Beginning in government. The group’s most radical mem- 1997, open clashes erupted between KLA bers formed a rival armed faction, the rebels and government forces. Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo. In 1998, Milosˇevic´ launched a crackdown The splinter group comprised former KLA on the KLA and also on ethnic Albanian members who refused to accept anything villages throughout the province. In an effort less than full independence. to ferret out the rebels, Serbian police Although little was known about the began terrorizing citizens suspected of KLA’s command structure, Hashim Thaci providing shelter or support for the KLA. (1968–), leader of the Democratic Party 164 Kosovo War, 1998–1999

of Kosovo, emerged as its nominal head. The Yugoslav army responded to the KLA Former KLA commander Ramush Haradi- attacks with considerable force, attacking naj (1968–) became prime minister of base areas in remote areas of Kosovo. In Kosovo in December 2004 but resigned in the ensuing fighting, a number of civilians March 2005 after being indicted for war were killed, sometimes deliberately. crimes charges tied to his time as a KLA Although the Serbs sought talks with commander. Haradinaj surrendered to the , he rejected any negotiations with UN International Criminal Tribunal for Serbian officials and insisted that the talks Yugoslavia in The Hague. be only with the Yugoslav government over Lisa McCallum independence. In May 1998, the Yugoslav army carried See also: Kosovo War, 1998–1999 out a major military operation in Kosovo, Further Reading Operation Horseshoe. This was intended to Clark, Wesley. Waging Modern War: Bosnia, drive much of the Albanian civilian popula- Kosovo and the Future of Combat.New tion out of Kosovo. In response, the North York: Public Affairs, 2001. Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, launched in June an air demonstration, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. Operation Determined Falcon, over the New York: Viking, 1999. Yugoslav borders. President Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941– 2006) reached an agreement with the Kosovo War, 1998–1999 president of the Russian Federation, (1931–2007), to cease offensive During the 1980s, increasing Serbian repres- military operations and begin negotiations, sion radicalized many among the but Milosˇevic´ and Rugova met only once, 90 percent majority Albanian population in in Belgrade, on May 15. By this time, the the Serbian province of Kosovo. With the United States was clearly backing the KLA. threat of violence increasing, Ibrahim Heavy fighting occurred during the summer, Rugova (1944–2006), the elected president with atrocities committed by both sides and of the Republic of Kosovo since 1992 but the destruction of churches and . not recognized by Yugoslavia, pleaded for a By the fall, with winter approaching, Ser- UN peacekeeping force in Kosovo. bian forces drove some 250,000 Albanians On April 22, 1996, the secret Kosovo Lib- from their homes in acts of ethnic cleansing. eration Army (KLA) carried out a series of U.S. diplomats attempted to hammer out a attacks against Serbian security personnel deal in which the Yugoslav army halted its throughout the province. When Albania col- attacks, while NATO peacekeeping troops lapsed into violence in 1997, a good deal of entered the province. At the same time, the that nation’s military hardware was looted KLA was to drop its bid for independence. and found its way in the hands of the KLA A cease-fire agreement was brokered on in western Kosovo. Although the United October 25, 1998. A Kosovo Verification States branded the KLA a terrorist organiza- Mission was established with unarmed tion, neither it nor other Western powers observers. made any effort to stem the flow of arms The inadequacy of this effort was soon and money to it. apparent, as the violence increasingly Kosovo War, 1998–1999 165

Kosovar refugees set up tents at a camp in Blace, Macedonia, April 1, 1999. (Getty Images) shifted to urban areas, including assassina- With the Serbs recalcitrant, NATO tions and bombings on both sides. A turning launched a bombing campaign during point in the war occurred on January 15, March 12–June 11, 1999. It was the first 1999, with the so-called Racˇak Massacre in time that NATO conducted a military cam- which a number of ethnic Albanians were paign against a sovereign nation, and the found murdered, their bodies mutilated. first military operation for the German air Meanwhile, contentious and plodding force since World War II. All the NATO talks occurred at Rambouillet, France, powers participated to some degree, includ- between the parties during February– ing Greece, whose government actually March 1999, with NATO secretary-general opposed the war. In all, NATO carried out Javier Solana acting as a go-between. On some 38,000 sorties. The proclaimed goal March 18 the Albanian, U.S., and British of the campaign was announced as “Serbs representatives to the talks signed what out, peacekeepers in, refugees back.” That became known as the Rambouillet Accords. is, Yugoslav troops had to leave Kosovo, to This agreement called for the autonomy of be replaced by an international peace- Kosovo, the development of democratic keeping force so that ethnic Albanian refu- institutions, and the protection of human gees might return to their homes. rights. This was to be guaranteed by an Clearly NATO planners initially underes- invited international civilian and military timated the force that would be required. force. The Serb and Russian delegations Indeed, Milosˇevic´ was emboldened to inten- refused to sign the agreement, however. sify Serb efforts to clear Kosovo of its The Serbs’ counterproposal was so extreme Muslim non-Serb population, sending hun- as to be rejected even by their Russian ally. dreds of thousands of refugees fleeing into 166 Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912

neighboring Bosnia, Albania, Montenegro, ingenuity that overcame NATO technology and Macedonia. By April 1999, the UN but was also the result of restrictions to reported that nearly 850,000 people—the minimize the chance of casualties among vast majority of them ethnic Albanians— the aircrews that had kept the NATO aircraft were driven from their homes. above 15,000 feet. In response, NATO intensified the air The war left Kosovo in near chaos. Within effort, hitting not only strategic targets but a matter of a few weeks, a half million increasingly Yugoslav army units on the Kosovo refugees returned to the region. By ground, including individual tanks and artil- November, more than 800,000 had returned. lery pieces. Dual-use targets struck include In Serbia, meanwhile, large demonstrations infrastructure such as bridges over the Dan- called for the removal of Milosˇevic´ from ube as well as television towers and political power. The Kosovo War was the major party headquarters in Belgrade. On May 7, factor driving him from power in 2000. On 1999, NATO bombs inadvertently hit the February 17, 2008, Kosovo unilaterally Chinese embassy in Belgrade, killing three declared independence. The United States and wounding 20, sharply straining relations and most European states recognized the between Washington and Beijing and pro- new state; Serbia and Russia did not. Around ducing anti-American demonstrations 10,000 KFOR troops remain in Kosovo. throughout China. Spencer C. Tucker With NATO actively considering the dis- See also: Horseshoe, Operation, 1998; Kosovo patch of ground troops, which U.S. president Liberation Army (KLA); NATO in the William J. Clinton (1946–) opposed, in early Balkans June 1999, Finnish president Martii Ahti- saari (1937–), former Russian prime minis- Further Reading ter Viktor Chernomyrdin (1938–2010), and Clark, Wesley. Waging Modern War: Bosnia, London banker Peter Castenfelt convinced Kosovo and the Future of Combat.New Milosˇevic´ to back down and accept a peace York: Public Affairs, 2001. agreement that ended the war and halted Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, the NATO bombing campaign. On June 9, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. NATO and the Federal Republic of Yugo- New York: Viking, 1999. slavia formally signed a peace agreement that admitted a military presence, the , within Kosovo under the Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912 UN but incorporating NATO forces. On June 11, NATO troops (KFOR, The Treaty of Berlin had shaped the borders Kosovo Force) entered Kosovo in Operation of the Ottoman Balkans in such a way that it Joint Guardian as the Yugoslav army exited was nearly impossible to defend it against the province. Although no NATO lives multiple enemies. Coupled with this, were lost in the bombing campaign, as Ottoman political and military leadership many as 1,500 Serb civilians were killed. determined to preserve every inch of the NATO claims of military damage inflicted empire’s territory, and they had great faith were found to be inflated, and many of the in the military capacity of territorial defense targets struck (such as tanks) turned out to units. Moreover, overconfident general staff be decoys. This was a consequence of Serb officers insisted on being on the offensive Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912 167 at the operational level while conducting aggressive covering-force tactics, while some defensive operations at the strategic level, of his divisions were still trying desperately which was a key element in the newly intro- to reach their tactical destinations between duced German doctrine. They naively hoped October 14 and 21. ’s tactics that the small militaries of the Balkan states worked quite well and First Serbian Army would not have the means to launch coordi- could not establish contact with the Second nated assaults, thereby giving Ottoman units Serbian Army. However, he did not wait for ample opportunities to defeat them one by his remaining four divisions to arrive, as he one. Ottoman planners disregarded all the via- thought the time was ripe for attack, even ble alternatives and tried in vain to design a though the Serbs had twice the number of war strategy that would fit these conflicting men on hand as the Ottomans. Three divisions ideas. The flawed outcome of all these prior- fixed the Serbs and three more launched ities and factors was the grouping of available flanking attacks from both sides on Octo- units into two geographically isolated field ber 23. The ambitious assault achieved armies: the Western Army (Garb Ordusu), remarkable success initially but at the end of and the Eastern Army (S¸ark Ordusu). the day, without effective artillery support The Ottoman Western Army tried to and reserves, Zeki Pasha was unable to tip employ the strategic defense with the opera- the balance in his favor. The ill-trained, tional offensive. But in contrast to its eastern ill-equipped and poorly led redif divisions sister, the Western Army divided its units began to waver, and massive Serbian artillery into the Vardar Army, four corps-sized fire crushed and demoralized them the next groups (Yanya, Ustruma, I˙s¸kodra, and Mu¨r- day. Zeki Pasha somehow managed to keep etteb [redif/reserve] VIII Corps) and four his demoralized redifs in their make-shift independent detachments in order to protect defensive positions against the all-day-long every inch of its area of responsibility against infantry assaults. However, panic seized the concentric attacks of its four adversaries. them immediately after Zeki Pasha ordered a Additionally, only a bit more than half of the retreat, and all discipline and order was lost. assigned troops were mobilized due to a lack Mesut Uyar of transportation and slow mobilization, See also: Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars; which further limited the army’s chances of Putnik, Radomir (1847–1917); Serbia in the success. The Ottoman planners identified the Balkan Wars Serbianarmyasthemainthreatandsotasked the Vardar Army to block and then annihilate Further Reading it. Similarly, the Serbian commander in chief, Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The General Radomir Putnik (1847–1917) was Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. also looking for a decisive pitched battle by Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. making use of 11 infantry divisions and Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– combat support units to fix and envelop the 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Ottoman units. London: Routledge, 2000. Most of the Vardar Army divisions had Hallı, Res¸at. Balkan Harbi (1912–1913), to travel more than 100 kilometers in Garp Ordusu, Vardar Ordusu ve Ustruma order to reach their concentration area Kolordusu. Vol. 3, section 1, 2nd printing. near Kumonovo. The commanding general, Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1993. Halepli Zeki Pasha (1862–1943), employed L

Lake Prespa, Battle of, 1917 Sarrail commenced offensive operations on March 11, 1917, striking northward in The Battle of Lake Prespa, northwest the area between Monastir and Lake Prespa, of Salonika, during March 11–22, 1917, against the Bulgarian Sixth Vidin and Eighth occurred on the Balkan Front between Tundhza Divisions. Milne’s supporting Central Powers forces from Bulgaria and attack at Lake Dorian on the other side of Germany, and Entente troops mainly from the Balkan Front began the next day. France and Serbia. The Allied offensive, Both sides suffered from the blizzard-like launched at the lake on the Greek and late winter weather. The Bulgarian defend- Serbian border, was undertaken to divert ers used gas and flamethrowers to limit German assets from the the Entente attacks to gains of only a few (April 16–May 9, 1917) on the Western hundred yards. Bulgarian counterattacks Front. Toward that end, the Allied com- launched on March 17 pushed into the manders in the Balkans, French ge´ne´ral de western Entente flank and forced Sarrail to division (1856–1929) and abandon gains elsewhere. Entente troops British general George Milne (1866–1948), then withdrew to regroup. By March 22, were ordered to launch offensive operations. they were back at their starting points, hav- Sarrail planned a repeat of the previous ing sustained some 14,000 casualties from year’s offensive by the Entente, which the fighting and sickness. The Bulgarians had taken Monastir (Bitola) in Serbia the lost3,482intheMarchfighting,andas previous November. many as 2,000 prisoners. British attacks in In January 1917, Sarrail received an addi- the Dorian sector resumed in late April, tional four divisions. Officially, he com- and there was additional fighting in May manded 600,000 men, but widespread near Monastir by French and Serbian units, sickness and the need to defend Salonika and along the Struma River by British troops. reduced the number of French and Serbian The Entente made some small gains during troops available for offensive operations to the spring of 1917, but paid a heavy price only some 100,000 men. These faced a sim- with losses of over 13,000 men. Afterward, ilar number of Bulgarian and some German both sides were exhausted. Sarrail then halted soldiers, who were well dug in on high all offensive operations along the Balkan ground. The British undertook a supporting Front. It remained relatively quiet until the attack to the east at Lake Doiran against summer of 1918, when French general Louis the Bulgarian Ninth Pleven Division. The Franchet d’Espe´ray (1856–1942) began prep- Bulgarians were under the overall command arations for the fall offensive that would force of German general Bulgaria out of the war. (1857–1944). Jon C. Anderson Jr.

168 Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923 169

See also: Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; Doiran, who had supported it. The sultan then Battles of, 1915–1918; Macedonian Front, dissolved Parliament, which led Kemal to 1915–1918; Zhekov, Nikola (1864–1949) establish a rival government in the interior of Anatolia. He soon concluded an agree- Further Reading ment with Russia that proved beneficial to Falls, Cyril. Military Operations: Macedonia. 2 vols. London: HMSO, 1933, 1935. both nations. Turkey recognized Russian incorporation of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Markov, Georgi. Golyamata voina i Bu˘lgar- skata strazha mezhdu Sredna Evropa i half of Armenia. In return, Turkey received Orienta 1916–1919. Sofia: Prof. Marin surplus Russian arms and Russia’s diplo- Drinov, 2006. matic support, including its recognition of Palmer, Alan. The Gardiners of Salonika.New Turkish control over the other half of York: Simon and Schuster, 1965. Armenia. Kemal soon took advantage of the Russian arms to go to war against Greece Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923 in Smyrna. Although Greek prime minister Eleuthe´rios Venize´los (1864–1936) sent The Treaty of Lausanne established peace forces into Anatolia, Kemal carried out a between the Allied powers and Turkey. brilliant military campaign in the Greco- Unlike the Treaty of Se`vres, the terms of Turkish War of 1919–1922, during which which the Allies dictated to the Ottoman he retook Smyrna and its hinterland and government in 1920, the Treaty of Lausanne then turned north against Constantinople. signed on July 24, 1923, was a negotiated Italy, which had come to see Greece as a peace. The Treaty of Se`vres had been a more immediate rival than Turkey, agreed humiliation for Turkey. Under its terms, to withdraw its own occupation troops Greece assumed control over Smyrna and after a defeat at Kemal’s hands in Central the hinterland as well as all of Ottoman Anatolia. This led the British and French Europe outside of Constantinople. The also to depart. treaty also removed the Arabic-speaking Turkish success on the battlefield lands and Armenia from Ottoman control produced gains at the bargaining table. and established an autonomous Kurdistan In November 1922, a conference to consider under League of Nations guidance. It fixed revisions to the Treaty of Se`vres opened in the size of the Turkish army at 50,000 men, the Swiss city of Lausanne. Plenipotentiar- and it also left in place the capitulations ies from eight nations negotiated there for that gave foreigners the right of extraterri- seven months. As evidence of their parity toriality and established foreign control at the conference, Turkish diplomats suc- over many aspects of the Turkish financial cessfully rejected a draft treaty presented in system. April 1923. The two sides resumed talks The terms of the treaty set off a wave until a revision met with the approval of all of nationalism in Turkey, personified in parties in July. Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), known as The Treaty of Lausanne abrogated the Atatu¨rk. On August 19, 1920, the National termsoftheTreatyofSe`vres. It included Assembly, called into session by the sultan no provisions for the autonomy of Kurdis- to approve the Treaty of Se`vres, instead tan, thus recognizing its reincorporation rejected it and denounced as traitors those into Turkey. The capitulations continued in 170 Levski, Vasil

theory, but only a handful of Western legal moved from Turkey to Greece, 150,000 of and medical advisers remained in Turkey them were from Constantinople (soon to after 1923. Eastern Thrace and all of Anatolia be renamed Istanbul). Similarly, 380,000 returned to Turkish control, settling border Muslims moved from Greece to Turkey. disputes with both Greece and Bulgaria. The The flood of refugees caused financial and military terms of the treaty were also favor- social problems for both nations. able to Turkey. Greece agreed not to fortify The Treaty of Lausanne must be under- its Aegean islands and also promised not to stood as a monumental triumph for Turkey. fly military aircraft over Turkish airspace. It formally ended any chance of the return of The treaty also resolved the delicate issue the sultanate, and it established Turkey as a of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. The power in the Middle East, eastern Europe, International Straits Committee established and Central Asia. The biggest losers under at Se`vres and composed of Great Britain, the treaty were the independence-minded France, and Italy remained in place, but Tur- and the Armenians who now had to key became a member. More importantly, live under Turkish and Soviet control. The the committee lost the right of intervention treaty also significantly reduced tensions in granted in the previous treaty. Thereafter, the region among Greece, Italy, and Turkey, determinations about the security of the straits thus calming the Balkans considerably. were the preserve of the League of Nations. In Michael S. Neiberg exchange for these concessions, Turkey rec- See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; ognized British control of Cyprus and Italian Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938); Se`vres, Treaty authority in the Dodecanese Islands. of, 1920 The treaty also freed Turkey from repara- tion payments that the Ottoman government Further Reading hadacceptedintheTreatyofSe`vres. In Busch, Briton Cooper. Mudros to Lausanne: return, Turkey agreed to pay outstanding Britain’s Frontier in West Asia, 1918– prewar debts incurred by the Ottomans to 1923. Albany: State University of New the other signatories. York Press, 1976. The treaty represented a major triumph Kinross, Lord John Patrick Balfour. The Otto- for Kemal and the Turkish nationalists. manCenturies:TheRiseandFallofthe Eleuthe´rios Venize´los, former prime minis- Turkish Empire. New York: Morrow, 1977. ter, signed for Greece. He had been one of Macfie, A. L. Atatu¨rk. New York: Longman, the most vocal supporters of Greek terri- 1994. torial aims in Turkey, and his signature sym- Macfie, A. L. The End of the Ottoman Empire, bolized the end of Greek designs across the 1918–1923. London: Longman, 1998. Aegean Sea. The United States and Russia, McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and although not signatories, lent support. the End of Empire. London: Hodde Arnold, 2001. The treaty also led to one of the largest forced movements of populations in history. It took religion as a basis for defining ethnic- Levski, Vasil (1837–1873) ity and implicitly argued that religious minorities could not exist within the newly was a leading figure in the created borders. As a result, more than Bulgarian struggle to achieve independence 1.2 million Eastern Orthodox Christians from the Ottoman Empire. He was born Little Entente 171

Vasil Ivanov Kunchev on July 18, 1837 (OS Genchev, Nikolai. Vasil Levski. Sofia: Voenno July 6) in in Ottoman ruled Bulga- izdatelstvo, 1987. ria into a family of craftsmen. At first he Macdermott, Mercia. The Apostle of Freedom. sought a religious avocation, entering a London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1967. monastery and becoming a deacon in 1859. He soon became involved in activities pro- Little Entente moting Bulgarian nationalism and indepen- dence from the Ottoman Empire. The Little Entente was an interwar defensive In 1862, Levski joined the Bulgarian alliance comprised of Czechoslovakia, Legion and fought in Serbia against the Romania, and Yugoslavia, proposed by Ottomans. In this fighting he gained the Eduard Benesˇ, foreign minister of Czecho- name Levski, “Leonine.” He then returned slovakia. Benesˇ saw the agreements as a to Bulgaria and abandoned his religious call- way to prevent the restoration of the Habs- ing. For the next six years, he taught school. burgs and Hungarian after He joined the Second Bulgarian Legion in WorldWarIwhentheTreatyofTrianon Belgrade in 1868, but concluded that the awarded the three countries substantial Legion was unlikely to achieve Bulgarian territory of the . independence. The next year, he helped to A series of bilateral agreements were found the Bulgarian Revolutionary Secret signed: August 14, 1920, between Czecho- Committee in Bucharest. slovakia and Yugoslavia; April 23, 1921, In 1870, Levski returned to Bulgaria to between Czechoslovakia and Romania; and work for the outbreak of armed revolution June 7, 1921, between Romania and Yugo- against the Ottomans. He traveled around slavia, with subsequent treaties being Bulgaria to spread the idea of an indepen- entered into by the member nations. The dent Bulgaria and to organize revolutionary accord between Yugoslavia and Romania groups who prepared to fight against the was aimed at Bulgaria, which had territorial Ottomans. Ottoman authorities arrested him claims against both countries resulting from near Lovach in December 1872. On Febru- the First and Second Balkan Wars. These ary 18, 1873 (OS February 6), the Ottomans mutual assistance treaties called for aid in hung Levski in Sofia. The location of his the event of a Hungarian attack or, in the execution now has a monument dedicated case of Romania-Yugoslavia, aggression by to him. His work and martyrdom helped to Bulgaria, but did not apply to other coun- prepare for the , and tries. Its greatest accomplishment was stop- inspired many of its participants. Vasil Lev- ping twice the attempted restoration of ski remains a heroic figure in the history of Habsburg ex-emperor Charles (1887–1922) the Bulgarian revival. to the throne of Hungary in 1921. Richard C. Hall The Hungarians nicknamed arrangement See also: Bulgarian Horrors, 1876; Russo- the Little Entente. The French approved of Ottoman War, 1877–1878 the alliance to replace its former ally of Imperial Russia despite initial skepticism. Further Reading They viewed it as a necessity in a possible Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford future two-front war against Germany. France University Press, 2007. strengthened its ties to the organization 172 London, Treaty of, 1913

through a series of bilateral treaties with the Serbia, and those of the Ottoman Empire. members starting in 1924 with Czechoslova- The terms had already received the approval kia, 1926 with Romania, and 1927 with Yugo- of the London conference of Great Power slavia. Because of lingering hostility between ambassadors, which had overseen the process Czechoslovakia and Poland over the posses- to ensure that the interests of the Great sion of Teschen (Cieszyn, Te˘sˇ´ın), the French Powers were upheld. were never able to tie the Little Entente into By terms of this settlement, the Ottomans a larger anti-German eastern European alli- ceded all European territories west of a ance system including Poland. more-or-less straight line drawn from Enez With the rise of Nazi Germany after 1933, (Enos) on the Aegean Sea to Midya the organization established, in Geneva, a (Midia) on the Black Sea as well as the permanent Council of Foreign Ministers, island of Crete. The Great Powers reserved Secretariat, and Economic Council, all of for themselves the right to delineate the bor- which attempted to encourage political and ders of the new state of Albania and the economic cooperation. As the members Aegean Islands formerly under Ottoman began to pursue more independent foreign control. The Great Powers had already rec- policies in the 1930s and French support ognized the independence of Albania, waned, the organization lost much of its which had been proclaimed in Vlore¨ on value. It played no role in the Czechoslovak November 28, 1912. The Great Powers also crisis of 1938. The Munich Agreement and assumed responsibility for handling the the German annexation of the Sudetenland financial issues resulting from the war. October 1938 effectively ended the alliance. The settlement proved to be ephemeral, Thereafter, both the Romanian and Yugoslav because of disputes among the Balkan allies governments scrambled to established good over the disposition of Ottoman territories. relations with Nazi Germany. In particular, the Bulgarians contested Gregory C. Ference Greek and Serbian claims to Macedonia. Already on May 5, 1913, the Greeks and See also: Romanian Campaign in Hungary, Serbs had concluded an alliance against Bul- 1919; Trianon, Treaty of, 1920 garia. This came into play on June 30, 1913, Further Reading when Bulgarian army units attacked Greek A´ da´m, Magda. The Little Entente and Europe and Serbian positions in southern Macedo- (1920–1929). Budapest: Acade´miai Kiado´, nia. The resulting Second Balkan War 1993. ended in catastrophe for Bulgaria, when Campus, Eliza. The Little Entente and the Ottoman and Romanian forces entered the Balkan Entente. Bucharest: Editura war on the Greek and Serbian side. The Academiei, 1978. Treaty of Bucharest of August 10, 1913, between Bulgaria on one hand, and Greece, Romania, and Serbia on the other; and the London, Treaty of, 1913 Treaty of Constantinople of September 30, between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, The Treaty of London was a peace settlement ended hostilities of the Second Balkan War. of the First Balkan War signed on May 30, The settlement of World War I in turn super- 1913, between representatives of the Balkan seded these treaties. allies Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Richard C. Hall Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912 173

See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bul- Ottomans along a 20-mile front between the garia in the Balkan Wars; Greece in the Balkan Thracian villages of Lyule Burgas on the Wars; Montenegro in the Balkan Wars; Otto- southern end and Buni Hisar to the north. manEmpireintheBalkanWars;Serbiain The Ottomans temporarily deflected the the Balkan Wars Bulgarian attacks. General Vasil Kutinchev’s Further Reading First Army appeared around Lyule Burgas (1858–1941) on October 30. The addition of Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– 1913: Prelude to the First World War. the First Army gave the Bulgarians around London: Routledge, 2000. 110,000 men against Abdullah Pasha’s Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan (1846–1937) 130,000 Ottomans. The First Wars, 1912–1913.Cambridge,MA:Harvard Army turned the Ottoman flank. By Octo- University Press, 1938. ber 31, the Ottoman left flank collapsed. The Rossos, Andrew. Russia and the Balkans: Ottoman forces then fled the battlefield Inter-Balkan Rivalries and Russian Foreign toward Constantinople. Only the Chataldzha Policy 1908–1914. Toronto: University of fortifications remained between the Bulgar- Toronto Press, 1981. ians and the Ottoman capital. General Dimitriev deserves credit for this Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, victory. Had the Bulgarians begun an imme- Battle of, 1912 diate pursuit, they might have destroyed the Ottoman forces. Bulgarian casualties and exhaustion prevented this. The Bulgarians The battle of Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar lost 20,162 men including 2,534 dead. (Turkish: Lu¨leburgaz-Pinarhisar) was the Most were in the more heavily engaged largest battle in terms of numbers of partici- Third Army. The Ottomans lost around pants of the Balkan Wars, and the largest 22,000 men and at least 45 guns. land battle in Europe between the Franco- Richard C. Hall Prussian War and World War I. The Bulgarian Third Army seized the See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bul- Ottoman Fortress of Lozengrad (Turkish: garia in the Balkan Wars; Chataldzha, Battle Kirkilise) on October 23, 1912. After several of, 1912; Dimitriev, Radko (1859–1918); days of rest, the Bulgarian Third Army Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars together with the more westerly positioned Further Reading Bulgarian First Army resumed their advance Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The on October 27 as the Ottomans brought up Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. into Thrace additional forces from Constan- Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. tinople. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian Second Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– Army screened the Ottoman fortress of 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Adrianople. London: Routledge, 2000. On October 29, the aggressive commander Vachkov, Alexander. The Balkan War 1912– of the Bulgarian Third Army, General 1913. Sofia: Anzhela, 2005. Radko Dimitriev (1859–1918), attacked the M

Macedonia regent, Antipater, gained control. Antipater and his son Cassander managed to control Although Macedonia is a small nation that Macedonia and Greece until about 297 BC, recently seceded from Yugoslavia, it was in but when Cassander died, Macedonia fell ancient times a huge empire that was home into confusion and conflict once more. The to , one of the greatest Antigonids won control of the region in warriors the world has known. 277 BC but were ousted by the Romans in The first known residents of Macedonia 197 BC. The Romans, who made Macedonia were Neolithic peoples who settled in the a province in 148 BC, retained control until northern part of the country around the Roman Empire came to an end at the 6200 BC. About 3,000 years later, Greek- close of the fourth century AD. At that time, speaking shepherd tribes settled in the Macedonia became part of the Byzantine mountain regions and then on the plains Empire and fell prey to a series of invasions between the Aliakmon and Axios Rivers. by , Huns, Vandals, and Bulgars. Large The people of the region came to be known numbers of Slavs from other parts of eastern as Macedonians after around 700 BC, at Europe settled in Macedonia during the sixth which time much of the region was in the century. hands of the Greeks, who considered the The next significant epoch of Macedonian indigenous peoples barbaric. The Greek history lasted from 1371 to 1912, which control of much of the area forced the marked the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The Macedonians, under Amynas III, to focus Ottomans had gained control by defeating on unifying the plain and upland regions. challenges from Serbia, Bulgaria, and other Amynas’s son Philip II ruled in the fourth countries. The period of Ottoman control century BC and was instrumental in expand- was not smooth. There was extensive unrest ing Macedonia northward. In 338 BC, he because of tensions between Christians and conquered Greece and established a huge Muslims, and by the end of the nineteenth empire that was expanded further by his century, Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia all son, Alexander the Great, after Philip was claimed Macedonia, which complicated murdered in 336. the conflict over the region. In 1903, the Alexander the Great expanded the empire Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organi- to cover Persia and Egypt and as far as zation (VMRO), led the so-called Ilinden northern India. His reign was a time of great (St. Elijah’s Day) revolt against Ottoman cultural and artistic growth, but he died with- rule. It was soon crushed. In an effort to end out a clear heir. Without a smooth succession, Ottoman rule in Macedonia, the Bulgarians the empire dissolved into a number of small and Serbs, with the support of Russia, con- kingdoms that were divided by warfare for cluded an alliance in March 1912. In a secret about 20 years, when Alexander’s European codicil to the alliance, they agreed to a

174 Macedonia 175 partition of Macedonia, but left a disputed following Tito’s 1980 death, and tensions section, the “contested zone,” to Russian arbi- grew. The League of Communists of tration. Greece and Montenegro joined the Yugoslavia gave up power in 1990, and in Balkan League later that year. Macedonia, the League of Communists of In the first of the Balkan Wars (1912– Macedonia was defeated in multiparty elec- 1913), Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia wrested tions. Yugoslavia’s constituent republics control of the region from the Turks, but jockeyed for increased autonomy. In they then fell into disagreement among June 1991, Macedonia dropped the word themselves. The Second Balkan War (1913) “Socialist” from its official name. Afraid was fought among those three nations and that the secession of Croatia and Slovenia resulted in the division of the region among would increase Serbia’s power, the repub- them with most of the territory taken by lic’s population voted overwhelmingly in Greece and Serbia. During World War I, support of secession in a September 8, Bulgaria occupied the region. Bulgaria’s 1991, referendum, although Albanians and defeat at the end of the war returned most Serbs who lived in the republic boycotted of Macedonia to Greek and Serbian rule. the vote. There was some tension between After World War I, Macedonia was reab- Serbia and Macedonia, but the violence sorbed into Serbia, which was part of the seen in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, after those republics left the federation did and which became known as Yugoslavia in not materialize in Macedonia. Macedonia 1929. The union was short-lived. During seceded from Yugoslavia in November World War II, Yugoslavia was broken up 1991. and distributed among Italy, Germany, and Although secession did not bring with it Hungary with most of Yugoslav Macedonia violence, Macedonian independence did again occupied by Bulgaria between 1941 cause some serious problems. The most and 1944. Internal fighting among the Yugo- notable of those problems was the initial slav peoples at that time saw most of the refusal of the international community— Macedonian support going to partisan leader driven by Greece—to recognize the new Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980). In 1944, the nation. Greece insisted that the name Mac- partisans met and agreed that Yugoslav edonia was Greek and that the new nation Macedonia would become part of a future had articles in its new 1991 Constitution Yugoslav federation. When Tito formed his that suggested it had territorial ambitions new nation, he recognized the Macedonians regarding the Greek province of the same as a distinct ethnic group, supported the cre- name. Athens also objected to Skopje’s use ation of an independent Macedonian church, of the Star of , which had been and even printed a standard grammar for the Alexander the Great’s emblem, on its flag. . Greece blocked recognition by the European Macedonia remained a republic within Community (now the European Union) and Yugoslavia, a Communist state, until refused to negotiate with Macedonia, even the early 1990s. In 1990, the republic’s after the government amended the Macedo- government claimed that Serbia, Yugosla- nian Constitution to claim that it had no via’s dominant republic, planned to annex interest in territorial expansion into Greece. Macedonia. The Macedonians were already The lack of recognition created economic dissatisfied with the Yugoslav federation difficulties. Greece blockaded Macedonia, 176 Macedonian Front, 1915–1918

and its other possible supplier, Serbia, was Winnipeg: Manitoba Studies in Classical the subject of a UN embargo that Macedonia Civilization, 1992. observed even though it was not itself recog- Philips, John. Macedonia: Warlords and Reb- nized. The nation’s economic difficulties els in the Balkans.NewHaven,CT:Yale worsened because the rejection of recogni- University Press, 2004. tion made it impossible to gain foreign aid Poulten, Hugh. Who Are the Macedonians? or loans. Macedonia was finally admitted Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. into the United Nations in 1992 as the For- mer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Rossos, Andrew. Macedonia and the Macedo- nians: A History. Stanford, CA: Stanford Other problems remained; the nation’s eth- University Press, 2008. nic Albanians lobbied for greater rights, Roudometof, Victor, ed. The Macedonian whichledtoriotsinSkopjein1992and Question: Culture, Historiography, new riots in 1995 over the government’s Politics, Boulder, CO: East European rejection of the establishment of an Monographs, 2000. Albanian-language university in Tetovo. In addition, thousands of Bosnians flooded the nation in efforts to escape the war in their Macedonian Front, 1915–1918 homeland. Clashes between Macedonia’s army and ethnic Albanian guerrillas contin- The Macedonian Front was the line of ued into 2001. conflict established between mainly The fate of the nation’s new democratic Bulgarian forces, augmented by some institutions, which had already been chal- Austro-Hungarian and German units, and lenged by claims of electoral fraud, were Entente forces, which contained contingents thrown into doubt when President Kiro Gli- from most of the Entente powers, during gorov (1917–2012) barely survived a bomb World War I in southeastern Europe. The attack in 1995. Constitutionally mandated Macedonian Front extended from the Adri- methods for the appointment of a temporary atic Sea in Albania across the Balkan Penin- leader eased many of those fears, although sula to the Aegean Sea in contemporary Gligorov was not able to return to office. Greece. Fighting developed in this region Boris Trajkovski (1956–2004) was elected in October 1915 when the Bulgarians joined president of Macedonia in December 1999. in a joint Austro-Hungarian and German In February 2004, Trajkovski was tragically attack on Serbia. British and French units killed in a plane crash. His successor, former landed at the neutral Greek port of Salonika prime minister Branko Crvenkovski andmovednorthwarduptheVardarRiver (1962–), was elected in April 2004. valleyinanefforttohelpthebeleaguered Richard C. Hall Serbs. The Bulgarians under the overall command of General Nikola Zhekov See also: Balkan League, 1912; Contested Zone (Macedonia), 1912; Ilinden Uprising, (1895–1949) stopped this attempt and 1903; Macedonian War, 2001; VMRO forced the Entente units back across the Greek frontier in December 1915. Their Further Reading German allies forbade the Bulgarians from Cosmopoulos, Michael B. Macedonia: An pursuing the British and French, primarily Introduction to Its Political History. because they preferred to keep them Macedonian Front, 1915–1918 177 confined around Salonika rather than to face the Bulgarian positions, without much suc- them on the Western Front. cess. During this time, Entente command At the beginning of 1916, the Bulgarians withdrew the Russian contingents from the established defensive positions along the front because news of the revolution at Greek frontier. These stretched from the home had made them combat ineffective. mouth of the Struma River on the Aegean They were all gone by the beginning of westward to the Shkumba River in Albania. 1918. The entry of Greece on the Entente In Albania, Austro-Hungarian troops con- side on July 2, 1917, brought the Greek fronted Italians in an extension of the front. army to the Macedonian Front. This more There the front remained largely static for than made up for the loss of the Russians. most of the war. Meanwhile, the Entente At the end of 1917, General Sarrail was built up its forces in Salonika. French recalled to France. General Louis Guillau- colonial, Italian, Russian, and Serbian units mat (1863–1940), a veteran of the Verdun joined those of the British and French. fighting, replaced him. French general Maurice Sarrail (1856– Meanwhile, the relative lull of 1917 had 1929) oversaw the Entente increase in forces an erosive effect on the Central Powers and establishment of a strong base in Salo- forces. In the fall of 1917, the Germans nika and positions in the hills of southern withdrew much of their manpower and Macedonia confronting the Bulgarians. In material for use in the planned great Western the spring of 1916, the Germans lifted their Front offensive. They maintained a presence ban on intrusion into Greek territory. The on the Macedonian Front with Army Group Bulgarians gained a bloodless victory when Scholtz, which consisted of the command the Greek garrison of Fort Rupel, which structure in charge of the German Eleventh commanded the flow of the Struma River Army and the Bulgarian First Army. By into Greece, surrendered to them on this time most of the units in the German May 26, 1916. In the summer of 1916, with Eleventh Army were themselves Bulgarian. Romanian intervention into the war on the At the same time, the material condition of Entente side pending, both sides prepared the Bulgarians seriously declined. Bulgarian offensives. The Bulgarians were the first to soldiers lacked adequate boots, clothing, act. Beginning on August 17, they advanced and food. The food crisis extended through on two wings of their front. In the east they the entire country. Bulgarians were exhaus- quickly occupied southeastern Macedonia, ted from their efforts at war, which extended including the towns of Drama and Seres back to 1912 and the First Balkan War. and the port of Kavala. In the west they Disorders erupted in the Bulgarian ranks in advanced to Florina. An Entente offensive, the summer of 1918. however, threw the Bulgarians out of Florina In June 1918, the aggressive General and pushed them back as far as Bitola, Franchet d’Espe´ray (1856–1942) replaced which Serbian troops entered on Novem- Guillaumat as commander of the Entente ber 19, 1916. This marked the return of forces. Entente attacks on Bulgarian posi- Serbian forces to their prewar territory. tions correspondingly increased during the After the fall of Bitola, fighting along the summer of 1918. The Bulgarians suffered a Macedonian Front died down. It remained serious reversal when the Greek army relatively inactive during 1917. The Entente together with some French units attacked forces undertook a few desultory attacks on the fortified ridge at Yerbichna (Skra di 178 Macedonian War, 2001

Legen) at the beginning of June 1918. By this advanceddeepintoMacedoniaandoninto time, Bulgarian morale was too for army Serbia. They reached Skoplje on Septem- commanders to contemplate a counterattack. ber 29 and Belgrade on November 1. Like On September 13, 1918, concentrated the Western Front, the Macedonian Front Entente artillery fire on the Bulgarian posi- remained relatively firm through most of tions at Dobro Pole began the decisive battle the war. Its collapse at Dobro Pole in Sep- of the Macedonian Front. The next morning tember 1918, however, heralded the end of French, French Colonial, and Serbian units the war where it began, in southeastern assaulted the Bulgarian positions. After two Europe. days of heavy fighting, the Bulgarian lines Richard C. Hall collapsed. This afforded the Entente soldiers See also: Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; Doiran, access to the Vardar River valley and a rela- Battles of, 1915–1918; Zhekov, Nikola (1864– tively easy route into Macedonia. To the east 1949) of Dobro Pole, a supplementary Entente offensive at Doiran undertaken by British Further Reading and Greek units failed. Nevertheless, as the Falls, Cyril. Military Operations, Macedonia. French and Serbs surged through the gap at 2 vols. Nashville, TN: Battery Press, 1996. Dobro Pole, Bulgarian units on either side Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The had to withdraw. Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: The entire Macedonian Front began Indiana University Press, 2010. to cave in. The Austro-Hungarians and Palmer, Alan. The Gardeners of Salonika.New Germans, already hard pressed on other York: Simon and Schuster, 1965. fronts, made some effort to rush divisions to Macedonia to strengthen the Bulgarians. Meanwhile, discipline in at least two Bul- Macedonian War, 2001 garian divisions collapsed. Demoralized and disaffected troops refused orders and The Macedonian War was an armed conflict streamed to the rear. They were determined between ethnic Albanian nationalists repre- to go to Sofia to punish those members of sented by the Albanian National Liberation the political elite they held responsible for Army (NLA), and the security forces of the all their suffering. In these disastrous Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia circumstances, the Bulgarian government (FYROM; henceforth, Macedonia). The decided to leave the war. Its representatives conflict began in January 2001 and ended signed an armistice with the Entente in in August 2001 following the signing of the Salonika on September 29. It took effect Ohrid Framework Agreement. the next day. The conflict in Macedonia stemmed from The Austro-Hungarian and German longstanding grievances held by Macedo- divisions arrived too late to prevent the nia’s ethnic Albanian community against Bulgarians from leaving the war, but in the government of Macedonia. Albanians time to defeat the attempt of the rebel are Macedonia’s largest ethnic minority, Bulgarian soldiers to reach Sofia. The comprising approximately 25 percent of its Bulgarian government and monarchy sur- population. Macedonia’s 1991 secession vived the second Bulgarian military defeat from Yugoslavia was remarkably peaceful, in six years. Meanwhile, the Entente forces and relations between Macedonians and Macedonian War, 2001 179

Macedonian special police forces officers and press photographers run for cover in Tetovo as Macedonian guns began pounding ethnic Albanian rebel positions in the hills above the city, March 22, 2001. (AP Photo/CTK/Otto Ballon Mierny)

Albanians remained stable until the late triggered a massive refugee crisis in 1990s, when ethnic Albanians began to Macedonia as 360,000 displaced Kosovar mount increasing grievances against the Albanians (as much as 18 percent of Mace- Macedonian government. Grievances inclu- donia’s total population) crossed Macedo- ded demands to make Albanian a constitu- nia’s porous northwestern border. This tionally designated official language of sudden influx of ethnic Albanians, including Macedonia; improved Albanian-language many veterans of the Kosovo Liberation education (including state recognition of an Army (KLA), in conjunction with mounting Albanian-language university in the city of ethnic grievances, pushed Macedonia past Tetovo), and greater access to employment. the tipping point of war. In 1994, ethnic Albanians in western Violence erupted on January 22, 2001, in Macedonia declared themselves part of an the city of Tanusˇevci, when a group of autonomous republic called Illyrida, and in NLA supporters armed with hand grenades 1997, the Albanian flag was illegally raised attacked the local Macedonian police sta- alongside the Macedonian flag in the cities tion. Four days later, on January 26, 2001, of Gostivar and Tetovo. These acts triggered a second attack took place as the NLA fears amongst Macedonians of an attempt to claimed responsibility for a train bombing. create a “.” Tensions remained high and attacks against The1999conflictinKosovoandsub- Macedonian police continued, reaching a sequent military intervention by the North flashpoint on March 22, 2001, when an Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Albanian father and son suspected of 180 Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan

carrying a grenade were killed by police at a Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan checkpoint. The NLA was told to leave Mac- (1785–1839) edonia but rejected this ultimatum, and the Macedonian offensive began on March 25, Born at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople on 2001. Violence continued through the spring 20 July 20, 1785, as the youngest son of and summer, until a cease-fire agreement Sultan Abdulhamid I (1725–1789), Mah- was signed on July 5, 2001, to be enforced mudsucceededtoMustafaIVonJuly28, by NATO. However, the NLA refused to 1808, following an armed coup led by uphold this agreement and continued to Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (1755–1808). engage in increasingly brutal violence against Alemdar had aimed at restoring to the throne the state. the formerly deposed sultan Selim III The Ohrid Framework Agreement, signed (1761–1808). Because Selim was assassi- on August 13, 2001, officially ended the war nated before his arrival to the Topkapi Pal- in Macedonia. The agreement granted many ace, Alemdar declared Mahmud as the new Albanian demands, including making Alba- sultan. The latter appointed Alemdar the nian an official language. In exchange, the and convened an assembly of Albanians agreed to recognize the authority provincial rulers in Constantinople that of the Macedonian government and to dis- adopted the Deed of Agreement (Sened-i band the NLA. The NLA was not an official Ittifak). This constitution-like document party to the discussions leading up to the sought to legitimize the status of local agreement, and a NATO mission, Operation powerholders as semi-independent tax Essential Harvest, began on August 22, collectors and military contractors of 2001, with a 30-day mandate to ensure the the central government. In mid-November disarmament of the NLA. 1808, however, popular uprising led by the Mary Kate Schneider Janissaries deposed Alemdar Mustafa’s See also: Kosovo War, 1998–1999; Yugoslav government. It was the culmination of a Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences movement opposed to the establishment of new military units as well as to the seizure of the central government by provincial Further Reading elements. Judah, Tim. “Greater Albania?” Survival 43, Following the end of the Russo-Ottoman no. 2 (Summer 2001): 7–18. War of 1806–1812 with the Treaty of Neofotistos, Vasiliki P. The Risk of War: Bucharest (May 28, 1812), Mahmud initi- Everyday Sociality in the Republic of ated a gradual policy designed to restore Macedonia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. central authority over the provinces. In the first years of the 1820s, he succeeded in Ortakovski, Vladimir T. “Interethnic Relations in the Republic of Macedonia.” reasserting its power over most of the pro- Southeastern European Politics 2, no. 1 vincial centers in Anatolia as well as over (May 2001): 24–45. Thrace, Macedonia, and the Danube dis- Phillips, John. Macedonia: Warlords and Reb- tricts. The elimination of some local Muslim els in the Balkans. New Haven, CT: Yale notables, especially that of Tepedelenli Ali University Press, 2004. Pasha in Epirus, facilitated the emergence Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan 181 of the Serbian and Greek national move- Ottoman officers who had had experience ments. In Arabia, the Wahhabite insurgency with the former attempts of Sultan Selim was crushed down by the troops of Muham- III and Alemdar. Shortly thereafter, Husrev mad Ali Pasha (1769–1849), the governor of Pasha (1769–1855), the second commander Egypt. in chief (serasker), has changed the drill While still maintaining his allegiance sysytem. He appointed a French drill to the sultan, Muhammad Ali gradually sergeant the instructor of the infantry transformed his province into a semi- units and a Piedmentose officer that of the independent unit with its newly established cavalry squadrons. In this process, the sultan regular army. When the Ottoman forces appeared as the first Ottoman sultan wearing proved incapable to subdue the Greek rebel- a uniform-like European dress with the lion begun in 1821, the sultan once again Egyptian fez on his head. Most of the sol- appealed to Muhammad Ali for assistance, diers enrolled in Asakir-i Mansure were promising to cede to him the governorship from the Turkish-speaking population of of Crete and the Peloponnesus in return for Rumelia and Anatolia. Muslim nomadic his services. By April 1826, the Greek rising and tribal communities such as Turkmens, came to an end, and it seemed to Mahmud Kurds, Albanians, and Lazes resisted service that the time had come to carry out the as regular full-time soldiers, but took part in expected military reform. The aimed project the expeditions as contractual auxiliary was to establish new trained regular troops forces as part-time contractual warriors. within the corps. He previosuly Non-Muslim Ottoman subjects were totally ensured the support of the religious and kept outside of the army and had only bureaucratic elites as well as some of the minor representation in the navy. upper Janissary officers. In the 1830s, many expeditions were Nevertheless, three weeks after the new launched with regular troops and auxiliary Eshkindji units started their European-style forces of irregular soldiers against the tribes drills, the Janissaries rose up in arms on the in Bosnia, Albania, southeastern Anatolia, night of June 14. The sultan reacted with and Iraq who rebelled against forced con- speed and determination. A joint force scription and paying increased taxes. Forced composed of the loyal troops, some of the volunteers mobilized during the 1828–1829 Muslim population of Istanbul, and religious Russo-Ottoman War, and the two battles students managed to defeat the rebels on against the Egyptian forces of Muhammad June 15 with considerable bloodshed. Two Ali (1832–1833; 1839) proved to be ineffec- days later, an imperial order declared the tive. In 1834, a provincial militia (Redif)was Janissary corps abolished. Thus, the last established to provide the regular army with great organized force that had stood in the reserve forces. Sultan Mahmud and Husvre way of restructuring the military and the Pasha (1769–1855) filled the commanding political centralizing project was removed. posts of the new army with their favorites Instead, a new professional central army and slaves, most of whom were not skilled was established under the name of Asakir-i and educated officers. The Ottoman Military Mansure-i Muhammediyye (Victorious Academy started to function at the end Troops of Muhammad). The new units of 1836. At the same time, professional were trained on contemporary European European officers were replaced by official drills. Their first instructors were a few military missions sent by European states. 182 Mahmud Muhtar Pasha

Foreign officers and engineers were also Yıldız, Gu¨ltekin. Neferin Adı Yok: Zorunlu employed in the modernization of Ottoman Askerlig˘eGec¸is¸Su¨recinde Osmanlı Devle- arms industry to be runned with steam ti’nde Siyaset, Ordu ve Toplum (1826– 1839). Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2009. machinery. In spite of all his efforts, Mahmud II was not able to see his military forces defeating Mahmud Muhtar Pasha the the Greeks and their allies. The British- (1866–1935) Russian-French joint fleet destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian navy on October 20, Mahmud Muhtar, Ottoman general during 1827, inside the harbor of Navarino. The the Balkan Wars, was born in Constantino- 1828–1829 Russo-Ottoman War ended in ple on December 11, 1866. He attended the defeat. Finally, the Ottoman army lost Galatasaray Imperial High School, where twice against the Egyptian troops of he found the opportunity to learn French. Muhammad Ali. Only the intervention of In 1885, however, he was removed by his the European Great Powers prevented their father from the Galatasaray and sent to advance toward Constantinople. By the the Ottoman Military Academy (Mekteb-i Treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), Harbiyye). The same year, he was sent with the Ottoman state agreed to cede to Russia a group of Ottoman cadets to the German the in Europe and the province Military Academy in . He graduated of Akhaltsikhe. A heavy war indemnity and as lieutenant in 1888 and entered into the the recognition of the autonomy of Serbia, Second Infantry Regiment of Guards in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Greece were Berlin. Simultaneously he attended courses other clauses. The Convention of Ku¨tahya at the Staff College in Berlin. After graduat- (April 8, 1833) conferred on Muhammad ing as a staff officer, he returned to Constan- Ali the government of Syria and the prov- tinople and became staff instructor at the ince of Adana. On June 24, the Egyptians, Harbiye. As colonel of a cavalry regiment once again, decisively routed the Ottoman of the Salonika Army, Mahmud Muhtar army at Nizib. On July 1, Mahmud died, took part in the 1897 Greco-Ottoman War. probably without learning of his army’s last He distinguished himself in the battles of defeat. Velestin and Do¨meke by attacking and cap- Gu¨ltekin Yildiz turing a Greek battery placed on the summit See also: Mehmet Ali (1769–1849); Russo- of a hill. Seriously wounded toward the Ottoman War, 1806–1812; Russo-Ottoman end of this cavalry charge uphill, he was War, 1828–1829 returned home soon after the encounter. Mahmud Muhtar left the Ottoman capital Further Reading for Egypt in 1903 and stayed there until the Aksan, Virginia H. Ottoman Wars, 1700– declaration of the Turkish constitution in 1870: An Empire Besieged. London: Pear- son Longman, 2007. 1908. Then he was promoted to the rank of general and appointed commander of the Aktepe,M.Mu¨nir-Levy, A. “Mahmud.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, First Division of Imperial Guards (Hassa edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Ordusu) located in Istanbul. Though not a Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, and W. P. Hein- member of the Committee of Union and richs. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Progress, he was a fervent partisan of Mahmud Muhtar Pasha 183 constitutional government. In the military was Ergene instead of the Edirne-Kırkkilise mutiny of April 13, 1909, Mahmud Muhtar Line. took immediate action against the rebels. Mahmud Muhtar personnally com- He held the War Ministry with his troops manded skirmishes around Vize between and resisted the insurgents until the final res- October 28–30 and even made attacks ignation of the Cabinet. Upon learning that against Bulgarians the following two days. the insurgents threatened his life, he On 1 November 1, he was appointed the escapeed from Constantinople for Salonika commander of the new established Second with the help from the German and British Eastern Army and charged to organize the embassies. He returned to Constantinople Terkos-C¸ atalca line of defense, which following the dethronement of Abdulhamid barred the way to Istanbul. On 17 Novem- II (1842–1918) by the Young Turks. ber 17, 1912, during the Bulgarian attack In May 1909, however, a law was passed on the C¸ atalca positions, Mahmud Muhtar reducing the ranks of army officers who began a counterattack. While leading his had not attended the Staff College. As his men at the front, he fell badly wounded and diploma from the German Staff College left the battlefield. was no more deemed valid, Mahmud Muh- In February 1913, Mahmud Muhtar went tar Pasha’s rank was reduced to that of to Berlin as the Ottoman ambassador. colonel. During the early constitutional While there, he advised the Ottoman period, Mahmud Muhtar served as the gov- government to remain neutral in the coming ernor of Izmir from June 1909 to 1911. At war. Subsequently, he was removed from the beginning of 1911, he was appointed the post with the signing of the German- minister of marine. When the Balkan War Ottoman alliance. He did not return home, broke out in the next year, Mahmud Muhtar however, and remained in Germany. Later, Pasha requested active military service. he moved to Switzerland. In 1916, Muhtar Holding the rank of major-general, he first wrote to ask for an active military appoint- commanded the Third Army Corps on the ment. Enver Pasha (1881–1922), then the right wing of the Eastern Army (Thracian minister of war, offered him an inspector- Army). In the early days of war mobiliza- ship of the Eastern Anatolian armies. Upon tion, the Third Army Corps was located in his refusal of this offer, Mahmud Muhtar Kırkkilise (today Kırklareli) to ensure a was pensioned off and debarred from active slower retreat toward Vize and Saray in the service. case of a superior enemy attack. As the inital After nine years living abroad, he defeat at Kırkkilise was caused mainly by returned in 1922 with his family to Constan- the panic of Ottoman troops, he rallied tinople. In the summer of 1929, while under- the soldiers and succeeded in checking going a cancer treatment in Switzerland, he the Bulgarian advance between Vize and was informed that the Turkish government Pınarhisar. According to him, the main defi- now held him responsible for the payment ciencies of Ottoman army during the Balkan due for the the battleships ordered while he War were the untrained soldiers, unfinished was minister of marine in 1912. He opened road constructions, and bad sanitation and a lawsuit against the state, which ended logistics as well as the absence of skilled with the probably inevitable conclusion of and active officers. He also found the main his responsibility for the debt being con- point of assembly as unproper. His choice firmed. He never returned to his homeland. 184 Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 1917

Mahmud Muhtar suffered a heart attack spread of revolutionary ideas in Russian during a ship travel from Egypt to Italy and army units stationed elsewhere on the front died on March 18, 1935. He was buried in caused the offensive to halt prematurely on the Imam Shafei Cemetary near Cairo. July 29. Gu¨ltekin Yildiz Seeking to gain the initiative and hoping to knock Romania out of the war, the Austro- See also: Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912; Greco- Hungarians and Germans launched an offen- Ottoman War, 1897; Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912; Ottoman Empire in the sive against the Romanian First Army com- Balkan Wars manded by General Eremea Grigorescu (1863–1919) and some Russian units at Ma˘ra˘- Further Reading s¸es¸ti beginning on August 6. The fighting Pas¸a, Abdullah. 1328 Balkan Harbi’nde S¸ark continued until September 3. The Romanians Ordusu Kumandanı Abdullah Pas¸a’nın Bal- again sustained high casualties but held kan Harbi Haˆtıraˆtı.EditedbyTahsinYıl- their positions. At the same time, another ˙ ¨ dırım and Ibrahim Oztu¨rkc¸u¨. Istanbul: Du¨n Austro-Hungarian–German offensive began Bugu¨n Yarın Yayınları, 2012. against the Romanian Second Army at Pas¸a, Mahmud Muhtar Pas¸a. Balkan Harbi . Here, too, the Romanians withstood U¨ c¸u¨ncu¨ Kolordu’nun ve I˙kinci Dog˘uOrdu- the invaders’ attacks but at a high cost. sunun Muhaˆrebeleri.EditedbyA.Basad Kocaog˘lu. Istanbul:˙ Ilgi Ku¨ltu¨r Sanat, 2012. The three battles demonstrated that the Romanian army had overcome many of its Pas¸a, Mahmud Muhtar. Acı Bir Hatıra: 1328 Balkan Harbinde S¸ark Ordusu Kumandanı weaknesses that had caused the overwhelm- Mahmoud Moukhtar Pasha [Mahmut Muh- ing defeats of the previous year. The defen- tar Pasha, Mon commandenment au cours sive victories at Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti and Oituz in de la Campgne des Balkans de 1912]. particular enabled the Romanian govern- Paris and Nancy: Berger-Levrault, 1913. ment in Ias¸i to continue the war for another six months. Unfortunately, the collapse of Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 1917 Russia early the next year negated the 1917 victories and made further prosecution of The battle of Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸tiwasfoughtfrom the war impossible. Romania left the war August 6 to September 3, 1917, between on March 5, 1918, with the Preliminary the invading Austro-Hungarian and German Treaty of Buftea. Romania then returned to forces and the Romanian and Russian the war on the side of the victors on Novem- armies in northeastern Romania. This was ber 9, 1918. the largest of three important battles on the Richard C. Hall Romanian front in the late summer and See also: Averescu, Alexandru (1859–1938); early fall of 1917. Romania in World War I An offensive by the newly reorganized Romanian army preceded this battle. This offensive was undertaken by the Romanian Further Reading Second Army commanded by General Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. (1859–1938) and the Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. RussianFourthArmyonJuly24,1917. Torrey, Glenn. The Romanian Battlefront in Here, despite heavy losses, the Romanian World War I. Lawrence: University Press army initially defeated the invaders. The of Kansas, 2011. Mehmet Ali 185

Treptow, Kurt W., ed. A . Mehmet kept all central authority for Ias¸i: Center for Romanian Studies, 1996. himself and installed his sons in most key positions. He divided Egypt into 10 prov- inces responsible for collecting taxes and Mehmet Ali (1769–1849) maintaining order and established a profes- sional bureaucracy, a byproduct of his train- Mehmet (also Mohammed) Ali was an ing program. Mehmet created a modern Albanian officer of the Ottoman army army, which he first used to assist the who declared himself leader of Egypt and Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II (1789–1839), became regarded as the founder of modern with his conflicts in Arabia and Greece. In Egypt. Mehmet Ali was born in Kavala in 1812, Mehmet’s forces defeated the Saudis Macedonia to Albanian parents on March 4, and secured most of Arabia for the sultan. In 1769. In 1801, he became a commander in 1820, Mehmet Ali invaded the Sudan and Albanian unit with the army that the Ottoman conquered that territory the following year. sultan, Selim III, sent to reoccupy Egypt after In 1827, he provided a navy and an army to the French departure. Mehmet took advantage help Mahmud put down the revolt in Greece, of the conflict between the sultan and but a combined European navy destroyed the Mamluks, the rulers of Egypt for over the Egyptian fleet at Navarino, forcing 600 years, and elevated himself to the position Mehmet to withdraw his army. of governor of Egypt by 1805. On March 1, After the defeat at Navarino, Mehmet 1811, he had the Mamluk leaders murdered rebuilt his navy and raised a new army. On in Cairo and, soon afterward, had the remain- October 31, 1831, he invaded Syria, cap- ing Mamluks killed. tured Acre on May 27, 1832, and soundly Mehmet soon established Egypt as a defeated the Ottoman army at the battle of regional power. To secure regular revenue, Konya in south-central Anatolia on Decem- he nationalized all the land in Egypt and ber 21, 1832. To prevent the complete col- required all producers to sell their goods to lapse of the Ottoman Empire, the European the state, which, in turn, resold the goods powers brokered the Convention of Kutahya and kept the surplus. He supported the culti- in May 1833, which would grant Crete and vation of long staple cotton, which increased the Hejaz to Mehmet if he withdrew his state revenues and wages for many farmers. forces from Anatolia. However, Mehmet Mehmet Ali established factories to rejected the convention because it did not produce weapons and a shipyard to con- establish an independent Egypt with him as struct a navy. In the 1820s, he sent promis- its ruler. ing Egyptians to Europe to study European In mid-1839, Mehmet renewed the war languages, especially French, and estab- against the Ottoman Empire. On June 24, lished hospitals and schools in Egypt. The 1839, at the battle of Nezib, his forces again students of these schools studied French soundly defeated the Ottoman army. Soon texts, on topics ranging from sociology and afterward, the Ottoman fleet defected to history to military technology, and translated Mehmet Ali. Sultan Mahmud II died almost them into Arabic. In 1835, his government immediately after the battle, and his 16-year founded the first indigenous press in the old son, Abdul Mecid (1823–1861), suc- Arab world. ceeded him. The European powers again 186 Metaxas, Ioannis

intervened and, in the Convention of London graduation from the Greek Military Acad- of 1840, offered Mehmet Ali hereditary rule emy in 1890. Following service in the 1897 of Egypt within the Ottoman Empire if he Greco-Ottoman War, he studied in Berlin. withdrew his forces from Syrian territory. In MetaxasservedontheGreekGeneralStaff the face of European military might, Mehmet during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars. He agreed to the Convention’s terms on Novem- became army chief of staff in 1913. ber 27, 1840. At the beginning of World War I, Metaxas After 1843, Mehmet Ali’s mind became favored an alliance with the Central Powers. increasingly clouded. In 1846, he traveled A staunch monarchist and opponent of Eleu- to Constantinople, made peace with the the´rios Venize´los (1864–1936), he left Greece sultan, and secured hereditary rule of Egypt following the forced abdication of King Con- for his family. He personally ruled Egypt stantine (1868–1923) in 1917 and returned until 1848, when senility made further per- with the king three years later. Metaxas sonal governance impossible. Mehmet Ali entered the Greek Parliament in 1926, and in died in on August 2, 1849. His 1936, he seized power and became dictator, dynasty ruled Egypt and Sudan, in actuality with the justification of preventing a Commu- or officially, until the revolution of 1952. nist takeover. During his authoritarian rule, Robert B. Kane the Greeks successfully repelled the Italian invasion that began in October 1940 and See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– indeed went on the offensive the next month, 1832; Mahmud II (1785–1839); Navarino, Battle of, 1827 occupying much of Albania. Metaxas died on January 29, 1941, before Germany inter- Further Reading venedinGreece. Goldschmidt, Arthur, Jr. Modern Egypt: The Spencer C. Tucker Formation of a Nation-State. Boulder, CO: See also: Constantine I, King of Greece Westview Press, 1988. (1868–1923); National Schism (Greece), Shaw, Stanford J., and Exel Kural Shaw. 1916–1917, Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864– History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern 1936) Turkey. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976–1977. Vatikiotis, P. J. The History of Modern Further Reading Egypt from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak. Higham, Robin D. S. The Metaxas Dictator- Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University ship: Aspects of Greece, 1936–1940. Press, 1991. Athens: Hellenic Foundation for Defense Warburg, Gabriel R. Egypt and the Sudan and Foreign Policy, 1993. Studies in History and Politics. London: F. MacKenzie, Compton. Wind of Freedom: The Cass, 1985. History of the Invasion of Greece by the Axis Powers, 1940–1941. London: Chatto Metaxas, Ioannis (1871–1941) and Windus, 1943. Papagos, Alexandros. The , 1940–1941. Athens: J. M. Slazikis “Alpha” Ioannis Metaxas was a Greek army general Editions, 1949. and dictator of Greece from 1936. Born on Vatikiotis, P. J. Popular in Greece, the island of Ithaca on April 12, 1871, Meta- 1936–41: A Political Biography of General xas was commissioned in the army on Ioannis Metaxas. London: Cass, 1998. Mihailov, Ivan 187

Michael I, King of Romania Romania until he was pressured to abdicate (1921–) and sent into exile in December 1947. He made his home in Switzerland, working with Michael I was king of Romania (1927–1930, an American brokerage firm and acting as a 1940–1947) and pretender to the throne after goodwill ambassador on behalf of Romania 1947. Born in the royal castle at Sinaia on after the fall of the regime of Nicolae Ceau- October 25, 1921, to Romania’s Crown sescu (1918–1989). Prince Carol (1893–1953) and Princess Gordon E. Hogg Helen of Greece (1896–1982), Michael suc- See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Carol ceeded his grandfather Ferdinand I (1865– II, King of Romania (1893–1953); Romania in 1927) as king in 1927, bypassing his father, World War II; Romanian Coup, August 1944 who had renounced his claim to the throne in 1925 in order to pursue a liaison with the Further Reading socialite (1895–1977). Hindley, Geoffrey. The Royal Families of This brief regency ended in 1930 with the Europe. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2000. return of his father, who engineered his Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. own accession as Carol II, pursuing self- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. indulgent policies and political gestures and Treptow, Kurt W., ed. A History of Romania. ultimately creating a royal dictatorship in Ias¸i: Center for Romanian Studies, 1996. 1938 meant to counter the growing influence of defense minister Ion Antonescu (1882– 1946) and the fascist Iron Guard. After the Mihailov, Ivan (1896–1990) Soviet Union’s occupation of Bessarabia and the ceding of Transylvania to Hungary, The Macedonian revolutionary leader Ivan in September 1940, Carol was obliged to Mihailov, sometimes known as Vancho, was abdicate in favor of Michael, then 19 years born in Macedonia during Ottoman rule near old. It was Antonescu, however, who held Shtip on August 26, 1896. His family sup- real power in Romania. ported the Internal Macedonian Revol- Michael and Helen, now effectively wards utionary Organization (IMRO; VMRO). of the state, spent most of the war years at After studying law in Sofia, he joined the Sinaia, visiting the capital only for command organization. He became an aide to VMRO figurehead appearances with Antonescu. On leader (1881–1924). August 23, 1944, with the Soviets poised for After Aleksandrov’s assassination on invasion of Romania, Michael and a sympa- August 31, 1924, by elements in the Bulgar- thetic military element managed a coup that ian military who opposed VMRO, Mihailov deposed Antonescu and a number of minis- assumed control of the organization. Mihailov ters, who soon were turned over to the initiated a ruthless terror campaign in Soviets. In September 1944, Michael traveled Bulgaria and elsewhere in Europe in pursuit to Moscow to sign an armistice with the of his goal of an independent Macedonia. Allies, ending the war for Romania and pav- Under him, the Petrich region of southwestern ing the way for the Romanian Communists Bulgaria became virtually autonomous. From to fully emerge and claim power. By force of this base, VRMO launched raids into Greece will, Michael maintained a presence in and Yugoslavia. 188 Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa”

In an effort to end this situation, but interrupted his studies to serve with dis- (Link), an organization of Bulgarian mili- tinction in the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars and tary officers, seized power in Sofia on World War I. Mihajlovic´ rose to the rank of May 19, 1934, and undertook a campaign colonel and was, for a time, inspector gen- to cleanse the Petrich region of VMRO. eral of fortifications. When the Germans Mihailov fled to Turkey, and later to Italy. invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941, he organ- Before World War II, VMRO received sup- ized resistance to the Axis occupation forces port from Mussolini’s Italy. During the war, in the mountains of western Serbia. MihailovmovedtoZagrebinindependent Mihajlovic´’s Cˇ etniks (Chetniks), named Croatia. There he established contact with after the Serbian guerrillas who had fought the Germans. He declined a German offer the Turks) were mostly pro-monarchist in August 1944 to establish an independent Serbs. Mihajlovic´ was promoted to general Macedonia, recognizing that the Germans in December 1941, and in June 1942, he had by then lost the war. became minister of war in King Peter II’s After the war, Mihailov settled in Italy. Yugoslav government-in-exile. He remained the leader of VMRO, the Already reluctant to pursue a vigorous largely forgotten leader of a largely forgot- campaign against the Axis occupation forces ten organization. Mihailov died in Rome on lest he provoke reprisals against Yugoslav September 5, 1990. Ironically, a little over civilians, Mihajlovic´ correctly under- a year after his death, Macedonia achieved stood that a rival resistance group, the pro- independence and VMRO revived as a Communist Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito political movement. (1892–1980), posed a greater threat to the Richard C. Hall restoration of a Serb-dominated monarchy than did the Axis powers, especially as Tito See also: Italy in the Balkans during World and most of his followers were Croats, the War II; Military League (Bulgaria); VMRO Serbs’ traditional rivals for power. Accord- Further Reading ingly, Mihajlovic´ andTitofocusedonfighting Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford each other rather than the Germans and Ital- University Press, 2007. ians, with whom they both also collaborated Mihailov, Ivan. Spomeni. 4 vols. Brussels: when it suited their purposes. Macedonian Cultural Fellowship, 1958– At first, the Cˇ etniks enjoyed Allied sup- 1973. port, but Mihajlovic´ was systematically dis- Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in creditedbyCommunistsympathizers Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Stanford, CA: among the British. Pressured by Soviet Stanford University Press, 2001. leader Josef Stalin at Tehran, the Allies agreed to shift their support to Tito. In December 1943, the British halted all aid to Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” the Cˇ etniks, and in May 1944, King Peter (1893–1946) formed a new government and named Tito as minister of war. Yugoslav army officer and guerrilla leader, Abandoned by the Allies, the Cˇ etniks born at Ivanjica, Serbia, in 1893, Dragoljub were soon overpowered, and Mihajlovic´ Mihajlovic´, nicknamed “Drazˇa,” entered went into hiding. He was captured by the the military academy in Belgrade in 1908 Communists on March 13, 1946, tried for Military League (Bulgaria) 189 collaboration with the Axis powers, and, Military League received support from despite protests by Western governments, Czar Boris III (1894–1943). Members of executed in Belgrade on July 17, 1946. In the league participated in the June 1923 March 1948, U.S. president Harry S. Tru- coup that overthrew Stamboliski. They also man (1884–1972) secretly awarded Mihaj- helped to suppress the lovic´ the Legion of Merit for rescuing some Communist uprising. Although they sup- 500 Allied airmen and for his role in helping ported the post-Stamboliski government of to defeat the Axis powers. Alexandu˘r Tsankov (1879–1958), by the Charles R. Shrader mid-1920s, the Military League had begun to fade. Many of its members became sup- See also: Cˇ etniks; Partisans, Yugoslavia; Tito, porters of the Zveno (Link) movement in Josip Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslavia in World War II the 1930s, which seized power in Sofia in 1934. Further Reading Zveno was a nonparty elitist organization Karchmar, Lucien. Draza Mihailovic´ and the that acted as a counterweight to IMRO Rise of the Cetnik Movement, 1941–1942. (VMRO), the Macedonian revolutionary New York: Garland Publishing, 1988. party. Having taken power, Zveno disbanded Lees, Michael. The Rape of Serbia: The British as a formal organization. After Czar Boris Role in Tito’s Grab for Power, 1943–1944. ousted the Zveno regime and established New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, his own mild authoritarian regime the next 1991. year, many member of Zveno drifted into Martin, David. Patriot or Traitor: The Case of opposition. During World War II, some of General Mikailovich. Palo Alto, CA: Hoo- them established loose cooperation with the ver Institution Press, 1978. Communist-led Fatherland Front. Although Roberts, W. Tito, Mihailovic´, and the Allies, Zveno members supported the Fatherland 1941–1944. 2nd ed. Durham, NC: Duke Front’s takeover of September 9, 1944, they University Press, 1987. had little impact on the Fatherland Front Tomashevich, Jozo. The Chetniks: War and itself. Zveno then disbanded in 1949. After Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. the fall of the Communist regime in 1989, the movement revived. The Military League and its successor Military League (Bulgaria) Zveno represented an effort in Bulgarian politics to establish a nationalist and The Military League was a secret organiza- democratic alternative to the Macedonian tion founded by active and reserve Bulgar- and the other right-wing organizations. ian military officers in the aftermath of Because they tended to be elitist, they Bulgaria’s defeat in World War I in 1919. never succeeded in having a significant They were determined to maintain Bulga- impact on the largely egalitarian Bulgarian ria’s nationalist objectives and evade the political scene. limitations imposed on the Bulgarian army Richard C. Hall by the 1919 Treaty of Neuilly. See also: BorisIII,CzarofBulgaria(1894– Although banned by the government of 1943); Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r (1879–1923); Aleksandu˘r Stamboliski (1879–1923), the VMRO 190 Milosˇevic´, Slobodan

Further Reading supported by former Yugoslav leader Josip Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Broz Tito (1892–1980) as a counterbalance Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian to Serbian nationalism. In March 1989, both Union, 1899–1923: Princeton: Princeton provinces ceded most of their autonomy to University Press, 1977. Serbia after many months of fierce street Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford demonstrations by Milosˇevic´’s supporters. University Press, 2007. Milosˇevic´ won the Serbian presidency on Groueff, Stephane. Crown of Thorns: The May 8, 1989, and proceeded to further reduce Reign of King Boris III of Bulgaria 1918– the autonomy given to the provinces by mak- 1943. Latham, MD: Madison Books, 1987. ing changes within the Serbian constitution. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedo- nia seceded from Yugoslavia. Milosˇevic´ Milosˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006) sent the Yugoslav army to reclaim the terri- tories and supported ethnic Serb, Croat, and Slobodan Milosˇevic´ was the president of Slovene paramilitary groups in an attempt Yugoslavia from July 1997 to October 2000. to reassert Serbian dominion over the A Serbian nationalist, he was a controversial region. When Bosnia and Herzegovina also figure whose policies were central in the seceded, Milosˇevic´-supported Bosnian Serb breakup of that country into independent forces besieged the Bosnian capital, Sara- states during the Yugoslav Civil War. jevo, for three years and instituted a brutal Following his military actions in the autono- campaign of ethnic cleansing that culmi- mous Serbian province of Kosovo, Milo- nated in 1995 with the deaths of more than sˇevic´ became the first serving head of state 7,000 Muslim boys and men in the to be indicted for . UN-protected “safe haven” of Srebrenica. Milosˇevic´ was born to Montenegrin Throughout 1991 and 1992, Milosˇevic´ parents on August 20, 1941, in Pozaverac, resisted all attempts by various European Serbia. He was educated at Belgrade Univer- nations, the United States, and the United sity and, after receiving his law degree in Nations to negotiate peace for the federa- 1964, entered into business administration, tion. He also continued to thwart any efforts ultimately becoming president of a Belgrade to democratize the Serbian government. In bank. A longtime Communist (he had joined late 1994, he gave into international pressure the Communist Party of Yugoslavia at the and ordered the cutoff of military aid to the age of 18), Milosˇevic´ became the leader of Bosnian Serb forces, also agreeing to permit the Belgrade Communist Party in 1984, and international monitors to be deployed along in 1987, he took over as Serbian Communist the Serbian border with Bosnia and Herze- Party leader. govina. In exchange, the UN agreed to ease Followinga1987incidentinKosovo, international sanctions against Yugoslavia. Milosˇevic´ carefully nurtured the anti- A year later, Milosˇevic´ met with leaders Albanian sentiments of both Serbs and from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina Montenegrins and orchestrated a long series to endorse the Dayton Agreement, bringing of pro-Serbian demonstrations starting in an end to the long-running war. July 1988. He was determined to revoke the In July 1997, Yugoslavia’s Federal autonomous status of both Kosovo and Vojvo- Assembly elected Milosˇevic´ as the new dina provinces—designations that had been Yugoslav president, succeeding Zoran Lilic´ Milosˇevic´, Slobodan 191

(1953–). Milosˇevic´ pursued the federal office because he was banned by the Serbian constitution from serving a third term as Serbian president. Although the federal president has traditionally held a ceremonial role in the government, Milosˇevic´ retained much of his political power due to his posi- tion as leader of Serbia’s dominant Socialist Party. Milosˇevic´’s role as Balkan peacemaker ended in March 1999, when he instigated another war for the expansion of Serbian nationalism, implementing a policy of forced removal on the majority Albanian population in Kosovo province. His ethnic cleansing campaign in Kosovo resulted in the deaths of nearly half of the Albanian Kosovar population. Milosˇevic´’s refusal to accept an internationally brokered peace A defiant former Yugoslav president Slobodan plan resulted in a three-month North Milosˇevic´ appears before the United Nations Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)–led (UN) War Crimes Tribunal on August 30, bombing campaign of Yugoslavia and an 2001. In the early- to mid-1980s, Milosˇevic´ indictment on crimes against humanity for waged an aggressive war of conquest and the Yugoslav president. genocide in Bosnia. In 2002, Milosˇevic´ was After the NATO bombing campaign, triedbytheWorldCourtforwarcrimes dissenters—heavily censored under Milo- committed during the Yugoslavian Civil War. He died of a heart attack in his cell at the UN sˇevic´’s presidency—gained confidence, and International Criminal Tribunal for the protests erupted criticizing his autocratic Former Yugoslavia in The Hague, the rule. Opposition parties demanded his resig- Netherlands, on March 11, 2006. (AP Photo/ nation, and in light of his waning popularity, Peter Dejong) Milosˇevic´ attempted to solidify his power by calling for an early presidential election. His plan backfired when challenger Vojislav embezzlement, abuse of power, and obstruc- Kostunica (1944–) won the poll, but tion of justice. Two months later, the UN Milosˇevic´ refused to give up the presidency. International Criminal Tribunal for the For- Through the Constitutional Court, he mer Yugoslavia sent him to The Hague to attempted to void the results, making a second face charges of genocide, war crimes, and round of balloting necessary. His actions set crimes against humanity. By Decem- off massive public protests, which included ber 2001, he was formally indicted on 29 the burning of the parliament building, and violations of international law. His trial on October 6, 2000, Milosˇevic´ stepped down began on September 26, 2002, and contin- as a result of the popular uprising. ued for four years, during which time the In April 2001, Milosˇevic´ was arrested trial was riddled with controversy and by Yugoslav police and charged with repeatedly interrupted by Milosˇevic´’s ill 192 Mladic´, Ratko

health. During the trial, Milosˇevic´ served as accused of war crimes in his conduct of his own lawyer (until he was deemed medi- that war as commander of Bosnian Serb cally unfit) and often defended his actions forces. by portraying himself and his country as Mladic´ was born in Bosnia-Herzegovina victims. on March 12, 1943, during World War II. Milosˇevic´ died in his cell at The Hague on His father was killed by the Croatian Ustasˇa March 11, 2006. Medical tests revealed that during the war. Mladic´ attended a military the cause of death was a heart attack, though high school and then an army military acad- Milosˇevic´’s family accused the tribunal of emy. Entering the Yugoslav People’s Army poisoning the former leader, who in recent (JNA) as a career officer, he served as an years had been plagued by heart and blood- infantry commander. On the outbreak of pressure ailments. Two months after his the conflict in Croatia in 1991, while hold- death, in May 2006, the tribunal concluded ing the rank of colonel, he was appointed to its investigation into the cause of death and command the Ninth Corps of the JNA in formally determined: “Nothing has been Knin. He was promoted to general-major found to support allegations reported in due to his successes during the war in Cro- some sections of the media that Milosˇevic´ atia, where he established a reputation as had been murdered, in particular by poison- an aggressive and capable field commander. ing. The results of an independent investiga- When the Republika Srbska declared its tion by the Dutch authorities demonstrate independence from Bosnia-Herzegovina in that such allegations are entirely false.” April 1992, Mladic´ was appointed the com- Richard C. Hall mander in chief of the republic’s mixed army of local militias and former JNA See also: Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugo- units. He aggressively pursued the war, and slav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences was later charged with encouraging and facilitating brutal conduct toward enemy Further Reading civilians—such as shelling the city of Curtis, Glenn E., ed. Yugoslavia: A Country Sarajevo—and the use of UN peacekeepers Study. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Federal as “human shields” to prevent NATO air Research Division, Library of Congress, strikes. 1992. Of the war crimes attributed to Mladic´, Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- the most publicized was the fall of Srebren- slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. ica, which he personally commanded. The New York: Verso, 1993. city (along with five others) was declared a Sell, Louis. Slobodan Milosevic and the “safe haven” for Bosnian Muslims by the Destruction of Yugoslavia,Durham,NC: United Nations in 1993, protected by a Duke University Press, 2002. small force of UN peacekeepers. Bosnian Serbs protested (with some justification) that the safe havens were used as bases by Mladic´, Ratko (1943–) Bosnian Muslim forces. Over June to July 1995, Srebrenica was overrun—the Ratko Mladic´ served as commander in chief UN peacekeeping unit failing to prevent the of the army of the Republika Srbska during takeover—and some 40,000 Bosnian the 1992–1995 war in Bosnia, and was Muslims were forced to evacuate the city. Montenegro in Balkan Events, 1876–1878 193

Bosnian Serb forces reportedly executed Fogelquist, Alan F. Handbook of Facts on: The many Muslim men (including 12-year-old Break-Up of Yugoslavia International Pol- boys) after the city was taken, despite prom- icy and the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Whitmore Lake, MI: AEIOU Publishing, ises of safe passage. Although the number 1993. killed is disputed, the charges stated it was Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- in the range of 8,000. slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. He was indicted by the International New York: Verso, 1993. Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugo- Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia, slavia (ICTY) of The Hague on July 24, Death of a Nation. New York: TV Books, 1995, along with former Republika Srbska 1996. president Radovan Karadzˇic´ on multiple counts. These include charges of genocide, Montenegro in Balkan Events, crimes against humanity, and crimes against 1876–1878 civilians, destruction and seizure of prop- erty, the use of UN peacekeepers as hostages and the conduct of the . Montenegro played an important role in the Additional counts were issued that Novem- turbulent years of 1876–1878, which led to ber regarding events at Srebrenica. In the loss of Ottoman power in much of the June 1996, warrants were issued by the Balkan Peninsula. Prince Nikola (1841– ICTY for the arrest of both men, and Mladic´ 1921) took advantage of local unrest in Her- was then replaced as commander of the zegovina in 1875 to intervene there against Republika Srbska’s army. Ottoman rule. Initially he gave shelter and Mladic´ remained at large for the next support to Herzegovinian rebels. He also 16 years. He probably spent most of this sanctioned the attacks of Montenegrin irreg- time in Serbia. On May 26, 2011, Serbian ulars into Herzegovina. With the expectation authorities arrested him in Lazeravo, Vojvo- of acquiring all Herzegovina, Nikola dina, Serbia. This was probably in connec- increased Montenegrin activities. tion with Serbia’s attempt to join the On June 16, 1876, Nikola signed an alli- European Union. He subsequently was ance agreement with Prince Milan (1854– extradited to The Hague, Netherlands, 1901) of Serbia. Two weeks later, Monte- where as of this writing, he awaited trial on negrin and Serbian armies attacked sepa- charges of war crimes. rately into Ottoman territory. Montenegrin James W. Frusetta forces initially achieved some success against the Ottomans. In September 1877, See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Dayton after a prolonged siege, they took the impor- Peace Accords, 1995; Srebrinica Massacre, tant town of Niksˇic´. They also occupied 1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav several locations on the Adriatic coast, Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences including Bar, Spicˇ, and Ulcinj. The Russian victory over the Ottomans in Further Reading the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878 con- Cigar, Norman L. Genocide in Bosnia: The firmed the Montenegrin successes. While Policy of “Ethnic Cleansing.” College Station: the Treaty of Berlin somewhat reduced the Texas A&M University Press, 1995. territories awarded to Montenegro by the 194 Montenegro in the Balkan Wars

previous Treaty of San Stefano, it still medieval Serbian capital, in Kosovo, doubled the size of the small Balkan state. and Scutari (Shkode¨r, Skadar), the largest In addition to Niksˇic´ and the Adriatic coast, town in northern Albania. Montenegro also acquired the important Unfortunately, Montenegro lacked the town of . Nevertheless, many military power to realize these aims. Its Montenegrins, including Prince Nikola, army was little more than a mass militia were disappointed by the outcome. They consisting of most of the males of military had hoped to gain all of Herzegovina. age in the kingdom. It had only a few Regardless, the performance of the modern artillery pieces and a small cavalry Montenegrin army in the fighting against unit. Due to the chronic instability of the the Ottomans proved to be better than that Ottoman border regions, many Montenegrin of their Serbian allies. In the aftermath of soldiers had combat experience, but this the Treaty of Berlin, the international posi- tended to season them as individuals rather tion of Montenegro was enhanced. Prince than as an army. During the summer of Nikola could even dream of uniting all of 1912 Montenegro signed agreements for the Serbian people under the House of military cooperation with Bulgaria and Petrovic´-Njegosˇ. Serbia. Richard C. Hall Montenegro opened the war against the Ottoman Empire on October 8, with King See also: Berlin, Treaty of, 1878; Nikola I, Nikola’s youngest son, Prince Petar (1889– King of Montenegro (1841–1921); Russo- Ottoman War, 1877–1878 1932), firing the first shot across the Otto- man frontier. The Montenegrins advanced Further Reading along three axes. Their Eastern Division, MacKenzie, David. The Serbs and Russian consisting of 12,000 men, proceeded into Pan-Slavism 1875–1878. Ithaca, NY: the sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Zeta Division Cornell University Press, 1967. of 15,000 men moved along the eastern Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Balkan shore of Lake Scutari towards the city Mountain: A History of Montenegro. Ithaca, of Scutari. The Coastal Division, with NY: Cornell University Press, 2007. 8,000 men, pressed along the western shore Stevenson, Francis Seymour. A History of of the lake to the city. These two forces Montenegro. New York: Arno, 1971. were unable to meet south of the city due to the strength of Ottoman fortified positions there. Scutari resisted Montenegrin efforts to Montenegro in the Balkan Wars seize it. Simplistic Montenegrin tactics caused heavy casualties among the attack- The First Balkan War, 1912–1913, repre- ers. By the time of the December 3 armistice sented a time of hope and frustration for between the Balkan allies and the Ottomans, the tiny Balkan . the situation around Scutari had stalemated. Before the war began, Montenegro, under The Montenegrins lacked the strength to King Nikola (1841–1921) had great expec- break into Scutari; the Ottomans lacked the tations of acquiring Ottoman territory in strength to break the siege. northern Albania and in the sanjak of Novi The armistice ended on January 30, 1913. Pazar. Because of his pan-Serb ambitions, On February 7, the two Montenegrin divi- King Nikola especially wanted to take a sions attempted a coordinated assault on Montenegro in World War I 195

Scutari; it failed. Later that month, the Serbs In East Central Europe and the Balkan sent 30,000 troops to assist the Montene- Wars,editedbyBe´la K. Kira´ly and Dimi- grins. By this time, Austria-Hungary and trije Djordjevic, 120–40. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1987. Italy had prevailed upon the other Great Powers to include Scutari in the new Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– 1913: Prelude to the First World War. Lon- Albanian state. Another Montenegrin- don: Routledge, 2000. Serbian assault on Scutari failed on Jowett, Philip S. Armies of the Balkan Wars, March 31. Soon afterward, the Serbs, under 1912–1913. Oxford: Osprey, 2011. Austro-Hungarian pressure, withdrew their Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Black Moun- forces. On April 2, a Great Power fleet tain: A History of Montenegro.Ithaca,NY: appeared off the Montenegrin coast to Cornell University Press, 2007. impose its decision that Scutari should go to Albania. The Montenegrins succeeded in Montenegro in World War I persuading the exhausted defenders to sur- render on April 22. Great Power pressure forced Montenegrin troops to abandon Scu- The only Allied state to lose its indepen- tari less than two weeks later, on April 5. dence in World War I, the small Balkan prin- This ended the First Balkan War for Monte- cipality of Montenegro (Latinized form of negro. During the brief Second Balkan War, the Serbo-Croat words Crna Gora, which a Montenegrin unit fought alongside the means “Black Mountain”) gained its Serbs against Bulgaria in Macedonia. independence from the Ottoman Empire Despite the poor performance of its army, and doubled its territory as a result of the Montenegro gained half of the sanjak of Treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) following Novi Pazar and a portion of Kosovo as a the successful 1876–1877 war against the result of the Balkan Wars. These gains Turks. Led by Nikola I Petrovic´-Njegosˇ came at the cost of around 3,000 dead and (prince during 1860–1910 and king during 7,000 wounded. Another casualty of the 1910–1918), Montenegro was modernized Balkan Wars was the power and prestige of in the late nineteenth century and became a King Nikola. The failure of his armies small but viable European state. In 1905, around Scutari demonstrated the fundamen- Nikola I granted a constitutional govern- tal weakness of his rule. The relative success ment with an elected National Assembly. of the Serbian army made unification with He subsequently led Montenegro in the Serbia appear to be an attractive alternative Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 in which Monte- to an independent Montenegro. negro again doubled its territory but failed to Richard C. Hall realize all of its territorial ambitions. With the outbreak of World War I, Nikola See also: Balkan League, 1912; Balkan War, I supported his son-in-law, King Peter I First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Second, 1913; Karageorgevic´ of Serbia, and tiny Monte- Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences; Scutari, negro declared war on Austria-Hungary on Siege of, 1912–1913 August 5, 1914. With a population of just over 436,000 people, Montenegro mobilized Further Reading some 60,000 troops, who were placed under Djurisˇic´, Mitar. “Operations of the Monte- the command of the Serbian major general negrin Army during the First Balkan War.” Bozˇidar Jankovic´ (1849–1920). General 196 Montenegro in World War I

Jankovic deployed the bulk of the Monte- King Peter I Karageorgevic´ (1844–1921), negrin army toward Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbian prime minister Nicola Pasˇic´ and the remainder toward Albania. (1845–1926). Following the surrender of the The Austro-Hungarian XVI Corps of the Montenegrin army in , King Sixth Army invaded Montenegro on Octo- Nikola compromised his own position by ber 9, 1914, but the small Montenegrin seeking a separate peace with the Central army, modernized by Nikola I in 1906, Powers. On October 23, 1918, the Serbian fought bravely and repelled the initial Aus- Second Army occupied Montenegro, and on trian attack. The Montenegrins later covered November 26, 1918, King Nikola I was the retreat of the Serbian army through deposed by the Montenegrin National Albania in November–December 1915 by Assembly meeting in Podgorica. Serbia then engaging the Austrians in eastern Herzego- annexed Montenegro. It became the province vina and the sanjak, winning an important of Zeta in the new South Slav Kingdom of victory at on January 6–7, 1916. the Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. An unsuc- Following the Serbian withdrawal, the cessful uprising of Montenegrin patriots led Montenegrinarmyfoughtonagainstthe by Colonel Krsto Popovic´ (1881–1927) Central Powers. On January 8, 1916, began in January 1919 and lasted until 1926. 50,000 Austrian and Bosnian troops began Charles R. Shrader an offensive against Montenegro, took See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans Mount Lovcˇen, and forced the Montenegrins during World War I; Nikola I, King of Monte- back on their capital of Cetinje, which fell negro (1841–1921) on January 11, 1916. On January 17, the Montenegrin army was forced to surrender Further Reading to Austro-Hungarian forces after having suf- Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Black Moun- fered heavy casualties. King Nikola I went tain: A History of Montenegro. Ithaca, NY: into exile in Italy, and some Montenegrin Cornell University Press, 2007. troops escaped to Corfu where they joined Thomas, Nigel, and Dusan Babac. Armies in the survivors of the Serbian retreat and sub- the Balkans, 1914–18. Oxford: Osprey, sequently served with the Yugoslav Division 2001. of the Serbian army on the Salonika Front Treadway, John D. The Falcon and the Eagle: during 1917–1918. Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908– King Nikola had long clashed with the 1914. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- “Greater Serbia” ambitions of his son-in-law, sity Press, 1983, 1998. N

National Schism (Greece), occupation of eastern Macedonia in 1916–1917 May 1916 produced more public outrage against the king. In August, a secret pro- This political division of Greece during Venizelist military organization with World War I resulted from the opposing posi- Entente support established a provisional tions of the Greek king Constantine I (1868– state in Thessaloniki. Toward the end of 1923) and Prime Minister Eleuthe´rios Venize´- 1916, France and Britain officially recog- los (1864–1936) on whether or not Greece nized Venize´los’s state as the legal should remain neutral (Constantine) or enter . the war on the Entente side (Venize´los). In , royalists, led by Colonel When World War I began, many Greeks, the Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941), a close aide to senior Greek generals, and Constantine, mar- Constantine, terrorized Venizelist sympathizers ried to Wilhelm II’s sister Sofia (1870– in and around Athens. These attacks led to an 1932), favored neutrality. However, Venize´los armed confrontation between the royalists and saw an alliance with the Entente as an oppor- French marines. In retaliation, the Venize´los tunity to gain new territory. government and the Entente established a In January 1915, after Britain offered naval blockade, seized the Greek navy and Greece territory in Asia Minor, Venize´los demanded the partial disarmament of the tried to force a bill through parliament by royalist forces. After a 106-day blockade, an which Greece would join the Entente. Strong Entente threat to bombard Athens, and intense opposition from the king and the army gener- negotiations, Constantine left Greece, and his als forced Venize´los to resign. Venize´los’s second son Alexander became king. Liberal Party won the resulting general elec- On May 29, 1917, Venize´los returned to tion in June and selected Venize´los as prime Athens, and a unified Greece declared war minister. Constantine, however, delayed ratifi- on the Central Powers in July. Ten Greek cation of his appointment until August. divisions fought valiantly with the Entente In December 1915, Venize´los allowed forces along the Macedonian Front and British and French troops to land at Thessa- pushed the German and Bulgarian forces loniki. Many Greeks viewed the landing as northward by late September 1918 when a violation of Greek sovereignty. The dis- Bulgaria left the war. The division contrib- agreement between Constantine and Venize´- uted to Greece’s defeat in the Greco- los deepened after the king authorized Turkish War, contributed to the collapse of German and Bulgarian forces to occupy a the second republic and the establishment Greek fort in Macedonia. of the dictatorial Metaxas regime in In December 1915, Constantine forced August 1936, and dominated Greek political Venize´los to resign again and dissolved and civil life for decades. the parliament. The German-Bulgarian Robert B. Kane

197 198 NATO in the Balkans

See also: Constantine I, King of Greece served in the North Atlantic Treaty Organi- (1868–1923); Greco-Turkish War, 1919– zation (NATO), and rebellious Communist 1922; Macedonian Front, 1916–1918; states such as Albania left the Warsaw Pact Metaxas, Ioannis (1871–1941); Venize´los, in 1968. The former Yugoslavia never joined Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936) the Warsaw Pact and participated in the Further Reading Non-Aligned Movement. The end of the Forster, Edward Seymour. A Short History of Cold War, the Soviet Union’s collapse, and Modern Greece, 1821–1956.NewYork: Yugoslavia’s disintegration into vicious Praeger, 1958. internecine conflicts and separate nation- Koliopoulos, Giannes, and Thanos Veremes. states ended the Balkans’ Cold War security Greece: The Modern Sequel from 1831 to infrastructure. the Present. New York: New York Univer- The subsequent two decades would see sity Press, 2002. NATO gradually expand its presence into the Pallis, Alexander Anastasius. Greece’s Anato- Balkans with some opposition expressed by lian Venture—and after a Survey of the Dip- Russia which considered the Balkans, particu- lomatic and Political Aspects of the Greek larly Serbia, to be a core area of its security Expedition to Asia Minor (1915–1922). interests. Balkan countries besides Greece London, Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1937. joining NATO as of early 2012 include Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, and NATO in the Balkans Slovenia. Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Monte- Balkan countries such as Bulgaria and negro, and Serbia are Balkan countries par- Romania served in the Soviet-dominated ticipating in the NATO-affiliated Partnership Warsaw Pact during the Cold War. Greece for Peace Program.

A convoy of NATO soldiers drives through the Bosnian capital Sarajevo during a patrol, October 1, 1997. (AP Photo/Hidajet Delic) Navarino, Battle of, 1827 199

NATO’s Balkan membership seeks to par- See also: Kosovo War, 1998–1999; Yugoslav ticipate in alliance security assistance pro- Wars, 1991–1995 grams, promote opportunities for security sector reform and professional military devel- Further Reading opment, reorient national defense toward con- Nation, R. Craig. “NATO in the Western Bal- kans: A Force for Stability?” Southeastern temporary security challenges such as human Europe 35, no. 1 (February 2011): 120–37. trafficking and counterterrorism, and place Seroka, Jim. “Security Considerations in the national defense responsibilities within a col- Western Balkans: NATO’s Evolution and lective security infrastructure allowing more Expansion.” East European Quarterly 41, optimal use of finite financial resources and no. 1 (Spring 2007): 25–38. reducing the chances of interstate conflict. U.S. Congress. House Committee on Foreign Some Balkan countries sought to prove their Affairs. The Balkans after the Indepen- commitment to western security architectures dence of Kosovo and on the Eve of NATO by supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom with Enlargement. Washington, DC: GPO, Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania contributing 2008. http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/ forces. Balkan countries participating in LPS94875. NATO’s International Security Assistance U.S. Congress. Senate Committee on Foreign Force (ISAF) operations in as of Relations. Unfinished Business in Southeast early 2012 include Albania, Bosnia and Europe: Opportunities and Challenges in the Western Balkans. Washington, DC: Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former GPO, 2010. http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/ Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Greece, gpo1335. Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, and Turkey. Some of these Balkan countries soldiers were killed while participating in these Navarino, Battle of, 1827 military operations. Contemporary and emerging security The Bay on October 20, concerns confronting NATO in the Balkans 1827, was the most important engagement include acute financial crises affecting of the Greek War for Independence (1822– European Union (EU) countries such as 1832). With Ottoman and Egyptian forces Greece that may produce civil unrest and fully in control of Greece, representatives fracture the Eurozone, lingering ethnic and of the French, British, and Russian govern- sectarian tensions in former Yugoslav coun- ments concluded the Treaty of London. It tries requiring the presence of peacekeeping called on the Ottomans to agree to an armi- forces, Balkan countries serving as drug and stice and for the Egyptians to withdraw. human trafficking transit centers, tension Should the Ottomans reject an armistice, between Russia and Balkan countries that the three allied powers would come to the seek to integrate into NATO and the EU, aid of the Greeks with their naval forces. In concerns over the future direction of Turkish the meantime, the British made a strong but foreign policy, economic development prob- ultimately unsuccessful diplomatic effort to lems in Kosovo and other Balkan countries, get Egyptian ruler Mehmet Ali (1769– and what role Russia and Turkey might 1849) to remove his forces from Greece. play in supplying energy resources to On August 16, the European powers sent Balkan countries. a note to the Sublime Porte demanding an Bert Chapman armistice. When the Ottomans rejected it 200 Navarino, Battle of, 1827

on August 29, the British, French, and Rus- Calydon and forced them to return to Nava- sian governments issued orders to their naval rino. On the night of October 3–4, Ibrahim commanders in the Mediterranean to cut off personally led another relief effort. waterborne Ottoman and Egyptian resupply Although they managed to avoid detection to Greece. In late August 1827, despite warn- by the British picket ship at Navarino Bay ings from the European governments not to in the darkness, a strong lee wind prevented do so, Ali sent a large squadron with rein- his forces from entering the Gulf of Caly- forcements to Navarino Bay (Pylos) on the don. He was forced to anchor off Papas and west coast of the Peloponnese. On Septem- wait for the storm to end. This allowed ber 8, it arrived and joined Ottoman ships Codrington time to come up with his already there. On September 12, a British squadron, and firing warning shots, he squadron under Vice Admiral Sir Edward forced Ibrahim to return to Navarino Bay. Codrington (1770–1851) arrived off the bay. Ibrahim continued land operations, which The French and Russian governments also included the wholesale burning of Greek had dispatched squadrons to Greece. villages and fields. The fires were clearly On September 25, Codrington and French visible from the allied ships. A British land- admiral Henry Gauthier de Rigny (1782– ing party reported that the Greek population 1835) met with Ibrahim Pasha (1789– of Messenia was close to starvation. On 1848), the Egyptian commander in Greece, October 13, Codrington was joined off to discuss a mediation arrangement already Navarino Bay by the French squadron accepted by the Greeks. Ibrahim agreed to under de Rigny and a Russian squadron. an armistice while awaiting instructions On October 20, 1827, following from the sultan. Leaving a frigate at Nava- futile attempts to contact Ibrahim Pasha, rino Bay to watch the Egyptian and Ottoman Codrington consulted with the other allied ships there, Codrington then withdrew to the commanders and made the decision to enter British-controlled Ionian island of Zante Navarino Bay with the combined British, (Zakynthos). French, and Russian squadrons. The allies Ibrahim learned that while he was expected had 11 ships of the line and 15 other war- to observe a cease-fire, Greek naval units ships. Codrington flew his flag in the ship under British mercenary commanders were of the line Asia (84 guns). He also had two continuing operations in the Gulf of Corinth, 74-gun ships of the line, four frigates, and at Epirus, and at the port of . Then four brigs. French admiral de Rigny had during September 29–30, a Greek steamer four 74-gun ships of the line, one frigate, warship, the Karteria, sank nine Ottoman and two schooners. The Russian squadron ships off Salona (Split) in Dalmatia. Codring- consisted of four 74-gun ships of the line ton sent messages to warn these British offi- and four frigates. The Egyptians and cers, who were not under his command, to Ottomans had 65 or 66 warships in Navarino desist from such operations; this had little harbor: three Ottoman ships of the line (2 of effect. Ibrahim duly protested and, when 84 guns each and 1 of 76 guns), four Egyp- nothing changed, decided to act. tian frigates of 64 guns each, 15 Ottoman On October 1, Ibrahim ordered ships from frigates of 48 guns each, 18 Ottoman and 8 Navarino Bay to assist the Ottoman garrison Egyptian corvettes of 14 to 18 guns each, 4 at Patras. Codrington’s squadron intercepted Ottomanand8Egyptianbrigsof19guns theseshipsattheentrancetotheGulfof each, and 5–6 Egyptian fire brigs. There Nedic´, Milan 201 were also some Ottoman transports and Egyptian-Ottoman fleet were either destroyed smaller craft. by allied fire or set alight by their own crews Around noon on October 20, the allied to prevent their capture. Only one, the Sul- ships sailed in two lines into Navarino Bay. tane, surrendered. Allied personnel losses The British and French formed one line, were 177 killed and 469 wounded; estimates and the Russians formed the other. The of the Ottoman and Egyptian killed or Ottomans demanded that Codrington with- wounded were in excess of 4,000 men. draw, but the British admiral replied that he News of the allied victory was received was there to give orders, not receive them. with great popular enthusiasm in virtually He threatened that if any shots were fired at all of Europe. The Porte, furious at what the allied ships, he would destroy the had happened, demanded reparations. Egyptian-Ottoman fleet. Recalled to Britain, Codrington was The Egyptian-Ottoman ships were lying subsequently acquitted on a charge of dis- at anchor in a long crescent-shape formation obeying orders. with their flanks protected by shore bat- The Battle of Navarino Bay removed any teries. At 2:00 p.m., the allied ships began impediment to the Russian Black Sea Fleet, filing into the bay. They then took up posi- and in April 1828, Russia declared war on tion inside the crescent. The British Turkey. That August, Egypt withdrew from ships faced the center of the Egyptian- hostilities, virtually ending the war. In the Ottoman line, while the French were on the May 1832 Treaty of London, Greece Ottoman left and the Russians were on the secured its independence. The Battle of Ottoman right. The shore batteries at Fort Navarino Bay, which made all this possible, Navarino made no effort to contest the is also noteworthy as the last major engage- allied movement. Still, Codrington’s plan ment between ships of the line in the age of appeared highly dangerous, for it invited fighting sail. the Ottomans to surround the allied ships, Spencer C. Tucker which, with the prevailing wind out of the See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– southwest, risked being trapped. The plan 1832; Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 simply revealed the complete confidence of the allies in their tactical superiority. Further Reading Codrington dispatched the frigate Dart- Anderson, R. C. Naval Wars in the Levant, mouth to an Ottoman ship in position to 1559–1853. Liverpool: University Press of command the entrance of the bay with an Liverpool, 1952. order that it move. The captain of the Dart- James, William M. The Naval History of Great mouth sent a dispatch boat to the Ottoman Britain. Vol. 6. London: Richard Bentley, ship, which then opened musket fire on it, 1859. killing an officer and several seamen. Firing Ortzen, Len. Guns at Sea: The World’s Great immediately became general, with shore Naval Battles. London: Cox and Wyman, batteries also opening up on the allied ships. 1976. The ensuing four-hour engagement, essen- tially a series of individual gun duels by float- Nedic´, Milan (1877–1946) ing batteries at close range without an overall plan, was really more of a slaughter than a Serbian general and politician Milan Nedic´ battle. Three-quarters of the ships in the served as the chief of the general staff of 202 Nedic´, Milan

the Yugoslav army and minister of war of Serb resistance. On September 1, 1941, in a Yugoslavia before World War II and the radio broadcast, Nedic´ declared his intention prime minister of the Nazi-backed puppet to save the Serbian people. He also spoke government of Serbia during the war. Nedic´ against active resistance to the Germans was born in near Belgrade, Serbia, because of the Nazi declaration to execute on September 7, 1877. After completing 50 Serbs for every wounded German soldier the gymnasium and Military Academy in and 100 for every soldier killed. His 1895, he received an officer’s commission administration promoted anti-Semitism and in the Serbian army in 1904. Before World anti-Communism to convince Serbs that War I, he served as a staff officer and fought these groups were their enemies. in the Balkan Wars. During the war, he The Serbian government under Nedic´ served in several positions, retreated with accepted refugees, mostly of Serbian the Serbian army and thousands of civilians descent, from other parts of the former from Serbia through Albania to the Greek Yugoslavia. Despite his collaboration, the islands over the winter of 1915–1916, and German occupation authorities had no participated in the allied breakthrough in respect for his authority and caused the Macedonia in September 1918. After the deaths of over 300,000 Serbs, mostly from war, he continued to rise in position and German reprisals in retaliation for Serbian rank and was promoted to general in 1923. resistance attacks. The worst atrocity was Between 1934 and 1935, he commanded the massacre, in which the the General Staff of the Yugoslav Royal Germans murdered at least 2,300 Serbian Army. civilians during October 20–21, 1941. The In 1939, Nedic´ became the minister of the Nedic´ regime also aided the Germans in the army and navy. However, because he disap- murder of 14,500 Serbian Jews (90 percent proved of a potential alliance with Nazi Ger- of the Serbian Jews) by August 1942. Yet, many—probably because of his uneasiness Nedic´ also secretly supported the Cˇ etniks, with Germany’s ally, Fascist Italy, and the resistance led by former Yugoslav army because of the opposition by some Italian Colonel DrazˇaMihajlovic´ (1893–1946), Fascists to the existence of a Yugoslav state with money and arms. —the regent Paul (1893–1976) dismissed On October 4, 1944, Nedic´ disbanded his Nedic´ on November 6, 1940. Nedic´ wel- government as the Communist Partisans, comed the April 1941 coup that deposed led by Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), the regent’s pro-Axis regime and fought advanced on Belgrade and, two days later, against the Germans when they invaded fled to Kitzbu¨ hel, Austria (then part of Yugoslavia. Germany). On January 1, 1946, the British After the Germans occupied Yugoslavia, forces, occupying that part of Austria, they divided the country into an “indepen- handed Nedic´ over to the new Yugoslav dent” Serbia and Croatia and allowed Bulga- government, headed by Tito. He was ria, Hungary, and Italy to annex other parts charged with treason and imprisoned in of the former kingdom. German Air Force Belgrade. On February 5, the newspapers general Heinrich Danckelmann (1889– reported that Nedic´ committed suicide by 1947) asked Nedic´ to lead the government jumping out of a window of his prison of German-occupied Serbia, and Nedic´ while the guards were not looking. accepted the offer on August 29, to pacify Robert B. Kane Neuilly, Treaty of, 1920 203

See also: Cˇ etniks; Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub In World War I, Bulgaria saw an opportu- “Drazˇa” (1892–1946); Serbia in World War nity to further its claims in Macedonia and to II; Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslavia make good its losses in the Second Balkan in World War II War. Although most Bulgarians favored joining the because of ties to Further Reading Russia, Czar Ferdinand (1861–1948) and Pre- Cohen, Philip J. Serbia’s Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History. Col- mier Vasil Radoslavov (1854–1929) joined lege Station: Texas A&M University Press, the in October 1915. At the 1996. end of the war, the army overthrew Ferdinand, Costa, Nicolas J. Shattered Illusions: Albania, who abdicated in October 1918 and was suc- Greece and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: East ceeded by his son Boris III (1894–1943) and European Monographs, 1998. a new premier, Aleksandu˘rStamboliski Pavlowitch, Stevan K. The Improbable Survi- (1879–1923); however, this did not change vor: Yugoslavia and Its Problems, 1918– the fact that Bulgaria was on the losing side. 1988. Columbus: Ohio State University Its Balkan rivals Greece and Serbia had Press, 1988. chosen the winning side, and they pressed the conferees in Paris to favor their interests. Neuilly, Treaty of, 1920 As with the other peace treaties, Part I of the Treaty of Neuilly reproduced the 26 The Treaty of Neuilly between the victorious articles of the League of Nations Covenant. Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria Part II defined the new Bulgarian frontiers. was signed in the Paris suburb of Neuilly- Article 27-1 required Bulgaria to recognize sur-Seine on November 27, 1919, a product the “Serb-Croat-Slovene State,” which of the Paris Peace Conference. Ostensibly became Yugoslavia, and its new frontiers. founded on the principle of national self- The future Yugoslavia gained part of determination, the treaty was actually the out- western Bulgaria and also regained some of come of intense diplomatic pressure on the the Strumitsa Valley area, which had been part of Bulgaria’s victorious neighbors, dic- ceded to Bulgaria in 1913. Article 27-2 tated by the extremely complex history of defined the new frontier with Greece, with national sovereignty in that part of Europe. grievous consequences for Bulgaria since it Rival territorial claims in the area dated lost western Thrace to Greece and thus port back at least to the Treaty of Berlin of facilities on the Aegean Sea at Dedeagach 1878, which had created the Principality (Greek: ). Articles 27-4 of Bulgaria. However, many Bulgarians and27-5confirmedtheBulgarian frontier remained in territory such as Macedonia, con- with Romania, with the definitive loss of trolled by the Ottoman Empire, or in Serbia southern Dobrudja (Bulgarian: Dobrudza), and Romania. Bulgaria was the chief victor which had been part of Bulgaria since 1878 in the First Balkan War in 1912–1913, secur- but was ceded in 1913. Article 27-3 delin- ing a significant portion of Macedonia. In the eated the only gains made by Bulgaria; not Second Balkan War of 1913, Bulgaria recov- surprisingly, these minor acquisitions were ered more of Macedonia and secured access at the expense of another vanquished to the Aegean Sea in Thrace, but it also power, the Ottoman Empire. yielded more land to Greece and Serbia Part III contained the “political clauses.” elsewhere. Article 59 compelled Bulgaria to recognize 204 Nikola I, King of Montenegro

the changes in central and southwestern Se`vres, the Treaties between the United Europe, including the new frontiers of States and Germany, Austria and Hungary Austria, Hungary, Greece, Poland, Romania, Respectively. New York: Carnegie Endow- ment for International Peace, 1924. the Serb-Croat-Slovene state, and the Czecho-Slovak state. As a result of these Crompton, R. J. A Concise History of Bulga- ria. New York: Cambridge University territorial changes, Bulgaria, which had suf- Press, 1997. fered 100,000 men killed in the war, now Genov, Georgi P. Bulgaria and the Treaty of lost another 300,000 people. Neuilly. Sofia: H. G. Danov, 1935. The “Military Clauses” of Part IV demili- MacMillan, Margaret. Paris 1919: Six Months tarized Bulgaria, abolished obligatory mili- That Changed the World. New York: Ran- tary service (Article 65) and stipulated that dom House, 2002. the Bulgarian army “shall be exclusively Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associ- employed for the maintenance of order ated Powers and Bulgaria, and Protocol: within Bulgarian territory and for the control Signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine, November 27, of the frontiers” (Article 66). Article 69 lim- 1919. London: HMSO, 1920. ited the army to 20,000 men, supported by 10,000 policemen and 3,000 frontier guards. Nikola I, King of Montenegro Article 78 banned construction of new forti- fications in Bulgaria, while Article 81 pro- (1841–1921) hibited manufacture or importation of arms, munitions, and war mate´riel. Prince (1860–1910) and then king (1910– Part VII dealt with reparations. Article 1918) of Montenegro, Nikola Mirkov 121 stipulated reparation payments in the Petrovic´-Njegosˇ was born at Njegosˇ on amount that Bulgaria would be able to pay, October 7, 1841, the son of Duke Mirko $445 million—a realistic sum, especially as Petrovic´-Njegosˇ (1820–1867) and Anastasia it was subsequently reduced considerably Martinovic´ (1824–1894). He was educated in by the Reparation Commission. Trieste and Paris. When his uncle, Prince The Treaty of Neuilly went into effect on Danilo Petrovic´-Njegosˇ (1826–1860), was August 9, 1920, and Bulgaria joined the assassinated in 1860, Nikola became the rul- League of Nations on December 16, 1920. ing prince of Montenegro and embarked on The country remained bitterly divided a long process of modernizing his tiny, back- politically. The Macedonian question was ward principality. He introduced many particularly vexing and led to a succession administrative, legal, and educational reforms of governments in addition to costing Stam- and oversaw the construction of transporta- boliski his life in 1923. tion and communications systems. He granted Antoine Capet constitutional government in 1905 and sub- sequently declared himself king on August 28, See also: Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria (1894– 1910. Nikola married Milena Vukotic´ (1847– 1943); Bulgaria in World War I; Stamboliski, 1923) in 1860. Of their 12 children, five Aleksandu˘r (1879–1923) daughters and one son married into European Further Reading royal families, earning Nikola the sobriquet of Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. “the father-in-law of Europe.” The Treaties of Peace, 1919–1923.Vol.2, With the support of his friend, Czar Containing the Treaties of Neuilly and Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), Nikola North Atlantic Treaty Organization 205 proved an able military leader. Under his Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Black Moun- leadership, the Montenegrins repelled a tain: A History of Montenegro.Ithaca,NY: Turkish attack in 1862 and conducted a bril- Cornell University Press, 2007. liant campaign against the Turks during Treadway, John D. The Falcon and the Eagle: 1876–1877, thereby winning their indepen- Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908– 1914. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- dence from the Ottoman Empire while dou- sity Press, 1983, 1998. bling the size of their country. King Nikola also led Montenegro effectively in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and supported North Atlantic Treaty Serbia against the Central Powers in Organization World War I. The small but courageous Montenegrin army covered the retreat of the Serbian army through Albania in November– The North Atlantic Treaty Organization December 1915 but was forced to surrender (NATO) is a mutual defense alliance of to the Austro-Hungarians on January 17, nations from Europe and North America. 1916. King Nikola then went into exile in The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Italy. On November 26, 1918, he was deposed 1949 by Great Britain, France, Belgium, by the Montenegrin National Assembly, and the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the United Montenegro was annexed by Serbia, thus States, , Denmark, Iceland, Italy, becoming the only Allied state to lose its Norway, and Portugal. NATO was organized independence in World War I. to defend member nations from the possible King Nikola I transformed Montenegro aggression of the Soviet Union and the from a remote Balkan principality into a nations of Eastern Europe, which formed modern European state and led it effectively the Warsaw Treaty Organization six years in peace and war, only to lose his kingdom later. Originating as an anti-Communist alli- to the “Greater Serbia” ambitions of his son- ance during the Cold War, NATO has sought in-law, King (1844–1921), to redefine its role as East-West tensions and the rising tide of South Slav nationalism. have eased. He died in exile at Cap d’Antibes, France, NATO membership expanded in 1952 to on March 2, 1921 and was buried at San include Greece and Turkey. West Germany Remo, Italy. In 1989 his remains were entered in 1955, and Spain in 1982. U.S. reinterred at Cetinje. general Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890– Charles R. Shrader 1969) was appointed the first supreme allied commander in 1950. In addition to a system See also: Montenegro in the Balkan Wars; of collective defense, NATO members Montenegro in World War I pledged to work toward reaching agreement Further Reading with Warsaw Pact countries on equitable and verifiable arms reduction and to Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999.New cooperate within the alliance in economic, York: Viking, 2000. scientific, and cultural areas. Nikola I Petrovic´ Njegosˇ. Autobiografija; Differences between the U.S. government Memoari; Putopisi. Edited by Dimitrije and its European allies have sometimes Jovetic´ and Branko Bankevic´. Cetinje, caused problems for the alliance. U.S. arms Montenegro: ISRO Obod, 1988. were necessary at the end of World War II 206 North Atlantic Treaty Organization

when European economies were shattered, that the United States and Europe might and the United States assumed leadership decouple their defense strategies, but it did of the alliance. As the European nations not happen. Instead, the role of NATO recovered, however, some envisioned differ- expanded to permit “out-of-area” activity ent arrangements. In the 1960s, for example, (something that was not permitted during French president (1890– the Persian ). More responsi- 1970) resisted military integration, with- bility for such internal struggles as that in drawing French forces from NATO and Yugoslavia had also developed, though not demanding that all allied troops quit French in time to prevent that country’s slow soil. destruction. Europe and the United States have often As the countries of Eastern Europe broke approached the deployment of arms with away from the Soviet Union between 1989 different goals. In the 1970s, the U.S. and 1991, they experienced new security government requested that the European concerns and petitioned to join NATO. The members increase their defense spending. North Atlantic Cooperation Council was That request was well received but not car- established as a forum for dialogue between ried out due to economic recession and the those former foes. NATO leaders initially growing antinuclear movement in Europe. rejected military alliance as premature, TheU.S.governmentin1985askedfor endorsing instead a “political approach to European cooperation in the development of security.” By 1995, NATO policy required the space-based laser defense system planned that applicants demonstrate a commitment under the Strategic Defense Initiative. France to democracy and human rights, a free- refused outright, and the issue became a market economy, and democratic control of source of contention. In 1986, NATO defense the military. ministers endorsed the production of new The first countries to satisfy NATO’s chemical weapons by the United States, requirements were the Czech Republic, though a minority believed such a move Hungary, and Poland, which were admitted might undermine the Disarmament Confer- into the organization in March 1999. Five ence of 40 nations then at Geneva trying to years later, in April 2004, seven former negotiate a ban on such weapons. Communist states—Estonia, Latvia, Lithua- Disarmament too has been a matter need- nia, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, and ing careful consideration by the different Slovenia—joined the alliance. Russia also members.Oftennegotiatedbyleadersof has been admitted to the organization as a the United States and the Soviet Union, junior partner with limited power. European heads of state responsive to their The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is cur- own constituents have sometimes wanted to rently NATO’s highest civilian authority. proceed faster or slower on the issue of dis- Each nation has a permanent representative armament. Debates over whether to begin on the council, and those representatives with conventional or nuclear weapons have meet at least once a week. The council may also responded to different geographic also meet at the foreign minister or head of locations. state level. NAC decisions are made by With the 1989 demolition of the Berlin common consent rather than majority vote. Wall (once described as the “ultimate sym- The alliance includes an International bol for NATO’s existence”), many believed Secretariat composed of staff from all the Novi Pazar, Sanjak of 207 member nations. The secretary general Cornish, Paul. Partnership in Crisis: The U.S., heads the International Secretariat in addi- Europe and the Fall and Rise of NATO. tion to serving as head of the council, the London: Cassell, 1997. Defense Planning Committee, the Nuclear Kaplan, Lawrence S. The Long Entanglement: Planning Committee, and the Committee NATO’s First Fifty Years. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999. on the Challenges of Modern Society. NATO’s military structure is headed by the Military Committee, which consists of the Novi Pazar, Sanjak of chiefs of staff or their representatives from all member nations except France. The com- mittee is led by a chair, who is elected for a Novi Pazar was a sanjak (administrative dis- term of two to three years. The Military Com- trict that collectively composed a vilayet, or mittee makes recommendations on military province, of the Ottoman Empire after 1864) matters to the NAC and to the Defense Plan- that existed until 1913 and consisted of ning Committee. It also gives directions to territory in present-day Serbia, Kosovo, and the three NATO supreme commands: the Montenegro. The city of Novi Pazar was the NATO Allied Command, Europe, in Belgium; administrative seat of the sanjak of Novi Pazar. the NATO Allied Command, Atlantic, in Nor- In the Middle Ages, the region was part of folk, Virginia; and the NATO Allied Com- the Serbian state of Rasˇka, with its capital, mand, Channel, in Northwood, Britain. the city of Ras, located near the present-day As of this writing, NATO had a staff of city of Novi Pazar. The region later became about 1,200 at its headquarters in Brussels part of subsequent Serbian states until the and an international military staff of some Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the late 430. It is funded from the military budgets 1400s. During the centuries of Ottoman rule, of member nations. The amounts donated the Sanjak was a part of the vilayet of Bosnia are determined through the coordination of until 1878. From 1878 until 1913 and the military plans between NATO and the peace settlement after the First Balkan War, member nations. The official languages of Novi Pazar was part of the vilayet of Kosovo. the alliance are English and French. Following the Russo-Ottoman War of In April 2009, the 28 member states held 1877–1878, the Congress of Berlin of 1878 meetings on both sides of the Rhine in Kehl, allowed the Ottoman Empire to retain Germany, and Strasbourg, France, to com- territorial sovereignty of the district but memorate NATO’s 60th anniversary. At the authorized Austria-Hungary to establish mili- summit, French president Nicolas Sarkozy tary garrisons in the district where they (1955–) announced that France would be remained until 1909. At the start of the First rejoining NATO as a full member, 43 years Balkan War in October 1912, Serbian and after President de Gaulle withdrew the coun- Montenegrin troops occupied the Sanjak, and try from the alliance’s military command. Serbia and Montenegro divided the territory Richard C. Hall as part of the Treaty of London, concluded in May 1913. Over the ensuing decades, Further Reading many Bosnian and Albanian inhabitants of Coffey, Joseph I. The Future Role of NATO. the sanjak immigrated to Turkey where they Reissue. New York: Foreign Policy Associ- established a number of colonies. Over time, ation, 1997. many of the Sanjak Bosnians married Turks. 208 Novi Pazar, Sanjak of

During World War I, Austria-Hungary See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; occupied the sanjak. After 1918, the sanjak Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which, in 1929, Further Reading became the . During Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of 1914. London: Oxford University Press, World War II, the Italians occupied most of 1952. the region as part of Montenegro, although Langer, William L. European Alliances and the city of Novi Pazar became part of Alignments, 1871–1890. New York: Knopf, German-occupied Serbia. After Septem- 1950. ber 1943, the Germans occupied the sanjak. Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- In 1945, Serbia and Montenegro, now tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern socialist republics of postwar Yugoslavia, Turkey. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- again divided the Sanjak, according to the versity Press, 1976–1977. 1913 division. As of this writing, the region Singleton, Fred Bernard. A Short History of the remained divided between the independent Yugoslav Peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. University Press, 1985. Robert B. Kane O

Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901) him a wildly unpopular figure there. In 1886, Milan and his wife, Queen Natalija Milan Obrenovic´ (ruled as King Milan II) (1859–1941), announced their separation was a Serbian leader and monarch. He was after years of rumors concerning the king’s born in Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Moldavia, on August 22, infidelity. The development outraged many 1854, into the ruling Serbian royal family. Serbs, and in January 1889, the king prom- In 1868, while just 14 years old, he suc- ulgated a new, liberal constitution in hopes ceeded to the throne as Prince Milan under of regaining his popularity. On March 6, a three-man regency. Four years later, upon 1889, Milan suddenly abdicated for reasons reaching the age of majority, he took the that are not entirely clear. reins of government and began a pro- This move made Milan’s young son, nounced tilt toward the Austro-Hungarian Alexander (1876–1903), king. Milan, mean- Empire. Although he was a keenly intelli- while, went into exile in Paris as a private gent and well-informed leader, Milan’s citizen. In 1892, he renounced his Serbian obstinacy and insistence on catering to the nationality in hopes that the move would Austrians ultimately proved highly problem- increase support for Alexander’s leadership. atic. As he attempted to modernize Serbia In 1893, Alexander took complete control of and take advantage of its natural resources, the Serbian government and invited his father his government increased taxes, which did to return to Serbia, which he did in Janu- not sit well with many Serbs. And his hesi- ary 1894. Milan now became Alexander’s tancy to support his kingdom’s pan-Slavism principal adviser and confidante, but the or rebellions against the Ottomans made his return to Serbia of Alexander’s exiled mother, rule increasingly unpopular. His military Natalija, in the spring of 1895 forced Milan to loss to the Ottomans in 1876 only com- again leave Serbia. pounded his problems. However, his suc- In 1897, Milan again returned to his home- cessful bid to achieve full independence for land, and Alexander promptly appointed him Serbia at the end of the 1877–1878 Russo- commander in chief of Serbia’s army, a posi- Ottoman War burnished his image, at least tion in which Milan particularly excelled. In for a time. 1899, Milan was the target of a failed assassi- In 1882, Milan was officially crowned nation attempt, which had in part been driven King Milan II. Serbia’s loss in its war by growing frustration with Alexander’s against rival Bulgaria in 1886 added to his increasingly heavy-handed rule. Milan’s here- political woes, however, as did his continued tofore good relationship with his son quickly tilt toward Austria-Hungary, which was not evaporated, however, when Alexander supported by a majority of Serbian political announced his plan to marry Draga Masˇin leaders. In 1883, Milan quashed a major (1864–1903), a union to which Milan was bit- peasant revolt in eastern Serbia, making terly opposed. Milan left Serbia in 1900,

209 210 Obrenovic´, Milosˇ

this time permanently, and finally settled in Obrenovic´’s autocratic rule met with Vienna, where he died suddenly on Febru- much domestic opposition. Tiring of contin- ary 11, 1901. ual revolts, he abdicated on June 15, 1839, Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr. in favor of his son Milan, who soon died. Afterward, Milosˇ’s son Mihailo (1823– See also: Obrenovic´,Milosˇ (1780–1860); 1868) ruled until his deposition in 1842. Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812; Russo- Ottoman War, 1828–1829; Russo-Ottoman The son of Karageorge, Alexander Kara- War, 1877–1878 georgevic´ (1806–1885) then became the prince of Serbia. Meanwhile, Milosˇ lived in Further Reading the Habsburg Empire and the Romanian Cox, John K. The History of Serbia. Westport, principalities. When Alexander Karageor- CT: Greenwood Press, 2002. gevic´ was deposed as prince of Serbia Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Serbia: The History in 1858, Milosˇ Obrenovic´ returned from behind the Name. London: C. Hurst & Co. abroad on December 23, 1858, to rule Publishers, 2002. again as prince of Serbia. He died on Sep- tember 26, 1860, in Belgrade. Although he Obrenovic´, Milosˇ (1780–1860) had an autocratic and irascible personality, Milosˇ Obrenovic´ deserves great credit as Milosˇ Obrenovic´ was a leader of the Serbian the founder of the Serbian state. war of independence against Ottoman rule Richard C. Hall and was the first head of an autonomous Ser- See also: Karageorge (George Petrovic´; 1768– bian state since the fifteenth century. Obre- 1818); Serbian War of Independence, 1804– novic´ was born on March 18, 1780, in the 1817 village of Gronja Dobrinja in western Ser- bia, then under Ottoman authority. His birth Further Reading name was Teodorovic´. He later adopted the Judah, Tim. The Serbs: History, Myth and the patronymic of his half-brother. He partici- Destruction of Yugoslavia.NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997. pated in the first Serbian uprising during 1804–1813. He then led the second Serbian Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern Serbia 1804–1918.Vol.1.NewYork: revolt in 1815. Under an agreement with Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. the Ottomans that same year, Serbia gained Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New some autonomy but remained under Otto- York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. man rule. Obrenovic´ regarded the leader of the first Serbian revolt, George Petrovic´ Kar- ageorge (1768–1818) as a rival, and after Odessa, Siege of, 1941 Karageorge’s return to Serbia, in 1817, had him murdered and his head sent to the Otto- The siege of Odessa, which lasted from man sultan. This began a century of compe- August 10 to October 16, 1941, was one of tition and feuding between the two Serbian the most substantial military campaigns for families. Agreements with the Ottoman the Romanian army against the Soviet sultan in 1830 and 1833 recognized Obre- Union in World War II. Odessa was the novic´ as the hereditary prince of Serbia main Black Sea port and a major communi- with a defined autonomous territory. cation hub of the Soviet Union. When the Odessa, Siege of, 1941 211

Germans asked the Romanian forces to con- of which 17,729 were killed, 63,345 were duct this largely independent action at wounded, and 11,471 were missing in Odessa, at first the Romanian Fourth Army action. By the end of the siege, the losses attempted to seize the city by direct assault. were greater than the combined losses of But the initial assault failed, the battle the Romanian armies in fighting for their turned into a siege, and it took Romanian own lands, and the siege turned out to be forces four separate attempts to finally take the bloodiest to date among various sieges the city. The siege of Odessa became an of World War II. Comparatively, the Soviet example of positional warfare that was rem- side reported slightly over 41,000 casualties, iniscent of the tactics of World War I, and and the Soviet navy managed to evacuate the victory came at a huge cost to the 350,000 soldiers and civilians from the city. Romanians. The siege raised domestic concerns over The Romanian participation was a result Romanian participation in Eastern Front of Romania’s troubled relationship with the campaigns, partially because the lost territo- neighboring countries in prior years. Roma- ries had already been regained and partially nia declared neutrality at the onset of because Romanian losses seemed to be World War II, but the country’s position much greater than those sustained by their quickly deteriorated. Hungary, Bulgaria, neighbors like Hungary. Antonescu could and the Soviet Union demanded the return no longer claim that this was a war of liber- of territories that Romania seized from ation for Romanians. The Soviets, on the them during the Russian Revolution. Having other hand, greatly exaggerated their ability no reliable allies, Romania was forced to to resist and fight with determination and surrender a third of its territory. Fearing fur- used the battle for Odessa as part of its ther losses and humiliating concessions, it wider propaganda campaign. The female chose to align itself with Hitler’s Germany. Soviet sniper Vera Pavlichenko became a The loss of strategic position also led to the widely publicized hero with 180 kills at abdication of King Carol II (1893–1953) Odessa, and the city later became one of 15 and the eventual establishment of General places to be awarded a “Hero City” status Antonescu’s (1882–1946) dictatorship. by the Soviet government for its fierce resis- When Hitler informed the Romanian dicta- tance to the “adversary forces.” tor on June 11, 1941, of its plans to invade Following its occupation in October 1941, the Soviet Union, Antonescu offered his Odessa became the capital of the Romanian support for the campaign. The Romanian Transnistria Governorate during World War hopes were to regain Bessarabia and II and witnessed numerous massacres, includ- northern Bukovina, previously lost to the ing the infamous . But Soviet Union in 1940. some historians argue that the conditions of The siege of Odessa resulted in a nominal the local population improved in two sub- victory for the Romanian forces when the sequent years, until the occupation of Odessa Soviet forces evacuated the city on Octo- was abandoned in the spring of 1944. ber 16, 1941. The Romanian losses, how- Irina Mukhina ever, were staggering. The Romanian See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Carol forces had almost 100,000 casualties, and II, King of Romania (1893–1953); Romania some divisions lost almost 80 percent of in World War II their men; 340,223 were initially deployed, 212 Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations in the Balkans and Crete

Further Reading aggression or internal insurrection. Except Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Christian for Romania, all of the newly independent Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- Balkan nations had significant national nian Armed Forces in the European War, minorities left within the Ottoman provinces 1939–1945. London: Arms and Armour, and irredentist plans were quickly hatched to 1995. create larger Christian states by swallowing Dallin, Alexander. Odessa, 1941–1944: A large portions of Ottoman territory. Abdul- Case Study of Soviet Territory under For- hamid (1842–1918) and his advisers were eign Rule. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. unable to create an effective and viable strat- egy to deal with this second wave of separa- Filipescu, Mihai T. The Reluctant Axis: The Romanian Army in Russia, 1941–1944. tism. The counterinsurgency campaigns Privately published, 2006. against separatist nationalist movements Stahel, David. Kiev 1941: Hitler’s Battle were left entirely in the hands of regiment- for Supremacy in the East. Cambridge: and battalion-level junior officers, who Cambridge University Press, 2012. were on their own without any clear orders and without the cooperation of other government agencies. Ottoman Counterinsurgency Beginning in 1841, turmoil began in Crete Operations in the Balkans with the arrival of instigators from Greece. and Crete An Ottoman expeditionary force under the command of Mustafa Naili Pasha (1798– From its foundation back in the fourteenth 1871), a native Cretan, suppressed the rebel- century, the Ottoman military had been lion. The negotiation process and further tasked to provide internal security and pub- Ottoman reforms did not satisfy the Greek lic order. The establishment of the Zabtiye nationalists, and a well-organized rebellion (later Jandarma []) organization broke out in 1866. This time the insurgents modeled after Prussian and French examples were well organized and able to mobilize in 1840 did lessen the burden on the military 12,000 personnel. The veteran I˙smail Pasha by taking over ordinary law enforcement (1830–1895) was assigned once again as duties. The breaking away of an indepen- the governor and the commander of an dent Greece in 1829 started a process that expeditionary force of 45,000 men. The the Ottoman administration had little under- insurgency continued on for nearly four standing of or the means to counter. The years and terminated only after the success- Ottoman administration saw the threat from ful application of counterinsurgency tactics a traditional perspective and employed tradi- and techniques combined with what might tional methods such as negotiation with tra- be called today Mustafa Naili Pasha’s ditional local leaders, trying to crush “hearts and minds” campaign. However, rebellions with military power only. low-level insurgency continued on nonstop After the success of the first wave of sep- on the island, with periodic large-scale aratist nationalism, the empire had to face a rebellions in 1878, 1888, and 1896. second wave. The Berlin Peace Treaty recast In comparison to Crete where there was the Ottoman Balkan possessions in such only one insurgency group, which was rela- a way that it was not militarily feasible tively easy to isolate, the Ottoman Balkans, to defend them against either foreign especially Macedonia, were most difficult Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations in the Balkans and Crete 213 to control and govern. There were four states armed wing structure. So most often, village and four major insurgent nationalist organi- notables, teachers, and clergy belonged to zations that were vying for portions of it. the political front, whereas youngsters Additionally, the population was far more indoctrinated by them were guerrilla fight- cosmopolitan and settlements more mixed. ers. Of course, not all the Komitacı organi- At the same time, the irredentist desires of zations were on an equal footing. The all four states overlapped each other so much IMRO was the most modern and complex that most often the insurgent organizations organization, whereas the Greek ones were were fighting each other as they were fighting more traditional and less sophisticated. against the Ottoman military. The introduc- The Ottoman officers had to learn how to tion of Italian anarchism and Russian nihilism conduct counterinsurgency operations further radicalized the separatist nationalist against these guerrilla organizations by groups. The Macedonian insurgent organiza- themselves under very adverse conditions. tion especially, which carried the title of Most of the academy-graduated officers “Inner Macedonian Revolutionary Organiza- had to spend several rotations and some- tion” (IMRO, or VMRO), managed to blend times whole careers in Macedonia fighting militant nationalist ideology with insurgency against these ideologically motivated, well- tactics and techniques so effectively that it equipped, and well-led guerrilla organiza- could be called the first modern guerrilla tions on their own. Their main problem was organization. the lack of government support as well as a The Komitacıs waged relentless terror lack of doctrinal tactics to combat these campaigns including murder, robbery, extor- unconventional fighters. The administration tion, kidnapping, and occasionally massacre was more than happy to leave everything to not only against the state and its function- the officers on the scene without providing aries but also against Muslim and Christian substantial support unless the situation populations as well, and sometimes even became completely unmanageable. This against their own supporters. For them, ter- was also true for the wider Ottoman public rorism and employing all sorts of violence in that ordinary citizens paid limited atten- was a proper tool to gain the support of the tion to the problem even in neighboring population and most importantly to capture provinces like Salonika. In a relatively European attention and encourage the inter- short time, they understood the importance vention of the Great Powers. Komitacıs, as of support by the population and made use the first modern guerrillas, made effective of not only the potential of the Muslim pop- use of the military potential of the civilian ulation, but also the different Christian population. The population provided them groups against each other. For example, with sanctuary, food, intelligence, funding, Greeks were valuable allies in predomi- and recruits. The Komitacıs had support nantly Macedonian or Bulgarian regions, bases in neighboring Christian countries whereas Bulgarians were Ottoman allies in and most often had the direct support of the Greek-dominated areas. host country’s armed forces in terms of Thanks to the administration’s efforts to expertise, weapons, and sometimes person- isolate conflict zones from the wider public nel. Their organizational structures com- and because of its distancing itself from bined the Italian Carbonari cell system with insurgency-related problems, the officer the Russian nihilist dual political front and corps, in a unique blend of initiative, gained 214 Ottoman Empire

control of the conflict zones. Consequently, Ottoman Empire itself emerged in the various tactics and techniques were invented, fifteenth century, when the Ottomans and more or less an unofficial but widely conquered the eastern territories of the accepted uniform counterinsurgency doctrine . It then expanded to take was in use after the 1890s. These unofficial in Byzantine lands in western Turkey and counterinsurgency strategies, tactics, and southeastern Europe. techniques eventually paid off, and most of Unlike most imperial powers, the the Komitacı groups were crushed and lost Ottoman Empire was ruled by one family ground after the failed Ilinden rebellion for seven centuries. Osman I was the first (August 2–September 8, 1903). As can be of over 30 members of the expected, this rare blend of freedom and con- to reign. Ottoman rule spanned the thir- flict affected the political understanding and teenth to twentieth centuries, and the consciousness of the Mektebli officers. The dynasty showed tremendous resiliency over Mekteblis saw themselves as the new elite of the course of those centuries; it achieved the empire, and they felt responsible to act in vast expansion and never succumbed to for- its interest. The constant conflict created eign domination or internal threats. channels of information between combatants. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered Con- The militant nationalism of the guerrillas, the stantinople, the capital of the Byzantine continuous flow of political thoughts, and Empire. The previously impenetrable their way of propaganda and organization Byzantine Empire had become increasingly greatly inspired the officers. And in the end, weak as the aggressive Mongols repeatedly they applied what they had learned. attacked it. Additionally, the Byzantines Mesut Uyar lacked the kind of powerful dynastic family the Ottomans enjoyed, and consequently, See also: Bulgarian Horrors, 1876; Ilinden the capital fell fairly easily to the Turks. Uprising, 1903; Macedonia Led by Mehmet II, the Ottomans renamed Further Reading Constantinople to Istanbul, and then they Adanır, Fikret. Die Makedonische Frage: Ihre worked to rebuild the devastated city. Entstehung und Entwicklung bis 1908. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of Wiesbaden: Steiner Verlag, 1979. power, wealth, and influence under the Perry, Duncan M. The Politics of Terror: The reign of Sultan Suleiman I. Suleiman Macedonian Liberation Movements, 1893– reigned from 1520 to 1566, and under his 1903. Durham, NC: Duke University leadership, the empire became the most Press, 1988. powerful force in the world. Known for his S¸enıs¸ık, Pınar. The Transformation of Ottoman military prowess, he doubled the size of the Crete: Revolts, Politics and Identity in the empire and oversaw its expansion through- Late Nineteenth Century. London: I. B. out the Balkans and Hungary and as far Tauris, 2011. west as Vienna. He also oversaw an increase in the educational system, the development Ottoman Empire of the empire’s infrastructure, and the domi- nance of Islam throughout the empire. The The Ottoman dynasty was first established period of Suleiman’s reign is commonly in the thirteenth century in Central Asia in seen as a renaissance of Ottoman culture what is today the nation of Turkey. The and society. However, that period of Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars 215 expansion and rejuvenation ended with his Empire was disbanded, and in 1923, Turkey death in 1566. became a republic. What remains of the Four years after Suleiman’s death, his Ottoman Empire, however, is incredible successor, Selim II, invaded the island of architecture, particularly mosques; the Cyprus, sacked the capital of Nicosia, and prevalence of Islam throughout Asia and slaughtered 30,000 Cypriots. European central and Eastern Europe; and a legacy of powers, long worried about the increasing ethnic and religious conflict throughout the aggressiveness of the Ottomans, were areas that were formerly part of the empire. alarmed and frightened by that massacre Maeve Cowan and resolved to bring the Ottoman Empire’s See also: Ottoman Counterinsurgency Opera- expansion under control. They found some tions in the Balkans and Crete; Ottoman success in that pursuit, primarily in the Empire in the Balkan Wars; Ottoman Empire 1571 , which dealt a devas- in World War I tating blow to Ottoman naval power. However, the empire persisted for another Further Reading three and a half centuries, albeit with less Ghazarian, Vatche, ed. Armenians in the Otto- prestige and strength. The Ottomans became man Empire: An Anthology of Transforma- known as ruthless and often cruel conquer- tion, 13th–19th Centuries. Waltham, MA: ors. They imposed crippling taxation on Mayreni Publishing, 1998. those they conquered. In Greece, they took Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A His- male children to work for the dynastic fam- tory of the Ottoman Empire. New York: H. Holt, 1999. ily and young girls to work in the sultan’s harem. Those and other misdeeds led to Inalcik, Halil, ed. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire: 1300– rebellions throughout the empire. During 1914. New York: Cambridge University the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Press, 1994. especially, opposition to Ottoman rule spread throughout the empire, and along with poor administration, it contributed to a Ottoman Empire in the Balkan fundamental weakening of the control held Wars by the Turks throughout the lands they had appropriated. In the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, a Perhaps the darkest period of the Ottoman loose coalition of the Balkan Christian Empire occurred from 1890 to 1915, when states—Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and the Turks slaughtered more than 1 million Serbia—fought against the Ottoman Empire Armenians in what came to be known as with the objective of eliminating the five- the . Unlike the slaugh- century-long Ottoman rule in southeastern ter of the Jews during the Holocaust several Europe and replacing it with nationalist decades later, the Armenian Genocide went states. In the Second Balkan War of 1913, largely unnoticed and unremembered. The the Ottomans were able to recover a small Turkishgovernmenthascontinuedtodeny portion of the territory they lost in the First that it occurred at all. Balkan War. World War I completed the destruction of Since the end of the seventeenth century, the Ottoman Empire. After Turkey fought the predations of Austria and Russia had on the losing side of that war, the Ottoman weakened Ottoman rule in southeastern 216 Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars

Ottoman soldiers at Salonika, 1912–1913. The Balkan Wars pitted Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia against the Ottoman Empire in 1912, and then against each other in 1913. (Library of Congress)

Europe. The importation of the ideas of fore one of the few remaining pillars of sup- western European nationalism into port for Ottoman rule in the Balkans, revolted southeastern Europe at the end of the eigh- against the Young Turk reforms. Then on teenth century and the beginning of the September 29, 1911, the Italians declared nineteenth century further undermined war with the intention of taking Ottoman Ottoman control of this region. The Otto- North Africa. Finally, in the fall of 1911, the man government in Constantinople failed Bulgarians and the Serbs began talks in to meet these challenges effectively during order to form an anti-Ottoman alliance. the nineteenth century. During the summer The Bulgarians and Serbs signed their of 1908, however, a group of reformers agreement on March 13, 1912. During the from the Committee for Union and Progress, spring and summer of 1912, Greece and known as the Young Turks, seized control of Montenegro joined the anti-Ottoman coali- the Ottoman Empire. They immediately tion. This surrounded Ottoman territories in announced a program of civil and military southeastern Europe with hostile forces. reforms intended to maintain the integrity Ironically, by this time, the Young Turk of the empire. The possibility of viable re- government had fallen in Constantinople. form in the Ottoman Empire caused alarm As the threat of war in the Balkans loomed, among those who maintained designs on its the Ottoman government rushed to end territories. On October 7, 1908, the Austro- the war with Italy, signing the Treaty of Hungarians announced the formal annexa- Ouchy on October 15, 1912. By then, fight- tion of Bosnia-Herzegovina, an Ottoman ing in the Balkans had already begun. On territory they had occupied since 1878. In October 8, the tiny kingdom of Montenegro the spring of 1910, the Albanians, hitherto initiated hostilities. Ten days later, the Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars 217

Ottomans declared war on Montenegro’s It had the impossible task of defending three Balkan allies. Albania, Kosovo, and Macedonia against At the onset of the war, the Ottoman the combined armies of Greece, Monte- forces were in a poor strategic position. negro, and Serbia. ManyOttomansoldiersremainedinNorth At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans Africa awaiting repatriation after the Italian initiated an offensive in Thrace. They hoped War. Others were in remote Yemen fighting to pin the Bulgarians against their main an interminable insurgency. position in Thrace, the fortress city of Adri- (1848–1913) had overall command of the anople (Edirne, Odrin). They soon found Ottoman forces. The largest group of the themselves in retreat. The Ottoman concen- Ottoman army in Europe was the Eastern tration of forces around their other Thracian (Thracian) army, which consisted of four fortress at Kirkkilise (Lozengrad) failed to corps under the command of Ferik Abdullah stop the Bulgarian advance. While the Bul- Pasha (1846–1937). It faced the Bulgarian garian Second Army surrounded Adriano- army, the largest in the Balkan alliance. ple, the Bulgarian First and Third Armies The Western (Vardar) army had three corps. pursued the retreating Ottomans and 218 Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars

inflicted another defeat on the Ottomans signed on December 3. Negotiations for along a line from Lu¨le Burgaz to Pinarhisar peace then shifted to London. Nazim (Lyule Burgas to Buni Hisar) in central Pasha, the Ottoman commander, was the Thrace on October 29–30. The Ottomans chief Ottoman delegate at the London retreated in disarray to the C¸ atalca lines. Peace talks. This was the final Ottoman defensive At London on January 1, 1913, the position before Constantinople. There on Ottomans proposed terms for peace. They November 17–18, the Bulgarians attacked. accepted the loss of all their European pos- The Ottoman army, with some assistance sessions west of the vilayet (province) of from the Ottoman navy firing at the Bulgar- Adrianople (Thrace), but they refused to ians from the Sea of Marmara and the concede Thrace or the Aegean islands. Black Sea, rallied to hold the C¸ atalca lines. Although this was a reasonable offer, neither This was the first Ottoman victory in the the Bulgarians nor the Greeks accepted it. Balkan Wars. To some degree, it restored The Bulgarians wanted Adrianople, and the Ottoman confidence. Greeks wanted the islands. The talks stalled. Meanwhile in the Western Theater, the On January 22, the Young Turks, led by Vardar Army, led by Zeki Pasha (1862– Enver Bey (1881–1922), again seized 1943), suffered a series of defeats against power in Constantinople. Upon their take- the Greeks and Serbs. The bulk of the over, they shot the failed Ottoman com- Ottoman forces rushed into northern mander Nazim Pasha. The Young Turks Macedonia to meet the oncoming Serbs. opposed the surrender of Adrianople. In an They suffered a rout at Kumanovo on Octo- effort to end the war, however, they offered ber 23. The Serbs then pushed them further to cede the part of the city on the right south after engagements at Prilep and Bitola. bank of the Maritsa River and conceded the At the same time, the Greek army advanced disposition of the Aegean Islands to the to Salonika, entering the city on November 7, Great Powers. The Bulgarians unwisely a day ahead of the Bulgarians. The Ottoman- rejected this offer. Because of the stale- fortified towns of Janina in southern Albania mate in London, the armistice ended on and Scutari in northern Albania defied the January 30, 1913. Greek and Montenegrin armies, respectively, The Ottomans renewed their military undoubtedly with the support of most of efforts with a well-conceived but poorly their populations. executed attempt to relieve Adrianople. On After the defeat of both of its European February 7, the army launched an attack armies, the Ottoman government requested from Bulair, the Ottoman position at an armistice on November 12. The Bulgar- Gallipoli, coordinated with a landing at ians agreed only after the failure of their Sharkoi on the Sea of Marmara. This offen- assault on the C¸ atalca positions. When the sive was intended to catch the Bulgarians talks began at C¸ atalca on November 26, by surprise. These simultaneous attacks Ottoman control of Europe was limited to failed. Nevertheless, they demonstrated that the three besieged fortresses of Adrianople, the Ottoman forces had regained a certain Janina, and Scutari; the Gallipoli Peninsula; degree of self-confidence after the disasters and the territory behind the C¸ atalca lines. of the previous autumn. Ultimately the Remnants of the Vardar Army also remained Young Turks’ attempts to reinvigorate the active in central Albania. The armistice was Ottoman war effort did not succeed. Janina Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars 219 surrendered to the Greeks on March 6, crossed the prewar Bulgarian frontier. Due Adrianople fell to the Bulgarians on to fears of Great Power intervention, how- March 26, and Scutari opened to the Monte- ever, they did not proceed far into Bulgaria. negrins on April 24. With the Treaty of Constantinople, signed Their efforts during the renewed fighting between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire had exhausted the Ottomans. On April 7, on September 30, 1913, the Ottomans recov- 1913, even before the fall of Scutari, they ered most of Thrace, including Adrianople. proposed a resumption of the armistice. TheTreatyofAthens,signedonNovem- The Bulgarians and Ottomans renewed the ber 14, ended the war with Greece. Finally, armistice at C¸ atalca on April 15. The other the Ottomans and Serbs confirmed the Balkan allies were not involved. Treaty of London with the Treaty of Con- Peace negotiations then resumed in Lon- stantinople, signed on March 14, 1914. don. The Ottomans signed the Treaty of The Balkan Wars were a disaster for the London on May 30, 1913. With this treaty, Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans lost exten- they ceded all of their European possessions sive European territories including the west of a straight line from Enez (Enos) on Aegean Islands, Albania, Crete, Kosovo, the Aegean Sea to Midye (Midia) on the and Macedonia. In the First Balkan War, Black Sea. They also surrendered claims to the Ottomans sustained 340,000 casualties, Crete and the Aegean Islands except for including at least 50,000 dead. In the Second Tendos and Imbros, which the Ottomans Balkan War, the army had no combat casu- retained to defend the Straits. Over alties, but some 4,000 soldiers died of dis- 500 years of Ottoman rule in Europe had ease. The number of pro-Ottoman civilians apparently come to an end. living in Europe, mainly Muslims, who The Balkan alliance soon collapsed died in the Balkan Wars is unknown, but because of a dispute between Bulgaria on must be significant. one hand, and Greece and Serbia on the Nevertheless, the Balkan Wars did have other, over the division of Macedonia. Fight- some positive consequences for the Ottoman ing erupted on the night of 29-30 June 29– Empire. The experiences and losses of the 30 when the Bulgarian army attacked Balkan Wars provided the Ottoman army Greek and Serbian positions in Macedonia. with knowledge that led to some success in With the Bulgarian army heavily engaged World War I. They also provided a basis for throughout Macedonia, the Young Turk the establishment of a new political entity government in Constantinople seized the based upon a Turkish identity in place of an opportunity to recover some of the territory Ottoman identity in southeastern Europe surrendered in London. It especially wanted and Anatolia. Adrianople, the first Ottoman capital in Richard C. Hall Europe. On July 12, Enver (now Pasha) See also: Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913; ordered the C¸ atalca Army and the Gallipoli Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Army to advance toward the Enez-Midye Second, 1913; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, line. On July 22, the combined armies Causes; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Conse- entered Adrianople, encountering no quences; Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912; Con- opposition. The small Bulgarian garrison stantinople, Treaty of, 1913; Janina, Siege of, had evacuated the previous day. Some Otto- 1912–1913; Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912; man units moved further west and briefly London, Treaty of, 1913; Lyule Burgas–Buni 220 Ottoman Empire in World War I

Hisar, Battle of, 1912; Scutari, Siege of, 1912– brigadier generals were often found in 1913 charge of corps and commanded divisions, a situation that frequently caused Further Reading problems over the course of the war. Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The Following decades of German military Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. assistance, Turkey’s army in 1914 was closely modeled after that of Germany, Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– 1913: Prelude to the First World War. with a General Staff as core organization London: Routledge, 2000. and pool for highly trained general officers. Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- The recruitment system, mobilization proce- tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern dures, and order of battle also copied the Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Revolution and German model. On the other hand, Turkey Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, was largely lacking the material prerequi- 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge sites for fighting a modern war. As the least University Press, 1977. industrialized European power, Turkey could not provide its army with modern armaments in sizable quantities and entered Ottoman Empire in World War I the war desperately short of field guns, machine guns, and ammunition. Turkish In terms of troop strength, the Ottoman supply and medical services were woefully Empire (Turkey) did not rank among the inadequate, and motorcars and aircraft were major belligerents of World War I. It mobi- almost completely absent. The Ottoman lized about 2.8 million men, even fewer road and railroad network was pitiful, and than the United States. In relation to its pre- moving a division from Thrace to the East war population of 22 million, however, Tur- could take months. key raised more men than Russia, and its Considering these shortcomings, the recruitment ratio of about 13 percent ranked fighting performance of the Turkish soldier sixth among the major participating nations was truly astonishing. Poorly clad and of the war. The sheer size of the Ottoman ill-fed, Turkish soldiers for the most part Empire, extending as it did from Thrace to endured terrible hardships, marched enor- the Persian Gulf and from Caucasia to the mous distances, and fought in the most hos- Suez Canal, ensured it an important role in tile environments. Turning the Turkish the war. Turkey fought on five fronts and soldier from his defensive positions required sent troops to three more to aid its allies. massive material and manpower superiority. The Ottoman Empire entered the war with Significantly, even in defeat, the Ottoman an army that had been badly mauled in the army never experienced large-scale mutinies Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Eight of its 36 among the rank and file. Desertion, however, peacetime divisions were undergoing major became an increasing problem late in reorganization in 1914, and 14 were being the war. rebuilt from scratch after having been In 1914, Turkey mobilized 40 regular largely destroyed. Moreover, a purge con- army divisions that initially formed 13 ducted in 1913–1914 rid the army of 1,300 corps, grouped into four field armies. Corps older officers who were considered to be a were composed of three infantry divisions, liability; however, as a result, in 1914, one artillery regiment, and one cavalry OttomanEmpireinWorldWarI 221 regiment; divisions had three infantry regi- success, it was badly mauled by a Russian ments and one artillery regiment. In addi- counteroffensive. Rebuilt in the spring of tion, there were regular and irregular 1915, it was almost destroyed in the Russian cavalry regiments partially formed into offensive early in 1916. Later in (reserve) cavalry divisions. There was also the same year, the Second Army, composed the 40,000-strong Jandarma, a paramilitary almost entirely of Gallipoli veterans, was police force that formed mobile regiments. nearly destroyed in an offensive farther Designated for rear-area duties, it occasion- south in the Caucasus. After that, the war in ally served in the front line. the East ground to a halt. In 1918, however, The authorized Turkish army organiza- after the Russian Revolution had resulted in tion increasingly came apart during the war a withdrawal from Caucasia, the Third when new field armies were added, fought- Army went over to the offensive and pen- out divisions were replaced, depleted forma- etrateddeepintoArmeniaandAzerbaijan tions were consolidated, and ad hoc detach- in an effort to incite a “Pan-Turanic” nation- ments were created. In November 1918, alist movement in central Asia. eight field armies commanded a force of In European Turkey, the First and Fifth only 25 divisions, almost none of which Armies under the able leadership of German had been active in 1914. general Otto Liman von Sanders (1855– While the only war plan available in 1914 1929) turned back the Entente Gallipoli called for a cordon-style defense of the landing with heavy losses in 1915. There- empire and deployed more than half of the after, however, these two veteran armies army around Constantinople, in fact Turkey were abused as a readily available man- began offensive operations almost from the power reserve for other fronts. When the outset. This was in part to fulfill its obliga- Allies broke out from Salonika in 1918, tions to its allies and in part to regain there was nothing left to prevent them from territory lost in recent wars. Minister of entering Constantinople. War Enver Pasha, however, frequently In Palestine, a coup de main aimed at implemented ever more fantastic offensive seizing the Suez Canal in 1914 proved abor- schemes that were beyond the operational tive. Afterward, the Sinai-Palestinian Front capabilities of the army and necessitated evolved into a state of protracted, indecisive permanent redeployments, which further warfare, aggravated by the rising Arab wore down the troops. In order to underpin Revolt. During 1916–1917, a British buildup Turkey’s standing as a major European in this theater progressed, and in 1918, the power, Enver even sent sizable reinforce- German-Turkish Yıldırım (thunderbolt) ments to its European allies that fought army group finally collapsed under repeated with distinction in Romania, Galicia, and attacks, and British forces seized Jerusalem Macedonia. and Damascus. While the potentially most dangerous In Mesopotamia (Iraq), an Anglo-Indian front for Turkey in any war was Thrace, invasion resulted in Turkish triumph in where the frontier was less than 180 miles April 1916 when Major General Charles from the national capital, its major military Townshend (1861–1924) surrendered an effort was in Caucasia. Here, the ill- entire division to the Ottoman Sixth Army equipped Third Army engaged in a winter at Kut. Thereafter, this theater of war offensive in late 1914. After some initial remained more or less quiet until the British 222 Ottoman Empire in World War I

renewed their advance in 1918. Several Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History Turkish invasions of Persia secured a tempo- of the Ottoman Army in the First World rary foothold in this virtual strategic vacuum War. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000. but on the whole proved insignificant. On October 30, 1918, the Ottoman Fewster, Kevin, Hatice Basarin, and Vesihi Basarin. Gallipoli: The Turkish Story. Lon- Empire signed an armistice with the Entente don: Allen and Unwin, 2004. on board the British battleship Agamemnon Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern off the island of Mudros, ending Turkey’s Turkey. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford Univer- participation in the war. According to recent sity Press, 2002. estimates, Turkey lost 770,000 dead and Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- 760,000 wounded in the war, each an aston- tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern ishing 27 percent of the mobilized total, and Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Revolution, and about 145,000 captured. Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, Dierk Walter 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. See also: Gallipoli, 1915; Kemal, Mustafa Turfan, M. Naim. The Rise of the Young Turks: (1881–1938) Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse. New York: Tauris, 2000. Further Reading Emin, Ahmed. Turkey in the World War.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1930. P

Papandreou, George Securing a narrow victory in the elections (1888–1968) of November 1963 over ’s National Radical Union, Greek politician and prime minister (1944, Papandreou was appointed prime minister 1963, 1964–1967) George Papandreou was but immediately resigned in an attempt to born in Kalentzi, Achaia, Greece, on Febru- achieve an absolute majority in the elections ary 13, 1888. He graduated from the Law of February 1964. He won these elections Faculty of the University of Athens in 1911 with an unprecedented 53 percent of the and briefly pursued postgraduate studies in vote and was appointed prime minister. Germany. He became one of the closest In 1965, he managed to survive an internal supporters of Prime Minister Eleuthe´rios crisis that saw his son Andreas Papandreou Venize´los (1864–1936), who appointed him (1919–1996), a member of his cabinet, governor of the Aegean Islands during accused of belonging to the left-wing 1917–1920. Papandreou was elected to organization Aspida. In July 1965, King Parliament in 1923 and held various minis- Constantine II (1940–) dismissed Papan- terial positions during 1924–1935. After dreou as prime minister over clashes regard- abandoning the Liberal Party, he founded ing control of the Ministry of Defense. his own small Republican Socialist Party in In 1967, a group of young officers, in a 1935. He was exiled in 1936 during the coup that came to be known as the Revolu- dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas and tion of April 21, 1967, overthrew the was imprisoned by the Germans during government. Papandreou was held under 1942–1944. house arrest until his death on November 1, After his escape, Papandreou joined the 1968, in Athens. royalist government and was appointed Lucian N. Leustean prime minister in exile in April 1944. He See also: Greek Civil War; Venize´los, Eleu- returned to Athens on October 18, 1944, the´rios (1864–1936) after the German departure. In Decem- ber 1944, at the beginning of the Greek Civil Further Reading War, he resigned and was replaced by General Campbell, John, and Philip Sherrard. Modern Nikolaos Plastiras (1883–1953). During Greece. New York: Praeger, 1968. 1946–1952, Papandreou held ministerial posi- Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. tions in several governments. In 1950, he 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University founded the George Papandreou Party, and Press, 2002. after joint leadership of the Liberal Party in Close, David H. Greece since 1945: Politics, the late 1950s, he organized a new center- Economy and Society. Edinburgh: Pearson leftist coalition, the Center Union, in 1961. Education, 2002.

223 224 Partisans, Albania

Partisans, Albania with Tito after the war, while the BK insisted that Kosovo be recognized as a part The Partisans, more officially the National of the Albanian state. Liberation Movement, were the Communist- The other was the withdrawal of Italy led resistance organization in Albania during from the war on September 8, 1943. In the World War II. Before World War II, the spring of 1943, the Albanian Communists Communists never attracted much interest in decided to establish an Albanian National Albania. They lacked adherents and overall Liberation Army (ANLA) modeled on structure. The few Albanian Communists Tito’s forces. A prominent figure in Tito’s offered no opposition to the Italian occupation movement, Svetozar Vukmanovic´ (1912– in 1939. 2000), known as “Tempo,” arrived from After the German attack on Soviet Russia Macedonia to direct the Albanian Commu- in June 1941, the leader of the Yugoslav nist military efforts. After the Italian surren- Communists, Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) der, the Partisans were able to acquire large sent agents into Albania to organize resis- quantities of Italian arms. Also following tance there. This was intended to compli- the example of the Yugoslav Communists ment the Partisan resistance to foreign at Bihac´ the previous year, the Communists occupation and domestic enemies in Yugo- convened a national liberation council at slavia. The Yugoslav agents managed to Peza near Tirana on September 16, 1943. organize the Albanian Communists. They Communist and non-Communist delegates recruited new members. On November 8, met there to establish a broad front for resis- 1941, the Communist Party formally came tance against the Germans, who had taken into existence. The Yugoslavs appointed over from the Italians. Enver Hoxha (1908–1985), a teacher who By the time of the German occupation, had studied in Belgium and France, to head theANLAandtheBKbeguntofighteach the new party. By the spring of 1942, small other in a civil war not unlike that between Partisan bands formed to undertake sporadic the Cˇ etniks and Partisans in Yugoslavia. attacks on the Italian occupiers and their Beginning in the spring of 1943, the British Albanian collaborators. The Albanian sent aid and liaison officers to Albania. Partisans found an able commander in After the spring of 1944, they focused only Mehmet Shehu (1913–1981), a veteran of on the ANLA. This helped them in their the International Brigades fighting in the struggles against both the Germans and the Spanish Civil War. BK. The BK increasingly compromised Two issues caused the Albanian Partisans themselves by cooperation with the Ger- to adopt a more aggressive profile in 1943. mans. When the Germans withdrew from One was the emergence of the nationalist Albania in October 1944, the ANLA Albanian resistance movement, the Balli attacked their rear guard in Tirana. The Kombetar (BK). The BK represented a chal- ensuing battle of Tirana lasted from Octo- lenge to the Communists over the direction ber 25 until November 17, 1944. With liber- of resistance. A meeting between members ation of Tirana, the ANLA had defeated of the two groups at Mukaj in August 1943 both its foreign and domestic enemies. This foundered on the question of Kosovo. The left the Communists in control of Albania. Communists looked to resolve this issue Richard C. Hall Partisans, Bulgaria 225

See also: Albania in World War II; Balli Kom- throughout 1943. So did the ranks of the betar; Hoxha, Enver (1908–1985); Partisans, Bulgarian Partisans. There were few Yugoslavia; Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980) obvious targets. Much of the Bulgarian army was deployed in the occupied Greek Further Reading and Yugoslav territories. Few German Fischer, Bernd. Albania at War 1939–1945. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University troops were stationed in Bulgaria. The Parti- Press, 1999. sans mainly sabotaged economic targets and Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. attacked police stations. They also assassi- Vol. 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: nated some political and police officials. Cambridge University Press, 1983. A determined effort by the police during Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians, a Modern the winter of 1943–1944 inflicted severe History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. losses on the small Partisan bands. During the spring of 1944, however, as Soviet troops swept across southern Ukraine and Partisans, Bulgaria neared the Balkans, Bulgarian Partisans attracted growing numbers of volunteers. The World War II Partisan movement in Bul- By this time, they also received some British garia was slow to appear. As in Albania and aid. Several British agents reached the Yugoslavia, Communists led the Partisan Bulgarian Partisans. At least two, Major movement and provided most of the active Mostyn Davies and Major Frank Thompson fighters. The Nazi-Soviet Pact deprived (1920–1944), died fighting against Bulgarian Communists everywhere of motivation to act government forces. against the Soviet ally. Only after the German By the summer of 1944, the number of invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, Bulgarian Partisans had grown to as many as 1941, did the Bulgarian Communist 10,000, although the actual number may Party (BCP) take steps to oppose the Sofia have been fewer. With the Soviet army occu- government at its German ally. pying Romania since the end of August The Bulgarian Partisans faced significant 1944, an anti-German government came to obstacles. Economic cooperation with Nazi power in Sofia on September 2. The BCP Germany had benefited Bulgaria’s largely then, with the assistance of disgruntled army agricultural economy. Bulgaria’s bloodless units and partisan bands, ousted the new occupation of Greek and Yugoslav Macedo- government and took control on September 9 nia in April 1941 was very popular through- through the so called “Fatherland Front.” out the country. The Sofia government The Bulgarian Partisans’ participation in the wisely refrained from participating in the September 9 coup was probably their most Nazi campaign against the Soviet Union. significant contribution to the war. After their war began, the Soviets made After the war, the activities of the some attempt to support the Bulgarian Parti- Bulgarian Partisans compared unfavorably sans by sending agents into the country by with those of the Yugoslav and even the parachute and submarine, but had little suc- Albanian Partisans. For that reason, the cess in the remainder of 1941 and through BCP tended to exaggerate both the numbers 1942. The German defeat at Stalingrad of Bulgarian Partisans and their activities. revivedtheBulgarianPartisanmovement. Monuments to Partisan actions sprang up The prospect of a Soviet victory grew throughout the country. Since the end of the 226 Partisans, Yugoslavia

Communist regime in 1989, such tributes during the Russian Civil War. After he have suffered neglect. returned to the new Yugoslav state, he Richard C. Hall became a Communist Party official and spent five years in jail because of his politi- See also: Bulgaria in World War II; Partisans, cal activity. Albania; Partisans, Yugoslavia Tito organized the initial Partisan Further Reading response to the foreign occupation. In their Miller, Marshall Lee. Bulgaria during the Sec- first real action, the Partisans joined in the ond World War. Stanford, CA: Stanford spontaneous uprising in Montenegro University Press, 1975. in July 1941. Initially they cooperated Oren, Nissan. Bulgarian Communism: The with the other main resistance force in Road to Power 1934–1944.NewYork: Yugoslavia, the mainly Serbian nationalist Columbia University Press, 1971. Cˇ etniks. The harsh German retaliation in Stoimenov, Stoyan, et al. Atlas na partizan- October 1941, including the massacre of skoto dvizhenie v Bu˘lgariya 1941–1944. over 4,500 Serbian men and boys at Sofia: Bu˘ lgarskata komunisticheska and Kragujevac, convinced the partiya, 1968. Cˇ etnik leader Dragoljub “Drazˇa” Mihajlovic´ (1893–1946), to avoid antagonizing the Partisans, Yugoslavia occupation armies to prevent further massa- cres and to preserve his forces in anticipa- The Yugoslav Partisans was a Communist- tion of an Allied landing in the Balkans based resistance movement in Yugoslavia later in the war. This left the field open for led by Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980). They the Partisans, who saw the atrocities as were the most effective resistance force in excellent motivations for recruitment. Europe to oppose the Germans and their By the beginning of 1942, the Partisans allies during World War II. They remained were fighting against the Cˇ etniks, who had active in the field during the entire war and begun to obtain support from the Germans participated in the liberation of Yugoslavia and Italians. The Partisans also on occasion along with the Soviet Russian army. made contact with the Germans. The Partisans began their activities in the The main focus of Partisan activity was in immediate aftermath of the German inva- the mountains of Bosnia. The German- sion of Soviet Russia on June 22, 1941. Italian occupiers had assigned Bosnia to the Although after the Yugoslav-Soviet split of new Independent State of Croatia (NDH— 1948, the Tito government claimed that Nezavisna Drzˇava Hrvatska). Fascist Cro- Partisan activity began with the invasion atian troops (Ustasˇa) perpetrated massacres of Yugoslavia by Germany and its allies against the Serbian populations of Croatia on April 6, 1941, the Nazi-Soviet Pact of and Bosnia. This helped to provide recruits August 26, 1939, initially served to con- for Tito’s forces. The Partisans were also strain Communist resistance in German- activeinmuchofCroatiaandMontenegro. ruled Europe. Tito, the leader of the Early in the war, Tito sent Partisan agents Partisans, was a real Yugoslav, with a Cro- into Italian-occupied Albania to organize atian father and a Slovene mother. He had resistance there. developed Communist sympathies as an During the early part of the war, the Austro-Hungarian in Russia British provided support to both the Pavelic´, Ante 227

Partisans and Cˇ etniks, but as the war contin- other diehard collaborationist forces, ued and Cˇ etnik activity against the Germans and the remnants of the Cˇ etniks. In lagged, British aid increasingly focused March 1945, the royalist government-in- solely on the Partisans. By December 1943, exile acknowledged the authority of the the British discontinued their aid to the Tito regime. After the end of the war in Cˇ etniks and focused their efforts exclusively May, Partisan forces near Bleiburg massa- on the Partisans. This was in spite of the cred around 70,000 members of NDH units fact that the Partisans made no secret of and other collaborationist formations who their Communist affiliation. The Partisans were trying to flee into Austria. benefited from the Italian surrender in The Partisans won the war against the September 1943 by seizing much of their forces of the foreign occupation and against equipment and weapons. the forces of domestic opponents. This left The occupation forces and their allies Tito without political rivals at the end of undertook at least seven offensive actions the war. It enabled him to establish his per- directed against the Partisans. Partisan units sonal rule that ended only with his death in always managed to slip away from their 1980. It also enabled him to withstand the attacks and regroup. They concentrated serious challenge of the Yugoslav-Soviet more on maintaining the integrity of their split in 1948. forces rather than on holding territory. Richard C. Hall Amidst the fighting, the Partisans held a See also: Cˇ etniks; Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub conference in Bihac´, Bosnia, in Novem- “Drazˇa” (1892–1946); Partisans, Albania; ber 1942 that established a so called Anti- Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslavia, ˇ Fascist Council. In contrast to the Cetniks, Axis Occupation Forces in World War II; who wished to return the old regime after Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World the war, the Partisans advocated social revo- War II lution. They attempted to appeal to all the national groups in Yugoslavia. They also Further Reading welcomed women into their ranks. A year Autry, Phyllis. Tito: A Biography. London: after the Bihac´ meeting, they established a Longman, 1970. in , Bosnia, Djilas, Milova´n. Wartime. New York: Harcourt which opposed the Cˇ etnik-backed royalist Brace Jovanovich, 1977. government-in-exile of King Peter II Lampe, John R. Yugoslavia as History.Cam- (1923–1970). bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. By the late summer of 1944, the Roma- Roberts, Walter R. Tito, Mihailovic´,andthe nians and Bulgarians had changed sides Allies, 1941–1945.NewBrunswick,NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1973. after the appearance of the Soviet Russian army on their frontiers. The Russians arrived on the Yugoslav frontier in early Octo- Pavelic´, Ante (1889–1959) ber 1944. Soviet and Partisan units partici- pated in the liberation of Belgrade on Ante Pavelic´ was born on July 14, 1889, in October 20, 1944. The Russians then veered the village of Bradina in Austrian-ruled to the north into Hungary. For the remainder Bosnia-Herzegovina. Trained as a lawyer, of the war, the Partisans fought against the he became a supporter of Croatian national Germans retreating to the north, the Ustasˇa, rights in Austria-Hungary. In 1918, he 228 Pleven, Siege of, 1877

denounced Croatia’s incorporation into Ustasˇa Croatia, Pavelic´ fledfirsttoAustria Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, envisioning an onMay6,1945,andthenontoItaly.Fearing independent state instead. He became a arrest and extradition to Yugoslavia, he leader of the nationalistic Party of Rights moved to Argentina in 1948, where he found and continued advocating Croatian indepen- refuge under the Pero´n regime. He took up dence even after being elected to the Yugo- writing and unsuccessfully tried to maintain slav parliament in 1927. control of the exile Croatian independence With the proclamation of the royal dicta- movement. In spring 1957, he was severely torship in Yugoslavia in January 1929 and wounded in an assassination attempt by the the elimination of all nationalist political Yugoslav secret service in Buenos Aires, parties, Pavelic´ left the country and founded, only to flee Argentina at the end of the year with Italian help, the Ustasˇamovement, for Spain when Argentina agreed to extradite which used terrorist acts, including the him to Yugoslavia. He died from complica- assassination of Yugoslav king Alexander tions of the botched attack in Madrid on (1888–1934) in 1934, to undermine Yugo- December 28, 1959. Pavelic´’s brutal rule cast slavia. Shortly after Germany invaded and a shadow over the concept of Croatian nation- dismembered Yugoslavia in March 1941, alism for years after his death. he returned to Croatia from Italy to become Gregory C. Ference poglavnik (leader) of the independent fascist See also: Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia Croatia after more reputable Croatian politi- (1888–1934); Cˇ etniks; Holocaust in the Bal- cians refused to cooperate with the invaders. kans; Partisans, Yugoslavia; Ustasˇa; Yugo- Independent Croatia was forced to give large slavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II amounts of Dalmatian territory to Italy. As a result, Pavelic´ tilted toward Nazi Germany. Further Reading A regiment of Croatian army soldiers fought Banac, Ivo. The National Question in Yugo- with the Germans on the Eastern Front and slavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ithaca, was destroyed at Stalingrad. As leader of Cro- NY: Cornell University Press, 1984. atia, Pavelic´ held almost absolute power. His Shepherd, Ben. Terror in the Balkans: German regime subjected political rivals, Serbs, and Armies and Partisan Warfare. Cambridge, Jews to bloody persecution. He established a MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. notorious concentration camp at Jasenovac. Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in The brutality of the regime increased the re- Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration, Stanford, CA: Stanford sistance of its opponents. Pavelic´’s forces University Press, 2001. fought the guerilla Communist-led Partisans and the Serb-dominated Cˇ etniks in Bosnia and in the Krajina. This fighting caused Pleven, Siege of, 1877 many casualties and much suffering. Memo- ries of this conflict helped to fuel the bitter The Russian siege of the Ottoman fortress of fighting in these regions during the Yugoslav Pleven (Plevna) took place in present-day Wars of 1991–1995. Bulgaria, July 20–December 10, 1877, Pavelic´ managed to hang on until the very during the Russo-Ottoman War, 1877– end of the war. The Ustasˇa regime was the 1878. The Ottoman defense slowed the last of Hitler’s allies to remain in the war. main Russian advance southward into With the collapse of Nazi Germany and Bulgaria. Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944 229

In July 1877, Grand Duke Nicholas See also: Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878; (1831–1891) led the Russian army into San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878; Shipka Pass, present-day Bulgaria and occupied the city Battles of, 1877–1878 of Nikopol on July 16. Osman Pasha Further Reading (1832–1900), leading an army to reinforce Langer, William L. European Alliances and the city, then occupied Pleven about Alignments 1871–1890. 2nd ed. New York: 20 miles south of Nikopol and began Alfred A. Knopf, 1950. reinforcing the city for an expected Russian Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- siege. tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Russian forces, reinforced with Roma- Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Reaction and nians, began the siege of Pleven on July 19. Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, For the next two weeks, the besieging forces 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- tried to break through the defenses, but the versity Press, 1977. Ottoman defenders repulsed their attacks. Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for the Mastery of By early September, the Russian-Romanian Europe, 1848–1918. Oxford: Oxford Uni- army numbered 100,000 men, and Osman versity Press, 1954. Pasha had about 30,000 men. A large-scale Russian-Romanian assault on Pleven on September 11 gave the besieg- Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944 ing force a section of the fortifications. By October 24, the Russians and Romanians The Ploest¸i raids were major and costly U.S. had completely encircled the fortress. air raids against the refineries of Ploest¸i, Osmanwantedtoabandonthefortress,but Romania. The refineries there supplied the Ottoman high command refused. With almost one-third of Germany’s oil require- supplies running low, Osman’s forces, out- ments before and during World War II. A numbered almost five to one, tried to break land invasion of Romania to seize the Ploest¸i out during the night of December 9, but refineries was impractical, so on August 1, failed. After he was wounded, Osman 1943, the United States launched a yearlong Pasha surrendered. Although Osman was air campaign to destroy them. treated honorably, thousands of Ottoman The first air raid on Ploest¸i was conducted soldiers perished in the winter snows on on June 1, 1942, by 13 B-24 bombers of their way into captivity, and the Bulgarians Halverson Detachment, led by Colonel massacred the wounded Ottoman soldiers Harry A. “Hurry-Up” Halverson (1895– left behind in military hospitals. 1978). The mission originated in Fayid, ThesiegehadheldupthemainRussian Africa. Twelve planes reached the target advance into Bulgaria and captured the and bombed it from high altitude, escaping world’s admiration, gaining the Ottomans without loss. Damage to Ploest¸i was negli- sympathy at the Congress of Berlin. The gible. Three times during that first week in fall of Pleven provided reinforcements to June, the Soviet air force sent small numbers the Russian army, which decisively defeated of bombers against Ploest¸i. The last inflicted the Ottoman army at the fourth battle of some damage, but at the cost of several Shipka Pass, January 5–9, 1878, opening Soviet planes and airmen. That ended Soviet the way to Constantinople. interest in the refineries. At the Casablanca Robert B. Kane Conference in January 1943, President 230 Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944

A U.S. Army Air Forces B-24 bomber flies over a burning oil refinery at Ploes¸ti, Romania, August 1, 1943. (44th Bomb Group Photograph Collection/United States Army Center of Military History)

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) and or were lost en route to the target. Unknown Prime Minister Winston L. S. Churchill to the Allies at the time, the Germans (1874–1965) endorsed a plan to bomb detected and traced the air armada from Ploest¸i from North Africa. Planners decided takeoff all the way to the target. As a result, a low-level attack would be safer and more German air defense fighter squadrons and productive than one from the traditional antiaircraft defenses were fully alerted, the high level. Three U.S. B-24 bomb groups German fighters being particularly effective from England were added to the two in against the bombers during the return from Brigadier General Uzal G. Ent’s (1900– the mission. 1948) IX Bomber Command, which was Because of a navigational error, the bomb already in North Africa. runs could not all be made as planned. After studying the plan (code-named Nonetheless, substantial damage was TIDAL WAVE) with his commanders and inflicted on several refineries. Oil production staff, Ent wrote a note to his superior officer, was reduced only in the short term, however. Major General Lewis H. Brereton, recom- The bombing results did prove that the low- mending against a low-level mission. Ent did level attack destroyed more of the target not know that this had already been decided area than raids made from high altitudes. at the highest level. Once informed of this, However, at this point in the war, the he began intensive training of the five groups. 2,700-mile round-trip raid by unescorted On August 1, 1943, 178 B-24s departed bombers was an epic one. Losses, although for Ploest¸i. Eleven bombers either aborted heavy, were less than Ent had anticipated. Princip, Gavrilo 231

Ent had told his men that returning from the In the raids, the 15th Air Force and the mission was “secondary.” American losses RAF destroyed nearly 1.2 million tons of included 310 men killed and some 130 Ploest¸i oil production, amounting to 84 tons wounded (including those who crashed or of oil lost for each ton of bombs dropped. landed in neutral territory). Eighty-eight air- When Soviet troops entered Ploest¸i on craft returned to base, but only 33 were fit to August 30, 1944, they found five refineries fly, and Ent had just over half his original producing just 20 percent of normal complement of airmen. For this raid, five production. men were awarded the Medal of Honor, Uzal W. Ent three of them posthumously. Ent and several See also: GermanyintheBalkansduring others were awarded the Distinguished World War II; Romania in World War II Service Cross, the United States’ second- highest award for heroism. Further Reading Ploest¸i had an impressive and deadly Dugan, James, and Carroll Stewart. Ploesti: The array of antiaircraft guns and fighter planes Great Ground-Air Battle of 1 August 1943. to defend the area during that August 1, New York: Random House, 1962. 1943, raid. But following the raid, German Newby, Leroy W. Target Ploesti: View from a general Alfred Gerstenberg (1893–1959), Bombsight. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, who commanded Ploest¸i’s defenses during 1983. the entire campaign, improved the defenses Wolff, Leon. Low Level Mission. New York: with additional guns and planes and, as a Berkley Publishing, 1958. final touch, smoke pots. These pots were scattered throughout the refinery area and could be lit to cover the targets with smoke, Princip, Gavrilo (1894–1918) no matter which way the wind was blowing. Gerstenberg was resourceful. He also The Bosnian youth who assassinated installed an oil pipeline system, linking all Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand and his the refineries, so that oil could be diverted wife Sophie, Gavrilo Princip was born to from more damaged refineries to those less an Orthodox Serbian peasant family in the damaged or undamaged, maintaining opti- Grahovo Valley in southern Bosnia on mal output. July 13, 1894. It was a time of considerable Between April 5 and August 19, 1944, the social change. The traditional social institu- U.S. 15th Air Force made 5,479 high-level tion of the zadruga, or extended family, sorties in 19 raids against Ploest¸i, with a was dissolving, and this disruption affected loss of 223 aircraft, representing 4.1 percent Princip’s family. After four years of primary of the aircraft employed. On June 10, 1944, school, at age 13, Princip left the Grahovo 46 P-38 fighters made a low-level attack, Valley for Sarajevo, where his older and and 24 were lost. Some 2,829 American air- economically successful brother intended to men were killed or captured during the enroll him in a Habsburg military school. entire campaign. During the summer of When he reached Sarajevo, however, his 1944, Britain’s Royal Air Force (RAF) flew brother had changed his mind (supposedly 924 high-level sorties against Ploest¸i, in on the advice of a friend who told him not which 38 planes (4.1 percent) were lost. to make Gavrilo “an executioner of his own 232 Putnik, Radomir

people”) and enrolled him in the local mortally wounded both the archduke and Merchants’ School instead. After three his wife (although one other conspirator, years of study there, Princip transferred to a Nedjelko Cabrinovic´ (1895–1916), earlier gymnasium. that day did throw a hand grenade, which It was in the gymnasium years that Prin- missed its target). cip became an ardent Serbian nationalist. In Princip was arrested immediately after 1911, he joined , the secret the assassination. Tried at Sarajevo on Octo- society that hoped to detach Bosnia from ber 28, he was convicted but was spared the Austria and join it with a larger Serb state. death penalty because he was a minor. He In 1912, Princip walked as if on pilgrimage received a sentence of 20 years in prison, from Sarajevo to Belgrade, kneeling down the maximum permissible. Meanwhile, the to kiss the soil when he crossed into Serbia. Austro-Hungarian government held Serbia During the First Balkan War of 1912, responsible for the murders of the archduke Princip and many other members of Young and his wife and used them as an excuse Bosnia sought to join the Serbian army’s for a preventive war against Serbia, which irregular forces, commanded by Major led directly to World War I. Vojislav Tankosic´ (1880–1915), a member Princip lost an arm to tuberculosis while of the Central Committee of Unity or Death in prison at Theresienstadt, Austria. He (popularly known as the Black Hand), the died there, probably of this disease, on principal conspiratorial organization in April 28, 1918. Serbia. Turned down in Belgrade because Karl Roider of his small stature, Princip finally tracked See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans down Tankosi, who rejected him out of during World War I; Sarajevo Assassination, hand with the words, “You are too small 1914; Serbia in World War I and too weak.” The combination of intense Serbian Further Reading nationalism and rejection for physical weak- Cassels, Lavender. The Archduke and the ness are the most common explanations Assassin: Sarajevo, June 28th 1914.New advanced for Princip’s determination to York: Stein and Day, 1985. commit an act of great consequence on Dedijer, Vladimir. The Road to Sarajevo.New behalf of his people. In fact, during his first York: Simon and Schuster, 1966. interrogation after the assassination of Remak, Joachim. Sarajevo: The Story of a Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914), he told the Political Murder. New York: Criterion, authorities: “People took me for a weakling 1959. ...which I was not.” He and the other con- spirators secured their weapons from Tanko- si’s organization in Serbia, but whether or Putnik, Radomir (1847–1917) not they acted on instructions from Tankosi or any other Serbian official is still in ques- A stubborn, hard-edged, austere, and diffi- tion. Princip was one of seven conspirators cult man, Radomir Putnik was one of the who plotted to assassinate the archduke greatest figures produced by Serbia in his during his visit to Sarajevo on June 28, time, responsible for reforms of strategic 1914. He was the only one who actually and tactical doctrine, organization, and fired a weapon, a pistol with which he training that made the Serbian army a potent Putnik, Radomir 233 force in Balkan affairs. Serbia’s first field marshal (vojvoda), he achieved his greatest victory and greatest defeat in World War I. Putnik was born at Kragujevac on Janu- ary 24, 1847, the second son of a school- teacher in a family that had returned to Serbia after a sojourn in Hungary. He was eighth of 17 graduates in his class at the Ser- bian Artillery School and was commis- sioned a second lieutenant in 1866. In the Serbo-Ottoman War of 1876, he first tasted action and defeat, his brigade suffering heavy losses at Kalipolje. He was also imprisoned for 15 days for clashing with a superior over supplies but was eventually pardoned because of his bravery under fire. He also fought in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. In 1881 and again in 1883, he suffered imprisonment for voicing harsh criticisms of superiors. Serbia’s disastrous war against Bulgaria during 1885–1886 saw him serving on a divisional staff. Hav- ing completed Army Staff College in 1889, Serbian field marshal Radomir Putnik. Born in he became deputy chief of staff in 1890. Kraguevac, Serbia, in 1847, he participated in During 1886–1887 and again from 1888 to fighting in 1876 against the Ottoman Empire 1895, Putnik taught at the military academy. and 1885 against Bulgaria. (Library of Congress) Having fallen out with the politicians because of slights to both King Milan and against Turkey and defensive plans to deal King Alexander and because of his support with the Austro-Hungarian Empire and of the Radical Party, Putnik (1854–1901) Bulgaria. The architect of the army’s organi- retired in 1896. After the assassination of zation and plans, Putnik was, from his teach- King Alexander (1876–1903) in 1903, he ing days and from maneuvers, thoroughly was recalled, promoted to general, and acquainted with the entire officer corps of made chief of the General Staff. He served the army and the Serbian terrain. Thus, as minister of war during 1904–1905, during when the First Balkan War began in 1912, 1906–1908, and in 1912. he was able to lead his army to a decisive Putnik had mastered French, Russian, and victory over the Turks and was made the German so as to keep abreast of contempo- first vojvoda of the Serbian army, a term rary military literature and had written man- equivalent to field marshal bestowed only uals on artillery use and general staff on one who had won a great victory. In the organization and activities. Now he used Second Balkan War in 1913, his troops his leadership positions to reorganize, quickly defeated the Bulgarians. reequip, and strengthen the army while His failing health, due mainly to acute developing offensive strategic plans to use bronchitis and emphysema exacerbated by 234 Putnik, Radomir

a lifetime of chain smoking, led Putnik to November, however, ammunition supplies visit the Austrian spa at Gleichenberg began arriving through Salonika from in 1914, and he was there when the Austro- France. Taking advantage of the overexten- Hungarian Empire’s Archduke Franz sion of the Austro-Hungarians, Putnik coun- Ferdinand was assassinated in late June by terattacked at Kolubra on December 3 Serbian nationalists. Returning to Serbia, and, by December 15, could assure King he resumed command of the nation’s armies Peter I (1844–1921) that the only Austro- as the Austro-Hungarian Empire threatened Hungarians still on Serbian soil were prison- to declare war. Europe’s double alliance sys- ers. It was Putnik’s finest hour. tem, which posed the Triple Entente against In October 1915, Serbia was again the Triple Alliance, stepped into gear, attacked, this time by Bulgarian and German quickly bringing the continent to the brink armies as well as by the Austro-Hungarians. of a massive war. As the first fighting of Putnik’s hopes of receiving assistance from World War I erupted in August, Putnik Greece or from an Allied expeditionary furiously made plans for Serbia’s defense, force were dashed, and the Serbian army fearing correctly that the Austro-Hungarians hadtodefendmorethan900kilometersof would seize the opportunity to crush tiny Ser- the country’s border. On October 5, the biaonceandforall.Hecorrectlyassumed Germans and Austro-Hungarians struck that the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s war from the north. Exhausted by an attack of plans called for an attack in the north, but Ser- influenza, Putnik was too ill to take part in bia got a break when the Austro-Hungarian military operations but oversaw decisions troops poised on the northern Serbian frontier and imbued his subordinates with the will hadtobedivertedtotheRussianFrontto to fight. Overwhelmed in the north, the stave off an unexpected Russian offensive. Serbians were attacked in mid-October The Austro-Hungarian Empire did attack, from the east by two Bulgarian armies. The however, launching an offensive against Ser- Serbian army escaped encirclement and bia on August 12. Putnik’s planning had fought to maintain contact with the Allies placed three Serbian armies in the north in Thessaloniki and preserve an escape and northwest of the country, allowing the route through Kosovo and into Albania. By Serbians to quickly launch a counterattack late November, they had been cut off from against the Austro-Hungarians that drove contact with the Allies, and the only options them back across the Drina River after the were surrender or flight. four-day Battle of Cer, the first Allied vic- Putnik’s last command was to direct the tory of the war. At the urging of his French army to risk the icy passes of the Albanian allies, Putnik moved to the offensive on Sep- mountains and break out to the Adriatic. tember 6 but was driven back into Serbia by Unable to walk, he was carried by four sol- an Austro-Hungarian offensive that began diers over the mountains in a sedan chair, the following day. Putnik had to conduct a accompanied by the king in an oxcart. difficult and tenacious fighting retreat to It took 11 days to reach the sea. Evacuated defensive positions southwest of Belgrade. with the Serbian government to Corfu, Put- In November, he abandoned the capital nik was dismissed early in 1916 along with after two months of continuous fighting and the rest of the high command. He died on withdrew to the southward, almost out of May 17, 1917, while convalescing in Nice. ammunition and all but defeated. Late in Joseph McCarthy Putnik, Radomir 235

See also: Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914; Ser- Monographs; Highland Lakes, NJ: Atlantic bia in the Balkan Wars; Serbia in World War Research and Publications, 1985. I; Serbian Retreat, 1915 Kira´ly, Be´la K., and Albert A. Nofi, eds. East Central European War Leaders. Boulder, Further Reading CO: Social Science Monographs; Highland Adams, John Clinton. Flight in Winter. Prince- Lakes, NJ: Atlantic Research and Publica- ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1942. tions, 1988. Kira´ly, Be´la K., and Nandor F. Dresziger, eds. Stokesbury, James L. A Short History of World East Central European Society in World War II. New York: Morrow, 1980. War I. Boulder, CO: Social Science R

Radomir Rebellion, 1918 In an effort to allay the growing rebellion, the Sofia government and Czar Ferdinand The Radomir Rebellion was the name of the (1861–1948) released Aleksandu˘rStambo- uprising of disgruntled military units and liski (1879–1923) from prison on Septem- supporters of the Bulgarian Agrarian Union ber 25. The government had detained (BANU) in Bulgaria during September 1918 Stamboliski, the leader of BANU, since at the end of World War I. Bulgaria had been 1915 because of his opposition to the war. In at war, with a brief interlude, since Octo- Radomir, the rebels appointed Stamboliski ber 1912. The entire country was exhausted. prime minister and Daskalov commander in On September 14, 1918, Entente forces chief of the army. The forces of the new launched an attack on Bulgarian positions republic advanced toward the capital on on the Macedonian Front at Dobro Pole September 29, the same day the armistice with the intention of knocking Bulgaria out was signed in Thessaloniki. The Sofia of the war. After two days of heavy fighting, government hastily organized a defense force Bulgarian lines collapsed on September 16. consisting of military cadets, members of the Soldiers from the Second Balkan Division Macedonian revolutionary organization and the Third Thracian Division refused (VMRO), and a German division newly orders and surged back toward Sofia in arrived from the Crimea. When they met on order to punish those in the government the southwestern outskirts of Sofia on Sep- they held responsible for the miserable con- tember 30, the pro-government forces pre- ditions they had experienced for the past vailed. As many as 2,500 rebels were killed three years and for Bulgaria’s second mili- in the battle. Sofia government forces took tary defeat in the past five years. Radomir on October 2. The rebels melted As a result of the defeat and mutiny, the away. By this time their chief demand, that Bulgarian government decided on Septem- Bulgaria leave the war, already realized. ber 25 to seek an armistice with the Entente. On October 3, Czar Ferdinand abdicated A Bulgarian delegation signed the agree- in favor of his son, who assumed the Bulgar- ment on September 29 in Thessaloniki, ian throne as Czar Boris III (1894–1943). Greece. Meanwhile, the soldiers crossed After the success of BANU in the 1919 elec- the Bulgarian frontier. On September 27, tions, Stamboliski became prime minister. 1918, Raiko Daskalov (1886–1923), a lead- Daskalov also served in the government. ing member of BANU, the main Bulgarian Macedonian terrorists murdered Stambo- peasant party, proclaimed a republic in the liski at his farm near on southwestern Bulgarian town of Radomir. June 14, 1923. They assassinated Daskalov This government became known as the in Prague on August 26 of that same year. Radomir Republic. Richard C. Hall

236 Romania, Invasion of, 1916 237

See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Dobro of the Transylvanian Alps and descended Pole, Battle of, 1918; Ferdinand I, Czar of down into Transylvania. Bulgaria (1861–1948); Stamboliski, Aleksan- The Romanians seriously miscalculated. du˘r (1879–1923); VMRO By mid-August, the Brusilov Offensive was Further Reading spent. Also, the Bulgarians preempted the Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Entente offensive by opening an offensive Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian of their own that enabled them to seize sig- Union, 1899–1923. Princeton, NJ: Prince- nificant territory in southern Macedonia. ton University Press, 1977. The Central Powers quickly responded to Chary, Frederick B. The History of Bulgaria. the Romanian invasion of Transylvania. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011. Both Austro-Hungarian and German troops Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria 1878–1918: A reinforced the superannuated reserve forces History. Boulder, CO: East European that had guarded the Transylvanian passes Monographs, 1983. and planned a punitive counterattack. The first stage of the Central Powers’ counterattack began on began on Septem- Romania, Invasion of, 1916 ber 1, when the Bulgarian Third Army under the command of the renowned When World War I erupted in August 1914, German general August von Mackensen Romania declared neutrality. Since 1883, (1849–1945) and with a contingent of Otto- Romania had a secret alliance with Austria- man troops, crossed into Romanian-held Hungary, and King Carol Hohenzollern Dobrudja (Romanian: Dobrogea; Bulgarian: (1839–1914) was pro-German. Many politi- Dobrudzha). Von Mackensen intended this cians, however, favored the Entente as a attack to draw Romanian forces away from means to achieve Romanian nationalist Transylvania. Also, the Bulgarians were goals in Austria-Hungary. After the death eager to recover this territory that they had of King Carol and the succession of this lost three years earlier in the Second Balkan nephew Ferdinand (1865–1927), the country War. To counter the Bulgarian attack, wavered back and forth between the Central Russian troops marched into Dobrudja. Powers and the Entente until the summer They, however, were unable to prevent the of 1916. Then the apparent success of fall of the fortress city of Turtucaia on Sep- the Russian “Brusilov” offensive against tember 4. A Romanian cross-Danubian Austro-Hungarian forces convinced the counterattack into Bulgaria on October 2 Romanian government that the time was failed. By the end of October, all the former propitious to join the Entente. Romania Bulgarian Dobrudja and much of the pre– declared war on Austria-Hungary on Balkan War Romanian Dobrudja was under August 18, 1916. On the understanding that von Mackensen’s control. The important Entente forces at Salonika would launch Romanian Black Sea port of Constant¸a fell attacks to keep the Bulgarians occupied, to the Central Powers on October 22. the Romanian army undertook an offensive Meanwhile, the Austro-Hungarian First into Hungarian-ruled Transylvania, the Army and the German com- major objective of Romanian policy. Begin- bined under the command of former German ning on August 27, the Romanian First, Sec- chief of general staff ond, and North Armies crossed three passes (1861–1922) began a counteroffensive that 238 Romania, Invasion of, 1944

cleared the Romanians from Transylvania help of a French military mission, their by mid-October. The Central Powers forces army would revive in 1917. then proceeded on into Romania. At first Richard C. Hall determined Romanian resistance held up See also: Carol I, King of Romania (1839– the Austro-Hungarian and German advance. 1914); Dobrudja; Macedonian Front, 1916– In mid-November, however, the Central 1918; Romania in World War I Powers forces broke through the Romanian defenses in three locations and proceeded Further Reading into the Wallachian plains toward the Roma- Barnett, Michael B. Prelude to Blitzkrieg: The nian capital of Bucharest. Von Mackensen 1916 Austro-German Campaign in Roma- augmented the threat to Bucharest with an nia. Bloomington: Indiana University attack launched from the Bulgarian Danu- Press, 2013. bian port of across the river on Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. November 23. A mixed force of Austro- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Hungarians, Bulgarians, Germans, and Torrey, Glenn. Romania and World War I. Ias¸i: Ottomans quickly established themselves Center for Romanian Studies, 1998. on the north bank of the Danube. The over- Torrey, Glenn. The Romanian Battlefront in extended Romanians lacked the forces to World War I. Lawrence: University Press contain this new invasion. The appearance of Kansas, 2011. of Central Powers forces behind the Romanian defenders of Wallachia forced a Romania, Invasion of, 1944 Romanian retreat toward Bucharest. On November 27, a Bulgarian unit crossed the In 1944, the Soviet Union invaded Romania, Danube from Ruse and seized the Romanian leading to the surrender of Romania to the town of Giurgiu. The three Central Powers Allies and a declaration of war on Germany. forces converged on Bucharest. Brushing Romania became an ally of Germany after aside desperate Romanian attempts to hold the government of Ion Antonescu (1882– the capital, the Central Powers entered 1946) signed the on Novem- Bucharest on December 4. With the help of ber 23, 1940, and invaded the Soviet Union some British officers, the Romanians suc- with Germany on June 22, 1941. The inva- ceeded in destroying much of the oil infra- sion of Romania had four major strategic structure around Ploest¸i before the Central goals: the removal of Romania from the Powers could arrive. By the end of 1916, Axis, the end of the supply of oil and food the Central Powers had overrun the remain- from Romania to Germany, the entrance to der of Wallachia. After the fall of Bucharest, the Balkans for the Soviet army, and the the Romanian government established itself maintenance of pressure on the German in Ias¸i, Moldavia, near the Russian frontier. armies along a broad front. The invasion of Romania was an out- The Romanian army had suffered huge standing success for the Central Powers. losses in men and equipment during the They acted quickly and decisively. The and subsequent fighting Romanians suffered heavy losses in man- in Ukraine as the Soviet Union pushed power and material. Despite the loss of the German army west. In the spring of much territory, including their capitol, the 1944, Soviet offensives had pushed ele- Romanians remained in the war. With the ments of German Army Group South and Romania, Invasion of, 1944 239 the twice-reconstituted Third and Fourth in armored vehicles, artillery, antitank guns, Romanian Armies back to the mobile infantry, and air power. By August 23, River, which marked a defensible border 1944, the German Sixth Army was encircled for Romania. Having pushed Axis forces and eliminated as a fighting force after a dou- out of most of the Ukraine and Crimea, the ble envelopment by the Third and Fourth Soviet army continued its offensive opera- Ukrainian Fronts east of the Prut River. The tions into Romania. The Romanian armies Romanian Third and Fourth Armies, posi- were integrated into the German Sixth and tioned east and west of the German Sixth Eighth Armies along a defensive line of the Army respectively, were left disorganized Carpathian foothills of northern Romania and retreating where they could. and the Dniester River. On April 5, 1944, the With the rapid collapse of Axis forces, Third and Fourth Ukrainian Fronts launched Romania’s King Michael (1921–) joined a the First Jassy-Kishinev Operation in coup by the army and government oppo- northeastern Romania. The offensive was a nents overthrowing Ion Antonescu on major direct continuation of the Ukrainian August 23, 1944. The new government rap- offensives with the strategic goals mentioned idly concluded a cease-fire with the Soviet above. The Soviet forces achieved some Union and declared that Romania was join- initial success against poorly equipped ing the Allies. The remnants of the Roma- Romanian units, but German armored and nian army were integrated under Soviet mobile units managed to hold and counterat- army command and fought for the remain- tack the advancing Soviets. By early June, der of World War II on the side of the Allies. the Axis armies had reestablished defensive The Romanian army played an important lines approximating those at the beginning of role in allowing the Soviet army to advance the Soviet offensive. After the failed offen- rapidly through the Carpathian mountain sive, the Soviet Union diverted units and passes into Hungary and along the Yugosla- supplies from its southern forces to aid the vian frontier. To the south, Bulgaria ended preparation of a major offensive in Belarus. its war with the Western Allies and declared When Soviet on war on Germany on September 8, 1944. June 22, 1944, in Belarus placed enormous Brian G. Smith strain on the German army, the German See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); command began to strip armored forces Michael I, King of Romania (1921–); Roma- from its Romanian front during July 1944. nia in World War II On August 20, 1944, the Second Ukrainian Front, commanded by General Rodion Further Reading Malinovsky (1898–1967), and the Third Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Cristian Ukrainian Front, commanded by General Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- Fyodor Tolbukhin (1894–1949) launched the nian Armed Forces in the European War, Second Jassy-Kishinev Operation with the 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour immediate goal of a double envelopment Press, 1995. of the German Sixth Army, commanded by Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin: Stalin’s General Maximilian Fretter-Pico (1892– War with Germany.Vol.2.NewHaven, 1984), which had been reconstituted after its CT: Yale University Press, 1999. destruction at Stalingrad. The German and Glantz, David. Red Storm over the Balkans: Romanian forces were heavily outnumbered The Failed Soviet Invasion of Romania, 240 Romania in the Balkan Wars

Spring 1944. Lawrence: University Press of with Austria-Hungary and Romanian friend- Kansas, 2006. ship with the Ottomans. The Romanians refused to undertake any commitments at Romania in the Balkan Wars this point. The First Balkan War began on 17 Octo- At the beginning of the twentieth century, ber. Bulgarian, Greek, and Serbian forces Romania, the largest national state in soon achieved unexpected victories against southeastern Europe, had a strong interest the Ottomans. When the extent of the in the events south of the Danube. Romanian Bulgarian victories in Thrace became appar- territorial interests were limited to southern ent, the Romanians presented their bill. Dobrudja (Romanian: Dobrogea; Bulgarian: At first, King Carol (1839–1914) and the Dobrudzha), which the Congress of Berlin Romanian government considered the mili- in 1878 had assigned to Bulgaria. This tary occupation of Bulgarian Dobrudja. The territory did not contain a significant Roma- Austro-Hungarians and Germans, however, nian population. Nevertheless, control of advised restraint and gave assurances that southern Dobrudja would extend Romania’s the Great Powers would deal with the issue Black Sea coast and add productive agricul- of compensation. The initial Romanian tural land to Romania’s economy. demand for the Danubian port of Silistra Romania’s main interest in the events of (Silistre) was soon supplemented by the the Balkan Wars, however, was to maintain stipulation that territorial compensation for its position as the dominant power in Bulgarian conquests in the south should the Balkans. To this end, the Bucharest include all of Bulgarian Dobrudja. The Bul- government concluded an alliance with garians, after their victories over the Austria-Hungary in 1882 but also main- Ottomans, were reluctant to part with any tained good relations with the Ottoman territory. They made a few minor territorial Empire and, by the first decade of the twen- concessions in the vicinity of Silistra. tieth century, developed a warming interac- Nevertheless, they considered the Romanian tion with Russia. In order to establish a demands to be blackmail. profile in Ottoman-controlled Macedonia, The impasse in the Romanian dispute the Romanian government posed as the with Bulgaria led the Great Powers to protector of the Aromani, or Vlachs, a fel- intervene. The Russians in particular were low Latin-speaking transhumant people eager to lure Romania away from the Triple living mainly as shepherds in the uplands Alliance while maintaining their close rela- of the Balkan Peninsula. The Romanian tionship with Bulgaria. Russian foreign min- government funded churches and schools ister Sergei Sazonov (1860–1927) convoked for this group. a conference of Great Power ambassadors in In the summer of 1912, when the Balkan St. Petersburg to resolve the conflict. The League of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, conference first met on March 31, 1913. and Serbia was coming together, the After several weeks of deliberation, on Bulgarian government approached Bucha- May 8, it awarded Romania Silistra in com- rest. The Bulgarians were eager to reach pensation for Bulgaria’s gains in Macedonia some kind of accommodation with Romania and Thrace. This failed to satisfy Romania. before beginning a war against the Ottoman Soon afterward, the Athens and Belgrade Empire, because of the Romanian alliance governments, who had disputes with Sofia Romania in the Balkan Wars 241 over Macedonia, approached Bucharest. largest city in northwestern Bulgaria. Troop While no formal arrangement resulted, the movements ceased with the conclusion of continuity of interest among Greece, Serbia, an armistice on July 29. and Romania against Bulgaria was obvious. On July 30, negotiations ending the war The Bulgarian attack on Greek and began in Bucharest, as befitting Romanian Serbian positions on the night of June 29– interest in maintaining strong influence 30, 1913 began the Second Balkan War. In in southeastern Europe. The Treaty of response, the Romanian army called for the Bucharest of August 10, 1913, established mobilization of 300,000 men on July 5, that Romania had gained its war objectives. 1913. The Bucharest government was deter- Bulgaria ceded southern Dobrudja. Bulga- mined upon intervention. It declared war on ria’s defeat confirmed Romania’s dominant July 10. That same day, 80,000 soldiers of position in southeastern Europe. the Romanian Fifth Corps commanded by Romanian intervention in the Second General (1853–1928) crossed Balkan War proved critical to the success the frontier into Bulgarian Dobrudja of the anti-Bulgarian coalition. By the time (Dobrudzha) and, meeting no resistance, Romanian troops crossed the Danube River, occupied a line from on the Bulgarian counterattacks against Greek and Danube to Balchik on the Black Sea. This Serbian forces had stabilized the fighting in corresponded to the territory the Romanians Macedonia. This raised the possibility of a had demanded from Bulgaria. decisive Bulgarian offensive against the Then, on the night of 14-15 July 14–15, overextended Greeks and Serbs. The Bul- the 250,000 men of the Romanian Danube garian could not, however, counter the Army commanded by Crown Prince Ferdi- Romanian invasion. This, together with the nand (1865–1927) crossed its namesake Ottoman invasion of southeastern Bulgaria, river at the Bulgarian cities of Gigen, Niko- ensured the defeat of Bulgaria. While pol, and Oryahovo. With their armies totally Romania suffered no combat casualties committed in Macedonia fighting against in the war, around 6,000 soldiers died of the Greeks and Serbs, the Bulgarians offered cholera. Undoubtedly, Romanian soldiers no resistance to the Romanian invasion. brought the disease with them upon their After landing on Bulgarian soil, the Roma- return home. nian units regrouped into two elements. After the Second Balkan War, Romania One moved in a westerly direction toward remained dominant in the Balkan Peninsula. Ferdinand (now Montana), which they took Romania’s territorial gain in the Second on July 18. The other element set off on a Balkan War proved to be ephemeral. In southwesterly course toward the Bulgarian August 1940, the Bulgarian government, capital of Sofia. By July 23, a cavalry unit with the tacit approval of Nazi Germany, from this element had arrived on the out- demanded the return of southern Dobrudja. skirts of Sofia. With the Bulgarian army With the Treaty of Craiova of September 7, away to the southwest, the Romanians were 1940, Romania ceded southern Dobrudja in position to enter the Bulgarian capital. back to Bulgaria. Romanian aviators flew over Sofia and Richard C. Hall dropped leaflets. On July 25, part of the See also: Balkan League, 1912; Balkan War, northern element met the Serbian Second First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Second, 1913; Army at Belogradchik, isolating Vidin, the 242 Romania in World War I

Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Balkan cabinet favored such a course, and Premier Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences Ionel Bra˘tianu (1864–1927) justified it on the basis that Romania was bound to support Further Reading Germany and Austria-Hungary only in the Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– event of a defensive war. More importantly, 1913: Prelude to the First World War. London: Routledge, 2000. Romania coveted Transylvania, then part of Hungary and home to 3 million ethnic Hitchens, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Romanians. At the same time, however, Romania had fears concerning Russia and Jowett, Philip S. Armies of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Oxford: Osprey, 2011. maintained pretensions to the Russian prov- ince of Bessarabia, which had a large ethnic Zbuchea, Gheorghe. Romaˆnia s¸i Ra˘zboaiele Balcanice 1912–1913. Bucharest: Albatros, Romanian population. 1999. ThesoleraillineconnectingGermany and the Ottoman Empire ran through Romania, and Russia pressured Romania to Romania in World War I block this route that allowed transit of goods from Germany to the Ottoman Romania occupied an important position in Empire. Romania bowed to this demand. the northeastern Balkan region. It extended It also moved closer to the Entente when, over 46,000 square miles and had a popula- in December 1914, it accepted a loan from tion of some 9 million people. Romania con- Britain to strengthen its military. sisted of three major areas: Wallachia, Romanian foreign policy clearly favored Moldavia, and Dobrudja (Dobrudzha). the Entente. In October 1914, Carol I died. While the inhabitants of Wallachia and He was succeeded by his nephew, Ferdinand Moldavia were predominantly ethnic I (1865–1927), who allowed Bra˘tianu to Romanians and practiced Eastern Orthodox control foreign policy. Throughout 1915, Christianity, Dobrudja contained a much the Romanian premier bargained with the more diverse population, including many Entente. He demanded simultaneous Allied Muslims. Indeed, in this area, Romanians offensives on the Eastern and Western were in the minority. Romania was rich in Fronts to exert maximum pressure on the grains with abundant arable land, and its oil Central Powers, which came in 1916 with fields at Ploest¸i were the largest in Europe. the Somme and the Brusilov offensives. He On August 27, 1916, Romania declared also asked for, and obtained, stocks of war war on the Central Powers. This came as mate´riel from the Allies. Most importantly, something of a surprise, as Romania had he secured promises of Romanian territorial signed a defensive military alliance with aggrandizement, including Transylvania but Germany in 1883 that had been renewed also the Banat of Temesvar, a rich agricul- by Romanian king Carol I in 1913. Carol tural region; Bukovina; and southern (1839–1914) was also of the Hohenzollern- Galicia. All of these areas had mixed popu- Sigmaringen line and related to German lations. Russia agreed that if Romania kaiser Wilhelm II. entered the war, it would provide 200,000 At the beginning of World War I, the troops to protect that country from a poten- Romanian government declared its neutral- tial Bulgarian attack from the south. The ity. The vast majority of King Carol’s Western Allies also assured Bra˘tianu of Romania in World War I 243 assistance from a half million Allied troops sabotaged the Ploest¸i oil fields on Decem- at Salonika and an expanded effort against ber 5 and set fire to more than 800,000 tons Bulgaria. The promise of an Entente offen- of oil. The Central Powers occupied the sive against Bulgaria seemed to provide capital of Bucharest on December 6, 1916, Romania with the security it wanted against and the Romanian army was forced into the a Bulgarian attack. The apparent success of northeast corner of the country, across the the Brusilov Offensive finally persuaded Serit River, in Moldavia to regroup. the Romanians to join the Entente. Combined Romanian and Russian forces On August 17, 1916, Romania officially launched an attack across the Serit River signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Tri- into Moldavia in July 1917, and in the ple Entente. Ten days later, the Romanian battles of Ma˘ra˘s¸ti, Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, and Oituz government declared war on the Central they defeated the Central Powers forces, Powers and sent 80 percent of its army in although with high casualty rates. The an invasion of Austria-Hungary to secure defensive victories of 1917, together with a Transylvania. The Allies were caught off French effort to retrain and reequip the guard by the Romanian attempt to take Romanian army after the defeats of 1916, Transylvania, as they had anticipated that somewhat restored Romanian morale. Gen- Romania would concentrate its military eral Alexandru Averescu (1859–1938) was efforts against Bulgaria. an important figure in the defensive victories Bulgarian forces, taking advantage of the in Moldavia. The collapse of the Russian weakened Romanian troop deployment military and the second Russian Revolution along the Danube, then attacked north. The in November 1917, however, ended these Bulgarians easily deflected a Romanian efforts. In December 1917, almost all attempt to counterattack across the Danube. Russian troops were withdrawn by the pro- Romania soon found itself fighting on visional Russian government, forcing two fronts: combined German and Austro- Romania to sign an armistice with Germany Hungarian forces to the west and north, and on December 9, known as the Truce of the Bulgarian army to the south. In addition, Foscani. promised Russian assistance did not materi- Romania had no choice but to accept the alize. By the time the Romanians joined the preliminary surrender terms of March 5, Entente, the Russians had exhausted their 1918, which ceded Dobrudja to Bulgaria resources and had started to retreat from and brought the demobilization of its armed the gains they had made under General forces. The Treaty of Bucharest signed on Brusilov because of German pressure. May 7, 1918, formally ended Romanian Finally, the French commander of Allied hostilities between Romania and the Central forces at Salonika, General Maurice Sarrail Powers. It provided for the demobilization (1856–1929), failed to support the Roma- of 5 of 15 Romanian army divisions and nians by promptly attacking the Bulgarians. placed manpower restrictions on the remain- Fighting on two fronts and lacking ing 10. It also set limits of the munitions adequate supplies and reinforcements, the Romania could retain. In addition, Romania poorly trained and equipped Romanian was forced to cede Dobrudja to the Central forces were on the defensive from Septem- Powers, border regions to Austria-Hungary, ber to December 1916. British forces, and control over the Danube to the Central fearing the imminent fall of Romania, Powers (including the right to station 244 Romania in World War I

warships on the river). This treaty and of Austria and Hungary and also to bar Romania’s catastrophic personnel losses— Communist Russia from expansion in a 535,706 in all, 71.4 percent of all Roma- southwesterly direction, the conferees at nians who took up arms, of whom approxi- the Paris Peace Conference granted Roma- mately 200,000 were wounded or prisoners nia important territorial gains that it had and 335,706, 44 percent of the total, were not won on the battlefield. These included dead—were devastating to the country. The the former Hungarian territories of treaty also gave Germany a 90-year lease Transylvania; the eastern Banat, including on the Ploest¸i oil fields and access to its Temesva´r (the remainder was awarded to grain production. Yugoslavia); and southern Dobrudja, first Meanwhile amidst the revolutionary tur- taken from Bulgaria during the Second moil in Russia, the provincial assembly of Balkan War of 1913. The country also Bessarabia, the Sfatul T¸a˘rii, looked to obtained the former Austrian province Romania for security. On April 5, 1918, it of Bukovina, which contained many voted to unify with Romania. Just as Roma- Romanians and Ukrainians. This region, nia suffered defeat in the west, it made gains like Bessarabia, had declared a desire to be in the east. part of Romania. The acquisition of this Romania was saved by the ultimate Allied territory doubled the size of Romania. victory in the war. On September 29, 1918, Many Romanians saw their country Bulgaria was forced to sue for peace. Taking as , Romaˆnia Mare.The heart from this development and the collapse territorial acquisitions, however, also of the Austro-Hungarian war effort, on Octo- brought complex minority problems that ber 12, Romania reconstituted its government served to weaken the country in the decades with the formation of a national council. On that followed. November 10, 1918, one day before the Laura J. Hilton Allied armistice with Germany took effect, See also: Averescu, Alexandru (1859–1938); Romania abrogated the Treaty of Bucharest Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918; Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle and reentered the war on the Allied side. of, 1917 In summer 1919, Romanian forces advanced into Hungary to assist with the overthrow of the Communist government Further Reading of Be´la Kun that had seized power in Buda- Alexandrescu, Vasile. Romania in World War pest the previous March. Romanian forces I: A Synopsis of Military History. Bucha- rest: Military Publishing House, 1985. remained in place as occupiers for several months, extracting heavy reparations (or MacMillan, Margaret. Paris, 1919: Six Months That Changed the World.NewYork: looting) and seeking an advantageous Random House, 2002. military and territorial position prior to Petrescu-Comnene, Nicolae. The Great War Hungary’s eventual conclusion of the Treaty and the Rumanians: Notes and Documents of Trianon with the Allies in June 1920. on World War I.Ias¸i: Center for Romanian Although Allied pressure forced Romania Studies, 2000. to withdraw its forces from Hungary in late Torrey, Glenn E. Romania and World War I: 1919, in practice Romania benefited greatly A Collection of Studies.Ias¸i, Romania, from the Allied victory. In an effort to and Portland, OR: Center for Romanian strengthen that country against a resurgence Studies, 1998. Romania in World War II 245

Torrey, Glenn E. The Romanian Battlefront in Hungary also secured German and Italian World War I. Lawrence: University Press support for the return of territory lost to of Kansas, 2011. Romania following World War I. Under terms of the of Romania in World War II August 30, 1940, dictated by Germany and Italy to stabilize the political situation Romania played an important role in World between Romania and Hungary, Romania War II. A major producer of both oil and ceded to Hungary north-central Transylva- grain, it had the third-largest military estab- nia and other Romanian territory north lishment of the European Axis powers, and of Oradea. Also under German pressure, after it switched sides in August 1944, it Romania ceded to Bulgaria southern became the fourth-largest Allied military Dobrudja in the September 7, 1940, Treaty presence. Romania entered the war for of Craiova, thereby restoring the pre–World nationalistic reasons—to maintain its War I boundary between those two states. independence and reclaim territories lost in Almost overnight, Romania had lost half of 1940. its territory and population, greatly reducing Following the Balkan Wars and World its ability to defend itself. War I, Romania secured territories from Romania’s King Carol II (1893–1953) Hungary and Russia that united most Roma- never had popular support. Married to nian peoples into a single country for the a Greek princess, he flaunted his long- first time in centuries, a source of great time love affair with his mistress, Elena national pride. In the acquisition of Transyl- “Magda” Lupescu (1895–1977). His vania from Hungary, it also secured a restive government was further destabilized by fre- Hungarian population. Hungary was bent on quent cabinet turnovers and widespread cor- the return of that territory. The Soviet Union ruption. National outrage over the loss of also sought the return of Bessarabia. To Romanian territories to the Soviet Union, shore up his southern flank, Adolf Hitler Hungary, and Bulgaria allowed the pro- put heavy pressure on Hungary, Romania, Fascist, anti-Semitic Iron Guard to force and Bulgaria to join the Axis powers. On Carol’s abdication on September 6, 1940. May 29, 1940, the Romanian government He fled Bucharest with his mistress and announced its acceptance of Hitler’s plan nine train cars loaded with royal booty. for “a new European order.” Bereft of Carol’s 19-year old son, Michael (Mihai; French and British support, it had no alter- (1921–), replaced him but was an impotent native. Under the terms of the German- figurehead. Real power rested in the recently Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 23, appointed prime minister and World War I 1939, the Soviet Union had been awarded military hero General Ion Antonescu Bessarabia. In the wake of the defeat of (1882–1946), who proclaimed himself con- France, Soviet leader Josef Stalin cashed in ducta˜tor (leader). Intensely nationalistic, his remaining chips. Both Germany and Antonescu managed to maintain significant Italy pressured Romania to accede to the independence within the Nazi sphere. Soviet demands of June 28, 1940, to give In October 1940, the first of 500,000 the Soviet Union Bessarabia and also German “advisers” arrived in Romania, northern Bukovina, which had not been ostensibly to protect Ploest¸i, the site of Soviet territory before. Europe’s second-largest oil fields. Romania 246 Romania in World War II

Green-shirted young fascists, Romania’s Iron Guard, stand side-by-side with traditionally- dressed men in the Place de Minai Viteazu in Bucharest, December 10, 1940. (Keystone/ Getty Images)

proved an important source of natural (nonsyn- Romania all the territory between Bessarabia thetic) oil for Germany; it also supplied virtu- and the Black Sea, including Odessa, the ally all of Fascist Italy’s oil during the war. “Russian Marseille.” After taking Odessa at On November 23, Romania officially horrendous cost, increasingly demoralized joined the Axis powers. Antonescu declined Romanian soldiers fought in the Crimea, the to participate in the subjugation of Yugo- Caucasus, and the southern USSR. Romania slavia in April 1941, but he readily assisted furnished more troops to the war against the with the invasion of the Soviet Union in SovietUnionthanallotherGermansatellites order to reclaim Romania’s lost territories combined. Antonescu vainly hoped this to the east. When the invasion began on effort would be rewarded with the return of June 22, 1941, he called for a “holy war” Transylvania, since Hungary provided far against Bolshevism. On July 2–3, Army less support for Hitler’s war. On June 12, Group Antonescu, composed of Romanian 1942, American bombers based in North and German troops, crossed the Prut Africa struck Ploest¸i. Over the next two River. By midmonth, Romania again owned years, no single raid did exceptional damage, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Most but the cumulative effect significantly dimin- Romanians, including frontline troops, ished the flow of oil to Germany. believed their war was over. In an effort to take Stalingrad, Hitler It was not. Antonescu agreed to send stripped the flanks on either side of the Romanian troops to capture the Soviet Black beleaguered city of German forces and sub- Sea port of Odessa. In return, Hitler granted stituted the much less well-equipped, Romania in World War II 247 motivated, and trained Romanian Third deteriorated in 1943 following the Soviet Army to the north, and Fourth Army to the victory in the Battle of Stalingrad, Anto- south. On November 18, a Soviet counter- nescu authorized peace feelers, but these offensive smashed through the Romanian foundered on the Anglo-American insist- ThirdArmy.Twodayslater,theFourth ence on unconditional surrender. On Army suffered the same fate. Both armies August 23, 1944, with Soviet forces having were effectively destroyed. Those Romanian crossed the eastern border, young King soldiers who sought safety in Stalingrad Michael ordered the arrest of Antonescu perished there with their German allies. and announced that Romania was withdraw- Stalingrad was a Romanian as well as a ing from the Axis alliance. Even Romanians German catastrophe. Surviving Romanian were caught by surprise. Antonescu was forces joined the general retreats of 1943. later tried by the Soviets and was executed By the spring of 1944, the Red Army had in June 1945. retaken the Crimea and was on the border Romania turned on its former allies in of prewar Romania. hopes of securing cobelligerent status, as After the Stalingrad disaster, the Roma- Italy had been accorded, and maintaining nians increasingly sought a way out of the its independence after the war. But such war. The government began unofficial con- hopes proved illusory. On October 9, 1944, tacts with the Allies in Ankara. These made British prime minister Winston L. S. little headway because of American and Churchill (1874–1965) and Soviet premier British insistence that the Romanians Josef Stalin (1879–1953) agreed that the would have to deal with the Soviets. USSR would have 90 percent “predomi- The wartime anti-Semitic government nance” in postwar Romania. sanctioned the killing of Jews. More than In February 1945, surrounded by Soviet 40,000 Soviet Jews reportedly were killed tanks, King Michael had little choice but to near Odessa alone, yet about half of Roma- create an essentially Communist govern- nia’s Jews, mainly in the areas of Wallachia ment. That government forced him to abdi- and Moldavia, survived the war. Antonescu cate in December 1947, although Stalin and protected many to utilize their experience U.S. president Harry S. Truman (1884– in industrial and economic management. 1972) both decorated him for personal cour- Additionally, a long-standing tradition of age in overthrowing Antonescu. Trapped corruption among Romanian officials made between major powers, Romania had tried buying fake identity papers and passports to hold on to its land, people, and indepen- relatively simple. dence by allying itself first with one side Throughout 1942, Antonescu was under and then with the other. Instead, it became considerable pressure from other Romanian a Communist . Of all its lost ter- political leaders to withdraw the nation’s ritories, only Transylvania was returned to troops from the Soviet Union, but he refused Romania after the war. to do so. He pointed out that the army was Gerald D. Swick more than 900 miles deep inside Soviet See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Carol territory and that the Germans controlled II, King of Romania (1893–1953); Holocaust the lines of communication and would in the Balkans; Michael I, King of Romania surely wreak vengeance on Romania and (1921–); Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944; occupy the country. As the military situation 248 Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1919

Romania, Invasion of, 1944; Romanian Coup, November 9 on the side of the Entente. The August 1944; Second Vienna Award, Stalin- Romanians acted quickly to occupy the grad, Battle of, 1942–1943; Vienna Award, Austro-Hungarian lands promised to them Second by the Entente. Further Reading In March 1919, a Communist government ´ Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Christian under Bela Kun (1886–1938?) took power in Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- Hungary. The Romanian army advanced nian Armed Forces in the European War, against Kun’s forces with the approval of 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour the Allied powers, then meeting in Paris. Press, 1995. By April 30, the Romanians, meeting little Butler, Rupert. Hitler’s Jackals. Barnsley, UK: resistance, reached the Tisza River. In July, Leo Cooper, 1998. however, the Hungarians counterattacked Ceausescu, Ilie, Florin Constantiniu, and Mihail and threw the Romanians back from the E. Ionescu. A Turning Point in World War II: river. The Romanians responded with a 23 August 1944 in Romania.NewYork: renewal of their offense. They crossed the Columbia University Press, 1985. Tisza on August 1, 1919, and two days Goralski, Robert, and Russell W. Freeburg. Oil later entered Budapest. That same day, Be´la and War: How the Deadly Struggle for Fuel Kun resigned. Within days, the Romanians in WWII Meant Victory or Defeat.New had occupied all of Hungary except for York: William Morrow, 1987. some areas around Lake Balaton. Hazard, Elizabeth W. Cold War Crucible: While in Hungary, the Romanians availed United States Foreign Policy and the Con- flict in Romania, 1943–1953.NewYork: themselves to large quantities of Hungarian Columbia University Press, 1996. property, including food, machinery and rail- Ioanid, Radu. Holocaust in Romania: The road rolling stock. With Kun and the Commu- Destruction of Jews and Gypsies under the nist government gone, the Entente ceased to Antonescu Regime, 1940–1944. Chicago: support the Romanian presence in Hungary. Ivan R. Dee, 2000. The Romanians’ conduct in Hungary caused the Entente Powers to pressure them to Romanian Campaign in Hungary, leave. Beginning in mid-November 1919, the 1919 Romanian army began to evacuate Hungary and gradually returned to the line established by the Treaty of Trianon in March 1920. The Romania entered World War I on August 27, campaign in Hungary cost the Romanians 1916, mesmerized by Entente promises of around 11,600 casualties, and any chance for Austro-Hungarian territories including a peaceful relationship with that country. Bukovina, Temesvar, and Transylvania. The Richard C. Hall Central Powers’ invasion of Romania in the fall of 1916 dimmed these expectations, See also: Romania in World War I; Trianon, and the surrender of Romania to the Central Treaty of, 1920 Powers with the Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 ended them. The collapse of Austria- Further Reading Hungary in October 1918 revived Romanian Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. hopes. Romania reentered the war on Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1944–1945 249

Torrey, Glenn. The Romanian Battlefront in clashes between Hungarian and Romanian World War I. Lawrence: University Press troops. In early September, Soviet and of Kansas, 2011. Romanian forces entered Transylvania and Torrey, Glenn. “The Romanian Intervention in captured several small towns as they Hungary, 1919.” In Glenn E. Torrey, Roma- advanced toward the Mures¸ River and Cluj, nia and World War I. Ias¸i: Center for Roma- the historical capital of Transylvania. On nian Studies, 1998. October 11, Soviet and Romanian forces captured Cluj after a monthlong battle Romanian Campaign in Hungary, against the Hungarians and the German 1944–1945 . Between September 14 and 17, the Hungarian army fought the Roma- This campaign by the Romanian army, nians in the battle of Pa˘ulis¸. The Hungarians alongside the Soviet army, in Hungary after made some initial gains, but the Romanians the Romanian king Michael I (1921–) over- soon stopped the Hungarian advance. Soon threw the pro-Nazi regime of Ion Antonescu afterward, a combined Romanian-Soviet (1882–1946) in August 1944 and declared counterattack overwhelmed the Hungarians, war on the Axis powers. who retreated back to Hungarian territory On August 23, 1944, King Michael I on September 21. deposed Antonescu’s government and, soon In late October 1944, the advancing afterward, declared war on the Axis powers Soviet army with Romanian units advanced as the Soviet army advanced on the Molda- toward the Hungarian capital, Budapest, vian front. Michael then placed the Roma- defended by Hungarians and Germans. On nian army, numbering a million men, on November 7, Soviet and Romanian troops the Allied side to defend Romania. These entered the city’s eastern suburbs. By actions split the Romanian army in two, December 29, the Soviets and Romanians with units that still supported Germany and had completely encircled the city, and the those that supported the new government. battle for the city turned into a siege. With On August 24, German troops attempted to the city in ruins, the remaining defenders seize Bucharest, Romania’s capital. However, surrendered to the Soviets on February 15, Romanian forces stopped the Germans at the 1945. The Romanian army ended the war city’s defenses. Romanian units then forced fighting alongside the Soviet army against the German garrisons at the Ploest¸i oilfields the Germans in Transylvania, Hungary, to retreat to Hungary. The coup accelerated Yugoslavia, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. the Soviet army’s advance into Romania but Robert B. Kane did not prevent the Soviet army from captur- See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Iron ing about 130,000 Romanian soldiers who Guard; Michael I, King of Romania (1921–); were taken to the Soviet Union, where many Romania, Invasion of, 1944; Romania in perished in prison camps. Michael signed an World War II armistice on September 12, 1944, in which he announced Romania’s unconditional sur- Further Reading render to the Soviet Union and occupation Case, Holly. Between States: The Transylva- by the Soviet army. nian Question and the European Idea Romania’s declaration of war on Ger- during World War II. Stanford, CA: many almost immediately led to border Stanford University Press, 2009. 250 Romanian Coup, August 1944

Ceausescu, Ilie, Florin Constantiniu, and Romanian political opposition groups, Mihail E. Ionescu. ATurningPointin important military leaders, and even Anto- World War II: 23 August 1944 in Romania. nescu were seeking a way to extricate Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, Romania from the war. The National 1985. Democratic Bloc was formed on June 20, Georgescu, Vlad, ed. Romania40Years 1944, a political conspiracy and alliance (1944–1984). New York: Praeger, 1985. dedicated to the removal of Antonescu and Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. an end to war with the Allies. The con- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. spiracy consisted of King Michael and his advisors, royalist military leaders such Romanian Coup, August 1944 as General Constantin Sanatescu, head of the Royal Military House and commander On August 23, 1944, King Michael (1921–) oftheRomanianFourthArmysince of Romania ordered the arrest of Prime Min- March 1943, and the leaders of several ister Ion Antonescu (1882–1946), the fascist opposition parties including dictator (conducta˜ tor)ofRomaniasince (1873–1953) of the National Peasants’ September 5, 1940. The timing of the coup Party, Gheorghe Bratianu (1989–1953) was forced by the rapid successful invasion of the National Liberal Party, Constantin of Romania by the Soviet army, which had Titel Petrescu (1888–1957) of the Social begun on August 20, 1944. King Michael Democratic Party, and Lucretiu Pa˘tra˘s¸canu immediately named as interim prime minis- (1900–1954) of the Communist Party. ter Constantin Sanatescu (1885–1947), a During June and July 1944, Germany weak- trusted general who had been conspiring ened its forces in Romania, causing those with King Michael and others against Anto- hostile to Antonescu to become by early nescu. The new Romanian government August more confident in their ability to immediate sought to end the war with the remove his regime without interference Soviet Union and switched Romania to the from Germany. side of the Allies. On August 20, 1944, the Soviet Union After more than a decade of unstable gov- launched an offensive invading Romania ernments and international crises, General that quickly overwhelmed the weakened Ion Antonescu took over the dictatorial German and Romanian armies. With reports power of King Carol II (1893–1953) on Sep- of a military collapse in progress, the con- tember 5, 1940. Taking the title of conducta˜- spiracy met on August 21 and set August 26, tor (leader), Antonescu forced the 1944, as the date to seize control of the abdication of King Carol II to his son, King government from Antonescu and from the Michael, who remained as monarch the German forces in Romania. With the Soviet symbolic leader of the military and head of army advancing rapidly in the direction of state with powers to appoint the prime min- Bucharest, the capital of Romania, Anto- ister. Under Antonescu, Romania signed nescu met with King Michael in his palace the Tripartite Pact of the Axis powers on on August 23, 1944. Antonescu declared November 23, 1940, and joined in Ger- his intentions to negotiate with Germany many’s invasion of the Soviet Union on for release of Romania from its treaty with June 22, 1941. By late 1943, the war was the Axis and to seek protection and guaran- going poorly for Germany and numerous tees from the Western Allies against Soviet Romanian Peasant Uprising 251 occupation. With neither possibility being Further Reading even remotely realistic, King Michael ordered Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Cristian his palace guard to arrest Antonescu. Later Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- that evening, King Michael broadcast to the nian Armed Forces in the European War, country that Antonescu had been removed, 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1995. that all fighting with the Allies was to cease, and he had named General Constantin Sana- Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin: Stalin’s War with Germany.Vol.2.NewHaven, tescu the interim prime minister. CT: Yale University Press, 1999. There was no organized domestic resis- Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. tance to the removal of Antonescu and the Vo l. 2, Twentieth Century.Cambridge: political leaders of the National Democratic Cambridge University Press, 1983. Bloc were given government ministerial positions. Any threat of Germany countering the coup ended after a few days of failed Romanian Peasant Uprising efforts to take control of the capital (August 24–August 28) by the German Luft- The peasant uprising of 1907 was one of the waffe General Alfred Gerstenberg (1893– most violent uprisings in Romanian history. 1959) commanding a motorized detachment The uprising, which started in February in of approximately 2,000 men (as well as anti- northern Moldavia and later spread through- aircraft guns) from the Fifth Flak Division out the country, lasted until mid-April and based in Ploest¸i. Attempts to reinforce Ger- was a result of long-standing dissatisfaction stenberg’s force with the Brandenburg para- with the inability of the government to chute battalion (stationed in occupied improve the position of peasants. The peas- Yugoslavia) from August 24 to August 26 ant population increased during the nine- failed completely. By August 31, 1944, the teenth century, but the plots that were Soviet army had entered Bucharest. subdivided through inheritance were too Pressured by the Allies and with German small to support them. The position of peas- forces attempting to seize Bucharest, the ants deteriorated further when the rents on new government declared war on Germany property rose sharply by the end of the nine- on August 24, 1944, the day after the coup. teenth century. Most peasants owned no By August 31, 1944, the Soviet army and land, did not benefit from the export of Romanian army had eliminated all German crops that they produced, and had no real resistance in Romania. Ion Antonescu had voting power. been in the custody of the Communist ele- Prior to the peasant uprising of 1907, ments of the conspiracy before being given there were several peasant revolts and sev- to the Red Army on August 30, which then eral attempts at reform, all of which failed transferred him to Moscow. Antonescu was to achieve the desired results because of later returned to Romania to stand trial and their inefficiency and economic and finan- was executed on June 1, 1946. cial difficulties of the state. Several factors Brian G. Smith worsened the situation of peasants. The pop- See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Michael ulation increase did not go hand in hand I, King of Romania (1921–); Romania, Invasion with mechanization of agriculture or use of of, 1944; Romania in World War II new techniques and fertilizers. Instead, the 252 Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812

peasants continued to rely on wooden plows passed to pacify the peasants after the and oxen. Inheritance laws in place sup- revolt—for example, to establish a rural ported the equal division of land among all bank to aid peasants in purchasing land— the children, and as a result, many children most reforms were insufficient and were were left with tiny plots insufficient to feed brought to a complete halt by the onset of the young families. Buying additional or World War I. Presumably, the uprising dem- new land was not easy to achieve, since the onstrated that the peasant situation and land money landing conditions were not favor- distribution had to be of primary importance able and resulted in greater indebtedness. for the Romanian government. But because Taxes became increasingly burdensome the reforms were delayed, the economic after Romanian independence and into the transformation failed to take off prior early twentieth century, and even those to 1914. Consequently, the revolt did not peasants who managed to acquire land produce lasting results. from previous Turkish landowners had to Irina Mukhina make excruciatingly high payments. The See also: Aversecu, Alexandru (1859–1938); government attempted to implement limited Carol I, King of Romania (1839–1914); measures concerning agricultural contracts; Romania in the Balkan Wars for example, it allowed the sale of state- owned property to landless peasants in References 1891, but these were ineffective measures Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. in practice. The Jewish question also gener- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. ally came up in the context of rural social Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The problems, though the evidence on the role Establishment of the Balkan National of anti-Semitism and xenophobia in the States, 1804–1920. Seattle: University of uprising is inconclusive. Washington Press, 2011. All of economic and social factors were Palairet, Michael R. The Balkan Economies c. the main reasons of the peasant uprising of 1800–1914: Evolution without Develop- 1907. The revolt was triggered by a refusal ment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. of one landlord to renew peasants’ land leases. Fearing loss of work and livelihood, Treptow, Kurt W., ed. A History of Romania. Ias¸i: Center for Romanian Studies, 1996. peasants started to act violently, and the revolt spread. Several landlords were killed and their property destroyed in the following weeks. ’s (1833–1914) Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812 government declared the state of emergency on March 19, 1907, in hopes of containing The Russo-Ottoman War of 1806–1812 the revolt, and it used military force to began with the Russian invasion of Molda- crush the revolt with brutality in the follow- via in December 1806. Even though the ing month. Some 11,000 peasants were war was fought for control of the Danube killed in the uprising, and an equal number River, which was the psychological and stra- of peasants were arrested. The precise tegic barrier between the two empires, the numbers are still debatable because all course of the war as a whole reflects contem- records were intentionally destroyed by the porary developments unfolding in Europe at government. Even though some laws were that time. Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812 253

Prior to 1806, French diplomacy had been Sistova to the Russian forces under the com- gaining superiority over the coalition in mand of Count Mikhail Kamensky (1738– Istanbul. However, the existing Ottoman 1809). Still, the losses incurred proved too neutrality that enabled Russian warships to great, even for so large an empire as Russia. pass freely through the straits was crucial The regions controlled by the disloyal or for the ascendancy of the coalition in the volatile notables were among the primary Mediterranean. This was the main motiva- targets of the Russian forces. In the spring tion behind the ineffective British expedi- of 1811, General (1745– tions to the straits and to Egypt in 1807. On 1813), who had been promoted to the com- the other hand in the Balkans, the Russian mand of the Moldavian army on the Danube, army had steadily improved. With the help took the stage. This development, which of the Serbs, they took Walachia and Molda- seems to have been a precaution against the via in the course of a six-week campaign. incoming French army, changed the theater The condition of the Ottoman army was of war dramatically. This time the Ottomans deplorable. The Ottoman expeditionary went on the offensive, attacking Ruscuk in forces were a kind of horde, being little order to cut off Russian access to the more than a conglomeration of mercenary Danube in what proved to be the largest con- troops provided by the local magnates. frontation of the entire war. Nevertheless, at Moreover, the fragmentation of the Ottoman the end of 1811, General Kutuzov, under army was worsened by rebellions in the pressure from Czar Alexander I (1777– capital in 1807 and 1808. More than 1825), crossed the Danube and directly 100,000 Ottoman soldiers were mobilized attacked the Ottoman forces. By October 25, on paper. Nevertheless the only effective 1811, a cease-fire had been agreed upon, and Ottoman resistance against the Russian in the following year, a treaty was signed in forces came from the local levies. The Rus- Bucharest. With the enactment of the treaty, sian advances threatened not only the Otto- however, the Sublime Porte lost control over man territorial integrity but also the the Pruth River. semiautonomous positions of the local Otto- Fatih Yes¸il man notables. See also: Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829; Even so, the Russian army was not in Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817 especially good condition, either. The Sub- lime Porte was not able to find men to mobi- lize, but the relatively small Russian army Further Reading under the command of General Ivan I. Aksan, Virginia H. Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: Michelson (1740–1807) was suffering, like An Empire Besieged. London: Pearson Longman, 2007. the Ottomans, from epidemics, insufficient medical facilities, and hunger. As a result, Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky, Alexander Ivano- vich. Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. by the end of 1807, the lines between the Edited and translated by A. Mikaberidze. Ottoman and Russian forces had stabilized. West Chester: The Nafziger Collection, But in 1809, Russia once more went on the 2002. offensive with the aim of achieving their Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- ultimate goal of crossing the Danube. In tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern this operation, the Ottomans abandoned Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Revolution and Ruse (Ruscuk), (Nigbolu), and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 254 Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829

1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge commander Agha Huseyin Pasha (1776– University Press, 1977. 1849) left Istanbul with his army in late May and reached Shumla, the Ottoman headquarters on the Danubean front, by Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 early June. A bitter rivalry between Husrev, the commander in chief of the newly estab- During the Greek Revolt (1821–1826), the lished Ottoman central army (Asakir-i Man- European Powers had forced the Ottoman sure) and Grand Vizier Mehmed Selim government to recognize the Greek privi- (1771–1831) kept the two best commanders leges. Russia was also determined to enforce of Ottoman troops close to the sultan in the unfinished stipulations of the Treaty of Constantinople. With surrendered at Bucharest (1812), especially those about the end of June, the Ottoman operational Serbia and the Danubian Principalities. base in the Eastern Front was cut in two. Upon the denial of their demands by Sultan The next target was the semiautonomous Mahmud II (1785–1839), the combined principality of Akhaltzikhe. The Ottoman French, British, and Russian fleet destroyed Eastern Army could not prevent Paskevich the Ottoman-Egyptian navy at Navarino in and retreated to the fortress. After bombings 1827. As a consequence of the persistent and street fightings between August 13 and unwillingness of Sultan Mahmud II to nego- 16, Akhaltzikhe capitulated. , Beya- tiate peace, Czar Nicholas (1796–1855) zid, Diyadin, and Eleshkirt fell conse- declared war on April 14, 1828. In fact, quently. On the Danubean front, Russians both sides had valid reasons to avoid a mili- found Bucharest devastated after occupying tary confrontation. Following the abolition it in mid-May 1828. The Ottomans in the of Janissary Corps in June 1826 and the Balkan theater remained in their fortresses sinking of its fleet at Navarino, the Ottoman and avoided battle in the open field. They goverment was rebuilding its army and limited operations to attacks on isolated navy. On the other hand, the czar was afraid units and on Russian supply lines. In fact, of an alliance between his enemy and other the Russian war command was not in favor European Powers. of an immediate Balkan mountain crossing Nevertheless, the war broke out in and a decisive offensive to Istanbul until May 1828 when the Russians advanced into the their reserves arrived. The initial Russian the Danubian Principalities in the West and plan was to defeat the main Ottoman forces the Caucasian mountains in the East. On at Shumla and take the fortresses of Ibrail, April 25, 1828, the VI and VII Corps of the Silistra (Silistre), and Varna by siege. RussianSecondArmycrossedthePrut Czar Nicholas I joined the invading army River into Moldavia, while in Caucasus, in early June. The siege of Ibrail began a General Ivan F. Paskevich (1782–1856) week later. In spite of the use of heavy marched with his troops on Kars. Shortly siege artillery, the Ottoman garrison resisted thereafter, a Russsian amphibious operation 43daysandsurrenderedonJune23after captured the Ottoman Black Sea fortresses Machin had capitulated. Meanwhile, the at Anapa and Poti. Transported by boats Ottoman Danube fleet lost 13 gunboats to of local Cossacks on the northern Danube, Russian flotilla fire and was forced to retire the Russians first crossed the Danube at to Ruschuk. Shortly thereafter, the Ottoman Satunovo in early May. The Ottoman fortresses such as Hirsova, I˙sakchı, , Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 255 and Kostence capitulated. In surrendering commander, General Hans Karl von Die- the fortifications, the Ottomans supplied bitsch (1785–1831), moved from Silistra to their enemy with much-needed stores. Pravadi. Reshid Pasha intended to mount Afterward, the main Russian army pro- another flank attack to cut off the Russian ceeded against Varna via Bazarcik. The forces at Varna and then head north to Ottoman garrison in Varna repulsed the first relieve the besieged forces of Silistra. Sum- Russian assualt. On July 20, the czar moning the Russian troops from Varna to marched at the head of his entire army on Kozluca, Diebitsch barred the Grand the road to Shumla, which was a well- Vizier’s passage on the Pravadi road back fortified and well-supplied fortress. The to Shumla and closed the pass of Kulevcha. attacking Russians lost many men and The Ottoman soldiers, charging impetuously horses due to hunger, exhaustion, and Otto- at first, soon dispersed following a Russian man counter attacks. artillery barrage and turned the battle into The czar subsequently left the theater of a rout. war for Odessa. In autumn, the arrival of However, the new Turkish commander’s reinforcements allowed the Russians to willingness to give battle played into invest the northern side of the fortress. The Russian hands. A six-week siege of Silistra Russian fleet reached Varna the first week resulted in the capitulation of the garrison of August and captured two Ottoman ships on June 18. The Russians decided on when a third sunk. On September 28, the July 13, 1829, to bypass Shumla, cross the Ottoman relief force sent from Shumla Balkan mountain range and aim for Edirne. forced a Russian witdrawal at the battle of At the same time, the Russian navy captured Kurttepe. On October 10, however, the Rus- Burgas. Aydos fell by July 26. But weakness sians captured Varna, but they were not able in the Russian forces and logistical system to force the surrender of Silistra (Silistre). cut the offensive short just as they captured Due to Ottoman assaults and cold weather, Edirne mid-August 1829. the Russians lost 2,000 of 25,000 men and On the Eastern Front, Russian and Otto- lifted the siege in November. In the winter man troops confronted before the surrender break of the war, Ottomans made attacks of Erzurum. Attacking the weak center of on forces left at the garrisons. The Russians, the Ottoman army, Russians cut the front on the other hand, burnt the Ottoman Danu- into two. Finally, on July 27, 1829, the Otto- bean flotilla and captured Suzebolu in the man headquarters on the eastern front, Erzu- south of Burgas. rum, capitulated without a fight. Then In the spring of 1829, the second scene of Paskevich defeated the Ottoman forces the war begun and the Russian forces sieged around Gumushane and took the fortress. Silistre once again. Instead of remaining at There, however, Paskevich’s regular and defense, Grand Vizier Reshid Mehmed militia forces were defeated at by Pasha (1780–1839) had surprisingly decided the local Laz militia. The well-defensed to march with his main army out of Shumla and naturally fortified Trabzon remained and attack the avant-garde of the Russian out of Paskevich’s successful captures, such center barring the route to Varna and as Batum and . General Diebitsch was Silistra. They clashed as eski-Arnautlar, within a day’s march or two of Edirne in where the Russians inflicted heavy losses the west when the Ottoman grand vizier pro- on the Ottomans. The new Russian field posed an armistice. Following the retreat of 256 Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878

Ottoman forces, Edirne capitulated on Further Reading August 20 without a fight. Aksan, Virginia H. Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: The Ottomans admitted defeat in mid- An Empire Besieged. London: Pearson August by acquiescing to the Treaty of Lon- Longman, 2007. don (1827) and the Convention of Akkirman Allen, W. E. D., and Paul Muratoff. Caucasian (1826). However, only after an additional Battlefields: a History of the Wars on the show of force by Diebitsch, the Treaty of Turco-Caucasian Border 1828–1921. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953. Adrianople was signed by the two sides on September 14, 1829. By this treaty, the Prut Bitis, Alexander. Russia and the Eastern Ques- tion: Army, Government, and Society 1815– remained the European Russo-Ottoman fron- 1833. New York: Oxford University Press, tier, but Russian acquired all the islands of 2006. the very mouth of the Danube. Many of the Yildiz, Gu¨ltekin. Neferin Adı Yok: Zorunlu great fortresses of the Ottomans on the lower Askerlig˘eGec¸is¸Su¨recinde Osmanlı Devle- Danube, including Ibrail, Tulcea, Isakchi, ti’nde Siyaset, Ordu ve Toplum (1826– Machin and Kostence, were to be destructed. 1839). Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2009. Thus the Ottoman first line of defense became the Balkan Mountains rather than the Danube Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878 itself. In Caucasus, the border ran along the edges of the pashaliks of Akhaltzikhe, Trab- zon, Kars and Erzurum. The last of a series of conflicts between the Other treaty stipulations forced the Otto- Russian and Ottoman Empires resulted man recognition of the Treaty of London from Russian expansionism and Ottoman (July 6, 1827) laying out the settlement of decline. These conflicts were part of a con- the Greek question, as well as of the tinuing crisis in which Balkan instability independence of Wallachia and Moldovia, growing out of the decline of the Ottoman although the fictive connection of those Empire threatened the peace of Europe. Principalities to the Ottomans was main- They grew out of Russia’s drive to secure tained. Serbia’s freedom was also guaran- her southern borders and dominate the teed. With the agreement of March 22, Balkans. In addition, the Russians sought to 1829, ensuring the enforcement of the stipu- regain losses they had sustained in the lations of the London Treaty, Greek Crimean War of 1853–1856. The Porte’s independence was guaranteed, six districts decline and ethnic tensions in her Balkan were left to Serbians, the privileges of Prin- provinces fueled Russian ambitions. cipalities had changed. Again by this treaty, The immediate cause of the 1877–1878 the Russian merchant ships acquired free- war was the Russian desire to aid the Balkan dom of trade in the Black Sea and passage rebellions of 1875 and 1876 against Otto- through the Straits. These gains cost the man rule. The crisis erupted in 1875 with Russians 140,000 men and 50,000 horses scattered peasant rebellions in Bulgaria— during this war, mainly due to epidemics the poorest and most exploited of the Otto- and famine. man Empire’s Balkan possessions—and Gu¨ltekin Yildiz was fanned with an ill-considered attack by Serbia against the Ottomans in Bosnia in See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– the summer and early fall of 1876, which 1832; Navarino, Battle of, 1827 the Ottomans swiftly crushed. Despite Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878 257

Serbia’s defeat, the revolts in Bulgaria inten- the Russian army, which crossed the Balkan sified throughout the rest of 1876 and into Mountains and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1877. Turkish forces carried out wholesale 1878 and Adrianople (Edirne) on January 20. massacres that inflamed public opinion It now lay in a position to directly threaten throughout Europe and Great Britain and Constantinople, and Russian advance to the led to growing demands in Russian Slavo- Ottoman capital provoked a British response. phil and Nationalist circles for Czar Britain intervened pressuring the Russians to Alexander II (1818–1881) and his advisers negotiate a truce with the Turks. The Russians to act. accepted a cease-fire on January 31 but con- On April 24, 1877, after several months of tinued advancing toward Constantinople. diplomatic maneuvering in which the Rus- The British responded by sending a naval sians gained the acquiescence of Germany task force to the Sea of Marmara. Although and Austria-Hungary and the active support incensed by Britain’s action, Russia was of Romania, Russia formally declared war alarmed by the British presence around Con- on Turkey. The Russian plan called for a stantinople and, to avoid a pan-European con- force of 250,000 men to push through flict, chose to seek armistice with the Turks. Romania, cross the Danube upstream of the The Russian army halted at San Stefano, just main Turkish forces, pass through the Bal- a few miles from Constantinople. kan Mountains, and seize Adrianople before Over the next few weeks, Russian and advancing on the Ottoman capital at Con- Ottoman diplomats conducted negotiations stantinople. They also launched a diversion- that resulted in the Treaty of San Stefano of ary offensive in the Caucuses to prevent the March 3, 1878. The treaty established an in- Turks from reinforcing their Balkan armies dependent “Greater Bulgaria,” which the with troops from Asia Minor. A quick vic- Russians envisioned as a satellite state tory was vital. A prolonged war meant inter- through which they could control the Bal- vention by the other European powers and a kans. Bosnia-Herzegovina was granted strain on Russia’s economy. autonomy. Romania, Serbia, and Monte- The Russian campaign was unexpectedly negro received independence and enlarged held up by the stubborn Turkish defense of at the expense of Ottoman territorial losses. Plevna (Pleven) in west central Bulgaria. Alarmed by the expansion of Russian Pleven’s strategic importance lay in its loca- power implicit in the San Stefano pact, the tions at the crossroads linking Bulgaria’s European powers, led by Britain and vital roadways. Continuing Ottoman posses- Germany, convened the Congress of Berlin sion of the city constituted a grave threat to and forced Russia to accept modifications Russian supply and communication lines. in the treaty. The resulting Treaty of Berlin Three times—twice in July and once in Sep- gave Russia southern Bessarabia, Batumi, tember 1877—the Russians assaulted Ardahan, and Kars as well as a vast war Pleven only to be repulsed with heavy losses indemnity (some 800 million French francs) andforcedtolayasiegetoit.Atthesame that the Porte was required to pay in the time, the Russian army crossed the Ottoman ensuing years. It also broke up Greater Bul- border in eastern Anatolia and captured garia into a smaller independent state, Ardahan, Bayazid, Kars, and Erzurum. placed Bosnia-Herzegovina under Austrian In late November 1877, after a five- protectorate, and recognized the indepen- month-long siege, Pleven surrendered to dence of Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro. 258 Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878

Russian ambitions were thwarted, but the Faroqhi, Suraiya, ed. The Cambridge History Berlin agreement left many issues, particu- of Turkey: The Later Ottoman Empire, larly Slavic nationalism and Austrian and 1603–1839. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Russian ambitions in the region, unresolved. The war had a profound impact on the Otto- O’Connor, M. P. “The Vision of Soldiers: Britain, France, Germany, and the United man Empire, which lost 8 percent of its most States Observe the Russo-Turkish War.” productive territory and some 20 percent of War in History 4, no. 3 (July 1997): its total population. The war also significantly 264–95. altered the demographics of the Ottoman state Seton-Watson, R. W. Disraeli, Gladstone, and since most of the Orthodox Christian popula- the . New York: Macmil- tion was lost. The Ottoman economy was lan, 1935. saddled with heavy reparations. Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- Walter F. Bell tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Revolution and See also: Berlin, Treaty of 1878; Pleven, Siege Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, of, 1877; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Further Reading Drury, Ian, and Raffael Ruggeri. The Russo- Turkish War 1877. Oxford: Osprey, 1994. S

Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 1919 the territorial ambitions of the victors, nota- bly Italy. The conferees at Paris had decided The Treaty of Saint-Germain established on the creation of two new states in Czecho- peace between the Allied and Associated slovakia and Yugoslavia (South Slavia), the Powers and Austria. Signed at Saint- territory of which was in large part formed Germain-en-Laye, in the suburbs of Paris, by land taken from the Dual Monarchy. In on September 10, 1919, this treaty was the drawing the frontiers of the new states, product of the Paris Peace Conference, as where there was no clear line of nationality, were the other treaties that complemented the dispute was to be settled in plebiscites. the with Germany. The The old Austro-Hungarian monarchy Treaty of Saint-Germain took effect on dissolved into Austria and Hungary, but July 16, 1920. Another treaty was signed at its lands also went to Czechoslovakia, Trianon with Hungary. Together, these two Yugoslavia, Italy, Poland, and Romania. treaties provided for the breakup of the The new Austria constituted the area Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary and populated by the German-speaking inhabi- undertook to settle the considerable prob- tants of the prewar Austria-Hungary. lems that resulted from the dissolution of Altogether, Austria lost about three- the old Habsburg Empire. Some decisions quarters of the former Austrian territory in were also no doubt affected by the continuing the Dual Monarchy, excluding Hungarian conflict with what the Allied Supreme Coun- territory. Except for the confiscation of cil called the “Maximalist Government of Germany’s colonies, this was the most Russia” (that is, the Bolshevik government), severe amputation of territory resulting such as when the council forced the from the conference. government of the new state of Poland to Romania gained Bukovina, which had accept a settlement of the Teschen dispute been annexed by Austria in 1775 and incor- imposed by the Allies. In theory, Austria was porated into Galicia. The conferees at made liable for reparations, but no money Paris did not take into account claims on was ever paid, as once more the Allies were Bukovina by Ukrainians to the north and haunted by the specter of Bolshevik Revolu- Romanians to the south. tion if the population was left destitute. Italy gained Istria, the Trento, and the The drafters of the treaty with Austria had whole of Friul, given to Austria in 1815, to reconcile impossible objectives. They and it received Trieste on the Dalmatian were caught between the principle of “self- coast. All of these were Italian-speaking determination of peoples” championed by regions. Italy also gained the South Tyrol, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson (1856– promised to it by the secret Treaty of 1924), which sought to redraw the map of London of 1915, even though this clearly vio- Europe along lines of clear nationality, and lated the principle of “self-determination

259 260 Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 1919

of peoples” given that the area indisputably Hungary; however, under the Treaty of had a German-speaking population of some Saint-Germain, Austria lost some Dalmatian 240,000. The South Tyrol included the stra- territory to it. The major bone of contention tegically vital Brenner Pass. was over southern Carinthia, the future Italy also claimed the port of Fiume of which was to be decided by plebiscite. (Croat: Rijeka), which was not part of A first plebiscite, in October 1920, favored the London agreement. This had been a mat- Austria, and a second was canceled, with ter of great dispute at the Paris Peace the whole area remaining Austrian. Conference; indeed, Italian diplomats left the The frontier with Hungary was also com- conference for a time over it. No compromise plex. Austria gained some territory that was reached over Fiume, which had been part had been part of the former Kingdom of of the old Kingdom of Hungary. Hungary, notably the Burgenland, but The region of Galicia, with the old city of Hungary’s protests were partially success- Cracow, annexed by Austria after the first ful. The Allies accepted that the future of Partition of Poland in 1772 and claimed by the Burgenland should be decided by a Polish and Ukrainian nationalists in the nine- plebiscite, which was held in Decem- teenth century, was entrusted to the Allied ber 1921 and resulted in the main towns in powers, who eventually (1923) assigned it to the east, including Sopron, remaining under Poland over vehement Ukrainian opposition, Hungarian control, while the rural areas to most notably in the city of Lwow (Ukrainian: the west went to Austria. ; German: Lemberg). The major immediate problem, however, Czechoslovakia (or Czecho-Slovakia, as was the future of the province of Teschen it was then often called) did not coincide (Polish: Cieszyn; Czech: Te˘sˇ´ın), which precisely with the areas peopled by Czechs formed part of Silesia and had been a and Slovaks. Northern Bohemia, where the Habsburg possession since 1526. It was dis- frontier with Germany was drawn, included puted between the Czechs (it had been part a substantial German-speaking minority, of the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1335) and the Sudeten Germans. Many had settled in the Poles (who made up almost 55 percent the Kingdom of Bohemia in the seventeenth of the prewar population). The Allied century, following the Thirty Years’ War. Supreme Council therefore deferred the Altogether, an estimated 3.5 million German question for subsequent decision, but due to speakers were included in Czechoslovakia. skirmishes between the two nations in This infringement of the principle of self- 1919, the council decided to organize a determination had been implemented on plebiscite. This was never held, as the coun- French insistence, with the argument that cil, preoccupied over Poland’s difficulties the mountains of the Sudetenland provided with Bolshevik Russia, imposed a partition the only natural defensive barrier against in July 1920 that left many Poles in the rich German invasion. Human geography clearly industrial portion given to Czechoslovakia, conflicted with physical geography, but for but no Czechs in the predominantly agrarian security reasons, physical considerations area awarded to Poland. prevailed. Technically, settlement of the Teschen The new “Serb-Croat-Slovene State,” question was omitted from the Treaty of which was to become Yugoslavia, was Saint-Germain. The victors’ embarrassment mainly formed from areas taken from over this dispute between two important Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 261 potential allies against German and Russian Austria and Hungary, 1918–1922. Boulder, expansionism, which prevented them from CO: East European Monographs, 2001. incorporating the area into the treaty, none- The Treaties of Peace, 1919–1923.Vol.1, theless demonstrated the limits on their abil- Containing the Treaty of Versailles, the ity to redefine the map of the old disputed Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon. New York: Carnegie areas in central and eastern Europe so as to Endowment for International Peace, 1924. reconcile their own stated principle of The Treaty of Peace between the Allied and “self-determination of peoples,” the expec- Associated Powers and Austria. Together tations of the nationalities liberated from with other Treaties, Agreements, &c., the Habsburg yoke, and security considera- signed at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Septem- tions, namely the need to contain Bolshevik ber 10, 1919; and Declarations, Treaties, expansion and prevent a resurgence of and other Documents Relevant Thereto, German power. Signed at Paris, December 5 and 8, 1919, Austria itself was disarmed, with its and July 16, 1920, and at Se`vres, August 10, forces limited to 30,000 armed men. Article 1920. London: HMSO, 1921. 88 of the treaty expressly prohibited union with Germany, which many Austrians favored (the so-called ), without Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 the unanimous consent of the League of Nations. The Allies had managed to dis- Sakarya River was a major battle of the member and disarm the former Habsburg Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, known as Empire, but the Treaty of Saint-Germain National Struggle in the Turkish historiogra- probably created at least as many problems phy and as Asia Minor Catastrophe in the as it resolved. Greek historiography. It was one of the lon- Antoine Capet gest battles in the Near East and lasted for about 22 days (August 23–September 13). See also: Little Entente The Greeks had undertaken offensive action to eliminate the Turkish nationalist Further Reading forces in the center of Anatolia. The Greek Almond, Nina, and Ralph Haswell Lutz, eds. offensive came to a halt, and Turkish forces The Treaty of St. Germain: A Documentary took the offensive initiative after this battle. History of Its Territorial and Political In summer 1921, Greek forces commenced Clauses, with a Survey of the Documents their attack with a great deal of encourage- of the Supreme Council of the Paris Peace ment by the British upon the Ankara Conference. Hoover War Library Publica- tions, No. 5. Stanford, CA: Stanford government to have the latter recognize the University Press, 1935. Se`vres treaty of August 1920. Greeks took MacMillan, Margaret. Paris, 1919: Six Months their offensive positions in the west bank of That Changed the World. New York: the Sakarya River against the Turks, who Random House, 2002. were expecting them in the east bank. Both Stadler, Karl. The Birth of the Austrian Repub- sides fought fiercely, and during one of the lic, 1918–1921. Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, bloodiest moments of the battle, Mustafa 1966. Kemal Pasha uttered his famous phrase: Swanson, John C. The Remnants of the Habs- “No defense of line, but defense of ground, burg Monarchy: The Shaping of Modern and that ground is the entire homeland!” 262 Salonika

The battle came to end on September 13 part of Macedonia, Salonika became the with the retreat of Greek forces. The Greeks object of national aspirations of the emerging lost the offensive initiative, and both sides Balkan states. The Bulgarian/Macedonian prepared for a final showdown. Eventually revolutionary organization IMRO (VMRO) in August–September 1922, Turkish forces was founded in Salonika in 1893 by associ- drove the Greek armies out of Anatolia. ates of the local Bulgarian high school. The Greek- and Turkish-speaking Christians fol- Committee for Union and Progress (Young lowed them. With the retreat of the Greek Turks), determined to modernize the Ottoman army came the end of 4,000 years of Empire, originated there. One of the most Hellenic civilization in Asia Minor. important Young Turks, who went on to Bestami S. Bilgic establish the modern Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatu¨rk (1883–1938), was See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; borninSalonika. Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938) Salonika became the objective of both Further Reading the Bulgarian and Greek armies during the Mango, Andrew. Atatu¨rk: The Biography of First Balkan War. The Greeks arrived on the Founder of Modern Turkey. Woodstock, November 8, 1912. The Ottoman authorities NY: Overlook Press, 2000. promptly surrendered to them. The Bulgar- , Nicole, and Hugh Pope. Turkey ians reached Salonika the next day. As no Unveiled: Ataturk and After. London: John formal agreement existed between the two Murray, 1997. Balkan allies over the disposal of Ottoman territories, contingents from both armies Salonika established an uneasy condominium over the city. The disposition of Salonika became Salonika (Greek: Thessalon´iki; Bulgarian: a major point of dispute between the Bulgar- Solun; Turkish: Sela¯nik) is the largest city ians and Greeks. The Bulgarians made in the northern Aegean Sea littoral. It is a strong efforts to attract the Jewish popula- major port and serves as an outlet for much tion to their cause. Salonika became a Balkan commerce. Since ancient times, major cause of the outbreak of the Second Salonika has been an important center of Balkan War on June 29, 1913. In the ensuing urban development in southeastern Europe. fighting, the Greeks annihilated the isolated It was a significant city in the Roman and Bulgarian military presence in the city and Byzantine Empires, falling to the Ottomans assumed direct control. in 1430. In modern Balkan history, a number During World War I, Salonika, again of important events have occurred in and became a focus of controversy and conflict. around Salonika. At the end of September 1915, a combined At the beginning of the twentieth century, Central Powers force of two Austro- Salonika was capital of the Ottoman province Hungarian armies, two Bulgarian armies, (vilayet) of Sela¯nik. It had a varied pop- andoneGermanarmylaunchedanover- ulation consisting of Albanians, Armenians, whelming attack upon Serbia. The Entente Bulgarians, Greeks, Turks, and others. sought a way to send support to beleaguered Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jews constituted Serbia. They accepted the invitation of the largest single group among the city’s Greek prime minister Eleuthe´rios Venize´los inhabitants. Geographically often considered (1864–1936) to utilize the port of Salonika Salonika 263

Macedonian Front remained relatively static until the last months of the war. Venize´los arrived into this uneasy situation in Salonika on October 9, 1916. He then established a pro-Entente provisional Greek government there. This engendered a conflict with the neutralist royal government in Athens that became known as the “National Schism.” Greece remained a divided country until the Entente compelled King Constantine (1868–1923) to abdicate on June 11, 1917, in favor of his son Alexander (1893–1920). The new Greek government subsequently declared war on the Central Powers on , 1917. Greek forces then joined the Entente along the Macedonian Front. Soon after the end of the political crisis, a fire destroyed much of the city on August 18, 1917. Salonika served as the main base for Allied troops landing in Salonika from the the Entente offensive that broke through the Dardanelles. After their withdrawal from Serbia, the Allies reinforced the British army Macedonian Front at Dobro Pole in Septem- fighting in the Balkans under General Sarrail. ber 1918 and brought about the end of World (Reynolds and Taylor, Collier’s Photographic War I in southeastern Europe. After the fail- History of the European War, 1916) ure of Greece’s Anatolian venture, many Greek-speaking refugees from Anatolia and Thrace flooded into Salonika. to land supplies and troops. These would During World War II, German forces then move up the Vardar River valley to occupied Salonika, while Bulgarians took assist the Serbs. Two subsequent events control of most of the hinterland. In made this impossible. First, Venize´los March 1943, the Germans began to deport resigned as prime minister on October 5, the Jewish population of Salonika to Ausch- 1915. This made the British and French witz. Bulgarian troops assisted with collecting Entente troops, who had begun to arrive Jews in the hinterland. The Germans sent that very day, unwanted guests in neutral 45,000 to the death camps. Slightly over Greek Salonika. Second, the Bulgarians, 1,000 returned at the end of the war. moving southwesterly, cut off access to the The Greek Civil War caused more refu- Serbs. They were forced to retreat across gees to seek shelter in Salonika. The Com- the Albanian Alps to the Adriatic Sea. The munist rebels were active in the areas to the Bulgarians then pushed the British and north of the city. The situation finally stabi- French troops back into Greek territory. For- lized in 1949 with the defeat of the Commu- bidden by the Germans to cross the Greek nists. The victorious royal government often frontier, the Bulgarians established strong conflated the Communists with the Slavic defenses that effectively blockaded the Bulgarian and Macedonian peoples to the Entente forces in and around Salonika. This north. This led to efforts to Hellenize the 264 San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878

Slavic populations of northern Greece. After Bulgaria, while Article 8 called for the the collapse of Yugoslavia and the procla- Ottoman evacuation of Bulgaria and deploy- mation of Macedonian independence on ment of Russian forces for two years. Russia September 8, 1991, the Greek government also compelled Turks to cede territory to adopted a hostile attitude toward the new Montenegro and recognize its independence. state. In part this was based upon concerns Serbia received the cities of Nisˇ and that the Macedonian government harbored and was granted independence as well. The claims to the Greek part of historic Macedo- Porte was also forced to grant autonomy to nia and the city of Salonika. While the Bosnia-Herzegovina under Austrian and Macedonian government in Skoplje had Russian supervision and to recognize the raised no such claims, as of this writing, rela- independence of Romania. In the Caucasus, tions between the two states remained remote. the Ottoman Empire lost Ardahan, Artvin, Richard C. Hall Batum, Kars, Olti, and Beyazit to Russia. The Straits of the Bosporus and the See also: Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars; Con- Dardanelles were declared open to all neutral stantine I, King of Greece (1868–1923); Greece in the Balkan Wars; Greek Civil War; ships in war and peacetime (Article 24). Holocaust in the Balkans; Macedonian Front, The treaty, so advantageous to Russia, was 1916–1918; National Schism (Greece), 1916– rejected by the Great Powers, notably Austria 1917; Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936); and Britain, who were concerned about the VMRO; Young Turks spread of Russian authority into the Balkan Peninsula mainly through the establishment Further Reading of a large Bulgaria. The other Balkan states Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– also resented the creation of a large Bulgaria 1913: Prelude to the First World War. in their midst. As tensions between the Great London: Routledge, 2000. Powers escalated, the German chancellor Palmer, Alan. The Gardeners of Salonika.New Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) negotiated a York: Simon and Schuster, 1965. new agreement at the Congress of Berlin in Mazower, Mark. Salonika, City of Ghosts. June 1878 that was far less generous to the New York: Vintage, 2006. Russians. Most profoundly affected by the Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New abrogation of the San Stefano treaty were Bul- York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. garian nationalists. They had seen their maxi- mum claims for a Bulgarian state realized at San Stefano, only to suffer extreme disap- San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 pointment at Berlin. The Berlin agreement trisected their national state. In its stead The Treaty of San Stefano ended the Russo- was an autonomous Bulgarian principality, a Ottoman War of 1877–1878. Signed on self-governing Ottoman province, Eastern March 3, 1878, the treaty was highly favor- Rumelia, under a Christian governor. able to Russia. It called for the creation of The remainder of San Stefano Bulgaria, the autonomous principality of Bulgaria, Macedonia, returned to direct Ottoman rule. whose territory would extend from the Thereafter, every Bulgarian government Danube River to the Aegean Sea. Under adopted policies designed to realize the Article 7, a prince elected by the people reestablishment of the San Stefano frontiers. but approved by the sultan would rule over Alexander Mikaberidze Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995 265

See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; paramilitary forces immediately began firing Berlin, Treaty of, 1878 on Sarajevo, and the bombardment of the city by heavy artillery began soon thereafter. Further Reading Thousands of people were killed and Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria 1878–1918. wounded and many buildings were Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, destroyed. The Serbs deliberately attacked 1983. monuments and institutions associated with Gleeny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, the Muslim culture. Thus they shelled and War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. New York: Viking, 1999. burned to the ground the university library containing thousands of irreplaceable manu- Macfie, A. L. The Eastern Question 1774– 1923. London: Longman, 1989. scripts and gutted mosques and other cul- tural centers. The animals of the Sarajevo Zoo starved to death. Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995 In June 1992, UN peacekeeping forces arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but The siege of Sarajevo, a city in Bosnia, their presence did not halt the fighting. The began in April 1992, as the Yugoslav army people of Sarajevo showed amazing courage sought to prevent the independence of during the siege, which continued for nearly Bosnia and Herzegovina. Though Sarajevo two more years until it was formally ended was only one of many Yugoslavian cities to by the Serbs in February 1994. In spite of be destroyed during that country’s dismem- the Serbs’ public announcement that berment, the siege was tragic because of the the siege was over, attacks on Sarajevo dedication its population had once shown to continued through 1995. In August 1995, and because of the the North Atlantic Treaty Organization heroic defense that its citizens maintained. (NATO) declared that if the Serbs did not The breakup of Yugoslavia began with halt their attacks on Sarajevo and other declarations of independence by Slovenia UN-protected areas, Bosnian Serb positions and Croatia in 1991. Elections held in Bosnia wouldbeattackedbyNATOforces.When in December 1990 had resulted in the three Serb forces kept up their artillery shelling national communities (Serb, Croat, and of the city, NATO planes bombed the Bosniak Muslim) gaining seats in rough pro- Serbians. The NATO bombing halted in portion to their populations. In a referendum September, when Serbia, Croatia, and on independence held in early 1992, nearly Bosnia and Herzegovina agreed to a peace two-thirds of the Bosnia electorate cast a plan, the Dayton Agreement (1995), which vote; almost all voted for independence. was signed in December in Dayton, Ohio. After Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its Richard C. Hall independence in March 1992, a new, smaller Yugoslavia was formed consisting of Serbia See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Srebren- ica Massacre, 1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991– and Montenegro. The Yugoslav army, sup- 1995 ported by militias of Bosnia Serbs, began to move into position around the city of Further Reading Sarajevo. When Bosnia’s independence was Di Giovanni, Janine. The Quick and the Dead: recognized by the United States and the Under Siege in Sarajevo. London: Phoenix European Community on April 6, Serb House, 1995. 266 Sarajevo Assassination, 1914

Filipovic´, Zlata. Zlata’s Diary: A Child’s Life Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Wartime Sarajevo. New York: Penguin, Chotek (1868–1914) attended army maneu- 2006. vers in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Gjelten, Tom. Sarajevo Daily: A City and Its June 1914. Their visit to Sarajevo during that Newspaper under Siege.NewYork: trip was highly publicized, and Franz HarperCollins, 1995. Ferdinand was targeted for assassination by Macek, Ivana. War Within: Everyday Life members of the Black Hand organization, a in Sarajevo under Siege. Philadelphia: terrorist group composed of radical Serb University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. nationalists. Black Hand members—led by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic´ (1876–1917), Sarajevo Assassination, 1914 also known as Apis—were pledged to desta- bilize the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdi- Ottoman Empire in order to incorporate their nand (1863–1914) on June 28, 1914, was Serb population into a greater Serbia. Mem- the spark that eventually set off World War bers had brutally murdered the reigning king I. Franz Ferdinand was disliked by many in of Serbia in 1903. Franz Ferdinand posed a the Austrian government, but they were threat to the Black Hand, since his goal quick to exploit his death to try to defuse a of strengthening the Austro-Hungarian situation that threatened to dismember the Empire was contrary to the Serbs’ desires. empire. The Austrians’ failure to do so with- An international crisis would also help Apis out a war resulted in the destruction of the in his battle against the existing they attempted to save. government for control of Serbia. Franz Ferdinand became heir to the A group of youthful revolutionaries from Habsburg throne through a number of tragedies Bosniawerearmedandtrainedbythe that eliminated other members of the family. Black Hand and then sent to Sarajevo. He was not trained as a ruler but, like other They lined the parade route used by Franz archdukes, had a military background. He was Ferdinand and his wife. On the morning of married to Countess Sophie Chotek (1868– June 28, 1914, one conspirator threw his 1914), who was not sufficiently royal to be bomb at their car, but it bounced off and married to a Habsburg. She was forced to exploded near another car. The motorcade accept a lower station at all official functions in continued to city hall, where the group Austria. Franz Ferdinand was a devoted hus- had lunch. During the return trip, Franz band and father, although that side of his per- Ferdinand wanted to visit the wounded in sonality was largely hidden from the public. the hospital, but the drivers were confused Franz Ferdinand prepared to succeed about the route. When the archduke’s car his uncle Franz Joseph I (1830–1916) by turned the wrong way, it was right in front of studying the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s Gavrilo Princip, another conspirator. He problems. He recognized the growing disaf- shot Franz Ferdinand and Sophie, and they fection of the Slavic minorities in the both died soon afterward. southern part of the empire and the dangers The Austrian government used the death posed by Magyar obstruction in the Hungar- of Franz Ferdinand as an excuse to send ian part of the empire. Since he did not come an ultimatum to Serbia, designed to to power, what his actual policies would cripple that state’s ability to cause trouble. have been are not known. When the Serbs refused to comply, Austria Sarkoy and Bolayir, Battles of, 1913 267

The suspected assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Gavrilo Princip, is hustled into custody in Sarajevo in 1914. (The Illustrated London News Picture Library) declared war. Both countries called on their Feuerlicht, Roberta Strauss. The Desperate allies for help, which led to the outbreak of Act: The Assassination of Franz Ferdinand World War I as Russia intervened on behalf at Sarajevo. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968. on Serbia and Germany assisted Austria. Eventually, most of the world’s major powers became embroiled in the war due to Sarkoy and Bolayir, Battles of, further webs of alliance. Princip was captured 1913 andimprisonedduringthewar,andtheBlack Hand was destroyed when Dimitrijevic´ was Sarkoy (S¸arko¨ y; Sarkoi) and Bolayir shot on trumped-up charges. (Bolayır; Bulair) were two battles in the Tim J. Watts First Balkan War between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire. The unexpected and See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during World War I; Black Hand; Dimitrijevic´, humiliating defeats suffered at the hands of Dragutin (1876–1917); Princip, Gavrilo Balkan nations turned the politics of the (1894–1918) empire upside down. The disillusioned offi- cer members of Committee of Union and Further Reading Progress (CUP) under the leadership Lieu- Brook-Shepherd, Gordon. Archduke of Sarajevo: tenant Colonel Enver Pasha (1881–1922) The Romance and Tragedy of Franz Ferdi- launched a raid, the so-called Raid on the nand of Austria. Boston: Little, Brown, 1984. Sublime Porte of January 23, 1913, into Cassels, Lavender. The Archduke and the the offices of the prime ministry and forced Assassin: Sarajevo, June 28th 1914.New the government to resign. The new grand York: Stein and Day, 1985. vizier and minister of war, Mahmud S¸evket 268 Savov, Mihail

Pasha (1856–1913), increased the efficiency Bulgarian divisions launched uncoordinated and influence of the military by immediately but effective assaults forcing termination of assigning capable young officers to the the operation two days later on February 10. nerve centers of the large army staffs. The Ottoman units managed to break off con- In addition to the coup d’e´tat, the armi- tact and embark on ships with light casualties, stice between December 3, 1912, and Febru- showing a rare combination of leadership, ary 3, 1913, gave the Ottoman military discipline and courage. much needed rest and recovery time. All Meanwhile at Bolayir on the Gallipoli available resources were mobilized, and Peninsula, a strong Ottoman force attacked training became the main activity. The the Bulgarians of the Seventh Division. arrival of fresh troops, ever increasing public The heavily outnumbered Bulgarians support, and the reverses of the Bulgarians repulsed repeated Ottoman attempts to drive in front of the Chataldzha (C¸ atalca) Line as them off the peninsula. The Ottomans suf- well as the heroic defenses of Edirne (Adri- fered huge losses. Among the Ottoman offi- anople), Yanya (Janina) and˙ Is¸kodra (Scu- cers participating in the Bulair operation was tari) increased morale and confidence. Even Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), who would dis- the enormous toll of the epidemics, includ- tinguish himself two years later in the same ing typhus and cholera, did not affect the location fighting in the opposite direction. positive atmosphere. Mesut Uyar The Ottoman General Staff took the initia- See also: Balkan War, First, 1912–1913; Bul- tive and displayed its offensive tendency by garia in the Balkan Wars; Chataldzha, Battle planning the Sarkoy amphibious operation of, 1912; Enver Pasha (1882–1922); Ottoman against the Fourth Bulgarian Army in an Empire in the Balkan Wars attempt to save Edirne by hitting the concen- trated Bulgarian forces in front of Chataldzha Further Reading from behind. The plan was not only ambitious Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The and innovative, but it also demonstrated state- Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. of-the-art staff work involving the technical Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. details of a combined army and navy opera- Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– tion. Regrettably, a series of unfortunate inci- 1913: Prelude to the First World War. dents and developments like weather, London: Routledge, 2000. technical failures, and communication and Hikmet, Su¨ er, TSK Tarihi Balkan Harbi ˙ coordination problems handicapped the oper- (1912–1913): S¸ark Ordusu Ikinci C¸ atalca Muharebesi ve S¸arko¨yC¸ıkarması.Vol.2, ation. The Bulgarians offered determined re- section 2, book 2, 2nd printing. Ankara: sistance to both operations. The first leg of Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1993. the operation, the frontal assault of the Mu¨ret- Hu¨snu¨ ,Ersu¨. 1912–1913 Balkan Harbinde teb (provisional) Corps on the neck of the S¸arko¨yC¸ ıkarması ve Bulayır Muharebeleri. Gallipoli Peninsula, died under the fire of Istanbul: Askeri Matbaa, 1938. well-entrenched Bulgarian infantry supported by massive coordinated artillery and machine gun fire on February 8, 1913. Savov, Mihail (1857–1928) Nevertheless, the Sarkoy amphibious landing succeeded in establishing beach- Bulgarian lieutenant general Mihail Savov heads against which recently reinforced was born on November 14, 1857, in Stara Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913 269

Zagora. He was educated in Constantinople, Thiey on August 19, 1928, and was sub- Sofia, and at the Nikolaev General Staff sequently buried in Sofia. Academy in St. Petersburg. After the estab- Richard C. Hall lishment of the Bulgarian principality in See also: Balkan War, Second, 1913; Bulgaria 1878, he served in the Eastern Rumelian in the Balkan Wars; Chataldzha, Battle of, forces. 1912; Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913 Following the unification of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia in 1885, Savov began Further Reading Bulgarian service. That same year, he fought Azimov, Dimitu˘r. Bu˘lgarski visshi voenachal- in the 1885 Bulgarian-Serbian war as a cap- nitsi prez Balkanskata i Pu˘rvata svetovna tain. He distinguished himself in the Battle voina. Sofia: Voenno izdatelstvo, 2000. of Slivnitsa. After the war he rose rapidly Nedev, Svetozar. KomandvatnetonaBu˘lgar- in the military establishment. In 1887, he skata voinska prez voinite za natsionalno was adjutant to the newly enthroned Prince obedinenie 1885, 1912, 1913, 1915, 1918. Ferdinand. From 1891 to 1894 and again Sofia: Sv. Georgi Pobedonosets, 1993. from 1903 to 1907, he served as minister of war. Allegations of corruption resulted in him leaving the army in 1908. Nevertheless Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913 he was appointed deputy commander in chief of the Bulgarian army at the outbreak The siege of Scutari (Albanian: Shkode¨r; of the Balkan Wars in 1912. Serb: Skadar; Turkish: Is¸kodra) was a pro- In this capacity, Savov directed the army longed engagement during the First Balkan for Czar Ferdinand, the constitutional com- War, 1912–1913, between besieging Monte- mander in chief. He made two controversial negrin and Serbian forces and Ottoman forces decisions. On November 16, 1912, he within the city of Scutari. Scutari was the for- ordered the exhausted and overextended tified seat of the Ottoman vilayet of the same Bulgarian forces to assault the Ottoman name. The population of the city and the defensive lines at Chataldzha, 20 miles out- hinterland was overwhelmingly Albanian. side Constantinople. The attack failed with Scutari was the northern counterpart of heavy losses. Then on the night of June 29– Janina, a fortified city on a lake. Lake Scutari 30, on the authority of Czar Ferdinand, he lay to the northwest of the city. Scutari was ordered local attacks on Serbian troops in also the main objective of the Montenegrin Macedonia. These, and attacks on Greek army during the First Balkan War. Control of troops, began the Second Balkan War. Scutari would give the Montenegrins a The Bulgarian government sacked Savov dominant position in northern Albania. At for this order. He subsequently commanded the beginning of the war, the Scutari Corps the Bulgarian Fourth and Fifth Armies on of around 13,600 men under the leadership the southern front. Because of his notoriety, of Hasan Riza Bey commanded the Ottoman he did not obtain another command. He forces. reluctantly sat out World War I in France Beginning on October 9, 1912, two and then Austria. After the war, he served Montenegrin forces advanced on Scutari. The as Bulgarian minister to France from 1920 15,000-man Zeta Division, under the com- to 1923. He died there in Saint-Vallier-de- mand of Crown Prince Danilo (1871–1939), 270 Selim III

moved around the eastern shore of Lake leave under Great Power pressure on Scutari. The 8,000 soldiers of the Coastal May 5. The Montenegrins occupied the city Division, led by Brigadier Mitar Martinovic´ for less than two weeks. With the fall of (1870–1954), moved along the western shore Scutari, fighting in the First Balkan War of the lake. The Zeta Division attacked the was concluded. Ottoman fortifications on October 24 and Richard C. Hall again on October 28 with no success. A sig- See also: Albania in the Balkan Wars; Balkan nificant problem was the failure of the Coastal War, First, 1912–1913; Montenegro in the Division to participate in the attacks. The Balkan Wars; Serbia in the Balkan Wars Montenegrins then settled into a siege. On November 18, the Serbian Third Further Reading Army reached the Adriatic Sea at Alessio Durham,M.Edith.The Struggle for Scutari (Albanian: Lezhe¨; Serb: Ljesˇ). They then (Turk, Slav, Albanian). London: Edward assisted their Montenegrin allies around Arnold, 1914. Scutari with troops and artillery. During the Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The armistice, Scutari remained quiet. During Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. this time, on January 30, 1913, the Ottoman Westport, CT: 2003. commander Hasan Riza Bey (1871–1913), Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– was murdered in mysterious circum- 1913: Prelude to the First World War. stances. Esat Pasha Toptani (1863–1920), an London: Routledge, 2000. Albanian nationalist, succeeded him. Soon after the end of the armistice, the Montene- grins and Serbs undertook an assault on the Selim III (1761–1808) Ottoman positions. During the fighting, from February 6 to February 9, 1913, they Ottoman sultan Selim III, the son of Mustafa failed to make significant gains. In the III (1717–1774), was born in Constantinople wake of the defeat, the Serbs sent additional on December 24, 1761. He ascended to the troops and artillery to Scutari. Another Ottoman throne on April 7, 1789. As a attack on 30-31 March 30–31 failed. crown prince, he enjoyed unconventional Meanwhile in London, the Austro- freedom and a distinctive education, and it Hungarians and Italians had insisted that is likely that his acquaintance with the Scutari become a part of the newly indepen- worldaroundtheOttomanEmpireandhis dent Albanian state. The other Great Powers future political agenda (the Nizaˆm-ı Cedıˆd agreed. A Great Power fleet including or “New Order”) were the product of these Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, formative years. and Italian vessels arrived on April 2 off the Selim’s enthronement coincided with the short Montenegrin coast to enforce this war of 1788–1792 against the Habsburg- decision. The Serbs withdrew their forces Russian coalition. However, the war did not eight days later. By this time, however, the prevent Selim from putting his political Ottomans were exhausted. After three days agenda into action. On the contrary, the dis- of negotiations, the Ottoman commander astrous defeats sufferedbytheOttomans, Esat Pasha Toptani then surrendered to the especially at the hands of the Russian army, Montenegrins on April 22. The Montene- were frequently referenced in the contempo- grins entered the city on April 24, only to rary Ottoman political literature as a means Serbia, Invasions of, 1914 271 of legitimizing the New Order. The ultimate an accomplished poet and a master com- aim of the New Order was the creation of a poser of classical Ottoman music, turned to centralized and well-disciplined army, his personal interests. There was, however, which was expected not only to return the one final attempt to restore Selim III to the Ottomans to their glory days of old, but throne, led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha also to bring the unruly governors into line. (1765–1808), a powerful a’yaˆn and future To achieve this goal, Selim III, initially grand vizier who provided a safe haven for only in the capital, formed New Order regi- the surviving advisers of the former sultan. ments that were drilled by the European But with his rescuers at the very gate of the noncommissioned officers s as well as estab- palace on July 28, 1808, Selim was con- lishing the first modern military school, the demned to death by the order of Mustafa Imperial School of Military Engineering. IV (1779–1808), who soon afterward was For efficiency’s sake, these regiments were deposed in his turn by his successor to be set up in Anatolia through the local Mahmoud II (1789–1839). magnates called a’yaˆns. The increase in the Fatih Yes¸il number of the troops, however, created See also: Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812; problems that could not be solved by the Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817 existing Ottoman economic system. The foundation of the new treasuries, like the so Further Reading called New Revenue, the Grain Treasury Cleveland, William. A History of the Modern and the Shipyard Treasury, to finance the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview central army and navy resulted in devalua- Press, 2013. tion and the deterioration of buying power. Shaw, Stanford J. Between Old and New: The Besides the economic problems, the estab- Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III lishment of a rival army to the Janissaries was 1789–1807. Cambridge, MA: Harvard another source of disturbance. Catastrophic University Press, 1971. developments in the Ottoman diplomacy fur- Shaw, Stanford J. History of the Ottoman ther aggravated Selim’s situation. In 1798, Empire and Modern Turkey.Vol.1,The the unexpected invasion of Egypt by France, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808.Cam- the traditional ally of the empire, pushed bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. the Porte to ally with Russia and Britain. This impossible alliance between London, St. Petersburg, and Istanbul did not last long, Serbia, Invasions of, 1914 however, with the Russian invasion of the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia in The Austro-Hungarians followed their dec- 1806 and the British expedition to Istanbul laration of war upon Serbia on July 28, and Egypt in 1807 ultimately determining 1914, with what would be the first of three the fate of Selim III and his advisers. attempts in 1914 to overrun the country A rebellion in the capital led by the arti- they deemed responsible for the Sarajevo sans and the Janissaries in May 1807 assassination. The initial invasion began on resulted in the overthrow of the sultan and August 12, 1914. his advisers, who were declared as being Austro-Hungarian forces numbering responsible for the financial and diplomatic around 460,000 men were led by General instability. After his overthrow, Selim III, Oskar Potiorek (1853–1933), the official 272 Serbia, Invasions of, 1915

who had bungled the security arrangements Putnik rallied his forces for a counterattack on for Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914) in Sara- December 3 along the Kolubara River. The jevo. Serbian troops, numbering 400,000, overextended Austro-Hungarians collapsed. were battle hardened by their experiences Most of their units retreated north towards in the two Balkan Wars and were motived the Sava. The Serbs reentered Belgrade on by defending their homeland. Their December 15 in triumph. By that time, all of commander was the veteran field marshal the Austro-Hungarians had returned to their (Vojvoda) Radomir Putnik (1847–1917), own territory. who had led the Serbs to victory in the In 1914, the Serbs achieved three great Balkan Wars. victories against the Austro-Hungarians. Austro-Hungarian troops crossed the Sava These came at a heavy cost. The Serbs lost River at Sˇabac and Drina River from eastern 22,000 dead, 91,000 wounded, and Bosnia and advanced toward a ridge north of 19,000 missing. The Austro-Hungarian the Jadar River called Mount Cer. There on invaders also paid a heavy price for their August 16, the Serbs counterattacked and, failures. They lost 28,000 dead and 122,000 in a four-day battle, drove the Austro- wounded. Both sides realized at the end of Hungarians back to their own territories. 1914 that the war was far from over. They had all left Serbia by August 24. The Richard C. Hall Battle of Mt. Cer was the first Entente vic- See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans tory of World War I. Buoyed by their suc- during World War I; Putnik, Radomir (1847– cess, the Serbs briefly invaded Bosnia, only 1917); Serbia, Invasion of, 1915; Serbia in to be forced back by logistical difficulties World War I and spirited Austro-Hungarian resistance. Potiorek attempted a second invasion Further Reading across the Drina on September 8, 1914. Fryer, C. E. J. The Destruction of Serbia in After fierce fighting and heavy losses on 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- both sides, the Austro-Hungarians managed graphs, 1997. to secure a foothold on Serbian territory. Mitrovic´,Andrej.Serbia’s Great War, 1914– The campaign then stagnated into trench 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- warfare. With the Austro-Hungarians taking sity Press, 2007. huge casualties on the Eastern Front against Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern the Russians and the Serbs still rebuilding Serbia, 1804–1918.Vol.1.NewYork: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. after the Balkan Wars, neither could gather the resources to break the stalemate. Potiorek launched his third invasion of Serbia on November 5, 1914. Austro- Serbia, Invasions of, 1915 Hungarian troops thrust across the Drina toward the town of . This forced the The fighting between Austria-Hungary and Serbian army to evacuate both Valjevo and Serbia in 1914 had left both sides exhausted. Belgrade. The government had already At the beginning of 1915, neither Austria- left Belgrade and established itself to the Hungary nor Serbia was capable of further south at Nisˇ at the beginning of the war. offensive action. By this time, the Austro- Austro-Hungarian troops entered Valjevo on Hungarians were heavily engaged on the November 15 and Belgrade on November 30. Eastern Front attempting to contain a Serbia, Invasions of, 1915 273

Russian advance. The Serbs, although victo- Macedonia. The Entente could not. The rious against the three Austro-Hungarian most direct route to the Serbs, however, invasions of the autumn of 1914, had yet to went through the Greek port of Salonika recover from the human and material losses and up the Vardar River valley. On invitation incurred during the Balkan Wars. By the of the Greek prime minister Eleuthe´rios beginning of 1915, they were experiencing Venize´los (1864–1936), British and French a logistical crisis. Also, epidemic diseases troops began to arrive in Salonika on like cholera and typhus plagued the entire October 7, 1915. Meanwhile, the Venizelos country. Even so, they expanded the war government fell, rendering the Entente and stretched their limited resources further. arrival unwelcome. With the collapse of order in Albania after Nevertheless, British and French units the withdrawal of William of Wied (1876– moved up the Vardar in an attempt to aid 1945) from the country in September 1914, the beleaguered Serbs. The invasions from the Serbs increased their presence in the the north and east forced the Serbian army north of the country. into the southwestern part of the country. During the spring and summer of 1915, The Bulgarians entered Skopje on Octo- other countries became involved in the ber 22. They blocked the Entente forces Austro-Serb conflict. In order to aid their and forced them back down the Vardar val- Austro-Hungarian ally and to establish a ley and into Greek territory. With Austro- land connection to their Ottoman ally the Hungarian and German pressure easing Germans decided to intervene. To do this, from the north due to logistical difficulties, they approached Bulgaria and offered Mac- the Serbs attempted to make a stand against edonia, which the Serbs had taken during the Bulgarians on the historic battlefield of the Balkan Wars. On September 6, 1915, Kosovo Polje, but were unable to withstand the Bulgarians signed an alliance agreement the Bulgarians. After their defeat at Kosovo that obligated them to participate in an Polje, the remnants of the Serbian army attack on Serbia, together with Austria- crossed over the frontier into Albania to Hungary and Germany. On October 6, seek help from the Entente in Adriatic ports. 1915, one Austro-Hungarian and one Richard C. Hall German army crossed the Danube and the See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans Sava Rivers to invade Serbia. Two Bulgarian during World War I; Bulgaria in World War I; armies seeking revenge for the loss of the Putnik, Radomir (1847–1917); Serbia, Inva- Second Balkan War advanced into Serbia sions of, 1914; Serbia in World War I from the east on October 14. At the beginning of 1915, the British and Further Reading French sought a means to increase logistical Fryer, C. E. J. The Destruction of Serbia support to the Serbs. While they approached in 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Bulgaria seeking a conduit to Serbia and an Monographs, 1997. ally against the Ottoman Empire, they Mitrovic´,Andrej.Serbia’s Great War, 1914– could not provide sufficient incentive for 1918, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- Bulgaria to join the Entente. Serbia refused sity Press, 2007. to part with Bulgaria’s main objective, Mac- Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern edonia. The Central Powers, however, could Serbia, 1804–1918.Vol.1.NewYork: offer Bulgaria the immediate occupation of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. 274 Serbia and the Balkan Wars

Serbia and the Balkan Wars divided into a Bulgarian zone and a con- tested zone, whose disposition would be The origins of Serbian participation in the left to the Russian tsar to arbitrate. Further Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 lie in the Berlin arrangements between Bulgaria and Serbia settlement of 1878. In the Berlin settlement, provided for Serbian troops to operate in the Great Powers recognized Serbian Macedonia, Kosovo, and Albania and Bul- independence from the Ottoman Empire garian soldiers to move into Thrace. The and granted to Serbia Ottoman territory Serbs then signed a treaty of alliance with around the city of Nisˇ. Nevertheless, for Montenegro in Lucerne Switzerland on Sep- many nationalist Serbs, the settlement was tember 27, 1912. No formal written arrange- a disappointment. The Austro-Hungarian ment existed between Serbia and Greece. occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the The mobilized strength of the Serbian sanjak of Novi Pazar blocked Serbian army was 230,000 men, organized into 10 expectations of expansion to the Adriatic infantry divisions and one cavalry division. Sea. The continued Ottoman presence in In preparation for war, the Serbs divided Kosovo and Macedonia thwarted Serbian their forces into four groups. The Serbian hopes of obtaining these regions. After First Army was concentrated in southern 1878, because Ottoman rule was consider- Serbia. This force and the Serbian Second ably weaker than Austro-Hungarian occupa- Army, located in western Bulgaria, were to tion, Serbian nationalist hopes focused on march into Macedonia from the north and Kosovo and Macedonia. Serbia’s only east, respectively. The Serbian Third Army nationalist rival for Kosovo was tiny Monte- waspoisedtomarchintoKosovofrom negro. In Macedonia, however, Bulgarian western Serbia. Two smaller detachments, and Greek national aspirations conflicted the Ibor Army and the Brigade were with those of the Serbs. Attempts by the Bal- in northwestern Serbia positioned to invade kan states to create an alliance directed the sanjak of Novi Pazar. The chief of staff against the Ottomans foundered on the prob- of the Serbian forces was General Radomir lem of Macedonia. Putnik (1847–1917). Russian military defeat in the Russo- The Serbian First Army invaded Ottoman Japanese War in 1905 and diplomatic defeat territory on October 19. On October 23, the in the Bosnian Crisis in 1908 caused the St. Ottoman Vardar Army attacked the Serbs at Petersburg government to urge in Belgrade Kumanovo. The resulting battle ended after and Sofia the conclusion of a Balkan Alli- two days in a Serbian victory. This was the ance. This coincided with the realization of largest Serbian battle of the First Balkan governments of the two Balkan states that War. Because of this success, General they had to cooperate for any chance of suc- Putnik received the title Vojvoda (field cess against the Ottomans. Consequently, marshal). After taking Skoplje without any Bulgaria and Serbia signed a treaty of alli- opposition, the victorious Serbs pursued the ance on March 13, 1912, in Sofia. According Ottomans down the Vardar valley. They to a secret part of the treaty, in the event of smashed the Ottomans again at Prilep and any division of Ottoman territory, the Bul- at Bitola (Monastir). With the fall of Bitola garians were to obtain Thrace, the Serbs on November 19, most of Macedonia was northern Albania. Macedonia was to be in Serbian hands. Serbia and the Balkan Wars 275

Serbian soldiers inspect a row of cannons during the Balkan Wars, October 1912. (Hulton- Deutsch Collection/Corbis)

Meanwhile at the end of October, the Ser- (Shkode¨r). As the Serbs advanced, an bian Second Army, after having advanced Albanian council in Vlore¨ (Valona) pro- into southeastern Macedonia, prepared to claimed Albanian independence on Novem- travel to Thrace to assist the Bulgarian Sec- ber 28. The Serbian presence in Albania ond Army with the siege of Adrianople. provoked immediate Austro-Hungarian and In the northwest, the detachments waited Italian opposition. Both powers saw it as a until the Belgrade government determined challenge to their control of the Adriatic and that the Austro-Hungarians would not the new state of Albania. oppose the Serbian occupation of the sanjak By the time of the signing of the armistice of Novi Pazar. When this became clear, the on December 3, the Serbs gained all their ini- Serbian forces seized the sanjak. tial objectives. They also had rendered aid to The Serbian Third Army invaded Kosovo, their Bulgarian and Montenegrin allies. where it met only light resistance mainly Austro-Hungarian opposition to the Serbian from Albanian irregulars. Having passed presence in Albania made it problematic and through the site of the historic 1389 battle, increased Serbian determination to retain its the Serbian Third Army proceeded on into conquests in Macedonia. On January 13, northern Albania. Advance units of the Third 1913, the Belgrade government formally Army reached the Adriatic at Lexhe¨ (Lesh) requested in Sofia revision of the March 1912 (Alessio) on November 17 and Durre¨s treaty. The Bulgarians ignored this request. (Durazzo) on November 28. They linked up After the renewal of the war on Janu- with Montenegrin forces besieging Scutari ary 30, 1913, Serbian forces were in action 276 Serbia and the Balkan Wars

around Adrianople and Scutari. The Serbian 300,000 soldiers under the command of Voj- Second Army participated in the final voda Putnik. The Serbs lined up along the assault on the Ottoman fortress on Bulgarian frontier, with the First and Third March 26. At Scutari, the Serbs responded Armies in Macedonia. A Montenegrin divi- to a Montenegrin request for additional sion joined the Serbs. Almost 50,000 troops by sending around 30,000 additional Serbian troops remained in and around Alba- soldiers. The Ottoman defenders continued nia. The Serbs achieved success at the battle to thwart all Montenegrin and Serbian of Bregalnitsa in southeastern Macedonia. attacks. Because of Great Power pressure, They forced the Bulgarians to retreat toward the Serbs withdrew their troops from Scutari their old frontiers. By mid-July, Serbian pres- on April 10. Some Serbian forces remained sure had forced the Bulgarians back to the old in northern Albania, however. frontiers all along the line. On July 18, how- By this time, the dispute with Bulgaria ever, Serbian attacks failed against the Bul- was becoming serious. The Serbian conflu- garian defenders at Kalimantsi. This had ence of interest with Greece was increas- little effect on the outcome of the war. When ingly obvious. The Bulgarians and Greeks the Ottomans and Romanians intervened in had not concluded any formal agreement the war against Bulgaria, the Bulgarians had over the division of Ottoman territory, to request an armistice. Initial talks began at mainly because the Bulgarians expected Nisˇ on July 20 and soon moved to Bucharest. that their army would take all the territory The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on they wanted without any need to make con- August 10, confirmed the Serbian success in cessions to their ally. On May 5, 1913, the the Balkan Wars. Serbia obtained Kosovo Greeks and Serbs concluded an alliance and both zones of Macedonia as delineated directed against Bulgaria. In this arrange- in the March 1912 treaty. They also divided ment, they divided Macedonia between the sanjak of Novi Pazar with Montenegro. them. In a subsequent agreement later that Their defeat of Bulgaria gave the Serbs a month, they also divided Albania into strong position in southeastern Europe. zones of influence. It also established Serbia as the domi- On May 26, 1913, the Serbs again nant Serb state in its rivalry with Montenegro, requested a revision of the March 1912 which became a Serbian satellite. It bestowed treaty. Again, the Bulgarians refused. They tremendous prestige for Serbia among the relied upon Russian support. When the South Slavic peoples of the Habsburg Empire. Treaty of London ending the Balkan War Finally this victory left Serbia as Russia’s was signed on May 30, both sides were pre- only viable ally in the Balkans. paring for renewed conflict. The Russians The Serbian victory, however, came at a vacillated on the issue of arbitration. Before heavy cost. Serbian casualties for the Balkan the Russian czar could exercise his arbitra- Wars were at least 36,550 dead and 55,000, tion powers, Bulgarian troops attacked although they may have been somewhat Greek and Serbian positions in Macedonia higher. The intense fighting against the on the night of June 29–30, sparking the Bulgarians in the Second Balkan War prob- Second Balkan War. ably accounted for heavier losses than the The Serbs responded immediately fighting against the Ottomans in the First with vigorous counterattacks against their Balkan War. Also, Serbian troops returning erstwhile allies. They fielded around from Balkan battlefields brought home with Serbia in World War I 277 them epidemic diseases such as cholera, called the Third Balkan War and leading which would spread among the civilian directly into World War I. Austro-Hungarian population. antagonism toward Serbia had been building The Treaty of Bucharest did not end the since 1903 when a disgruntled group of fighting in southeastern Europe for the Serbs. Serbian army officers and political figures Serbian troops continued to be active in assassinated King Alexander I Obrenovic´ northern Albania. This aggrieved the Austro- (1876–1903) and replaced him with Peter I Hungarians, who presented an ultimatum in (1844–1921) of the rival Karageorgevic´ fam- Belgrade on October 18, 1913, demanding ily. Alexander had pursued policies of friend- that the Serbs evacuate northern Albania. ship toward Austria; Peter, and especially his The Serbian government agreed to comply powerful prime minister, Nicola Pasˇic˙ with this demand. Nevertheless, Serbian (1845–1926), did not. troops lingered in northeastern Albania. In 1908, this dislike grew into hostility Friction between Belgrade and Vienna when Austria-Hungary annexed the prov- increased. The political and territorial gains ince of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which the incurred in these wars increased the appetites Austrians had occupied since 1878. Bosnia- of Serb nationalists for further expansion at Herzegovina had a large Serbian population, the expense of the Habsburg Empire and and many Serbs regarded it as belonging to increased Austro-Hungarian suspicions of a greater Serbian polity. The Serbian their Balkan neighbor. government and people reacted strongly Richard C. Hall against the annexation, and protests contin- ued for some time. The annexation grew See also: Balkan League, 1912; Balkan War, into a diplomatic crisis, resolved only when First, 1912–1913; Balkan War, Second, 1913; Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; Balkan the Serb ally, Russia—faced with threats Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences; Kalimantsi, from Germany—advised the Serbs to tem- Battle of, 1913; Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912 per their protests. Following this disappointment, Serbia Further Reading focused its attention southeastward. Hall, Richard C. Bulgaria’s Road to the First In 1912, a coalition of Serbian, Monte- World War. Boulder, CO: East European negrin, Greek, and Bulgarian forces attacked Monographs, 1996. the Ottoman Empire and defeated its forces Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan in the First Balkan War. In a dispute over Wars, 1912–1913. Cambridge, MA: the spoils, Bulgaria attacked Serbia in 1913 Harvard University Press, 1938. and suffered defeat in the Second Balkan Jowett, Philip S. Armies of the Balkan Wars, War. Both wars brought considerable 1912–1913. Oxford: Osprey, 2011. gains for Serbia, increasing its land area by Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern 79 percent and its population by 55 percent. Serbia, 1804–1914.Vol.2.NewYork: However, they also resulted in 30,000 soldiers Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. killed and 45,000 wounded and absorbed con- siderable quantities of supplies and ammuni- Serbia in World War I tion that the Serbs needed in 1914. Perhaps most important, while the two Balkan wars On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared gave the Serbian government and people con- war on Serbia, beginning what some have siderable confidence and pride, they also 278 Serbia in World War I

increased Austrian suspicion and resentment border. Although the Austro-Hungarian toward Serbia, with one Austrian officer term- army as a whole was substantially larger, ing the Serbian capital “a nest of vipers.” the outbreak of war with Russia compelled When Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863– the Dual Monarchy to send most of its forces 1914) fell victim to assassination in Sara- against that country, and this meant that the jevo, the Austrian government assumed that two armies on the Balkan Front were closely the Serbian government was behind it. This matched. Austro-Hungarian forces briefly assumption led to the of 1914, occupied Belgrade. On August 25–26, the the ultimatum of July 23, and the Austrian Serbian army, led by the indomitable Voj- declaration of war on Serbia on July 28. voda (General) Radomir Putnik (1847– The debate about the role of the Serbian 1917) defeated the invaders at the battle of government in the assassination is ongoing, Cer Mountain. The Austro-Hungarians had but the evidence indicates that whereas the to return across their borders. They invaded young conspirators gained weapons and two more times that year and even briefly training from Serbian official sources, the occupied Belgrade, but the Serbian army government itself played no role in instigat- forced them to evacuate the Serbian capital; ing the murder and had even warned the by the end of December, the lines largely Austrian government that an attempt might followed the original borders. be made on the archduke’s life. Between the end of the fighting in 1914 In fall 1914, the Serbs and Austrians and the German-Austrian-Bulgarian inva- fought several battles along their common sion of October 1915, Serbia suffered a Serbia in World War I 279 dreadful contagion of typhus, which killed forces of the Central Powers, about 120,000 an estimated 150,000 people during the first were rescued. Of this number, 11,000 on six months of 1915, weakened many more, Corfu died of disease, malnutrition, or expo- and brought on other diseases that persisted sure sustained on the retreat. throughout the war. Only with the occupa- Serbia was divided into two zones of occu- tion of western Serbia by Austro-Hungarian pation, one under Austrian and the other forces later that year was the typhus under Bulgarian administration. In neither epidemic brought under control. zone did the occupiers treat the Serbs gently, The Central Powers offensive against but the Austrians were at least eager to restore Serbia in October 1915 demonstrated the the agricultural productivity of Serbia in order effectiveness of combined forces under a to feed their own armies and populations. unified command. Led by German field Austrian officials brought the epidemics marshal August von Mackensen (1849– under control and introduced agricultural 1945), an Austro-German army crossed the improvements so that by 1917, agricultural Sava and Danube on October 6, drawing production had reached prewar levels. Still, the Serbian forces northward. When these ever higher requisitions, inflation, shortages, forces had committed themselves, the and forced labor in 1918 made survival Bulgarians, seeking redress for the Second difficult for the Serbian people. In 1917, Bul- Balkan War, struck from the east and south, garian troops brutally suppressed an uprising intending to close a huge trap around the around the town of Toplica. Serbs. A number of Serbs were able to Together with their troops, Serbian politi- escape, withdrawing to their legendary cal leaders had escaped to Corfu and contin- ground of Kosovo Pole, the site of the great uedtofunctionasagovernment.Serbian apotheosis of the Serbian people in 1389. war aims called for the creation of a Greater There the military and civilian leaders Serbia by joining together Serbia proper, decided not to surrender to the Central Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Montenegro. Powers, but to escape to the Allied base However, in 1917, Serbia’s great patron, established at Salonika in Greece. When Russia, collapsed in revolution, so the Ser- the Bulgarians severed that avenue of re- bian leaders, particularly Pasˇic˙, decided to treat, the Serbs turned westward into Alba- approach the Yugoslav Committee, a group nia, where they hoped to reach the Adriatic of South Slavic political activists from the coast and be rescued by Allied ships. Habsburg monarchy favored by the British The retreat to the coast was one of the andFrenchgovernments,todiscussthe great tales of suffering in the war. Accompa- future of the Balkans. The result was the nied by large numbers of civilians and ani- Pact of Corfu (July 1917), a vaguely worded mals, possessing little food, suffering from declaration calling for the political unity of cold and exposure, and harassed by vengeful the Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs under the Albanians who resented Serbian treatment Karageorgevic´ dynasty. That would be the of their fellows in Kosovo in 1912–1913, founding document of the future Yugo- the retreating Serbs finally reached the Alba- slavia, although it left out many details that nian port at Durre¨s (Durazzo). From there, would generate rancor and ill will for years French ships transported them to the island to come. of Corfu and to Tunisia. Of the 300,000 sol- In 1918, the Serbs had their opportunity diers who withstood the initial attack by the for revenge against their conquerors. After 280 Serbian Retreat, 1915

refitting, retraining, and resupplying on Corfu forces rapidly overwhelmed the exhausted and in Tunisia, the Serbian army was trans- and undermanned Serbian army. After the ferred to Salonika, in 1916, where it joined a Serbs failed to stop the Bulgarians at the his- multinational Allied force. On September 15, toric Kosovo Polje battlefield, they retreated 1918, this force together with French troops, into Albania. At the end of November, in numbering 29 divisions, launched a crushing wintery conditions, the remnants of the Ser- offensive against the Bulgarians. The next bian army, accompanied by civilians and day, they broke through the Bulgarian lines even some Austro-Hungarian prisoners of at Dobro Pole. Bulgaria, which had lost its war, departed from Serbian territory and German advisers and effective German divi- began its trek across the northern Albanian sions to the Western Front, sued for an armi- Alps toward the Adriatic Sea. The Serbs set stice, which was concluded on September 30. out from Pec´ and Prizren in three columns. This opened a clear road for the Serbian forces This was a real anabasis. not only to return to their homeland, but to The northern column, acting as a rear establish the power on the ground that would guard, delayed its departure from Pec´ until lead to the creation of the new Yugoslavia, December 7. It contained the largest contin- proclaimed by Alexander on gent of Serbian troops. It had the respon- December 1, 1918. sibility to act as a rear guard against an Karl Roider attack by the Austro-Hungarians, Bulgar- ians, and Germans. The northern column See also: Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia retreated through Montenegrin territory. (1888–1934); Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914; Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; Macedonian The aged King Peter (1844–1921) and the Front, 1916–1918; Putnik, Radomir (1847– ailing Field Marshall (Vojvoda) Radomir 1917); Serbia, Invasions of, 1914; Serbia, Putnik (1847–1917) had to be carried during Invasions of, 1915 the retreat. The northern column began to reach Scutari on December 15. The survi- Further Reading vors of this arduous trek continued to trickle Banac, Ivo. The National Question in Yugo- in for four days. slavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ithaca, The central and southern columns both NY: Cornell University Press, 1984; left Prizren. The central column headed reprinted, 1989. straight across northern Albania. It had the Fryer, C. E. J. The Destruction of Serbia in shortest route to the sea, but encountered 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- graphs, 1997. some resistance from hostile Albanians. The central column reached Scutari. The Judah, Tim. The Serbs. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997. southern column was the first to depart and the last to arrive at the coast. It left Mitrovic´, Andrej. Serbia’s Great War, 1914– 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- on November 25 and moved south all the sity Press, 2007. way to . Along the way it had to contend with Albanian resistance and a Bulgarian attack near Debar. The southern Serbian Retreat, 1915 column then turned northwesterly and passing through Tirana, reached the sea at The invasion of Serbia in October 1915 by Durre¨s (Durazzo) and Vlore¨ (Valona) on Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and German December 21. Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817 281

For those who survived to reach the sea, Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern the ordeal was not over. As many as 70,000 Serbia, 1804–1918.Vol.1.NewYork: Serbian soldiers died in passage, but the Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. total number of Serbian dead is unknown. The Italians had little interest in aiding the Serbian War of Independence, Serbs, whom they regarded as potential 1804–1817 rivals for Adriatic domination. Finally, the British and French assisted their Italian allies in evacuating the surviving Serbs The Serbian War of Independence was a from the northern and central columns from two-phase conflict with two different leaders She¨ngjin (San Giovanni di Medua) and directed against the Ottoman Empire. The those from the southern column from Durre¨s first phase of the Serbian revolt had its ori- and Vlore¨. The evacuations took place under gins in Serbian loyalty to the Ottoman gov- threat of Austro-Hungarian naval action. ernor (Pasha) of Belgrade, Hadji Mustapha They began in January and continued until S¸inik-oglu (1733–1801). Hadji Mustapha April. Most of the Serbs initially went to maintained a benevolent attitude toward the the Greek island of Corfu, where they Serbs, allowing them to collect their own could recover from their ordeal. From taxes and to form a militia under the leader- Corfu most went on to Tunisia and other ship of their knezes.Theknez was the chief locations in French North Africa. From or patriarch of an extended family or clan. there, many of the Serbian troops after Hadji Mustapha’s support of the Orthodox rest and recover were sent to Salonika, Serbs gained him the somewhat awkward where they formed a contingent of around title “Mother of the Serbs.” His mild rule and 150,000 troops that would participate in the friendliness toward the Serbs antagonized decisive battle of Dobro Pole in Septem- many Muslims, who perceived that their priv- ber 1918. This break through the Bulgarian ileges were being undermined. The conser- lines enabled the Serbs finally to return to vative Janissaries of the region particularly their homeland three years after their retreat. resented his polices. By the eighteenth cen- Richard C. Hall tury, the Janissaries, once among the elite of the Ottoman army, had evolved into a See also: Austria-Hungary in the Balkans privileged semi-military caste determined to during World War I; Bulgaria in World War I; maintain their special privileges and statue. Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918; Putnik, Radomir In 1801, the Janissaries assassinated Hadji (1847–1917); Serbia, Invasion of 1915; Serbia Mustapha and attempted to disarm the Serbs. in World War I In February 1804, the Janissaries, fearing a Further Reading Serbian uprising, executed a number of Adams, John C. Flight in Winter. Princeton, Serbian leaders. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1942. In response, the surviving Serbs organ- Fryer, C. E. J. The Destruction of Serbia in ized resistance. Fighting erupted in Febru- 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- ary 1804 between armed Serbian bands and graphs, 1997. Ottoman soldiers. The Serbian revolt origi- Mitrovic´, Andrej. Serbia’s Great War, 1914– nated not as a gesture of nationalism aimed 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- at the sultan in Constantinople, but as a sity Press, 2007. peasant revolt directed against the misrule 282 Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817

of the Janissaries in Belgrade. At the begin- with the Austrians also took place. In 1807, ning of 1804, the Janissaries and other Mus- the Russians concluded a formal alliance lim authorities in the Pashalik of Belgrade with the Serbs. In 1810, a Russian force attempted to quash the discontent by - briefly entered Serbia to help the Serbs. dering the leading knezes.Thissparkedthe Even before Napoleon led his Grande Serbian revolt. Arme´e to Moscow in 1812, however, Russia One knez who escaped the massacre, attention to the Balkans faltered. The con- George Petrovic´ (1768–1817), known as clusion of peace between the Ottomans and Karageorge (Black George) because of his Russians with the Treaty of Bucharest of swarthy appearance, emerged as the leader May 1812 ended Russian intervention on of the revolt. Karageorge was a swine mer- behalf of the Serbs. By 1813, the Serbs chant from . Karageorge obtained were exhausted and bereft of outside help. external support especially from Serbs living The revolt fizzled and Karageorge fled to in neighboring Austria. Many Serbian veter- Austria. Ottoman troops reoccupied Serbia ans of the Austrian army joined his forces. including Belgrade that same year. The Austrian government, however, preoccu- Serbia did not remain quiet for long. The pied with Napoleon, remained aloof. After second phase of the war of independence negotiations with representatives of the sultan began in early 1815. Initially a knez who was failed, Karageorge turned to Russia for assis- a rival of Karageorge, Milosˇ Obrenovic´ tance. Initially, they also preferred to remain (1780–1860) collaborated with the restored apart. Fighting erupted in February 1804 Ottoman regime. Having gained a political between armed Serbian bands and Ottoman profile, he successfully maneuvered between soldiers. Karageorge and his subordinates the Ottoman authorities and the dissident defeated at least four Ottoman armies sent to Serbs. He maintained credibility with the dispose of him. In December 1806, he cap- other knezes by defeating an Ottoman force tured Belgrade. at Dublje in northwestern Serbia, and he After his success in overrunning the Pash- maintained his channels with the Ottomans lik of Belgrade, he assumed the position of by treating his captives well. By an Ottoman hereditary knez in 1808. His position was edict of December 1815, he achieved recogni- never secure. Many other knezes resented tion as the chief knez of the pashalik of his attempt to establish a superior position. Belgrade. Under his regime, Serbs were per- Loyalties in liberated Serbia remained clan- mitted to retain their arms and to have their nish and local. On Russian advice some own assembly (skupsˇtina). Serbian leaders organized a “Governing The somewhat murky murder of the Council,” but Karageorge felt no inclination recently returned Karageorge in 1817 con- to accept any limitation on his authority. firmed Obrenovic´ more or less domestically Karageorge continued to contact the as the Serbian leader. Under him, the Serbs Austrians and French to secure aid. The gradually obtained increased privileges. In Napoleonic Wars, however, commanded 1830, the Ottomans recognized Obrenovic´ the full attention of the western Europeans. as hereditary prince of autonomous Serbia. After the outbreak of the Russo-Ottoman By 1833, he had established fixed borders War of 1806–1812, Czar Alexander of Rus- for his state. Serbia was well on its way to sia (1777–1825) offered some support men formal independence. and material to the Serbs. Some negotiations Richard C. Hall Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876 283

See also: Karageorge (George Petrovic´; 1762– under the command of Prince Milan (1854– 1818), Obrenovic´, Milosˇ (1780–1860); Russo- 1901) consisted of Novibazar, Ibar, and Ottoman War, 1806–1812 Timok divisions; and the southern army under the Russian general Mikhail Grigorie- Further Reading vich Chernyayev’s (1828–1898) command. Judah, Tim. The Serbs: History, Myth and the Due to mountains, broken terrain, and gen- Destruction of Yugoslavia.NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997. eral lack of transportation, Montenegrin forces were not able to concentrate and Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern Serbia, 1804–1918.Vol.1.NewYork: instead fought unconventional mountain Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. warfare throughout the war. Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New On both sides there were regular as well York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. irregular and volunteer units. Most notice- ably, the Serbs lacked cavalry and the Mon- tenegrins professional officers. Within the Ottoman officer corps, there was bitter Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876 infighting between military academy gradu- ates (Mektepli) and those who had risen Serbia and Montenegro had irredentist claims from the ranks (Alaylı). Similarly, diversity on various parts of Ottoman Balkan provinces of weapons and problematic logistical sup- and played instrumental roles in rebellions port plagued both sides. and public disorders of Serbs and Christian Skirmishes and small battles on the Albanians against Ottoman local authorities. Montenegro front did not result in a clear Therefore, when the wide-scale rebellions winner. Additionally, Montenegrin and were started in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Bul- Ottoman local commanders suffered diffi- garia in 1875, the Serbian and Montenegrin culty to control tribal warriors who paid leadership saw the time ripe for gaining more attention to their tribal grievances and more territory from the Ottoman Empire. looting than the political cause and overall They gave an ultimatum to the Ottoman military campaign plans. Empire for some concessions and, upon its General Chernyayev, who achieved his rejection, declared war on July 1–2, 1876. fame fighting colonial wars, had little under- The ensuing wars and rebellions that erupted standing of the rules and dynamics of conven- one after another, including the Russo- tional warfare and clearly underestimated Ottoman War, continued up until 1878. opposing Ottoman forces. He mounted One of the first academically trained offi- attacks in three-pronged targeting Ottoman cers, Abdu¨lkerim Nadir Pasha (1807–1883; concentrations in Vidin, Nish, and Novi also known as Abdi) was appointed as the Pazar. He was defeated in detail, and Ottoman overall commander of the Ottoman forces forces pursued retreating Serbian troops into that were mobilized and concentrated near the Principality of Serbia. After the battle of Vidin, Nisˇ, Novi Pazar, Scutari, and Herze- Zajecar (July 2–3, 1876), the road to Belgrade govina. Smaller Ottoman forces fought was opened to Ottomans. With the timely against Montenegrins from Albania against intervention of the Great Powers, the Ottoman both Serbs and Montenegrins from Herzego- invasion stopped short of its final target. The vina. In comparison, the Serbian forces were cease-fire allowed the Serbs to replenish divided into two groups: the northern one their deficits in arms, munitions, officers 284 Se`vres, Treaty of, 1920

(with the induction of Russian volunteers), the winners to the losers without negotia- and fortifications. tion. Unlike many other treaties, few of its Chernyayev relaunched an attack on Sep- terms were ever implemented. In 1923, the tember 25, 1876. Abdu¨lkerim Pasha defeated Treaty of Lausanne superseded most of the Serbian attack columns and immediately terms of the Treaty of Se`vres, and it was attacked Chernyayev’s headquarters at thus the shortest-lived of the treaties ending Cunis. This caused panic throughout the Ser- the war. bian forces, and the Serbs called out to Russia Although the Allies (specifically France for help. In response, Russia gave an ultima- and Great Britain) did not envision the tum, which forced the Ottoman Empire to an destruction of the Ottoman Empire in 1914, armistice with Serbia and Montenegro on the Treaty of Se`vres confirmed what had October 31, 1876. The tumultuous situation become an established fact. The Ottoman in the Balkans, however, would continue. Empire was officially dissolved, and the The Balkans would become the main theater new state of Turkey appeared in its place. of the Russo-Ottoman War that erupted in The sultan remained in power, but the provi- 1877. sions of the treaty made him a virtual pris- Ahmet O¨ zcan oner to the interests of the victorious nations. Consistent with realities on the See also: Bosnian Revolt, 1876; Bulgarian ground, Se`vres removed all predominantly Horrors, 1876; Russo-Ottoman War, 1877– 1878. Arabic-speaking regions from Turkish con- trol. The region of the Hejaz (in what is Further Reading now Saudi Arabia) was made an indepen- MacKenzie, David. The Lion of Tashkent: The dent kingdom and named a signatory to the Career of General M. G. Cherniaev. treaty. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1974. The creation of an Arabian state notwith- MacKenzie, David. The Serbs and Russian standing, the treaty denied independence to Pan-Slavism, 1875–1878. Ithaca, NY: much of the Middle East, which passed Cornell University Press, 1976. under French and British control as man- Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern dates. While nominally free of foreign Serbia, 1804–1918.2vols.NewYork: rule, Arabia was in reality under British Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. suzerainty. Palestine and Mesopotamia became British mandates, while Syria and Lebanon became French mandates. The Se`vres, Treaty of, 1920 mandates were supposed to lead to eventual independence under the supervision of the The Treaty of Se`vres among 13 Allied League of Nations. The United States, dis- powers (most notably France, Great Britain, pleased at what it saw as the furtherance of and Italy) and Turkey was signed in European in the region, and August 1920. Although the Armistice of never itself at war with the Ottoman Empire, Mudros ended World War I hostilities with declined to participate in the treaty negotia- the Ottoman Empire in October 1918, the tions. Nevertheless, U.S. president Wood- Treaty of Se`vres took another 20 months to row Wilson (1856–1924) secured the right conclude. As with many other treaties that to determine the borders of the new state of ended the war, its terms were presented by Armenia. Se`vres, Treaty of, 1920 285

The treaty was an immediate disappoint- The real humiliation for Turkey lay in the ment to Arab leaders. The British had made settlement of its European and Anatolian grandiose promises of independence during boundaries. Greece acquired all of European the war to Arab leaders such as Sharif Turkey except the immediate area around Husayn. In return for staging rebellions in Constantinople, which came under inter- the Arab parts of the Ottoman Empire, the national control. The Greeks were also British had promised Husayn and other awarded the city of Smyrna, several Aegean Arab leaders that they would support the islands, and large parts of western Anatolia. creation of independent Arab states. The These areas were to remain under Greek Treaty of Se`vres fell far short of those guar- control for five years, after which the Greeks antees. Instead, it upheld the secret Sykes- were to conduct a plebiscite. Britain and Picot Agreement of 1916 wherein Britain France presumed that this vote would result and France agreed to divide former Ottoman in the annexation of these areas to the King- territories among themselves, though the dom of Greece. Finally, Ottoman finances treaty added the cloak of the mandate sys- were placed not in Turkish hands but under tem. The treaty also reaffirmed the Balfour the supervision of British, French, and Declaration of 1917 in which Great Britain Italian financiers. stated that it viewed with favor the creation The principal architect of the treaty, of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Never- British prime minister theless, the Great Powers took no definitive (1863–1945), regarded it as the triumph of steps in that direction. Romantic Hellenism and Christendom. The treaty did not deal with the humilia- He seems to have immediately recognized, tions of the Capitulations, which had been however, that Great Britain could not solidified between the states of western enforce these terms. The Greeks were Europe and the Ottoman Empire since the already showing an appetite for more of sixteenth century. These involved unequal Anatolia than the treaty permitted, and trade terms between the Great Powers and Britain was facing intense domestic pres- the Ottoman Empire and granted the right sures to demobilize. of extraterritoriality to foreign nationals. Most importantly, Turkish nationalists Under the terms of the Treaty of Se`vres, the were showing determination to resist many Capitulations were effectively continued in of the terms laid out in the treaty. Brilliantly relation to the new state of Turkey. led by Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), the In addition, the treaty made the Bosporus hero of Gallipoli, the nationalists planned and the Dardanelles an international water- to overturn Se`vres. Most nationalists under- way. This provision existed mostly to pre- stood that reviving the Ottoman Empire and vent the Russian Bolshevik regime from recapturing the lost Arab lands could not, claiming ownership of the straits. Armenia, and should not, be accomplished. They bris- the scene of a genocide during the war, was tled, however, at any ethnically Turkish made independent, and Kurdistan received lands falling under foreign control. Thus, significant autonomy within the new Turkish Kemal set out to regain all Anatolian and state. Great Britain landed a force under Armenian lands for Turkey. General George Milne to guarantee the neu- Only Greece decided to meet Kemal with trality of the straits and ensure control of military force. The Greeks had 150,000 Constantinople. troops in Turkey, and Greek premier 286 Shipka Pass, Battles of, 1877–1878

Eleuthe´rios Venize´los (1864–1936) was to change its original plan. According determined to use them to crush Kemal’s to this change, the Southern Group was nationalists. Kemal, however, carried out a ordered to reach the Balkan passes as soon brilliant military campaign in the Greco- as possible. The speed of the Russian Turkish War of 1919–1922. He recaptured advance caught the Balkan Corps off guard. Smyrna and its hinterland, and then turned Its units, which were supposed to be guard- north to move on Constantinople. The Ital- ing the Balkan passes, were not yet in their ians, who had come to view Greece as a assigned positions, leaving only weak for- more immediate rival than Turkey, agreed ward elements in place. So, while the high to withdraw their occupation troops after a command in Constantinople and com- defeat at Kemal’s hands in Central Anatolia. mander in chief Abdu¨lkerim Nadir Pasha The Italian decision led the British and (1807/9–1883) were trying to formulate a French also to quit Turkey. Within only two workable solution to stop the Russian years, the Treaty of Se`vres had been super- advance, the Russian Southern Group, seded by the Treaty of Lausanne, signed on under the able command of General Iosif July 24. 1923. Gurko (1828–1901), easily captured the Michael S. Neiberg weakly defended and seemingly unimpor- tant Hainbog˘azı defile on July 14, 1877. See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; This allowed the group to advance immedi- Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938); Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923 ately through the mountains toward the main pass at Shipka (S¸ıpka). As he Further Reading advanced, Gurko repulsed two uncoordi- Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace: nated and timid Ottoman counter-attacks. TheFalloftheOttomanEmpireandthe The Shipka Pass defensive system was built Creation of the Modern Middle East.New against a northern assault not against an York: Holt, 1989. assault coming from its rear. Thereupon a Helmreich, Paul. From Paris to Se`vres: The hopeless defense was crushed in a single Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the day and Shipka Pass fell on July 19, opening Peace Conference of 1919–1920. Colum- the door to the straits. bus: Ohio State University Press, 1974. Ongoing combat operations against Macfie, A. L. The End of the Ottoman Empire, Montenegro were suspended and two divi- 1918–1923. London: Longman, 1998. sions, under the command of Su¨ leyman MacMillan, Margaret. Paris, 1919: Six Months Hu¨snu¨ Pasha (1838–1892), were ordered to That Changed the World.NewYork: redeploy in order to fill the gaps in the Bal- Random House, 2002. kan passes. Su¨leyman Pasha reached the region on July 23 after a 20-day journey Shipka Pass, Battles of, caused mainly by a shortage of coal. He pre- 1877–1878 pared slowly and leisurely for the main assault, giving Russian defenders ample After an easy advance, light casualties, time to consolidate their gains and dig into receiving enthusiastic support from the a defense but also to predict his avenues of Bulgarians and the apparent passivity of the approach and objective, which was none Ottoman main forces in S¸umnu () other than via Shipka Pass. The main assault and Vidin, the Russian command decided was launched on August 21. The Ottoman Skanderbeg SS Division 287 troops launched repeated attacks against 21. Waffen Gebirgs-Division der SS “Skan- Russian positions. Rough terrain, intense derbeg” (albanische Nr. 1),itwasnamed Russian artillery and small-arms fire, poor after George Kastrioti Skanderbeg (1405– coordination at the brigade level, and lack 1468), the national hero of Albania, who of effective fire support were instrumental resisted the Ottomans from 1443 until his in the waste of tactical opportunities. Su¨ley- death in 1468. man Pasha, who was dangerously overconfi- In April 1939, Italy occupied Albania, dent about the superiority of his own tactical and, almost exactly two years later, the views, ignored the realities on the ground Germans occupied Yugoslavia. During and continued on operations against Shipka, 1942 and 1943, both the and albeit on a smaller scale. The Balkan Corps Waffen SS wanted to use local manpower remained stuck in front of Shipka until the to maintain order and fight Yugoslav Parti- assignment of Su¨leyman Pasha as the new san and Communist Albanian resistance in commander in chief of the Balkan front on the region. At the same time, the pro-Nazi September 26. government of Albania wanted to form its Mesut Uyar own army that would help establish a “greater Albania,” consisting of prewar See also: Bulgarian Horrors, 1876; Russo- Albania, Kosovo, and Western Macedonia. Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878; Su¨ leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha In September 1943, the Germans occupied (1838–1892) Albania after Italy surrendered. In 1943, many Albanians from Kosovo Further Reading and the Sanjak region joined the 13th Kec¸ecizade˙ Izzet Fuad. Kac¸ırılan Fırsatlar: Waffen SS Mountain Division (the Hand- 1877 Osmanlı-Rus Savas¸ı Hakkında schar [Croatian] division) as Battalion I/2 Eles¸tiriler ve Askeri Du¨s¸u¨nceler. Ankara: (later I/28). They received their initial train- Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1997. ing in southern France and Neuhammer, Schem, A. J. An Illustrated History of the Con- Germany. Given the relative success of the flict between Russia and Turkey with a SS Handschar Division, SS Reischfu¨hrer Review of the Eastern Question.New Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945) in Febru- York: H. S. Goodspeed & Co., 1878. ary 1944 authorized the formation of a par- Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- allel unit of suitable Albanians. Xhafer tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.Vol.2,Reform Revolution and Deva (1904–1978), an Albanian official in Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey the pro-Nazi Albanian government, helped 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge recruit 11,400 Albanians from whom about University Press, 1976. 6,000 were actually inducted into the Waf- fen SS. In mid-April 1944, Battalion I/2 of the Handschar SS Division transferred from Skanderbeg SS Division Bosnia to Kosovo to become a part of the newly created SS Skandeberg Division. The Skanderbeg SS Division was a light The Skanderbeg Division, numbering infantry (Mountain) unit of the Waffen SS, about 6,000–6,500 men instead of a normal established in March 1944 and consisting division strength (10,000–20,000) and com- of mainly ethnic Albanians from Nazi- manded by SS-Standartenfu¨ hrer August occupied Albania. Officially known as the Schmidthuber (1901–1947), was operational 288 Slivnitsa, Battle of, 1885

from February to November 1944. The divi- participating in massacres, deportations, sion arm patch consisted of a black double- and atrocities against civilians and sen- headed eagle on a red background. The tenced him to death by hanging. He was recruits wore the white traditional Albanian executed on February 27, 1947. highlander cap (), and later the SS Robert B. Kane issued gray headgear in the same style, See also: Albania in World War II; Handschar with the Totenkopf sewn on the front and a SS Division collar tab with the Skanderbeg helmet. The division fought Communist partisans, Further Reading led by Enver Hoxha, in Albania and Yugo- Bishop, Chris. Waffen-SS Divisions, 1939–45. slavia toward the end of the war. Members London: Amber Books, 2007. of the division, attached to a regular Wehr- Blandford, Edmund L. Hitler’s Second Army: macht unit, conducted anti-Partisan opera- The Waffen SS. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks tions or terrorized the local non-Albanian International, 1994. population in the areas of Greater Albania Fischer, Bernd J. Albania at War, 1939–1945. not part of pre-1939 Albania. In May 1944, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University a portion of the division helped guard Press, 1999. minesinwesternKosovoandhelpedthe Williamson, Gordon. Waffen-SS Handbook, Germans round up 281 Jews for deportation. 1933–1945. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, The division participated in the battle of Ltd., 2005. Debar in present-day western Macedonia, August 18 –27, 1944, but failed to capture the city. The division also aided the German Slivnitsa, Battle of, 1885 army in its orderly withdrawal from the Bal- kans in October and November 1944. The Battle of Slivnitsa was the main battle Overall, the division, with a serious lack of the Bulgarian-Serb War, fought near the of instructors, Albanian officers and non- Bulgarian town of Slivnitsa during Novem- commissioned officers was very poorly led. ber 17–19, 1885. On November 13, 1885, Problems, such as insubordination, poor disci- the Serbian king, Milan Obrenovic´ (1854– pline, and looting and violence against 1901), declared war on Bulgaria after unarmed civilians, especially Serbs and sus- Bulgarian nationalists in Eastern Rumelia pected Communist Albanians, plagued the declared its unification with Bulgaria on unit. The Albanians often refused to fight or September 18, 1885. The Serbian army to take orders, and the Germans had to disarm crossed the northwest border of Bulgaria in several battalions and imprison a number of three columns, intending to converge on Albanian officers. Many recruits deserted Sofia, the Bulgarian capital. The Serbians with their new weapons and boots, and, by ran into stiff resistance in the mountains, October 1944, the division had dwindled to giving Alexander von Battenberg (1857– about 3,500. Overall, the division never 1893), Prince of Bulgaria, time to deploy became a significant combat force. his main forces into prepared defenses at SS-Brigadefu¨hrer Schmidthuber was cap- Slivnitsa, 22 miles northwest of Sofia. The tured in 1945 and turned over to Yugoslav three Serbian center divisions halted near authorities. In February 1947, a Yugoslav Slivnitsa on November 16 to recover from military tribunal tried him on charges of the fierce fighting in the Dragoman Pass. Slovene War, 1991 289

On the evening of November 16, Further Reading Alexander arrived at Slivnitsa to find his Jelavich, Charles. Tsarist Russia and Balkan army in three miles of trenches along a Nationalism: Russian Influence in the Inter- ridge in front of the village. Steep mountain- nal Affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879– ous terrain lay on the right flank while the 1886. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958. easier Visker Hills towards , south- west of Slivnitsa, protected the Bulgarian Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The Establishment of the Balkan National left flank. Around 10:00 a.m. the next morn- States, 1804–1920. Seattle: University of ing, Alexander ordered three battalions to Washington Press, 1977. advance on the right, surprising the Serbians Pavlowitch, Stevan K. A History of the Balkans, who eventually rallied and pushed them 1804–1945. London: Longman, 1999. back. The main Serbian attack occurred against the Bulgarian center, but the Bulgar- ians forced the Serbians back. Bulgarian Slovene War, 1991 reinforcements recaptured the heights on the right and drove the Serbs back to the The Slovene War of 1991, also known as the road. Ten Days War, was a short conflict that At daybreak, November 18, the Serbians began the disintegration of Yugoslavia and attacked the Bulgarian left flank, but Bulgar- established the first independent Slovene ian reinforcements again arrived just in time state. After the election of the overtly to prevent a breakthrough. The Bulgarians nationalistic Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941– repulsed further attacks in the center, caus- 2006) as president of the Yugoslav Federal ing heavy Serbian casualties. The next day, Republic of Serbia in 1990 using federal two Serbian divisions attacked near Karnul monies, many Slovenes began to consider (now called Delyan) near Bresnik in an disassociation from Yugoslavia. As citizens attempt to join up with the Morava division. of the wealthiest of the six federal Yugoslav The arrival of new Bulgarian troops from republics, the Slovenes had little desire to Sofia held the Morava division in the Visker fund Serbian nationalist aspirations. A refer- Hills, and the flanking move failed. endum on December 23, 1990, demonstrated Alexander now ordered a counterattack that the majority of Slovenes favored which pushed the Serbians back on both independence. While the leaders of Ljubljana flanks. Nightfall prevented a complete col- government, including President Milan lapse of the Serbian lines. Kucˇan (1941–), hoped to avoid armed conflict On November 20, the defeated Serbian with the federal state, they took measures to army began to retreat back to Serbia, ending strengthen the Territorial Defense (TO) forces the battle. The Bulgarians suffered 1,800 at their disposal. These TOs were established casualties from the battle, and the Serbians, as a part of the Yugoslav People’s Army 2,100 casualties. (JNA) strategy to repel a foreign invasion Robert B. Kane by small units trained in guerilla tactics. See also: Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Because Slovenia, unlike much of the rest Bulgaria (1857–1893); Bulgarian-Serb War, of Yugoslavia, was relatively ethnically 1885; Obrenovic´, Milan (1854–1901) homogeneous, these forces could be relied 290 Slovene War, 1991

sending units into Slovenia to reassert federal authority. That same day, the Slov- ene TO shot down two JNA helicopters. The fighting between the TO and the JNA escalated over the course of the next five days. In many instances, the TO success- fully employed guerilla tactics to disrupt JNA movements and concentrations. The TO also surrounded JNA bases within Slovenia. Meanwhile efforts to resolve the crisis with diplomacy emerged in several Euro- pean capitals. In response, the Slovene government announced a unilateral cease- fire on July 2. The JNA accepted the cease- fire the next day. By that time, the Slovene TO had managed to assert control over most of the frontier crossing and to over- whelm most of the JNA installations within Slovenia. After both sides agreed to a cease-fire, the JNA withdrew its forces from Slovenian territory. Most of its equip- A Slovenian frontier guard patrols in front of ment remained in Slovenia. Quickly there- the new sign of the “Republica Slovenija” at after, representatives of the Yugoslav the Yugoslavian-Austrian frontier station of federal government, Croatia, Slovenia, and Spielfeld-Sentilj, June 26, 1991. (AP Photo/ the European Community met on the Adri- Gepa) atic Coast of Croatia. There on July 7, they signed the so-called Brioni (Bjrjuni) accord. upon to support the Ljubljana government This ended the efforts to the JNA to prevent against the federal government in Belgrade. Slovene independence. The attendees In particular the Slovene defense minister, agreed that Slovenia and Croatia could sepa- Janez Jansˇa (1958–), prepared the Slovene rate from federal Yugoslavia. TO for the pending conflict with the JNA. The Slovene War demonstrated the deter- He procured arms and promoted the JNA’s mination of the Slovenian people to achieve own guerrilla tactics for use against the JNA. national independence for the first time in Because Yugoslavia had maintained almost their history. It also showed the effectiveness universal male military obligation, Jansˇa of the small-unit guerilla tactics of the Slov- could draw upon a large contingent of Slov- ene TO. The Slovenes demonstrated high ene males with military training. morale at all times. Not so their JNA oppo- Slovenia declared independence from nents. The JNA leadership, itself mostly Ser- Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991. The Slovene bian and Montenegrin, failed to meet the TO immediately acted to establish control challenge of the Slovene TO. Many JNA of Slovenia’s borders and main airport. The soldiers of Bosniak, Croatian, Kosovar, and next day, June 26, the JNS responded by Macedonian origin had little interest in Smyrna, Destruction of, 1922 291

fighting for the Federal Republic of Yugo- Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and slavia or for the nationalist leadership of the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- Serbia. Nevertheless, some Slovene soldiers wood Press, 1998. did fight and die for the JNA. Among the Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: Slovene JNA casualties was one of the heli- Death of a Nation. New York: TV Books, 1996. copter pilots shot down on June 26. The Slovene TO forces lost 18 killed and 182 U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the wounded. The JNA suffered 44 killed and Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols. 146 wounded. Some civilians also lost their Washington, DC: Central Intelligence lives in the conflict. Probably the most sig- Agency, 2002–2003. nificant casualty of the war was the JNA itself. This brief conflict indicated that the conscript-based JNA was not effective in a Smyrna, Destruction of, 1922 national context. After the Slovene War of 1991,theJNAceasedtobeaneffective The destruction of Smyrna is also known as federal force. Those who remained in the the Great Smyrna Fire (September 13–17, JNA were for the most part committed to 1922). Smyrna (I˙zmir) was a cosmopolitan the Serbian nationalist cause. city since ancient times, and during the The relatively quick and easy Slovene time of the fire, the influx of immigrants victory also demonstrated that the national- from the inner parts of Anatolia had swelled ist Serbian leadership was willing to allow its population to turn it into a large Christian territories without significant Serbian popu- metropolis. The city had been under Greek lations to leave Yugoslavia. At the same occupation in the period 1919–1922. time, this increased their determination to The Greek army’s advance into Anatolia, retain areas of mixed population with strong which had begun with its occupation of Serbian elements, such as Bosnia and the Smyrna on May 15, 1919, came to a decisive Krajina region of Croatia. In this way, the end with the Turkish victories at the Battle Slovene independence made the efforts of of Sakarya in August and September 1921 the Bosnians and Croats to separate them- and of Dumlupınar in August 1922. As the selves from Yugoslavia more difficult. Greek forces withdrew after this defeat, In the aftermath of the war, the European they retreated all the way to Smyrna while Community recognized Slovene indepen- setting fire to some towns and villages dence on January 15, 1992. Slovenia joined along the way. The inhabitants of Smyrna the United Nations in May of the same year. were afraid that the city might share the In 2004, Slovenia joined the EU and NATO. same fate as several localities in western Richard C. Hall Anatolia that were burned down by the Greek army; but the Greek forces did not See also: Brioni Agreement; JNA (Yugoslav attempt at starting a fire in Smyrna, where People’s Army); Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes a large Christian population still lived. When the Turkish army entered the city, Further Reading the Greek forces had already left on Septem- Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- ber 9, 1922. After the recapture of the city slavia: Tracking the Breakup, 1980–1992. by the Turks, there was some pillaging and New York: Verso, 1993. some other events of violence, which 292 Srebrenica Massacre, 1995

increased the nervousness among the war in 1992, this predominantly Bosniak populace. (Bosnian Muslim) town successfully The fire started on September 13 and defended itself against the advance of the lasted until September 17. The first fire Bosnian Serb Army (BSA) in the spring of broke out in the Armenian quarter, which 1992. The Serbs conducted a wide-scale was soon joined by other fires in and around ethnic cleansing of the region, expelling the same quarter. With the help of the windy Bosniaks and increasing the Serbian popula- weather, fire spread to a large area including tion. Besieged by the BSA, Srebrenica was the Greek and European quarters. While isolated from Bosniak-controlled territories Muslim and Jewish quarters were not to the west and was dependent on humani- harmed, quarters inhabited by Greeks and tarian aid provided by the UN Protection the Armenians suffered considerable dam- Force (UNPROFOR). Nevertheless, the age. The fire destroyed a large part of the Bosniaks, under command of Naser Oric, city, caused many deaths, and forced many successfully repelled the Serbian forces more to leave the city. throughout 1992 and early 1993. In the Responsibility for the fire has been a hotly spring of 1993, the United Nations declared contested topic. Diplomatic sources are not Srebrenica a “safe area,” along with five in unanimous in this regard. Greeks and other Bosnian Muslim cities (Bihac, Gor- Armenians argue that the fire was deliber- azde, Sarajevo, Tuzla, and Zepa) then under ately started by the Turks, while Turkish siege at the hands of the Bosnian Serbs. sources insist that either the Armenians or Despite its new status, Srebrenica was the Greeks were responsible. neverproperlydefendedbyUNPROFOR Ahmet O¨ zcan and constantly suffered extreme privation as the Serbs tested the UN resolves by See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; blocking aid convoys. Of over UN 30,000 Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 troops requested for Bosnian Muslim “safe Further Reading areas,” only 7,600 were forthcoming, of Bo¨ke, Pelin. I˙zmir 1919–1922. Istanbul: Tanı- which 750 Dutch troops were deployed at klıklar, 2006. Srebrenica. The UN troops were lightly Lowry, Heath. “Turkish History: On Whose armed and operated under stringent mandate Sources Will It Be Based? A Case Study that made them powerless to successfully on the Burning of Izmir.” Osmanlı Aras¸tır- engage either of the conflicting sides. maları Dergisi 9 (1988). By 1995, after almost three years of resis- Milton, Giles. Paradise Lost Smyrna 1922: The tance, Srebrenica became a symbol of Bos- Destruction of a Christian City in the Islamic niak resistance, only further increasing the World. New York: Basic Books, 2008. city’s importance. In July 1995, encouraged by UN vacillation over whether or not to Srebrenica Massacre, 1995 maintain the safe areas, the BSA forces under the command of General Ratko Mla- The Srebrenica Massacre was the worst dic´ (1942–) launched a major campaign to massacre on European soil since the capture Srebrenica. The UNPROFOR troops Holocaust. Srebrenica is located near the failed to stop the BSA offensive because of a Drina River in eastern Bosnia. After the col- lack of support further up the UN chain of lapse of Yugoslavia and outbreak of civil command. As the Serbian forces overran Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 293 the enclave, over 15,000 Bosniaks fled into Battle of Stalingrad, the first large encircle- the woods while many sought shelter at the ment of a German army in the war, gave UNPROFOR base at nearby Potocari, the Soviets a psychological lift and the mili- where the members of the Dutch peacekeep- tary initiative. Sharing in the German defeat ers sheltered about 8,000 Bosnian Muslims. were several allied forces, especially those The Serb forces overrun the UN base and, of the Romanians. after separating women from men, began a In spring 1942, Adolf Hitler placed major methodical killing of the Bosnian Muslims. emphasis in the summer campaign on the It is impossible to arrive at precise numbers southern portion of the German-Soviet of the killed, but best estimates point to Front in Operation Blau (Blue). Hitler sent between 7,000 and 8,000 men killed. General Fedor von Bock’s (1880–1945) The Srebrenica Massacre became the worst Army Group South east from around Kursk single of the entire Bosnian conflict to secure Voronezh, which fell to the Ger- and the worst case of in Europe mans on July 6. Hitler then reorganized his since the end of World War II. It also stands southern forces into Army Groups A and B. as a symbol of the failure by the international General Siegmund W. List (1880–1971) community, and especially the United Nations, had command of the southern formation, to prevent mass murders. The massacre Army Group A; General Maximilian von resulted in the indictment of numerous Serbian Weichs (1881–1954) commanded the commanders, including Mladic´, as war crimi- northern formation, . nals by the International Criminal Tribunal Hitler’s original plan called for Army for the Former Yugoslavia at The Hague. Groups A and B to cooperate in a great Alexander Mikaberidze effort to secure the Don and Donets Valleys and capture the cities of Rostov and Stalin- See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Mladic´, grad. The two army groups could then Ratko (1943–); UNPROFOR; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 move southeast to capture the oil fields that were so important to the Red Army. On Further Reading July 13, Hitler ordered a change of plans, Cigar, Norman. Genocide in Bosnia: The Pol- demanding the simultaneous capture of icy of “Ethnic Cleansing.” College Station: Stalingrad—a major industrial center and Texas A&M University Press, 1995. key crossing point on the Volga River—and Honig, Jan Willem and Norbert Both, Srebren- the Caucasus. Dividing the effort placed fur- ica, Record of a War Crime. New York: ther strains on already inadequate German Penguin, 1996. resources, especially on logistical support. Rohde, David. A Safe Area, Srebrenica: This also meant that inevitably a gap would Europe’s Worst Massacre since the Second appear between the two German army World War. London: Pocket Books, 1997. groups, enabling most Soviet troops caught in the Don River bend to escape eastward. Meanwhile, on July 23, Army Group A cap- Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 tured Rostov. It then crossed the Don River and advanced deep into the Caucasus, reach- Some hold that the Battle of Stalingrad, one ing to within 70 miles of the Caspian Sea. of the epic battles of World War II, was the Hitler now intervened again, slowing the turning point on the Eastern Front. The advance of General ’s 294 Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943

(1890–1957) Sixth Army of Army Group B safe.GermanarmyHighCommandchief toward Stalingrad when he detached Gen- of staff General (1884–1972) eral ’s (1885–1971) Fourth and other German generals grew more and Panzer Army to join Army Group A to help more alarmed. They pointed out to Hitler secure the Caucasus oil fields. Nonetheless, that the German army in Russia now had to the Sixth Army reached the Volga north of maintain a front of more than 2,000 miles. Stalingrad on August 23. Between the two armies of Army Group B, The great city of Stalingrad curved for a sole division held a 240-mile gap. North some 20 miles along the high western bank of Stalingrad, Romanian troops protected of the Volga River. Hitler’s original intent the single railroad bringing supplies to the was merely to control the river by gunfire Sixth Army. The possibilities open to the and to destroy the city’s arms factories, Soviets were enormous, provided they had notably the Tractor, Red October, and Barri- the resources available. Hitler claimed they cades works; but now he demanded a full did not. Halder continued warning Hitler occupation of the Soviet dictator’s name- and tried to get him to break off the battle sake city. for Stalingrad. This time, Hitler sacked To meet the German thrust toward Stalin- Halder. He also relieved List, and from a dis- grad, on July 12, 1942, the Soviet General tance of 1,200 miles, Hitler took personal Staff had formed the . It command of Army Group A, which was consisted of the Sixty-second, Sixty-third, nominally under General Paul L. E. von and Sixty-fourth Armies. The Twenty-first Kleist (1881–1954). The irony is that the Army and the Eighth Air Army were also Germans might have taken Stalingrad in integrated into the Stalingrad Front. General July had Hitler not diverted Hoth south to Vasily Chuikov (1900–1982), a prote´ge´ of assist Kleist. Marshal Georgii Zhukov (1896–1974), com- Beginning on August 24, a costly battle of manded the Sixty-second Army, which was attrition raged over Stalingrad. Luftwaffe holding on the west bank of the Volga. carpet bombing at the end of August killed Josef Stalin, meanwhile, rushed reinforce- some 40,000 people, but it also turned the ments and supplies to Stalingrad. city into defensive bastions of ruined build- Angry over the slow progress of the Sixth ings and rubble. Stalin refused to allow the Army into Stalingrad, Hitler on August 11, evacuation of the civilian population, believ- ordered Hoth’s Fourth Army from the ing that this would force the defenders, Caucasus north to that place, leaving a especially local militia forces, to fight more badly depleted Army Group A holding a tenaciously. 500-mile front and stalling the southernmost The ruined city posed a formidable drive. Hitler also ordered his sole strategic obstacle. Germany’s strength lay in maneu- reserve in the area, Field Marshal Erich von ver warfare, but Hitler compelled the Sixth Manstein’s (1887–1973) Eleventh Army, Army to engage the Soviet strength of static north to Leningrad. defense. Stalin ordered the city held at all Such wide-ranging shifts of German re- costs, and Soviet forces resisted doggedly. sources took a terrible toll on men but espe- To make things as difficult as possible for cially on equipment. They also consumed German artillery and aviation, Chuikov precious fuel and stretched the German ordered his troops to keep within 50 yards lines far beyond what was reasonable or of the Germans. Zhukov, who had just been Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 295 appointed deputy supreme commander— possible against Axis infantry. For the second in authority only to Stalin—arrived northern pincer, the Soviets assembled at Stalingrad on August 29, to take overall 3,500 guns and heavy mortars to blast a charge of operations. hole for three tank and two cavalry corps Meanwhile, Hitler became obsessed with and a dozen infantry divisions. They Stalingrad, and he wore down his army in encountered eight Romanian infantry divi- repeated attempts to capture that symbol of sions and two cavalry divisions of the defiance. Taking Stalingrad was unneces- Romanian Third Army. The Romanians sary from a military point of view; the 16th fought bravely, but their 37 mm guns and Panzer Division at Rynok controlled the light Skoda tanks were no match for the Volga with its guns, closing it to north- Soviet T-34s. The southern Soviet prong of south shipping. But Hitler insisted the city two corps, one mechanized and the other itself be physically taken. cavalry, broke through on November 20, For a month, the Sixth Army pressed against five Romanian infantry divisions slowly forward, but casualties in the battle and two cavalry divisions of the Romanian of attrition were enormous on both sides, Fourth Army. Both Romanian army forma- with advances measured in yards. The battle tions were destroyed in the Red Army disintegrated into a block-by-block, house- breakthrough. by-house—even room-by-room—struggle By November 23, the forces of Operation for survival. Uranus had encircled the Sixth Army and General Paulus has been blamed for had driven some units of the Fourth Army refusing to disobey Hitler’s order to stand into the pocket. Hitler now ordered Man- firm and extracting his army before it was stein from the Leningrad Front and gave too late, but his and Hitler’s greatest failing him a new formation—Army Group Don, lay in not anticipating the Soviet encircle- drawn from Army Group A—with instruc- ment. Nor did Paulus possess mobile tank tions to rectify the situation. reserve to counter such a Soviet effort and Hitler forbade any withdrawal, convinced keep open a supply corridor. The Romanians that the Sixth Army could be resupplied posted on the northern flank warned of the from the air. Reichsmarschall (Reich danger of Soviet bridgeheads over the Don, Marshal) Hermann Goering (1893–1946) is and asked to eliminate them. The Germans usually blamed for assuring Hitler that this refused permission. Romanian dictator Gen- could be done, but responsibility is more eral Ion Antonescu (1882–1946) warned properly shared among Goering, chief of Hitler about the perilous position of the the General Staff of the Luftwaffe General Romanian forces, to no avail. Hans Jeschonnek (1899–1943), and Hitler. While he fed the cauldron of Stalingrad Hitler was no doubt misled by Luftwaffe with only sufficient troops absolutely neces- success the previous winter in supplying by sary to hold the city, Zhukov patiently parachute drops 5,000 German troops sur- assembled 1 million men in four fronts rounded at Kholm near Moscow and (army groups) for a great double envelop- 100,000 men at Demyansk. ment. This deep movement, Operation Ura- The decision that Stalingrad could be sup- nus, began on November 19 and was timed pliedbyairwastakenatatimewhenthe to coincide with the frosts that would make Soviets enjoyed air superiority. By Novem- Soviet cross-country tank maneuvers ber 20, the second day of Uranus, the 296 Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943

Soviets committed between 1,350 and 1,414 Paulus replied with a pessimistic assessment combat aircraft (depending on the source) to of his army’s ability to close the short dis- Stalingrad. Meanwhile, General Wolfram F. tance to reach Manstein’s relief force. Von Richtofen’s (1895–1945) Luftflotte 4, There was insufficient fuel, the horses had flying in support of the Sixth Army, had mostly been eaten, and it would take weeks 732 combat aircraft, of which only 402 to prepare. The relieving forces would have were operational. The Soviets used their air to come closer. A linkup could succeed superiority to attack German army positions only if the Sixth Army pushed from the and for bombing raids on the main Ju-52 other side against the Soviets, but this base at Zverevo, where they destroyed a could not be done without shrinking the Sta- substantial number of German transport air- lingrad pocket, which Hitler forbade. craft. Worsening weather impeded the relief In mid-December, the Volga froze, effort, and much of the Luftwaffe’s airlift allowing the Soviets to use vehicles to cross capability was redeployed to resupply Axis the ice. During the next seven weeks, Zhukov troops in North Africa after Allied landings sent 35,000 vehicles across the river along there in early November. with 122 mm howitzers to blast the German A fair appraisal of air transport available, defensive works. By then, seven Soviet even in the best weather conditions, was that armies surrounded the Sixth Army, and break- the Luftwaffe could only bring in one-tenth out was impossible. Even in this hopeless sit- of the Sixth Army’s requirements. By the last uation, Paulus refused to disobey Hitler and week in December, the Luftwaffe delivered order a surrender. He himself surrendered on only an average 129 tons of supplies a day, January 31 (he maintained he had been condemning the German forces in the pocket “taken by surprise”), but he refused to order to slow starvation and death. Then, on Janu- his men to do the same. The last German ary 16, 1943, the Soviets took Pitomnik, the units capitulated on February 2. principal airfield within the Stalingrad pocket. There may have been 294,000 men trapped Its loss was the death blow to the airlift opera- at Stalingrad, including Hiwis (Soviet auxilia- tion. During the last days of the battle, sup- ries working with the Germans) and Roma- plies were dropped only by parachute, and nians. Of only 91,000 men (including 22 many of the supplies fell into Soviet hands. generals) taken prisoner by the Soviets, Hitler still refused to authorize any fewer than 5,000 survived the war and Soviet attempt by the Sixth Army to escape. He captivity. The last Germans taken prisoner at wouldallowonlyalinkingupofarelief Stalingrad were not released until 1955. force. None of the hard-won territory was Including casualties in Allied units and the to be surrendered, but it was simply impos- rescue attempts, Axis forces lost upward of sible for the Sixth Army to link up with a half a million men. The Stalingrad campaign relief force and not surrender territory in may have cost the Soviets 1.1 million casu- the process. Paulus favored a breakout, but alties, more than 485,000 dead. he was not prepared to gamble either his The effect of the Battle of Stalingrad on army or his career. Manstein’s force of the German war effort has been hotly three understrength panzer divisions man- debated. It is frequently seen as the turning aged to reach within 35 miles of Sixth point in the European theater of war, the Army positions, and he urged a fait accom- decisive defeat from which the Wehrmacht pli, forcing Hitler to accept it. However, could never recover; but militarily, Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r 297

Stalingrad was not irredeemable. The Pazardzhik in west central Bulgaria, Alek- German front lines had been largely recreated sandu˘r Stamboliski was educated in Bulga- in the time the remnants of the Sixth Army ria and Germany. Stamboliski involved surrendered. Stalingrad was more important himself in peasant politics from an early for its psychological than its military value. age, and after the turn of the century, he If any single battle denied Germany victory, became a leader in the Bulgarian National it was Kursk, still six months and several Agrarian Union (BANU), the most impor- German successes away. For the Romanians, tant Bulgarian peasant political party. He the Battle of Stalingrad was an unmitigated was elected to the Bulgarian parliament disaster. Two entire armies were destroyed. (Subranie) in 1908 and there became the The Romanians lost around 140,000 men. party leader three years later. The losses in manpower and equipment Stamboliski was a strong adversary of amounted to around half of that available to Bulgarian irredentism. He opposed the poli- Romania’s army. This made Stalingrad an cies that led to the Balkan Wars of 1912– even greater disaster for the Romanians than 1913 and Bulgarian participation in these for the Germans. wars, arguing that peasants were the victims Eva-Maria Stolberg and Spencer C. Tucker of such policies and had little to gain from a Greater Bulgaria. In a stormy audience with Czar Ferdinand on the eve of Bulgaria’s See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Roma- nia in World War II entry into World War I, Stamboliski warned the czar that he was risking the future of Further Reading the monarchy in the upcoming struggle. Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Cristian Stamboliski subsequently was imprisoned, Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Roma- only obtaining release as Bulgaria collapsed nian Armed Forces in the European War, and unrest spread especially among war- 1941–1945. London: Arms and Armour, weary peasant soldiers in September 1918. 1995. Bulgarian authorities apparently hoped Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege, that Stamboliski would allay some of the 1942–1943. New York: Viking, 1998. turmoil. Although not initially involved Hayward, Joel S. A. Stopped at Stalingrad: in the disorders, Stamboliski served as The Luftwaffe and Hitler’s Defeat in the president of the ephemeral Radomir Repub- East, 1942–1943. Lawrence: University lic, which loyal Bulgarian and German Press of Kansas, 1998. forces suppressed in October. In 1919, Istoriia Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny Sovet- Stamboliski became prime minister and skogo Soiuza, 1941–1945. Moscow: Voen- noe Izdatel’stvo, 1961. established a heavy-handed government that sought to bring to justice those politi- Seaton, Albert. The Russo-German War, 1941– 1945. New York: Praeger, 1971. cians whose policies had led to Bulgaria’s defeats in the Balkan Wars and World War I. At the same time, he pursued policies of Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r reconciliation with Bulgaria’s neighbors. (1879–1923) On March 23, 1923, Stamboliski signed the convention of Nish with the Kingdom of Bulgarian prime minister, born on March 1, Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). 1879, in the village of Slavovitsa, near With this agreement, Stamboliski promised 298 Stepanovic´, Stepa

to suppress the Internal Macedonian Bulgarian request at the end of October, Revolutionary Organization (IMRO, or however, the Serbian Second Army moved VMRO), which was then carrying out opera- into Thrace to augment the Bulgarian Sec- tions against Yugoslavia from Bulgarian ond Army in its siege of the Ottoman for- territory. IMRO members as well as other tress city of Adrianople (Odrin, Erdine). opponents of Stamboliski’s foreign and There the Serbs deployed on the western domestic policies murdered him on perimeter. The Serbian Second Army joined June 14, 1923, at his farm in Slavovitsa, cut- the Bulgarians in the final assault on the city ting off the hand that had signed the Nish on March 26, 1913. After helping to take the treaty. Stamboliski had been a forceful city, Stepanovic´ and his army returned to advocate of the political and economic Serbia. He continued to command the rights of the Bulgarian peasantry, the vast Serbian Second Army through the Second majority of the population. Balkan War, fighting against his erstwhile Richard C. Hall allies in eastern Serbia and northwestern Bulgaria. See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Dobro During World War I, Stepanovic´ and his Pole, Battle of, 1918 Second Army gained the first Entente vic- Further Reading tory of the war when he defeated the initial Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia during Stamboliski and the Bulgarian National 15-29 August 15–29, 1914 at the Battle of Union, 1899–1923. Princeton, NJ: Prince- Cer Mountain. For this success, he gained ton University Press, 1977. the rank of Vojvoda (Field Marshal). Still Crampton, R. J. A Short History of Modern leading the Second Army, he subsequently Bulgaria. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- participated in a victory against Austro- sity Press, 1987. Hungarian invasions at the battle of Petkov, Nikola (Nikola Dimitrov). Aleksandar Kolubara on December 4, 1914. Stambolijski, njegova lichnost i ideje. Beo- Stepanovic´ continued to command the grad, Yugoslavia: Radenkovich, 1933. Serbian Second Army on the Macedonian Front from 1916 to 1918 and participated Stepanovic´, Stepa (1856–1929) in the decisive Franco-Serbian victory over the Bulgarians at Dobro Pole in Septem- One of the leading military figures in the ber 1918. He died in Cˇ acˇak, Yugoslavia, on history of late-nineteenth- and early- April 29, 1929. twentieth-century Serbia, Stepa Stepanovic´ Richard C. Hall was born on March 11, 1856, near Belgrade. See also: Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913; He joined the Serbian army as a cadet in Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914; Dobro Pole, 1874 and became an artillery officer. Battle of, 1918; Serbia in World War I Stepanovic´ rose to prominence through his command of the Serbian Second Army Further Reading during the First Balkan War of 1912–1913. Alimpic´, Milovoje. Solunski front. Belgrade: Initially the Second Army advanced into Vojnoizdavachki zavod, 1967. eastern Macedonia from Bulgarian territory. Mitrovic´,Andrej.Serbia’s Great War, 1914– It was to cut off any Ottoman retreat down 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- the Vardar River valley. In response to a sity Press, 2007. Storm, Operation, 1995 299

Skoko, Savo, and Petar Opachich. Vojvoda of 1994. The Republic of Serbian Krajina Stepa Stepanovich u ratovima Srbije 1876– military was armed with equipment left 1918. 2 vols. Belgrade: Beogradski behind by the withdrawal of the JNA from izdavacho-grafichki zavod, 1984. Croatia in May 1992. On August 4, 1995, the Republic of Cro- atia launched Operation Storm, a rapid Storm, Operation, 1995 offensive to seize control of Serbian Krajina. The offensive opened with the Croatian Air Operation Storm was a rapidly successful Force targeting the Krajina Serb communi- offensive launched by the military forces of cation systems. With coordinating artillery, the Republic of Croatia on August 4, 1995, approximately 100,000 troops of the Cro- against the Republic of Serbian Krajina. atian army attacked along an approximately The success of the offensive ended the Ser- 700-kilometer front with a strategic focus bian attempt to establish an independent on retaking the city of Knin (southwestern region within Croatia based on the Serbian Croatia). General Zvonimir Cˇ ervenko ethnicity along the border with Bosnia. (1926–2001) commanded the Croatian The United Nations brokered a cease-fire army. The Serbian Krajina forces had poor in January 1992 between the Republic of equipment, were far fewer in number, and Croatia and Serbia, which controlled the were poorly organized. Milan Martic´ remaining core of the old Yugoslavia’s mili- (1954–), the internationally unrecognized tary, the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA). president of Serbian Krajina in 1995, The fighting during 1991 established the ordered the evacuation of Serbian civilians ethnically Serbian regions within Croatia as to villages bordering the Serbian held areas the Republic of Serbian Krajina, mainly the of Bosnia on August 4. Many of the Serbian eastern-center and far eastern areas of Cro- Krajina soldiers fled the region at the start of atia. These Serbian-controlled regions failed the offensive. 10,000 United Nations troops to gain international recognition. Serbian were also present in the Krajina region. forces ethnically cleansed approximately Many UN posts came under fire during the 85,000 Croats from the region forces by the offensive. The United Nations negotiated the end of 1991. The UN forces (UNPROFOR) withdrawal of disarmed Serbian Krajina sol- monitored the cease-fire between Croatia diers who had been fighting in surrounded and the JNA. Serbian Krajina officials, how- pockets on August 8. Most organized Serbian ever, did not agree to this arrangement until resistance in the Krajina region was over by April 6, 1993. August 9. Both sides regularly violated the provi- The completely successful military offen- sions of the cease-fire. These violations sive lasted less than four days, but ethnic included incursions by the Croatian military cleansing operations continued for months and destruction of Serbian villages in UN- resulting in about 200,000 ethnic Serbs flee- protected areas. Between 1992 and 1995, ing the Krajina region of Croatia. Some Kra- the Republic of Croatia managed to obtain jina Serb refugees stayed in northern modern weaponry for its military in the Bosnia, but most eventually settled in the face of a poorly enforced UN arms embargo. or Kosovo regions of Serbia. Croatia’s military also received training Many of the Serbian refugees joined in eth- from the United States starting in September nic cleansing activities after arriving at the 300 Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha

Banja Luka area of northern Bosnia and the by the Tribunal and sentenced to 35 years in Vojvodina region of northern Serbia. The Cro- prison on June 12, 2007. atian offensive was also coordinated with an Brian G. Smith offensive by the Bosnian government against See also: Croat Forces, 1991–1995; Croat Serb held and other areas in Bosnia. Bosnian War, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; army soldiers from the region surrounding Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes the neighboring city of Bihac´ also entered the Krajina region in the following months to Further Reading join in the looting and destruction of property “Croatia: Impunity for Abuses Committed held by Serbs. during Operation Storm and the Denial of Operation Storm was a successful mili- the Right of Refugees to Return to the Kra- tary offensive that reclaimed the Krajina jina.” Human Rights Watch/Helsinki Report region of Croatia for the Republic of Cro- 8, no. 13 (August 1996). atia. After Operation Storm, the only major U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Office of area still held by separatist Serbian forces Russian and European Analysis. Balkan Battlefields: A Military History of the Yugo- was the Slavonia region of eastern Croatia. slav Conflict, 1991–1995. Washington, DC: Unlike the Krajina region, the Slavonia Central Intelligence Agency, 2002. 2 vols. region remained supported by the JNA and Weiss, Thomas, and Don Hubert. The Respon- would be the subject of negotiated talks sibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, during the final stages of the Yugoslav Background. Ottawa: International Devel- Wars. opment Research Centre, 2001. Operation Storm was also the military Zanic, Ivo, and Branka Magas, eds. The War in basis for a successful ethnic cleansing oper- Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1991– ation. Croatian army general Ivan Cˇ ermak 1995. London: Frank Cass Publishers, (1949–), who was in command of a corps 2001. assaulting Knin, was charged with war crimes but acquitted in 2011 by the International Criminal Tribunal for the For- Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha mer Yugoslavia. Croatian army general (1838–1892) Ante Gotovina (1955–), a top commander of Operation Storm, and Mladen Markacˇ Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha was an Ottoman (1955–), the commander of special police pasha who was active in such important during Operation Storm, were found guilty events in the late Ottoman period as the dep- of war crimes and crimes against humanity osition of Sultan Abdulaziz (1830–1876), in 2011. The verdict was overturned on passage to a , and appeal on November 16, 2012, when the declaration of the constitution, and who led court declared in a 3–2 vote that the defend- military operations in the Balkans in 1876– ants had not engaged in a conspiracy to 1878. commit a joint criminal enterprise. Other Su¨leyman was born in Constantinople in Croatian commanders and politicians were 1838. He is best known in Turkey as the indicted by the Tribunal but died before a “Hero of Shipka” and as one of the pioneers trial could be held. Milan Martic´ was found of Turkish nationalism. He graduated from guilty of a joint criminal enterprise involv- the military high school and military college ing war crimes and crimes against humanity and commissioned as an infantry officer in Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha 301

1860. Except during his service at the mili- Friedrich Detroit; (1827–1878), who was tary academy, he fought against rebels, ban- junior in rank and status. Su¨leyman Pasha dits, or tribal warriors in nearly every corner reached the Balkan ridges with his two vet- of the empire from Balkan provinces of Ser- eran divisions of the Montenegrin Campaign bia, Herzegovina and Montenegro to Crete, on July 23, 1877. He wasted an excellent Yemen,andAsir.Hewaspromotedtothe opportunity at Eski Zag˘ra because of discord rank of brigadier general while working as with his subordinates. a lecturer at the Military College. One year Su¨ leyman Pasha launched his long- later, he was appointed as the superintendent awaited assault on August 21, two days after of the military academy and other military conducting a reconnaissance. His battle- schools (1873). He was instrumental in hardened divisions launched repeated attacks launching important military educational through rugged mountainous terrain under reforms such as enrolling cadets from Chris- terrible Russian artillery fire for four days tian groups, introducing new regulations and and nights. It was an impossible mission academic curricula that were formulated under the conditions. The Balkan Corps lost according to latest French military models. one-fourth of its combat strength. Su¨leyman Su¨leyman joined a conspiracy to dethrone Pasha refused to accept the futility of a con- Sultan Abdu¨laziz. Under the leadership of tinuation of assaults against Shipka. His Hu¨seyin Avni Pasha (1820–1876), the con- immense self-esteem and hatred of Mehmed spirators persuaded theology students and Ali Pasha prevented him from joining forces common people to riot in front of the grand with Mehmed Ali Pasha in order to make vizier’s offices. After the tension increased, use of the opportunities created by the defend- Su¨leyman Pasha ordered the cadet battalion ers of Pleven (Plevne), who attracted an and several other military units to occupy important percentage of the Russian army. the palace. The conspirators dethroned the The Balkan Corps remained stuck in front sultan on May 30, 1876. The new sultan of Shipka until the assignment of Su¨leyman Abdulhamid II was understandable highly Pasha as the new Serdar of the Balkan front uncomfortable with the key figures of the on September 26. As the new commander of coup d’e´tat. He assigned Su¨leyman Pasha the Balkan front, Su¨leyman Pasha finally to the Montenegro border to fight against understood the importance of relieving Pleven Serbian and Montenegrin military and reb- and destroying the main Russian army. How- els. Su¨leyman Pasha first organized a suc- ever, his two archenemies, Rauf Pasha and cessful defense against the conventional Mehmed Ali Pasha, were the commanders of and unconventional attackers and repulsed two important corps which he had no control. them to Montenegro. Out of frustration, Su¨leyman Pasha launched Due to his recently gained fame, Su¨ley- several limited attacks in the direction of man was assigned as the Balkan Corps com- Pleven. Some of them, like the battle of mander immediately after the first phase of Elena on December 4, actually achieved their the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878. His planned objectives, but these local successes main task was to recapture Shipka (S¸ıpka) failed to relieve Pleven because of a lack of Pass, which was a key passage in the midst support (which was compounded by a lack of Bulgaria. He was deeply resentful of of knowledge about enemy vulnerabilities). being under the command of the German- The fall of Pleven released the Russian born Mehmed Ali Pasha (Ludwig Karl army. Su¨ leyman Pasha tried his best to 302 Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha

conduct a fighting retreat with nearly seven See also: Bulgarian Horrors, 1876; Russo- brigades, but he managed only to delay the Ottoman War, 1877–1878; San Stefano, Russian onslaught for a few days. Most of Treaty of, 1878 his units were encircled or disintegrated at Further Reading some stage of the withdrawal. Then he I˙.HalilSedes.1877–1878 Osmanlı-Rus ve decidedtoregroupinthesafetyofthe Romen Savas¸ı.Vol.3andVol.8.Istanbul: Rodope Mountains, which turned out to be Askeri Matbaa, 1937, 1940. fatal because it decreased the number of Kec¸ecizade I˙zzet Fuad. Kac¸ırılan Fırsatlar: possible forces available for the defense of 1877 Osmanlı-Rus Savas¸ı Hakkında Eles¸- Adrianople (Edirne). One Russian column tiriler ve Askeri Du¨s¸u¨nceler,(ed.)Rasim managed to bypass the retreating Ottoman Su¨erdem. Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, force and captured Edirne on January 20, 1997. 1878, even as the Ottoman peace delegation Schem, A. J. An Illustrated History of the Con- was trying to come to terms with their Rus- flict between Russia and Turkey with a sian counterparts. After the end of war, he Review of the Eastern Question.New was court-martialed, stripped off his rank York: H. S. Goodspeed & Co, 1878. andmedals,andexiledtoBaghdad,where he died in exile in 1892. Ahmet O¨ zcan T

Tepelene, Ali Pasha (1744–1822) had arranged a policing network that drew its agents from the ranks of the bandits Ali Pasha Tepelene was known as the “lion themselves. It required skillful handling to of Janina” for the daring and ruthlessness maintain discipline among this police force with which he extended his control over and suppress its ties with relatives who still much of Albania and Greece during the remained outlaws. Ali was named a com- early nineteenth century. As the pasha, or mander in this system in 1787 and per- provincial governor, of Janina, he ruled as formed well in this ambiguous role. During an agent of the Ottoman Empire, but he con- 1793–1794 and again during 1803–1804, ducted himself as an independent power and he was given the responsibility of routing was recognized as such by European heads out particularly well-entrenched leaders and of state. He is regarded by Albanians as a assisted in a siege against a powerful clan great patriot and nationalist. of Albanians who were defying the power Ali was born in 1744 at Tepelene in of Constantinople. The sultan, in turn, southern Albania. His father, Veli, though showed his appreciation for Ali’s help. In poor, was the governor of Tepelene but was the 1780s, Ali had received the pashalik of murdered when Ali was 14. His mother, Trikkala from Sultan Abdulhamid I (1725– Khamco, organized a band of brigands to 1789) and then, through his own wiles and restore the family’s fortunes. An excellent violence, obtained the pashalik of Janina shot and absolutely fearless, Ali soon (present-day Ioannina, Greece) in 1788. became the leader of these brigands operat- From this point forward, Ali extended his ing in this mountainous area. authority over ever-increasing numbers of At this time, Albania and Greece were townships and people, often appointing his both part of the Ottoman Empire, but the sons, Veli and Mukhtar, to govern them on Ottoman sultan often governed through his behalf. Ali’s pashalik and the order loyal local rulers. Once recognized by the within it were maintained through his own sultan, such men were given the title of ruthlessness and cunning. Yet he also pasha, and the territories assigned to them engaged in considerable construction in were known as pashaliks. Ali continued to both Epirus (present-day northwestern gain experience by performing services for Greece) and Albania, building roads and the pasha of Negroponte and then the pasha draining marshes. Moreover, the eradication of Delvino, whose daughter he married in of bandits in his realm, though sometimes 1768. accomplished with great cruelty, was appre- Banditry was extremely common in the ciated by merchants who could engage more area, and Ali came to the favorable attention freely in trade on peaceful roads and of the sultan because of his knowledge of the increase the wealth of the area (and that of police system. In the , the Ottomans Ali).

303 304 Tepelene, Ali Pasha

Janina remained the center of Ali’s pasha- Peloponnesus, central Greece, western lik and of his court life. Though it retained a Macedonia, and southern Albania. Though certain wildness, Janina became the fore- he was appointed viceroy of Rumelia (the most center of Greek culture during Ottoman term for most of the Balkans), the this period. Ali himself, though he spoke nineteenth-century became increas- Albanian, Greek, and some Turkish, was ingly dissatisfied with Ali’s independent illiterate, but he recruited Greek scholars spirit and his frequent failure to carry out and founded Greek schools in his capital. orders. As Ali hastened the economic devel- Throughout this period, European travelers opment of his territories, he also infected his were frequent guests at Ali’s cultured court, subjects with the desire for independence and he became celebrated for the hospitality from the empire that would lead to more he extended to these people, who often pronounced Albanian nationalism later in recorded their impressions in their memoirs. the century. His most famous visitor was the poet Lord In the meantime, many people throughout Byron, who left his memories of the encoun- Greece were already planning an indepen- ter as a canto in Childe Harold. Even the dence war. Though Ali did not participate liberated Greeks would look back on Ali’s directly in these efforts, his own activities court with respect. divided the attention of the sultan. By 1819, In addition to entertaining individual Sultan Mahmud II (1789–1839) had lost travelers from other parts of Europe, Ali patience with Ali and was conspiring to be became a skilled diplomat and manipulated rid of him. In the following year, when Ali other European rulers to gain greater lever- had one of his own enemies murdered in the age with the sultan. He was treated as an in- city of Constantinople, the sultan ordered dependent sovereign by the heads of Britain that he be deposed. When Ali refused to com- and France. His army defeated that of ply, Ottoman troops were sent against him Emperor Napoleon I at Berat in 1809, and remained thus occupied as the Greeks though Napoleon returned two years later elsewhere on the peninsula initiated their and succeeded in gaining the access to the independence efforts. Ionian Islands that he had been denied ear- Ali was finally assassinated by the sul- lier. As the Napoleonic Wars grew in scale, tan’s agents on February 5, 1822. After his the potential usefulness of Ali’s forces were death, he was decapitated and his head car- appreciated by both the Russians and the ried back to Constantinople for display. British; the latter entered into an official Karen Mead alliance with Ali in 1814. See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– More important than his dealings with 1832 Europe, however, was Ali’s role within the Ottoman Empire. In the early nineteenth Further Reading century, the empire had entered a phase of Faroqhi, Suraiya, et al. Economic and Social decline that was greatly hastened by the History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: actions of such independent despots as Ali. Cambridge University Press, 1995. For years, a succession of sultans had appre- Fleming, K. E. The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplo- ciated the assistance received from Ali and macy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha’s hadlethimdomuchashewished.By Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 1810, Ali’s rule extended to most of the Press, 1999. Tito, Josip Broz 305

Plomer, William Charles Franklyn. Ali the Lion: Ali of Tebeleni, Pasha of Jannina: 1741–1822. London: Jonathan Cape, 1970. Young, Antonia, ed. Albania. Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997.

Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980)

Yugoslav Communist leader, major figure in the Yugoslav resistance during World War II, and leader of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito was born on May 7, 1892, into a peasant family in the village of Kumrovec in Croatia on the border with Slovenia (then part of Austria), Josip Broz was one of 15 children of a Croat blacksmith and a Slovene mother. Much of his early life remains obscure. With little formal education, he became a metal- worker and machinist. Active in the Social- Democratic Party, he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian army in 1913. He fought in World War I and rose to the rank of Josip Broz Tito, an accomplished guerrilla sergeant, commanding a platoon in a Croat leader, led Yugoslavia out of World War II regiment before being captured in 1915 on and reorganized the country to follow his the Russian Front. iron-fisted, communist rule—even while he While in the camp, Broz became fluent moved the nation away from total Soviet in Russian. Released following the domination. (Library of Congress) March 1917 Revolution, he made his way to Petrograd, where he joined the Following the German invasion of Yugo- but was imprisoned until the Bolsheviks slavia in April 1941, Tito took command of took power in October 1917. He fought on the Communist Partisan resistance move- the Communist side in the Russian Civil ment with the twin goals of fighting the War but returned to Croatia in 1920 and Axis occupiers and then seizing power in helped organize the Yugoslav Communist Yugoslavia once the Allies had won. Tito Party (YPJ). Rising rapidly in responsibility and the Partisans did not hesitate to attack and position, he became a member of the German garrisons, sparking retaliation and YPJ Politburo and Central Committee. It the execution of many more innocent was at this time that he took the hostages than Germans slain. Tito’s Partisans of “Tito” to conceal his identity. He was became archrivals of the Serb-dominated imprisoned from 1929 to 1934. In 1937, Cˇ etniks (Chetniks) led by General Drazˇa Stalin appointed Tito to head the YPJ as its Mihajlovic´ (1893–1946), minister of war secretary-general. Tito knew little of com- in the Yugoslav government-in-exile in munist ideology, but Stalin was interested London. The Cˇ etniks eschewed the types of in loyalty. attacks undertaken by the Partisans, rightly 306 Tito, Josip Broz

fearing German reprisals. In a controversial beneficial change for a country that had decision that had far-reaching repercussions suffered severely from rivalries among its for the future of Yugoslavia, in 1943, the Brit- various peoples. Tito also nationalized the ish government, which headed the Allied economy and built it on the Soviet model. effort to assist the Yugoslav resistance, shifted Following the war, Tito had General all support to the Partisans. Mihajlovic´ and some other leading Cˇ etniks By the end of the war, the Partisans had put on trial under trumped-up charges of grown to a force of 800,000 people and had collaboration with the Germans. Despite in fact liberated most of Yugoslavia them- vigorous Western protests, they were selves, placing Tito in a strong bargaining executed in July 1946. Equally destructive position with Stalin. Tito attempted to of European goodwill was the sentencing annex the southern provinces of Austria, of Archbishop (1898– moving Yugoslav forces into Carinthia, but 1960) to life imprisonment for his anticom- was prevented in this design by the timely munist role during the war. arrival of the British and was con- For 35 years, Tito held Yugoslavia vinced to quit Austrian territory in mid- together by ruling as a despot. In a departure May 1945. from his past record of sharing hardships Tito extracted vengeance on the Croats, with his men, once in power he developed a many of whom had been loyal to the Axis, taste for a luxurious lifestyle. He muzzled as had many Slovenes. Perhaps 100,000 dissent, but repression and fear of outside people who had sided with the Axis occupi- powers, chiefly the Soviet Union, solidified ers were executed by the Partisans without his rule. trial within weeks of the war’s end. The In 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from majority of German prisoners taken in the the international Communist movement. waralsoperishedinthelongMarchof The break sprang in large part from Tito’s Hate across Yugoslavia. desire to form under his leadership a Balkan With the support of the Red Army, Tito confederation of Yugoslavia, Albania, and formed the National Front and consolidated Bulgaria. There were also differences with his power. Although superficially there Moscow over Yugoslav support for the appeared to be a coalition government Communist side in the Greek Civil War, as in Yugoslavia, Tito dominated. In the Moscow lived up to its bargain with Winston November 1945 elections for a constituent Churchill during the war not to contest assembly, the National Front headed by the British control in Greece. Partisans won 96 percent of the vote. The The break with Moscow and fears of a assembly promptly deposed Peter II (1923– Russian invasion led Tito to build up a 1970) and proclaimed a republic. Yugosla- large military establishment. In this he was via’s new constitution was modeled on that assisted by the West, chiefly the United of the Soviet Union. Tito elaborated the States. By the time of Tito’s death in 1980, twin ideas of national self-determination the Yugoslav standing army and reserves for Yugoslavia’s nationalities and a strong, totaled 2 million men. To protect his centralized Communist Party organization freedom of movement, Tito also joined that would be the sole political expression Yugoslavia to the Non-Aligned Movement, of each national group’s will. Under Tito, and in the 1960s, he became a leader of this Yugoslavia became a federal republic, a group along with Transnistrian War 307

(1918–1970) of Egypt and Jawaharlal Nehru six republics and two autonomous regions. (1889–1964) of India. Each of the six republics had virtual veto Before the break, Tito was as doctrinaire power over federal decision-making. Djilas as Stalin. After the schism, Tito became claimed that Tito deliberately set things up more flexible. He allowed peasants to with- so that after his death, no one would ever draw from cooperative farms and halted the possess as much power as he did. compulsory delivery of crops. He decentral- Tito died in Lubljana on May 4, 1980. ized industry by permitting the establish- With the collapse of the Soviet Union and ment of workers’ councils with a say in Eastern Europe, with the end of the threat of running the factories. He permitted citizens Soviet invasion, and with the discrediting of more rights in the courts and limited free- communism, the federal system that Tito had dom of speech, and he opened cultural ties put together came apart in bloodshed and war. with the West and released Archbishop Spencer C. Tucker Stepinac (although he was not restored to See also: Partisans, Yugoslavia; Trieste authority). In 1949, Tito even wrote an Dispute; Yugoslavia in World War II; Yugoslav- article in the influential American journal Soviet Split Foreign Affairs titled “Different Paths to Socialism,” giving birth to polycentralism. Further Reading By 1954, however, reform had ended. Tito Djilas, Milova´n. Tito. New York: Harcourt reacted sharply to Milova´n Djilas’s (1911– Brace Jovanovich, 1980. 1995) proposal to establish a more liberal Pavlowitch, Steven K. Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great socialist movement in the country that would Dictator: A Reassessment. Columbus: Ohio in effect turn Yugoslavia into a two-party State University Press, 1992. state. Djilas’s book, The New Class (1957), Roberts, Walter R. Tito, Mihailovic´,andthe charged that a new class of bureaucrats Allies, 1941–1945.NewBrunswick,NJ: exploited the masses as much as or more Rutgers University Press, 1973. than their predecessors. Djilas was con- West, Richard. Tito and the Rise and Fall of demned to prison. Meanwhile, financial Yugoslavia. New York: Carroll and Graf, problems multiplied. By the end of the 1970s, 1994. inflation was surging, Yugoslavia’s foreign debt was up dramatically, its goods could not compete in the world marketplace, and there Transnistrian War were dramatic economic differences between the prosperous north and impoverished south The Transnistrian War was a conflict on the that threatened to break up the state. northeastern frontier of the Balkans between As long as Tito lived, Yugoslavia held the forces of the Republic of Moldova and together. In 1974, Tito had set up a compli- the breakaway region of Transnistria. It cated collective leadership. The constitution lasted from 1990 until a cease-fire on of that year provided for an association of July 21, 1992. The origins of the war lie in equals that helped to minimize the power the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Mol- of Serbia, diminish Yugoslavia’s ethnic and davian Socialist Soviet Republic before religious hatreds and rivalries, and keep the 1918 had been the province of Bessarabia lid on nationalism. There was a multiethnic, as a part of imperial Russia and then a part eight-man State Presidency representing the of Greater Romania from 1918 to 1940 and 308 Trianon, Treaty of, 1920

again from 1941 to 1944. Soviet authorities King, Charles. The Moldovans: Romania, Rus- attached a thin strip of land on the east bank sia and the Politics of Culture. Stanford, of the Dniester River to the Moldavian SSR. CA: Stanford University Press, 2000. The Moldavian SSR declared its indepen- Panici, Andrei. “Romanian Nationalism in dence as the Republic of Moldova on the Republic of Moldova.” Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2 no. 2 (January 2003): August 27, 1991. This raised concerns in the 37–55. largely Russian and Ukrainian populations living in the area on the east bank of the Dniester River that the new republic might Trianon, Treaty of, 1920 seek a union with Romania. Pro-Russian ele- ments proclaimed a Transnistrian Republic The Treaty of Trianon between the Allied in on September 2, 1990. powers and Hungary at the end of World Fighting began when Moldovan govern- War I confirmed the dismemberment of the ment forces attempted to cross the Dniester Austro-Hungarian Empire as well as new River into Transnistria to enforce the rule frontiers in Central and Eastern Europe. of the government in Chis on , Although the Paris Peace Conference began 1990. These efforts proved unsuccessful. in January 1919, the peace treaty with Fighting intensified in 1992. Transnistrian Hungary was not signed until mid-1920 forces received aid from Russia and Ukraine because of internal upheaval in Hungary. as well as from Cossack organizations. The On October 16, 1918, the Hungarian Russian army’s Fourteenth Army, under the government declared an end to the dual command of General Alexander Lebed system of government with Austria, with (1950–2002), was stationed in Transnistria. only a personal union remaining between It provided valuable support to the Transnis- the states. On October 31, Count Miha´ly trian forces. Moldova obtained some mili- Ka´rolyi’s (1875–1955) “bloodless bourgeois tary assistance from Romania. After some revolution” created an independent Hun- heavy fighting along the river, the Russian gary, ending the Austro-Hungarian Empire. government of Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007) Prime Minister Ka´rolyi, aware of demands arranged a cease fire on July 21, 1992; as for self-determination by the various ethnic of this writing, it remained in effect. Around groups, proposed transforming Hungary 1,000 people died in the conflict. The into a confederation and creating an government of Transnistria has obtained lit- “Eastern Switzerland” in the Danube region. tle international recognition beyond Russia. Both Britain and the United States supported It is widely accused of engaging in a number the plan, but ethnic groups within Hungary of illegal activities including smuggling and sought to join the new states of Yugoslavia money laundering. and Czechoslovakia, while Romanians in Richard C. Hall eastern Hungary wanted to be part of Roma- nia. These aspirations doomed Ka´rolyi’s See also: Bessarabia; Cold War in the Balkans plan to preserve the territorial integrity of Hungary. Further Reading On November 3, 1918, Austro-Hungarian Herd, Graeme P., and Jennifer D. P. Moroney. forces had signed an armistice at Padova, Security Dynamics in the Former Soviet officially ending hostilities with Italy. Bloc. London: Routledge, 2003. Unwilling to accept this arrangement, Trianon, Treaty of, 1920 309

French general Louis Franchet d’Esperey conservative rule of Admiral Miklo´s Horthy (1856–1942), commander of Allied forces could the Hungarian delegation travel to in the Balkans, forced the Ka´rolyi govern- Paris in January 1920 to receive the peace ment on November 13 to sign a military treaty conditions offered by the Allied convention in Belgrade that defined the powers to Hungary. These arrangements demarcation line in southern Hungary. This were draconian. Instead of proposing document allowed French troops to occupy democratic and federative changes for part of Transylvania, while portions of Hungary, the peace treaty created successor Baranya came under French and Serbian states in the Danube region. Hungary lost occupation. The French government, under as much as two-thirds of its territory to pressure from leaders of the new Czechoslo- these new states. Romania gained Transyl- vak government abroad, broke the terms of vania, part of the Hungarian Plain east of the Belgrade Convention and authorized Oradea, and the eastern Banat. Czechoslova- the Czech occupation of Slovakia. kia secured Slovakia and Carpathian Rus’. Prime Minister Ka´rolyi continued to base The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Sloven- his foreign policy on the application to Hun- ians (Yugoslavia) gained Croatia, Slavonia, gary of U.S. president Woodrow Wilson’s the Bacˇka, and the western Banat. Austria (1856–1924) . Until Febru- secured Burgenland, already ceded in the ary 1918, Wilson supported the conclusion Treaty of Saint-Germain. The only excep- of a group of experts who opposed the dis- tion was Sopron/O¨ denburg, where local memberment of the Austro-Hungarian mon- inhabitants attacked Austrian troops when archy as an economic unit. Wilson changed they entered the city. Under direction of the his mind when he became convinced that Allied powers, a plebiscite was held in preserving the Dual Monarchy would likely December 1921 in Sopron and the immedi- lead to continued German dominance in the ate surrounding area. As a result of the region. Wilson was also under pressure vote, this small part of the Burgenland from Czech leaders and the British media. remained part of Hungary. As far as Hun- In early 1919, the Allied Supreme War gary was concerned, this was the only Council in Paris authorized successor states instance where the Allies allowed a plebi- to occupy Hungarian territory. Czech, scite to be held. Romanian, and Serbian (Yugoslav) forces Hungary was left essentially an agricul- violated even these arrangements by tural state of only 8 million people; 3 million advancing beyond the set demarcation other Hungarians were forced to live under lines. When he learned of the Allied deci- foreign sovereignty, chiefly those in Tran- sion, Prime Minister Ka´rolyi resigned in sylvania. Hungary was deprived of access protest on March 20, 1919. The next day, to the sea as well as the majority of its for- the Communists came to power in Hungary mer natural resources. Its army was set at a and established the Hungarian Soviet maximum of 35,000 men. Republic, which then went to war to recover The peace treaty signed in the Trianon Slovakia but was in turn defeated by Roma- Palace in Versailles on June 4, 1920, con- nian forces, leading to its collapse. firmed these provisions. Blocks of Hungar- Only after the departure of the Romanian ians living along the frontiers were cut off army from Budapest and the stabilization from Hungary by this artificial separation. of the political situation under the Virtually the entire population of what 310 Trieste Dispute

remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Yugoslavia from securing full control of the Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation city’s important harbor. Some observers for revision began immediately. Promise of saw in this development the first sign of the return of some of its former territories forthcoming Cold War. formed the basis of the subsequent co- The Yugoslav occupation elicited vio- operation of Hungary with Adolf Hitler’s lence against the majority Italian population Germany. and against non-Communist Slovenians, but Anna Boros an agreement brokered between the British and Tito’s representatives on August 8, See also: Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces 1945, restored at least partial order. The for- in World War II mer Italian territory now under Yugoslav Further Reading control was divided into two areas by the Kira´ly, Be´la B., Peter Pastor, and Ivan Sanders, Morgan Line. The British and Americans eds. Essays on World War I: and occupied the western zone, comprising Peacemaking: A Case Study on Trianon. Trieste Harbor, and the Yugoslavs controlled New York: Social Science Monographs, the eastern territory, which contained impor- Brooklyn College Press, 1982. tant strategic natural resources such as mer- Macartney, Carlile Aylmer. Hungary and Her cury, bauxite, and coal. Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Trieste straddled two worlds: the Eastern Its Consequences, 1919–1937. London: Communist bloc and the Western democratic Oxford University Press, 1965. bloc. Certainly, the Soviet Union supported Ormos, Ma´ria. From Padua to the Trianon, Communist Yugoslavia’s claims on the 1918–1920. Boulder, CO: Social Science region. For their part, the Allies actually Monographs, 1990. encouraged Tito in the sense that they assisted him economically and diplomatically follow- Trieste Dispute ing his 1948 break with the Soviet Union. The Yugoslavs reinforced their troop Trieste is an Italian city at the northern head presence in the area, and in 1951, the Ital- of the Adriatic Sea near the border with ians deployed the first groups of former par- Yugoslavia (now Slovenia and Croatia), tisans in a covert stay-behind organization whose sovereignty was hotly contested known as “O,” which later would be inte- between Italy and Yugoslavia. Securing grated into the Gladio organization under Trieste from the Austro-Hungarian Empire the control of the Central Intelligence was one of the main objectives of Italian Agency (CIA) and the North Atlantic Treaty intervention in World War I, which explains Organization (NATO). the emotion bound with its name among In the Paris Peace Treaty signed on Febru- many Italians. Mainly surrounded by hills ary 10, 1947, between Italy and the Allies, that have limited its size, Trieste became Yugoslavia secured the Istrian Peninsula, important when it was occupied at the end forcing some 250,000 Italians to abandon of World War II by the Yugoslav Partisans, the area and find refuge in Italy. The Trieste ledbyveteranCommunistJosipBrozTito area was designated a Free Territory under (1892–1980). Meanwhile, the British and the administration of the United Nations. Americans pushed the 2nd New Zealand Meanwhile, Yugoslavs killed perhaps Armored Division to Trieste to prevent 10,000 Italians in the foibe (karstic Truman Doctrine 311 sinkholes), which were effective natural Treaty. Italian foreign minister Emilio cemeteries. Colombo expressed Italy’s satisfaction with Because neither Italy nor Yugoslavia this decision. could agree on a governor for Trieste, the Alessandro Massignani area was divided into area “A” (from Duino See also: Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); to Trieste) and area “B” (Capodistria to Yugoslav-Soviet Split Cittanova). On several occasions, the Italian population of Trieste protested against the Further Reading Allied occupation, resulting in civilian fatal- Brogi, Alessandro. A Question of Self-Esteem: ities when British troops overreacted to the The United States and the Cold War demonstrations. At the same time, Yugo- Choices in France and Italy, 1944–1958. slavia continued to threaten the annexation Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002. of area “B.” De Leonardis, Massimo. La diplomazia According to some historians, the Italian “Atlantica” e la soluzione del problema di government mounted covert paramilitary Trieste (1952–1954). [Atlantic Diplomacy operations in Istria that were designed to and the Resolution of the Trieste Problem (1952–1954).] Naples, Italy: Esi, 1992. discourage Yugoslavia’s aspirations and plans regarding annexation. The Trieste cri- Rabel, Roberto G. Between East and West: Trieste, the United States and the Cold sis also played an important role in Italian War, 1941–1954. Durham, NC: Duke domestic politics because it fueled Italian University Press, 1988. right-wing movements. Several youth organizations volunteered to mount strong protests against Tito and the Allied occupa- Truman Doctrine tion of the city. Finally, an agreement was signed in Lon- On March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Tru- don on May 10, 1954, stipulating that Istria man (1884–1972) addressed a joint session was to be administered by Yugoslavia and of Congress and solemnly stated: “I believe Trieste by Italy, with mutual respect of that it must be the policy of the United minority rights. This led to the Anglo- States to support free peoples who are American withdrawal of troops from resisting attempted subjugation by armed Trieste, which now passed to Italian sover- minorities or by outside pressures. I believe eignty. On December 10, 1975, Italy and that we must assist free peoples to work Yugoslavia signed the Osimo Treaty that out their own destinies in their own way. finalized the border permanently with only I believe that our help should be primarily a few slight modifications. through economic and financial aid which The dissolution of Yugoslavia after the is essential to economic stability and orderly of 1989–1990 did not political processes.” With that, President change the Trieste situation. In June 1991, Truman committed the United States to war broke out in the former Yugoslav terri- what became known as the tories, which led to the end of the Yugoslav doctrine, according to which the United federal state, as Croatia and Slovenia gained States would take all necessary measures to their independence. Both declared that they prevent the spread of Communism and of would respect the Yugoslav state’s legacy the Soviet Union and its subjugation of the and would therefore honor the Osimo free world. The sources of this policy were 312 Truman Doctrine

much more humble, and it was originated in any military action, explicit or implicit. The the announcement of Great Britain, in Feb- problem was, from the American point of ruary 1947, that it no longer would be able view, that there seemed to be a power vac- to provide the financial support it use to pro- uum in the region as a result of British weak- vide to Greece and Turkey. The meaning of ening. Britain was providing military aid to such an act, Washington feared, would be Turkey, but the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff the fall of these countries under Communist (JCS) thought that, because of its strategic influence, and mainly Greece, whose pro- importance, and in order to increase its abil- Western government was fighting at that ity to meet the Soviet pressure, the United time Communist guerillas in the northern States should increase its economic and part of the country. military aid to Turkey. However, as long as The eastern basin of the Mediterranean, the British continued to provide the military which included the Near East and Middle assistance, the administration would provide East, was historically under British influ- only economic aid. ence. The area was important to the British The American attitude toward the situa- Empire after World War II, but now it gained tion in Turkey was not dissociated with the additional importance in light of the devel- situation in Greece, and with the difficulties opingColdWar.Sovietpresenceinthe Britain was facing in its ability to meet the Near East or in North Africa could jeopard- growing needs in the part of the Mediterra- ize the ability of the Western powers to nean. Greece, like Turkey, was considered launch strategic air attacks on the Soviet as a barrier between the Soviet Union and Union from bases in the region, in case of a the Mediterranean. However, the Greek war. The defense of the region was placed government had to deal with armed Com- in the hands of the British, and it relied on munist guerrillas acting in the country. The the British military bases in the area, the struggle in the country was not necessarily biggest of which was in Egypt, and in the one inspired by the Soviet Union, but it supply of military aid to Greece and Turkey. was the result of a struggle between rigid British power was declining, however, and right-wingers who sought to restore mon- at the same time, Soviet activity aiming to archy while failing to deal with the country’s undermine Western influence in the region grave economic situation, and left-wing seemed to increase. Such was the Soviet party republicans who were affected by the demand from the Turkish government to economic upheaval. For the United States, change the rules governing ship movements though, the political affiliation of the rebels through the Dardanelles and to take part, was enough to convince it to move against along with other Black Sea powers, in the them. Either with Soviet assistance or not, defense of the straits. American interpreta- the United States would not tolerate the tion of the Soviet demand was that it establishment of a Communist government intended to build a base in Turkey, to take in Athens, and the Truman administration it over, and then to gain control over Greece, was ready to provide assistance to the and from there of the Middle East and the Greek government in its struggle against Eastern Mediterranean. The event by itself the Communists. was of minor importance in the sense that The decisive moment came with the the Soviet demand was made in the form of British announcement in February 1947 a diplomatic note and was not supported by that they would be unable to continue their Tsolakoglou, Georgios 313 support to Greece and Turkey. The dire eco- See also: Cold War in the Balkans; Greek nomic situation of the British made the bur- Civil War den of providing military aid to those countries too heavy, and the government Further Reading announced that the Truman administration Kuniholm, Bruce R. The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East. Princeton, NJ: would pull its armed forces from Greece Princeton University Press, 1980 and stop its aid to Greece and Turkey almost Leffler, Melvin. Preponderance of Power. immediately. It was obvious to the Depart- Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, ment of State that with the British inability 1992 to contain the Russians, the United States should do that. However, when preparing the draft legislation for providing military Tsolakoglou, Georgios and economic aid to Greece and Turkey, (1886–1948) Undersecretary Dean Acheson (1893–1971) found it difficult to justify the assistance Georgios Tsolakoglou was a Greek military request for Turkey, and it did need funds officer and collaborationist with the German for relief or recovery since it had never occupation. Born in April 1886 in Rentia, been under a direct threat from the Kremlin. Greece, Tsolakoglou pursued a career in To make things more difficult, conciliatory the Greek military. He participated in the messages were coming from Moscow, Balkan Wars, World War I, the Greek reducing the incentive in Congress to take expeditionary force in Ukraine during the measures against the Soviet Union. Truman Russian Civil War, and the Asia Minor and his aides, determined to provide Turkey Campaign. In World War II he commanded and Greece military and economic aid, the Third Army Corps of the Army of had to find a way to “sell” such an aid to Western Macedonia, which first fought to Congress. repel the Italian invasion of October 1940. In a meeting with the heads of Congress, During the Greek counteroffensive, he Acheson described in dark lights the impli- seized Korc¸e¨ in southern Albania on cations of Soviet dominance of the region November 22, 1940. and the worldwide consequences of such When the Germans invaded Greece on Soviet achievement. In response, the April 6, 1941, and captured Thessaloniki Republican senator Arthur Vandenberg three days later, Tsolakoglou’s force (1884–1951) told Truman that it the was caught between the Italians and the president would present his request to Germans. Recognizing that his position was Congress in that manner, the Senate would hopeless, he surrendered the entire Greek support his request. And so, the request army to the German invaders of Greece at from a joint session of Congress for Larissa on April 21, 1941. Because of $400 million for aid to Turkey and Greece German insistence, he surrendered to the was presented in terms of a struggle Italians on 23 April. These surrenders “between alternate ways of life.” It marked occurred without the sanction of the Greek the emergence of the Truman Doctrine, government. which meant decision to resist aggressive On April 29, 1941, the Germans app- communism throughout the world. ointed Tsolakoglou to be the prime minister David Tal of the collaborationist government in 314 Tudjman, Franjo

Athens. In this respect he was similar to the Yugoslav army in 1960. He left active Henri Pe´tain (1856–1951) in France and military service the next year and began a Milan Nedic´ (1877–1946) in Serbia. Tsola- new career as head of the Institute for the koglou proved to be an incompetent ruler History of the Labor Movement of Croatia who garnered little popular support. The (1961–1967). During 1963–1967, he was poor condition of the Greek economy also an associate professor of history at caused the Germans to replace him with a Zagreb University, where he earned a doc- civilian economics expert, Konstantinos torate in political science in 1965. Logothetopoulos (1878–1961) on Decem- Tudjman was a member of the Socialist ber 2, 1942. After the war, a Special Collab- Republic of Croatia’s parliament during orators Court arrested Tsolakoglou, tried 1965–1969. After participating in the him, and sentenced him to death. Eventually nationalist movement, he his sentence was commuted to life imprison- was imprisoned for two years beginning in ment. He died in prison on May 22, 1948. October 1972. He was again imprisoned Richard C. Hall during 1981–1984 for his political activities aimed at Croatian independence. See also: Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941; In 1989, Tudjman became one of the Greece in World War II; Nedic´, Milan (1877– 1946) founding members of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). After the HDZ Further Reading won the first democratic elections in 1990, Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, he joined the parliament, which designated War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. him president of the new Republic of Cro- New York: Viking, 1999. atia. In 1991, Tudjman led his country to Jelavich, Barbara, History of the Balkans. full independence from Yugoslavia and in Vol. 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: the subsequent war with Serbia, which Cambridge University Press, 1983. lasted until 1995 and claimed thousands of Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece.New lives. His policies emphasizing Croatian Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. nationalism did little to reassure the Serbian minority, who constituted around 12 percent of the population within Croatia’s borders, Tudjman, Franjo (1922–1999) mainly in the Krajina region. When the country declared independence, the Serbs Yugoslav military officer and first president attempted to secede. A Serbian government of the Republic of Croatia (1990–1999), formed in Knin. Croatian sovereignty was Franjo Tudjman was born in Veliko, Trgo- not restored there until 1995. Nevertheless, visˇc´e, in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and in 1991, he secretly met with Slobodan Slovenes (now Croatia) on May 14, 1922. Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006) in Karadjordjevo to He attended secondary school in Zagreb discuss a partition of Bosnia between Cro- and graduated from the Military Academy atia and Serbian-controlled Yugoslavia. in Belgrade in 1957. He served in the Parti- After the fighting began in Bosnia in 1992, san movement during World War II. this plan was abandoned. Tudjman worked in the Yugoslav Minis- After the fall of Vukovar in Novem- try of National Defense during 1945–1961, ber 1991, fighting in Croatia died down becoming one of the youngest generals in until 1995. Tudjman secured military help Tudjman, Franjo 315

characterized by both significant human rights abuses and political repression. In 1995 he signed the Dayton Agreement, but refused to cooperate with the International Criminal Tribunal. As president of Croatia, he refused to distance himself from e´migre´ Croats with Ustasˇa connections. He also embarrassed himself by publishing a book that questioned the extent of the Holocaust. Tudjman died on December 10, 1999, in Zagreb. Tjudman deservedly shares much of the odium for the breakup of Yugoslavia with Milosˇevic´. Lucian N. Leustean

See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Milo- sˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006); Vukovar, Siege of, 1991; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences

Franjo Tudjman was a Croatian nationalist Further Reading who was elected president of Croatia in 1990 Goldstein, Ivo. Croatia: A History. Translated and led the republic to independence from by Nikolina Jovanovic. London: Hurst, the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav federation. 1999. (Embassy of the Republic of Croatia) Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- wood Press, 1998. from the United States. During Operation Storm, his retrained and reequipped forces Tanner, Marcus. Croatia: A Nation Forged in War. New Haven, CT: Yale University expelled much of the Serbian population Press, 2001. from Croatia. Tudjman was reelected president in direct elections in 1992 and 1997. His regime was U

UNPROFOR Republic of Macedonia. New protected areas were later established on June 30, The United Nations Security Council (Reso- 1992, in areas of Croatia controlled by the lution 743-1992) created the United Nations JNA, the mission goal being facilitating the Protection Force (UNPROFOR) for the for- removal of the JNA from Croatia. mer Yugoslavia as a peacekeeping force on On June 8, 1992, the UN Security Council February 21, 1992, and ordered it to deploy expanded UNPROFOR’s mandate to include on April 7, 1992 (Resolution 749-1992) security for the Sarajevo Airport in Bosnia with an operational mandate in five of the and Herzegovina in response to the increas- republics of the former Yugoslavia (Croatia, ing violence between Bosniaks (Bosnian Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Monte- Muslims), Bosnian Croats, and Bosnian negro, and Serbia). UNPROFOR lasted Serbs. UNPROFOR was tasked with secur- until March 31, 1995, when the United ing the safety of humanitarian supplies Nations restructured its peacekeeping being brought into Bosnia. On September 14, operations in the regions of the former 1992, UNPROFOR’s mandate was expan- Yugoslavia. UNPROFOR consisted of ded again to protecting humanitarian con- nearly 39,000 military personnel from voys throughout Bosnia, also establishing 42 countries with supporting staff. The infantry battalions throughout Bosnia to headquarters was located in Zagreb, Croatia. support the mission. Endangered humanitar- The Security Council established the ian relief efforts due to heavy ongoing fight- original mandate to provide monitoring in ing and ethnic cleansing, notably around the protected areas of Croatia of cease-fire city of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia, led to agreements between the government of the UN Security Council on April 16, 1993, Croatia, the Serbian minority in the Krajina demanding Srebrenica be treated as a “safe region of Croatia, and the Federal Republic area” to be demilitarized by all parties, of Yugoslavia National Army (JNA). This with UNPROFOR to oversee the demilitari- mandate was mostly consistent with the tra- zation. On May 6, UNPROFOR’s mandate ditional requirements for UN interventions expanded to include additional “safe areas,” into conflict zones: the monitoring of estab- including Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zˇ epa, Gorazˇde, lished cease-fire agreements with all parties and Bihac´. It could use military force in to the conflict agreeing to the intervention. these places to enforce the demilitarization UNPROFOR forces were first deployed against all parties other than the Bosnian to Croatia in large numbers within three government. Despite some humanitarian UN Protected Areas with strong Serbian successes, insufficient ground forces and ethnic presence: western Slavonia, eastern inconsistent support from air power ham- Slavonia, and the Krajina region. Observers pered UNPROFOR’s ability to carry out the also went to the Former Yugoslavian expanded mandates. UNPROFOR regularly

316 Ustasˇa 317 faced deliberate attacks from all parties in Doyle, Michael, and Nicholas Sambanis. the conflict, failed to prevent attacks on the Making War and Building Peace: United Bosnian “safe areas” (usually by Bosnian Nations Peace Operations.Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006. Serb forces), failed to prevent ethnic cleans- ing atrocities, and regularly failed to influ- Weiss, Thomas, and Don Hubert. The Respon- sibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, ence the parties to honor the many broken Background. Ottawa: International Devel- cease-fire agreements. opment Research Centre, 2001. UNPROFOR represented a shift in policy by the United Nations after the end of the Ustasˇa Cold War. The post–Cold War missions became increasingly multilateral, showed a willingness by the Security Council to The Ustasˇa (literally, “rebels”) was an engage in coercive peace enforcement, and extreme right-wing Croat nationalist move- were openly concerned with humanitarian ment that fought for the secession of Croatia goals. The original peacekeeping mission from Yugoslavia prior to and during of UNPROFOR was approved by all World War II. Following the collapse of involved governments but not all parties the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, the to the conflict, remaining consistent with Croat nationalists were disappointed to see Cold War–era interventions. That mission their dreams of an independent Croatia expanded to a mandate of peace enforce- crushed with the establishment of a ment and vague directives to protect safe new multiethnic state, the Kingdom of areas, to enforce demilitarization, and to Yugoslavia. Croat radical nationalism even- protect humanitarian convoys throughout tually expressed itself in the creation of the an active conflict zone. The capabilities and Ustasˇa, which employed terrorist means in procedures developed by the United Nations order to achieve its nationalist ambitions of throughout the Cold War were inadequate an independent state.The start of World to the missions assigned to UNPROFOR. War II provided the Ustasˇa with an opportu- Although achieving some significant nity to try to establish an independent humanitarian successes such as maintaining Croatia. In 1941, the Ustasˇa came to power the Sarajevo airport, the inadequacy com- with the support of Nazi Germany and bined with failures in and Rwanda Fascist Italy and formed a fascist puppet during the 1990s forced the United Nations state in Croatia. Governed by Ante Pavelic´ to examine its policies and procedures (1889–1959), Croatia incorporated Bosnia regarding intervention. and Herzegovina and had a significant Serb Brian G. Smith population. The Ustasˇapursuedapolicy of ethnic cleansing against Jews, Roma, See also: Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995; Muslims, and Serbs in territories under its Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, control. It established a network of concen- 1991–1995, Consequences tration camps, the largest of which was Further Reading Jasenovac (about 60 miles south of the Croatian capital of Zagreb) that became as Burg, Steven L., and Paul S. Shoup. The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and notorious in the Balkans as Auschwitz was International Intervention. London: M. E. in Nazi-occupied Poland. Implemented Sharpe, 2000. with merciless brutality, the Ustasˇa’s 318 Ustasˇa

extermination policies were responsible for After the war, Tito Partisans exacted ven- the deaths of more than 500,000 Serbs, geance on their opponents, including the 20,000 Roma, most of the country’s Jews, UstasˇaandCˇ etniks. Within weeks of the and untold thousands of political opponents. war’s end, the Partisans had executed with- Well over 150,000 Serbs fled or were out trial up to a quarter of a million people deported from Croatia, and as many as who had sided with the Germans, most of 200,000 Orthodox Christian Serbs were them Croats. However, many of the Ustasˇa forced, often at gunpoint, to convert to leaders were able to flee to safety in South Roman Catholicism. America. Pavelic´ himself fled to Argentina, Yugoslavian resistance to the Germans where he reorganized the Ustasˇa in exile. and their supporters, the Croatian Ustasˇa He was, however, wounded in an assassina- and Serbian general Milan Nedic´’s (1877– tion attempt in Madrid in 1957, and died 1946) government, centered on two factions. two years later from his injuries. Colonel Dragoljub “Drazˇa” Mihajlovic´ Alexander Mikaberidze (1893–1946), who strongly supported resto- See also: Croatian War; Tito, Josip Broz ration of the monarchy, set up the Cˇ etniks (1892–1980) (named for Serb guerrillas who had fought the Turks); while Josip Broz Tito (1892– Further Reading 1980), leader of the Yugoslav Communist Mun˜oz, Antonio J. For Croatia and Christ: Party since 1937, headed the second resis- The Croatian Army in World War II, 1941– tance group, the Partisans, which were par- 1945. Bayside, NY: Books, 2004. ticularly active in Montenegro, Serbia, and Ramet, Sabrina P. The Three Yugoslavias: Bosnia. After failing to develop a co- State-Building and Legitimation, 1918– operative approach against the Germans 2005. Bloomington: Indiana University and Ustasˇa, Tito and Mihajlovic´ turned Press, 2006. against each other. Ultimately, the Partisans Zimmermann, Warren. Origins of a Catastro- gained an upper hand, and by the end of the phe: Yugoslavia and its Destroyers.New war, their numbers swelled to over half a York: Times Books, 1996. million men. V

Vance-Owen Plan, 1993 nor what in their eyes involved ethnic manipulation; but they eventually accepted it The Vance-Owen peace plan was devised by under international pressure, with the expect- Cyrus Vance (1917–2002), the United ation that the Serbs would not agree to it in Nations (UN) peace envoy, and Lord David any case. This left the Serbian government in Owen (1938–), the European Union (EU) Belgrade to be persuaded to put pressure mediator. It was presented in January 1993, upon the Bosnian Serbs to accept. Serbian some nine months after the start of the con- president Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006) flict in Bosnia. The plan was guided by a was himself under pressure from a new desire to preserve Bosnia and Herzegovina round of proposed international economic as a multiethnic unitary state by formalizing sanctions, but he was prepared to put the the internal distribution of territories on the plan to the Bosnian Serbs in return for certain basis of ethnicity with regard to both the clarifying assurances. These assurances geographical and the historical contexts. related to (1) the potentially Croat-controlled This goal was to be achieved by institut- Posavina Corridor that linked the Serbs of ing 10 provinces (usually referred to as Luka and the northwest with Serbia “cantons”), each with substantially devolved “proper”; (2) the control of territories already powers. This geographical solution could taken and “Serbianized” by the Bosnian hardly be described as neat, given the histor- Serbs but that would now be returned to ically diverse and intermingled distribution Croat/Muslim administration; and (3) the of the three communities—Serb, Croat, and question of whether the collective presidency Muslim. Three of these provinces were to proposed under the Vance-Owen Plan would be mainly Muslim, three mainly Serb, and operate on the basis of majority voting or con- two mainly Croat; in the center-west it sensus. Having been assured of the role of the proved difficult to characterize the proposed UN forces in relation to the first two points 10th province as other than mixed Muslim- and of the principle of consensus (which Croat, and in the case of Sarajevo itself could effectively imply a veto) in relation to (province 7), all three of the ethnic groups the last, Milosˇevic´ felt able to sell the plan to were to share power. Sarajevo was also the Bosnian Serbs as one that they could to be the seat of a weakened central manipulate toward the formation of a unified government for Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serb state on Bosnian territory. After Of the parties to be convinced, only the protracted pressure, Bosnian Serb leader Croats could accept the cartography with Radovan Karadzic´ (1945–) was persuaded in readiness, as it offered them scarcely less an environment of ultimatum at Athens on than their highest expectation. The mainly May 2, 1993, to agree to the plan, with his Muslim Bosnian government could support proviso that it be ratified by the Bosnian neither a diminution of their central powers Serb parliament in Pale.

319 320 Vaphiadis, Markos

This was the closest that the Vance-Owen Vaphiadis, Markos (1906–1992) Plan came to fruition. Cyrus Vance himself felt able at this point to effect his previous indi- Markos Vaphiadis was a leader of the Com- cation that he would retire, and munist insurgents during the Greek Civil affirmed his faith in Milosˇevic´ to prevail at War, 1945–1949. He was born into a Greek Pale; in fact, however, the Bosnian Serb community in Ezurum in Ottoman Anatolia. parliamentvotedbyalmost5to1infavorof His family came to Greece in 1922 as a part a referendum, and the plan was effectively of the population exchange between Greece dead, as a referendum would undoubtedly and Turkey. While living in Thessaloniki, have resulted in the plan’s rejection. he became involved in Communist activ- Owen himself was later to complain of ities. These brought him various periods of the change in, and lack of, support that he imprisonment and internal exile during the received from the new administration of the interwar period. United States. The Vance-Owen Plan had After the German and Italian occupation been well intended in the context of a search of Greece, Vaphiadis became a leader in for a multiethnic solution, but the price of the Communist resistance movement, the failure was bound to be high in leaving a Greek Peoples’ Liberation Army (ELAS). potentially worse situation than had previ- He was active in Macedonia. After the ously been in place; the plan had now firmly German withdrawal in the fall of 1944, Mac- implanted on all sides the notion of territor- edonia became his power base. During the iality and preemptive gain. Furthermore, if Greek Civil War, he led military efforts of only temporarily, it reopened the conflict the Communist Party in the Democratic between Croats and Muslims and under- Army of Greece (DSE). He received shelter mined the influence that the Belgrade and supplies from Tito’s Yugoslavia. government had hitherto held over the Disagreement over tactics led to his Bosnian Serbs. A plan designed for peace ouster in 1948. Vaphiadis wanted to con- had (unintentionally) escalated the war. tinue fighting with guerilla tactics while the John J. Horton rest of the Communist leadership advocated a direct military confrontation with the See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Dayton Peace Accords, 1995; Kosovo War, 1998– American-supported Royalist forces by 1999; NATO in the Balkans; Srebrenica establishing an area of direct control in Massacre, 1995; Vance-Owen Plan, 1993; northern Greece. Vaphiadis also faced accu- Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, sations of Titoism after the Yugoslav-Soviet 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav Wars, 1991– split of 1948. 1995, Consequences Soon after the Yugoslav-Soviet split, Tito ended his support from the DSE. This Further Reading ended in defeat for the Communists. Vaphia- Friedman, Francine. The Bosnian Muslims: dis also faced accusations of Titoism after Denial of a Nation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996. the split. He went into exile in Moscow in 1950. He later returned to Greece and died Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War.Wash- in Athens on February 23, 1992. ington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995. Richard C. Hall Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios 321

See also: Cold War in the Balkans; Greek Civil War; Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslav-Soviet Split

Further Reading Glenny, Mischa. The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. New York: Viking, 2000. Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. Vol. 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Tarnstrom, Ronald. Balkan Battles. Lindsbrog, KS: Trogen, 1998.

Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios (1864–1936)

Greek political leader and premier Eleuthe´r- ios Kyriakos Venize´los was born on August 23, 1864, at Mournies, Crete. He Eleuthe´rios Venize´los was prime minister of studied law at Athens and returned to prac- Greece sporadically throughout the first three tice in Crete. Elected to the Cretan Chamber decades of the twentieth century. The prime of Deputies, he was active in the Cretan minister and King Constantine I disagreed over revolt against the Turks during 1896–1897 wartime allegiances, prompting Venize´los, and in the movement to unite Crete with backed by France and Britain, to force the king into exile in 1917. Venize´los proceeded to lend mainland Greece. In 1909, Venize´los went the support of the Greek Army to the Allied to Athens to advise the reformist Military Powers in World War I. (Library of Congress) League and instantly became a popular political figure. As leader of the new Liberal Party, Venize´los became premier of Greece between king and prime minister brought for the first time in October 1910. Although on a national constitutional crisis, the republican in his sentiments, he advocated so-called National Schism. Despite royal a moderate approach in dealing with the opposition, Venize´los attempted to co- Greek monarchy. Venize´los instituted operate with the Allies. In March 1915, he numerous reforms and successfully guided offeredtosendGreektroopstoaidtheAllies Greece through the Balkan Wars of 1912– in the Dardanelles. The offer was rescinded 1913, winning substantial gains in territory unconstitutionally by the king, and Venize´los and population. resigned. With the outbreak of World War I, the Venize´los returned as premier in Greek government was divided. Venize´los August 1915. In September, he mobilized strongly favored the Allied side, but King the Greek army and invited the Allies to Constantine I and the Greek army high com- establish a base at Salonika for the support mand were pro-German and insisted on a of Serbia. As a result, he was forced from policy of neutrality. The resulting conflict office by the king on October 5, 1915, the 322 Vienna Award, Second

day that British and French forces landed at Leon, George. Greece and the Great Powers, Salonika. Venize´los subsequently fled to 1914–1917. Thessaloniki: Institute for Crete on September 25, 1916, and went on Balkan Studies, 1974. to Salonika where, on October 9, he estab- Leontaritis, George B. Greece and the First lished a revolutionary provisional government World War: From Neutrality to Interven- tion, 1917–1918. New York: Columbia Uni- that provided some 23,000 Greek troops to versity Press, 1940. fight alongside the Allies on the Salonika Prevelakis, Pandelis. The Cretan. Translated Front. Under heavy pressure from the Allies, by Peter Mackridge and Abbot Rick. King Constantine (1868–1923) was forced to Minneapolis, MN: Nostos, 1991. abdicate and went into exile on January 12, 1917, leaving the crown to his son, Prince Vienna Award, Second Alexander (1893–1920). On June 27, 1917, the Greek government, once again led by Venize´los, formally declared war on the The Second Vienna Award was an arbitra- Central Powers. tion of a major land dispute during World Venize´los represented Greece effectively War II between Hungary and Romania at the Paris Peace Conference after World caused by Hungary demanding the return War I, but he was defeated in the Novem- of the region of Transylvania, which it had ber 1920 elections. King Constantine I lost in the Treaty of Trianon (June 4, 1920) returned to the throne in December 1920 but after World War I. Germany and Italy was forced to abdicate a second time after arbitrated the dispute and announced Greece lost the Greco-Turkish War of 1921– on August 30, 1940, that approximately 1922. Venize´los represented Greece at the 40 percent of the disputed parts of Transyl- Lausanne Peace Conference (1922–1923) vania (43,104 square kilometers out of a and became prime minister again for a short total disputed 103,093 square kilometers, time in 1924. He began a final term as prime including the major cities of Cluj, Oradea, minister in May 1928, but growing royalist and Targu-Mures) would be transferred to opposition and the worldwide depression Hungary from Romania. forced him to resign in September 1932. The primary foreign policy goal of the Venize´los’s reputation as a statesman suffered Kingdom of Hungary between World War I from his involvement in antiroyalist coup and World War II was reversing the land attempts in 1933 and 1935, and he was forced and population lost due to the Treaty of into exile in Paris, where he died on Trianon. Hungary’s close ties with Italy March 18, 1936. and Germany were rewarded with the Charles R. Shrader First Vienna Award on November 2, 1938, which transferred southern regions of See also: Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922; Slovakia to Hungary. Hungary began press- Greece in the Balkan Wars; Greece in World ing for the transfer of much of Transylvania War I; Greek Military Coup, 1909; National Schism (Greece), 1916–1917 from Romania to Hungary in the summer of 1940, particularly focusing on contiguous Further Reading land connecting Hungary to pockets of peo- Alastos, Doros. Venizelos: Patriot, Statesman, ple who were ethnically Hungarian and Revolutionary. Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic the ethnically Szekler region. The Szeklers International Press, 1978. are a Transylvanian ethnicity sometimes Vienna Award, Second 323 considered synonymous with Hungarian. Transylvania, mostly along the border with Ethnic identities and relative population Hungary. At the same time, the Romanian sizes in the Transylvania region were dis- government was simultaneously concerned puted at the time and remain so in the about intervention from the Soviet Union if twenty-first century. Romania expressed the Hungary invaded. On August 26, Germany desire to begin any negotiations to resolve began military redeployments designed to the irredentist issues with population seize the Ploest¸i oil fields if the Soviet exchanges as the possible solution, forcing Union invaded Romania as a response to a populations to move but with little land to Hungarian-Romanian war. On August 26 be transferred. and 27, Germany made arrangements with After the Soviet Union successfully pres- the governments of Hungary and Romania sured Romania into giving up Bessarabia to diplomatically intervene in the dispute at and Northern Bukovina on June 27, 1940, a meeting in Vienna. On August 29, German the government of Hungary decided the minister for foreign affairs Joachim von time was right to press its territorial claims. Ribbentrop (1893–1946) and Italian minis- By late June and early July, Hungary and ter for foreign affairs Count Galeazzo Romania were mobilizing and redeploying Ciano (1903–1944) met separately with the military forces along their border and Hun- delegations from Romania and Hungary, gary was seeking commitments of military which included the Romanian minister for supplies from Italy. During July, Germany foreign affairs (1891– repeatedly applied strong diplomatic pres- 1950), the Hungarian minister for foreign sure on Romania to make territorial conces- affairs Count Istva´nCsa´ky (1894–1941), sions to both Hungary and Bulgaria. and Hungarian prime minister Pa´lTeleki Germany expressed to Romania that its (1879–1941). interests in the Balkans were stability and The Romanian and Hungarian delegations economic trade, but that the post–World had expected a negotiation, but instead were War I territorial changes when Romania presented with an ultimatum by Ribbentrop had aligned itself against Germany needed and Ciano that they unconditionally accept to be undone. Germany was also concerned an arbitration of the dispute. Germany had that a Romanian-Hungarian war would lead already decided, based on Hitler’s territorial to a Soviet intervention designed to seize decisions for resolving the border changes on the Ploest¸i oil fields from Romania. Direct August 27 at Berchtesgaden, on the results of negotiations from August 16, 1940, to the German-Italian arbitration. On the after- August 24 in Turnu-Severin in Romania noon of August 30 in the Belvedere Palace, failed to resolve the dispute between the Second Vienna Award was announced, Romania and Hungary. transferring about 43,000 kilometers of Tran- With negotiations appearing to be leading sylvania to Hungary and allowing residents nowhere, the Hungarian military began of Transylvania six months within which to issuing orders on August 23 preparing for decide which citizenship they desired. an invasion of Romania on August 28. The The Hungarian military occupied Hungarian Third Army was mobilized and on August 31, 1940. joined the Hungarian First and Second The loss of territory to the Soviet Union, Armies on the border of Romania. The Bulgaria, and finally the large region from Romanians deployed 20 divisions in Transylvania led to the collapse of the 324 Vladimirescu, Tudor

Romanian government on September 6, Ottoman suzerainty. He came from a family 1940. Ion Antonescu (1882–1946) became of well-off peasants. In 1806, he joined prime minister, and King Carol II (1893– the Russian army and participated in the 1953) abdicated in favor of his young son Russo-Ottoman War of 1806–1812. Here he Michael (1921–). Although Hungary and gained valuable military training. During Romania both joined the Axis powers, the some of this time he commanded local two countries remained hostile toward one Wallachian troops called Pandurs. another during World War II. Ethnic vio- Vladimirescu’s role in the events of 1821 lence and civic disruption was widespread in Wallachia was conflicted. He issued a throughout Transylvania during the period, proclamation on February 4 calling for the Hungary viewed the transfer of land as election of native ruler but assuring the incomplete, and Romanian nationalism Ottoman authorities of his loyalty. This set erupted causing a reversal of territorial off a peasant uprising largely directed losses to be the central foreign policy goal initially against the Greek (Phanariot) land- of the country. Romania declared the award owners and their supporters. Soon thereafter, invalid in diplomatic messages to Italy and (1792–1828) invaded Germany on September 15, 1941, and the Ottoman-controlled Moldavia from Russia award was voided on September 12, 1944, with the intention of provoking an anti- by the Allied governments and the original Ottoman uprising among the borders restored by the 1947 . and ultimately among the Greeks. Brian G. Smith The goals of Vladimirescu and Ypsilantis were ultimately incompatible. Both forces See also: Antonescu, Ion (1882–1946); Carol converged on Bucharest. In the face of an II, King of Romania (1893–1953); Michael I, King of Romania (1921–); Romania in World expected Ottoman invasion, the two leaders War II made some efforts to cooperate, but achieved little. Both withdrew from Bucharest when Further Reading Ottoman troops appeared in Wallachia in Balogh, Beni. The Second Vienna Award and May. Vladimirescu remained in contact with the Hungarian-Romanian Relations, 1940– the Ottomans. Ypsilantis lured him into a 1944. Highland Lakes, NJ: Atlantic trap, and executed him at Taˆrgovis¸te on Research and Publications, 2011. June 7, 1821. Vladimirescu’s mainly peasant Case, Holly. Between States: The Transylva- forces disbanded soon thereafter. nian Question and the European Idea Despite his limitations, Vladimirescu during World War II. Stanford, CA: often receives credit as an early champion Stanford University Press, 2009. of armed Romanian nationalism. During Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, a unit Vol. 2, Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. of Romanian volunteers fighting in the International Brigades bore his name. During World War II, the Soviets named a Vladimirescu, Tudor (1780–1821) division of Romanian prisoners of war fight- ing for the Red Army after him. They used was a Romanian revolu- this organization as a means to subvert the tionary leader. He was born on June 7, 1780 Romanian forces still loyal to the Axis. in Vladimir, Otenia, Wallachia, then under Richard C. Hall VMRO 325

See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– The Supremists became intertwined to some 1832; Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812; degree with VMRO. Ypsilantis, Alexander In 1903, members of VMRO undertook a campaign directed against Ottoman rule in Further Reading Macedonia. This was known as the Ilinden Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. (St. Elijah’s Day, August 19) uprising. Vol. 1, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centu- ries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Earlier that summer, the onset of the upris- Press, 1983. ing, the leader of VMRO, Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New (1872–1903) was killed. Nevertheless the York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. uprising, which began on August 2, initially succeeded in ousting the Ottomans in much of Macedonia and establishing an VMRO administration in the town of Krushevo. At the same time, other VMRO elements acted VMRO, Vu˘treshna Makedonska Revolyut- in the to set up the sionna Organizatsiya,inEnglish,Internal Stradzha Republic. Neither of these forma- Macedonian Revolutionary Organization tions was able to withstand Ottoman coun- (IMRO), which was founded in Salonika in terattacks. By the end of August, Ottoman 1893 to promote Macedonian independence control resumed at the cost of almost 5,000 from the Ottoman Empire and exists at lives, the destruction of many homes and the present time as a political movement in villages, and 30,000 refugees. the independent state of Macedonia. The The failure of the Ilinden Uprising forced founders of VMRO wanted to promote the members of VMRO to regroup. Most of revolutionary activity directed at Ottoman them cooperated with the Bulgarian military authority. Whether they sought affiliation during the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. They with Bulgaria or wanted some kind of undertookmissionsbehindOttomanlines. autonomy, however, remains unclear. Most During the First Balkan War, Ottoman civil- of them were affiliated with the Bulgarian ians accused VMRO bands of atrocities. high school in Salonika and acknowledged During the Second Balkan War, Greek and some kind of Bulgarian identity. They also Serbian civilians made similar accusations. seem to have wanted to promote unrest in The division sanctioned by the Treaty of the Ottoman vilayet (province) of Adriano- Bucharest of 1913 of most of Macedonia ple (Thrace). between Greece and Serbia and the flight Revolutionary activity began several of thousands of Macedonian refugees to years after the founding of the organization. Bulgaria strengthened the position of VMRO groups known as chetas began to VMRO within Bulgaria. VMRO bands oper- engage in attacks on Ottoman officials in ated with Bulgarian support in Greek and Macedonia and to fight with Greek- and Serbian Macedonia after the Treaty of Serbian-sponsored bands. Finding the Bucharest. During World War I, VMRO VMRO to be resistant to direction, the Bulgar- bands cooperated with the Bulgarian army. ian government in Sofia established its own With the sanction of the Sofia government, organization, the Macedonian Supreme Com- they established authority in parts of Serbian mittee, known as Supremists. This organiza- Macedonia and carried out occupation tion had close ties to the Bulgarian military. duties in Serbia itself. In 1917, VMRO 326 VMRO

bands participated in defeating the Toplica Army in Romania and Bulgaria signaled rebellion in Serbia. the end of German hegemony in the Balkans After Bulgaria’s defeat in World War I and the end of Bulgarian rule in Macedonia. and loss of Macedonia, VMRO reverted to Understanding that the war was lost, Mihai- its prewar activities of sending armed bands lov refused a German offer at this late date into Greek and Yugoslav (Serbian) Macedo- to establish an independent Macedonia. nia to commit acts of terror. By this time, the After World War II, the Communist hopes of gaining Thrace were more or less regimes in Bulgaria and in the Federal abandoned. During this time, VMRO played Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, as well an important role in Bulgarian politics. In as the royalist government in Greece, all June 1923, VMRO elements participated in viewed VMRO in a negative context. Gradu- the overthrow and murder of the Bulgarian ally the FYR of Macedonia acknowledged peasant party leader Aleksandu˘rStambo- early VMRO activities as leading to the liski (1879–1923). At the same time development of a “Macedonian” identity VMRO assumed control of southwestern andstate.DuringmuchoftheColdWar, Bulgaria ( Macedonia). Skoplje and Sofia argued over the “Macedo- Factionalism within the organization nian” or Bulgarian identity of VMRO, and resulted in the assassination of a number of the meaning of its pre–World War I actions. VMRO leaders, including Todor Alexandrov Both sides agreed that the post–World War (1881–1924), and the assumption of author- I VMRO had moved towards fascism. ity of Ivan Mihailov (1896–1990). Lawless- The end of Communist rule in south- ness and drug trafficking became pervasive eastern Europe brought about the revival of in VMRO-controlled southwestern Bulgaria. VMRO in both Bulgaria and Macedonia. Mihailov steered VMRO to the right In Bulgaria, the modern VMRO presents in European politics. He established con- itself as a cultural organization and advo- tacts with the Croatian Ustasˇa and cooper- cates union with Macedonia. In Macedonia, ated in the assassination of Yugoslav king a new political party assumed the name Alexander (1888–1934) in Marseilles. That VMRO in 1990. It has adopted a pro- same year, a coup in Sofia brought to European policy. power a group of civilian and military Richard C. Hall figures who were determined stabilize the See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Origins; Bulgarian government and to end VMRO’s Ilinden Uprising, 1903; Mihailov, Ivan rule in southwestern Bulgaria. The Bulgar- (1896–1990); Military League (Bulgaria) ian army reestablished control of the central government and caused many VMRO opera- Further Reading tives to flee abroad. Crampton, R. J. Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford The German and Italian invasion of Yugo- University Press, 2007. slavia and Greece in the spring of 1941 Mihailov, Ivan. Spomeni.4vols.Brussels: brought about the Bulgarian occupation of Macedonian Cultural Fellowship, 1958– most of Macedonia. At that time, many 1973. VMRO adherents supported the return of Perry, Duncan. The Politics of Terror: The Bulgarian rule to Macedonia. The German Macedonian Revolutionary Movements, defeat in Soviet Russia and the appearance 1893–1903. Durham, NC: Duke University in the late summer of 1944 of the Red Press, 1988. Vukovar, Siege of, 1991 327

Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in political and military expectations to more Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Stanford, CA: realistic levels. Despite their military losses, Stanford University Press, 2001. the Croatians’ relatively effective defense of Vukovar strengthened their political will and Vukovar, Siege of, 1991 gave them the time to create a military force capable of defending their country against The siege of Vukovar was one of the first Serbian aggression. Vukovar also demon- major battles in the Yugoslav Wars of strated Serbian military vulnerabilities and 1991–1995. This Serbian-Croatian battle in operational deficiencies in areas such as this eastern-border Croatian city on the urban operations, degraded Serbia’s will to Danube lasted from May 1991 until Croatian continue fighting the Croatians, and gained forces surrendered on November 18, 1991. greater international support and sympathy Serbian forces operating as the Yugoslav for the Croatians. People’s Army (JNA) under the command The largely ruined city remained in of General Zˇ ivota Panic´ (1933–2003) as Serbian hands long after the end of the fight- well as Serbian militia forces made three ing. Only in 1998 did the Serbs return it to unsuccessful attempts to capture this heavily Croatian control. fortified city between approximately Septem- Bert Chapman ber 14 and 25, between September 30 and See also: Croat War, 1991–1995; Yugoslav October 27, and between October 29 and Wars, 1991–1995 November 18 before finally capturing Vukovar. Croat forces, under the command Further Reading of General Mile Dedakovic´ (1951–) were Cigar, Norman. “War Termination and heavily outnumbered. Nevertheless, casu- Croatia’s War of Independence: Deciding altieswereheavyonbothsides,withthe When to Stop.” Journal of Croatian Studies Croatians suffering nearly 1,500 military 32 (November 1991): 111–31. casualties, 1,131 civilian fatalities and Sebetovsky, Mario. “The : 2,600 missing civilians, and the Serbians los- The Military Battle That Saved Croatia.” Master of Military Studies thesis. Quantico, ing 1,180 men. After the fall of the city, Ser- VA: Marine Corps University, 2002. http:// bian militia units cooperating with the JNA handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA407751. committed war crimes. The most notorious U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan of these was the massacre of 264 patients at Battlegrounds: A Military History of the the Vukovar hospital. Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols. The capture of Vukovar proved to be a pyr- Washington, DC: Central Intelligence rhic victory for the Serbians. Along with their Agency, 2002–2003. high casualties, it forced them to reduce their W

Warsaw Pact established, consisting of the member states’ party leaders. The PCC met almost annually With the multilateral Treaty of Friendship, in one of the capitals of the Warsaw Pact Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, signed states. On the military side, a Unified Com- on May 14, 1955, in Warsaw, the Soviet mand and a Joint Staff were created to Union institutionalized its East European organize the actual defense of the Warsaw alliance system. The Warsaw Treaty was Treaty states. Marshal Ivan G. Konev identical to bilateral treaties concluded (1897–1973) was appointed as the first from 1945 to 1949 between the Soviet supreme commander of the Warsaw Pact’s Union and its East European satellite states Joint Armed Forces. to assure Moscow continued military pres- In the early years, the Warsaw Pact served ence on their territory. The Soviet Union, primarily as a Soviet propaganda tool in Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany, East-West diplomacy. Khrushchev used the Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia PCC to publicize his disarmament, disen- pledged to defend each other if one or more gagement, and peace offensives and to of the members were attacked. accord to them a multilateral umbrella. The The Warsaw Pact was created as a politi- first concrete military step was the admis- cal instrument in Nikita Khrushchev’s sionoftheEastGermanarmyintothe (1894–1971) Cold War policy in Europe. Unified Command, but only the 1958–1961 The immediate trigger was the admission Berlin Crisis led to a systematic militariza- of West Germany into NATO on May 5, tion of the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet general 1955, and the Austrian State Treaty of staff and the Warsaw Pact Unified Com- May 15, 1955, that provided for Austrian mand prepared Eastern European armies neutrality and the withdrawal of Soviet for a possible military conflict in Central troops from Austria. The creation of the Europe. In 1961, the Soviets replaced the Warsaw Pact sent important signals to both defensive strategy of Josef Stalin with an Eastern Europe and the West. On the one offensive strategy providing for a deep hand, the Soviet Union made clear to its thrust into Western Europe. In the early satellite states that Austria’s neutral status 1960s, the Warsaw Pact began to conduct would not be granted to them. On the other joint military exercises to prepare for fight- hand, Khrushchev allured the West with a ing a nuclear war in Europe. The new strat- standing offer to disband the Warsaw Pact egy remained in place until 1987, and the simultaneously with NATO contingent on militarization of the Warsaw Pact even East-West agreement on a new collective accelerated in the years of Leonid Brezhnev security system in Europe. (1906–1982). As the highest alliance body, a Poli- Behind a facade of unity, growing differ- tical Consultative Committee (PCC) was ences existed within the Eastern alliance.

328 Warsaw Pact 329

Soviet leaders sit at a conference table in the Parliament building in Warsaw, Poland, May 14, 1955, to draft a treaty that will establish a unified military command to rival NATO. From left to right: Soviet marshal Ivan Konev, supreme commander of the alliance; Vyacheslav M. Molotov, Soviet foreign minister; Premier ; and defense minister Georgi Zhukov. (AP Photo)

Following Khrushchev’s campaign of de- greater European security. At the height of Stalinization, Poles and Hungarians in the the Berlin Crisis, the Warsaw Pact’s weakest fall of 1956 demanded a reform of the and strategically least important country, Warsaw Pact to reduce overwhelming Soviet Albania, stopped supporting the pact in dominance within the alliance. Polish gener- 1962 and formally withdrew from the alli- als in a memorandum desired to model the ance in 1968. Warsaw Pact more after NATO, while TheWarsawPactwaskeptinthedark Hungary’s new Communist Party leader when Khrushchev provoked the Cuban declared his country’s neutrality Missile Crisis in October 1962. Only after and planned to leave the Warsaw Pact. In the crisis was resolved, Eastern European November 1956, the Soviet army invaded leaders learned in a secret meeting that a Hungary and crushed the resistance in two nuclear war had been narrowly avoided. weeks. Romania reacted promptly to Moscow’s In 1958, Romania demanded the with- non-consultation in such a serious matter. drawal from its territory of all Soviet troops In 1963, the Romanian government gave and military advisers. To cover Soviet secret assurances to the United States that it embarrassment, Khrushchev called this a would remain neutral in the event of a con- unilateral troop reduction contributing to frontation between the superpowers. In the 330 Warsaw Pact

same year, Romanian and Polish opposition primarily dealt with the CSCE process. prevented Khrushchev’s plan to admit Despite detente, however, preparations for Mongolia into the Warsaw Pact. a deep offensive thrust into Western Europe In the mid-1960s, the Warsaw Pact— accelerated and intensified in numerous like NATO—went through a major crisis. military exercises. In 1979, a statute on the The 1965 PCC meeting, invoked by East command of the alliance in wartime was Germany, demonstrated profound disagree- finally accepted by all but Romania after ments among Warsaw Pact allies on matters yearlong controversy. such as the German question, nuclear In 1980–1981, the Solidarity crisis in sharing and nonproliferation, and the Poland heralded the end of Moscow’s domi- Sino-Soviet split. In early 1966, Brezhnev nation of Eastern Europe. Yet, it did not proposed a Soviet plan to reform and institu- pose a serious threat to the Warsaw Pact’s tionalize the Warsaw Pact. Resistance by integrity. At first, Moscow was tempted to Moscow’s allies prevented the implementa- threaten the opposition with military exer- tion of the scheme for more than three years. cises and, eventually, military intervention. In 1968, the Czechoslovak crisis inter- To avoid the high political costs, Moscow vened and threatened the cohesion of in the end trusted that the loyal Polish the alliance. While the Soviet Union tried military would suppress the opposition on to intimidate the liberal Czechoslovak their own. The imposition of martial law by government led by Alexander Dubcˇek General Wojciech Jaruzelski (1923–2014) (1921–1992) with multilateral Warsaw Pact was a major success for Moscow, as it dem- military maneuvers, the invading forces on onstrated that the Moscow-educated Polish August 20, 1968, were mostly from the generals protected the interests of the War- Soviet Union, with token Polish, Hungarian, saw Pact even against their own people. and East German, but no Romanian troops. During the in the 1980s, Romania denounced the invasion as a viola- internal disputes within the Warsaw Pact tion of international law and demanded the increased. Romania demanded cuts in withdrawal of all Soviet troops and military nuclear and conventional forces as well as advisers from its territory. It also refused in national defense budgets. It also called to allow Soviet forces to cross or conduct for the dissolution of both Cold War alli- exercises on its territory. ances and for the withdrawal of both U.S. The consolidation that resulted from the and Soviet forces from Europe. PCC session in Budapest in March 1969 trans- The issue of an appropriate Warsaw Pact formed the Warsaw Pact into a more consulta- response to NATO’s 1983 deployment of tive organization. It established a committee U.S. Pershing II and cruise missiles, matching of defense ministers, a military council, and a Soviet SS-20 intermediate-range ballistic mis- committee on technology. With these three siles aimed at Western European targets, new joint bodies, the Warsaw Pact finally proved to be most divisive for the Eastern alli- became a genuine military alliance. ance.In1983,Germany,Hungary,andRoma- In 1976, previous informal gatherings nia engaged in a “damage control” exercise to of the Warsaw Pact foreign ministers were maintain their ties with the West that they had institutionalized into a committee of established during the era of detente. ministers of foreign affairs. In the 1970s, At the time of the Warsaw Pact’s 30th consultations within Warsaw Pact bodies anniversary in 1985, World War II Peace Settlement in the Balkans 331

(1931–) became the new Soviet leader. He in all of the Balkan countries. All had improved the role of Warsaw Pact consulta- suffered foreign invasion, all had endured tions on the desired nuclear and conventional aerial bombardment, and all had confronted cuts in the Eastern alliance. At the PCC meet- partisan warfare. The Soviets replaced the ing in Berlin in May 1987, Gorbachev Germans and Italians as the dominant force changed the Warsaw Pact military doctrine in the region. The parameters of the postwar from offensive to defensive. The Eastern settlement began to become apparent as European states did not object to the reduc- early September 1943 when the Italians tion of the alliance’s military functions. withdrew from the war. This rendered Italian In the late 1980s, East Germany, Bulgaria, claims to Albania, and Greek and Yugoslav and—in a reversal of earlier continuing territories, void. A further clarification opposition—even Romania proposed to occurred a year later, when Soviet forces strengthen the Warsaw Pact by improving its invaded Romania in August 1944 and intra-bloc political consultative role. crossed the Danube into Bulgaria the next After the fall of the in 1989, month. Soon afterward, the Soviets estab- EastandWestatfirstsawmeritinkeeping lished pro-Russian regimes in Bucharest both Cold War alliances in place. In January and Sofia. and February 1991, however, Czechoslovakia, The October 1944 meeting between Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria declared that British prime minister Winston S. Churchill they would withdraw all support by July 1 of (1874 –1965) and the Soviet dictator Joseph that year. The Warsaw Pact came to an end V. Stalin (1879–1953) established that the on March 31, 1991, and was officially dis- Soviets would dominate the Balkans. solvedatameetinginPragueonJuly1,1991. Churchill agreed that in return for British Christian Nuenlist predominance in Greece, they could have primary influence in Bulgaria and Romania See also: Cold War in the Balkans, World War and would evenly share influence in II peace Settlement in the Balkans Yugoslavia. Given the apparent strength of Further Reading the Communist-led Partisan movement in Jones, Christopher D. Soviet Influence in Yugoslavia, there was little likelihood that Eastern Europe: Political Autonomy and the the British would be able to establish them- Warsaw Pact. Brooklyn, NY: Praeger, 1981. selves there after the war. Albania received Holden, Gerard. The Warsaw Pact: The WTO no consideration in this agreement. The and Soviet Security Policy. Oxford: Black- presence of Soviet forces on Bulgarian well, 1989. and Romanian soil and the triumph of the Mastny, Vojtech, and Malcolm Byrne, eds. The Yugoslav Partisans, with Soviet assistance, Warsaw Pact: A History in Documents. and of the Albanian Partisans, with Yugo- Budapest: Central European Press, 2005. slav Partisan assistance, ensured that Soviet Russia would exercise dominant influence in the Balkans after the war. Only Greece, World War II Peace Settlement where British troops landed and fended off in the Balkans an effort by the Communist-led EAM- ELAS movement to take power in 1944, The end of World War II in the Balkans left remained outside the sphere of Soviet huge casualties and tremendous destruction economic and political influence. 332 World War II Peace Settlement in the Balkans

The end of the war brought important before the war ended. The Germans also changes to the Balkans. Compared to the murdered significant, but unknown, num- settlement of World War I in the region, the bers of Roma who lived in the Balkans. territorial arrangements were relatively After the war, a number of population slight. The Treaty of Paris of February 10, changes occurred. Most of the German inhab- 1947, established postwar borders. As a itants of Soviet Bessarabia (Moldovian SSR) result, Albania obtained the island of Sazan and of Yugoslav Vojovodina were expelled. (Saseno) in the Bay of Vlore¨ from Italy. Germans from Hungary and Romania who This settlement also confirmed Romania’s were not deported to the Soviet Union fled to cession of southern Dobrudja (Dobrudzha) the western occupied zones of Austria and at the Treaty of Craiova of 1940 to Bulgaria. Germany. The anti-Soviet Russian refugee Greece obtained the Dodecanese Islands populations of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia either from Italy. Also confirmed therein were fled or faced deportation by Communist Romania’s western frontiers. This invali- authorities. The Italians of Istria moved to dated the division of Transylvania with Italy. Some Albanians moved out of Epirus Hungary that had occurred in the Second to Albania, and some Bulgarians moved Vienna Award of 1940. The Treaty of Paris from western Thrace to Bulgaria during the also sanctioned the Soviet takeover of Greek Civil War. Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, first Because Albania was the least developed taken from Romania in June 1940. Finally, in the fighting, Albania sustained the least the settlement awarded to Yugoslavia former physical damage during the war. The Italian Italian territories in Istria and western invasion and the Partisan struggle were not Slovenia, the Adriatic ports of Rijeka greatly destructive. Bulgaria underwent (Fiume) and Zadar (Zara), and the Adriatic some Allied bombing, but overall did not islands of Cres (Cherso), Losˇinj (Lusino), suffer much damage from military activity, and Lastovo (Lagosta). The fate of the either. The Bulgarian Partisans operated Adriatic port of Trieste remained undecided from remote areas, and the Soviet invasion for the time being. was unopposed. Greece, Romania, and The end of the war in southeastern Europe Yugoslavia, however, were arenas of exten- caused significant ethnic changes there. The sive combat. The German and Italian inva- Germans murdered most Ashkenazi Jewish sion of 1941, and the British and Greek populations of Transylvania and Yugoslavia. opposition to it, caused considerable physi- They also exterminated most of the Sephar- cal damage, as did the Greek resistance dic Jewish populations of Greece and struggle against foreign occupation. An Yugoslavia. While the Bulgarians assisted Allied bombing campaign targeted the area the Germans in the Bulgarian-occupied around the Romanian oil fields and oil- areas of Greece and Yugoslavia, they pre- processing facilities at Ploest¸i, causing con- served the Jewish populations of Bulgaria siderable damage there. The Soviet invasion itself. The Romanians acted against the and the subsequent campaign against the Jews of Bessarabia and Bukovina, while Germans and Hungarians in Transylvania they permitted most of the Jews of Moldavia also brought destruction. Of all the Balkan and Wallachia to survive. Many of the countries, Yugoslavia suffered the most Bulgarian and Romanian Jews who survived physical damage during World War II. left their native countries for Palestine even The Germans inflicted heavy damage on World War II Peace Settlement in the Balkans 333

Belgrade when they bombed the Yugoslav Only after 1945 did the Balkans begin to capital on Easter Sunday 1941. The multi- revive after the wars of the first half of the sided warfare among the occupiers and the twentieth century. resisters also ruined much of the infrastruc- Richard C. Hall ture, especially in Bosnia. Finally, the Soviet See also: Albania in World War II; Bulgaria invasion of October 1944 brought heavy in World War II; Greece in World War II; combat and much destruction to Belgrade Romania in World War II; Yugoslavia in and northeastern Yugoslavia. Fighting World War II continued in Croatia until the final days of the war. Further Reading Any reckoning of the effects of World Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans. War II on the Balkans must recognize that Vo l. 2, Twentieth Century.Cambridge: the human and material losses of the Balkan Cambridge University Press, 1983. Wars and World War I occurred only a scant Seton-Watson, Hugh. The East European 20 years previously. This narrow period of Revolution. New York: Praeger, 1951. relative peace in the region was insufficient Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New to allow recovery from those damages. York: Rinehart, 1958. Y

Young Turks When Abdulhamid II became ruler in 1876, he first approved and then sus- The Young Turks were a coalition of groups pended a new constitution. In response to that brought about the fall of Ottoman sultan the authoritarian rule of Abdulhamid Abdulhamid II in 1909. Initially welcomed II after 1876, the Young Ottomans invol- for their democratic aspirations and modern- ved themselves in plots to reform the izing goals for the Ottoman Empire, the government. Many of the principal civilian Young Turks did not fare well in the destruc- leaders were exiled to Paris once their tive geopolitics of World War I and presided plans were uncovered by government over the disintegration of the Ottoman state agents. Those young men formed the and rise of Turkish nationalism. Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) In the nineteenth century, the Ottoman in 1889 and the League of Private Initiative Empire was disintegrating because of the and Decentralization around 1902. (The failure of the ruling sultans to stem the tide CUP was the first to adopt the name Young of decay and the rise of Turks, after the name of a journal produced inside their nation to which the stronger by one of its members. Later, the name Western powers responded by creating new became loosely identified with other states and annexing Ottoman territory into factions advocating the overthrow of their own empires. In response, the so- Abdulhamid II.) Both the CUP and the called reforms were instituted by league called for the military and moral the Ottoman sultans in the mid-nineteenth strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, century, which resulted in the modernization equal rights for all ethnic and religi- of many parts of the government of the ous groups, and the restoration of the Ottoman Empire. Hundreds of government Constitution of 1876 that Abdulhamid had officials were trained in Western methods set aside. The CUP favored a strong central and concepts, but some became dissatisfied government, however, while the league pre- with the pace of reform. They believed the ferred a more decentralized government Tanzimat reformers were not interested in and European assistance. real change, but in accumulating power in Spurred on by the revolutionary publica- their own hands. Some of those men organ- tions of the exiles, the CUP steadily gained ized the Young Ottoman organization. The members in Turkey. It included not only Young Ottomans promoted constitutional- teachers and students, but also bureaucrats, ism and parliamentary government. Many army officers, and members of the Muslim worked in such agencies as the Bureau of clergy. Chapters were formed in the major Translation and the Ministry of Foreign cities of Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. Affairs, where they had constant contact An attempt to overthrow the Turkish with Western institutions and publications. government in 1895 failed, and Abdulhamid

334 Young Turks 335 dispersed the revolutionaries to remote parts reconvened the parliament, hoping to under- of the empire such as Macedonia, believing cut the rebellion, but his rule lasted only that the revolutionary spirit would fade. another year. However, Abdulhamid’s move only increa- The Young Turks took charge of the sed their revolutionary fervor. Next, Abdul- government and began to introduce numer- hamid offered amnesty and high positions ous and diverse reform programs, though to exiles to get them to return and work by 1911, the CUP’s political agenda was with the government. contested by liberal, conservative, and Still, the CUP continued to add followers. nationalistic forces internally. In 1913, the The new secular schools instituted under the CUP gained effective control, thanks in Tanzimat reforms produced thousands of part to rigged elections and in part to the educated bureaucrats, officers, and intellec- chaos of the Balkan Wars. By the time it tuals who came from the lower classes and consolidated its power, not only had it lost resented restrictions placed on them. Many the Balkans (and therefore most of the were strong patriots who believed that if empire’s Christians), but its ideals of a the sultan’s corrupt regime were swept multinational had faded some- away, they could build a stronger country. what to be replaced by a preference for The growing strength of reformers and the congressional representatives who were increasing attacks of nationalistic minorities ethnic Turks and members of the CUP. caused the government to become more The new CUP leadership included Enver and more repressive. By the beginning of Pasha as war minister, the twentieth century, followers of the CUP (1872–1922) as naval minister, and Talaat were increasingly convinced that only Pasha (1874–1921) as interior minister. radical change would save Turkey. Those men carried out many reforms of the The initiative for the Young Turk revolu- provincial administrations, which led to tion came from military officers within the greater centralization. They also secularized Ottoman Empire, especially those of the the legal system and provided a better Third Army Corps in Macedonia. Led by system of elementary school education, Mustafa Kemal Atatu¨rk (1881–1938), they especially for girls. The Young Turks are formed the Ottoman Liberty Society in hailed for those modernizing programs. 1906. In 1907, the group agreed to merge The CUP government also made Turkish with the CUP, a key development that the language of administration and instruc- brought the League of Private Initiative and tion, however, which alienated the large Decentralization and the CUP together number of Arabs in the empire. to work toward mutual goals. Events in With the onslaught of World War I, the 1908 spurred them to action. Bosnia and Young Turks chose to ally with Germany, Herzegovina were annexed by the Austro- though in their admiration for the German Hungarian Empire, while Bulgaria and military, they overestimated its effective- Crete declared their independence from ness. They also wished to reconquer Egypt Ottoman rule. On July 3, the Third Corps from the British and the Caucasus Moun- launched a revolt that quickly spread to tains from Russia, which made alliance other military units throughout the empire. with Germany logical. The Young Turks Unable to rely on his troops, Abdulhamid began to fear that the Armenians (Christians restored the Constitution of 1876 and living in eastern Anatolia) would support the 336 Ypsilantis, Alexander

Russians, though they had shown no sign of for the policy of secularization later adopted disloyalty to the Ottoman government since by the Turkish republic under Atatu¨rk. the overthrow of Abdulhamid II. Acting with Richard C. Hall German assistance, the Young Turks ordered See also: Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes; the deportation of the Armenians from the Kemal, Mustafa (1881–1938) Ottoman state. When the Armenians resisted, the Ottoman army unleashed local Turkish Further Reading and Kurdish brigands, who killed an Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks. Oxford: estimated 1 million during the Armenian Oxford University Press, 1969. Genocide and scattered the rest. Berkes, Niyazi. The Development of Secular- Their genocidal persecution of the ism in Turkey. London: Routledge, 1999. Armenians did not endear the Young Turks Hanioglu, M. Sukru. The Young Turks in to the Arabs. Though theoretically united Opposition. Oxford: Oxford University by Islam, many Arabs were suspicious of Press, 1995. the way the Young Turks combined religion Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. His- with nationalism. More damage was tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern done, however, by the former naval minister, Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Revolution and Djemal, as he and his troops rested in Syria Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey during 1915 to reorganize an attack on the 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1977. British and the Suez Canal. Jemal’s treat- ment of the Syrians was so cruel and arbi- trary that he inspired them to join in the British-sponsored Arab Uprising, led by the Ypsilantis, Alexander Hussein clan from Mecca. That revolt forced (1792–1828) Djemal to withdraw from Syria, ceding con- trol of the entire region south of Anatolia to Alexander Ypsilantis was born on the French and the British. December 12, 1792, in the Phanar district By late 1918, military defeat appeared of Constantinople, to a Greek family long imminent, and the CUP leaders resigned prominent in Ottoman administration. The from government in October, just a month family fled to St. Petersburg, Russia, in before the ended the 1805 when his father, the Prince () war. In spite of their misfortunes and their of the Ottoman-controlled Danubian princi- mistakes, however, the Young Turks are pality of Wallachia, was about to be arrested regarded by as having led by Ottoman authorities for supporting the an important phase in the regeneration Serbian revolt. Under royal patronage, he of the nation. Their transformation from received a commission upon graduating Ottoman to Turkish nationalism and their from the Household Cavalry of the Imperial ideas about Islam allowed for subsequent Guards in 1810. rulers to progress more rapidly. Arguing Ypsilantis served bravely in the Russian that religion should be a matter of con- cavalry during the Napoleonic Wars starting science and that the legal aspects of Islam with the French invasion of Russia. By should be surrendered to secular legislation, July 1813, he had risen to the rank of they called for a split between Islam and colonel, and while participating in the Battle the state. That idea became the foundation of Dresden (August 1813), he lost his right Yugoslavia 337 arm, which ended his fighting career. During Prousis, Theophilis C. Russian Society and the Congress of Vienna, he served as one of the Greek Revolution. DeKalb: Northern Czar Alexander I’s (1777–1825) adjutants, Illinois University Press, 1994. becoming his aide-de-camp in 1816. The following year, he was promoted to major general. Yugoslavia In April 1820, Ypsilantis was elected and took the leadership of Filiki Etairia (Society Yugoslavia itself did not exist until after of Friends), a secret organization in Odessa World War I, and the region, which makes plotting to overthrow Ottoman rule up part of the Balkan Peninsula, was long and establish an independent Greece. In dominated by foreign empires. Several dis- March 1821, Ypsilantis and other Greek tinct cultural and ethnic groups have inhab- officers in Russian service crossed the ited the Balkans for hundreds of years and Pruth River into the Danubian principality continue to influence the social and political of Moldavia to begin the liberation of fortunes of the region today. Greece. He hoped his revolt would be sup- The social and political landscape of the ported by Russia and the Orthodox Bulgar- Balkan Peninsula was dramatically altered ians, Romanians, and Serbs. Instead, the by the rise of the Turkish Ottoman Empire, Russians condemned him and relieved him which superseded the crumbling Byzantine of his rank. Empire in the east and aggressively expan- Czar Alexander I viewed Ypsilantis’s ded westward into the European continent. actions as against the Holy Alliance, while At the (1389), Serb forces most Balkan Orthodox Christians largely were defeated by Turkish troops, and for ignored him. He was unable to maintain the next three centuries, Serbia remained a cooperation with the Romanian peasant vassal state to the Turkish Empire. Although leader Tudor Vladimirescu (1780–1821) it was a military loss, the Battle of Kosovo and denounced him as a traitor because of became a fundamental event in the forma- the Romanian’s willingness to compromise tion of Serbian national identity. After their with the Ottomans. Ypsiliantis lost a series victory in Kosovo, the Ottomans continued of humiliating battles by mid-June and fled their military campaign in the Balkans to Austria, where he was imprisoned for and annexed Bosnia, Herzegovina, and seven years before being released in 1827 Montenegro by 1499. The Turk conquest through the intervention of Czar Nicholas I dramatically altered the Slavs’ established (1796–1855). He died in Vienna on Janu- social systems by destroying the power of ary 31, 1828. the local nobility. In the regions of Bosnia Gregory C. Ference and what is modern-day Albania, the social structure was less drastically affected since See also: Greek War of Independence, 1821– many inhabitants converted to Islam, which 1832; Serbian War of Independence, 1804– won the favor of their Ottoman rulers. 1818; Vladimirescu, Tudor (1780–1821) As the Ottoman Empire fell into decline Further Reading in the seventeenth century, the Habsburg Dakin, Douglas. The Greek Struggle for Austro-Hungarian Empire expanded its in- Independence, 1821–1833. Berkeley: fluence in the Balkans. By the early nine- University of California Press, 1973. teenth century, Ottoman control of the 338 Yugoslavia

Balkans was practically nonexistent, and Croats, and Slovenes was officially estab- the vacuum that was created by the ebb of lished under the leadership of the Serbian Turkish power opened the door for the king Peter Karageorgevic´ (1844–1921). growth of nationalism among the Balkans’ Although a unified Slavic state was never ethnic groups. The Balkan Slavs created the initial goal of the various Balkan ethnic their sense of national identity by drawing groups, most political leaders realized that on their history and ancient folklore as well unification was their best option, at least as their religious heritage. However, realiza- for the moment. Those hopes proved overly tion of nationalist ambitions required depen- optimistic, however. Over the protests of dence on the aid of foreign powers, since the both Croats and Slovenes, the 1921 Yugosla- Balkan groups were not powerful enough to vian constitution created a centralized establish independence on their own. A government that was predominantly under nominal Croatian state was created with per- Serbian control. Over the next several mission by the Austro-Hungarian Empire in years, non-Serbian groups grew increasingly 1868, and Serbia and Montenegro were bitter and disenchanted with the govern- granted independence by the Treaty of San ment. In 1929, King Alexander I (1888– Stefano (1878) at the conclusion of the 1934), Peter’s son successor, responded to Russo-Ottoman War. Nationalism had the the growing discontent by abrogating the negative effect of stirring up ethnic rivalries, constitution, forming a dictatorship, and often in the form of territorial disputes renaming the country the Kingdom of among the various Balkan groups. Particu- Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Southern larly at a loss were the region’s Muslims, Slavs). His actions did little to allay non- who had long depended on the Ottoman Serb fears, and between 1929 and 1939, social and economic infrastructure to protect tensions grew among the nation’s ethnic their religion and way of life. groups, which led to the 1934 assassination The emerging Balkan states cooperated of Alexander by the Ustasˇa, a Croatian long enough to drive out what little fascist organization. remained of the Ottoman presence in Europe When World War II broke out, Yugoslavia in the first of the Balkan Wars in 1912. By tried to remain neutral, but the regents who 1913, unity had collapsed, and the second ruled in the name of Prince Paul gave in to of the Balkan Wars broke out as Serbia, German pressure in 1941 and formed an Romania, and Greece fought over the spoils alliance with Adolf Hitler. The alliance of their victory against the Turks. The con- prompted widespread popular discontent and tentious nationalism of the Balkans soon public protest, and a contingent of military became the tinderbox that lit the fuse of officers moved quickly to overthrow the World War I with the assassination in regency. In April 1941, Germany responded June 1914 of the Austro-Hungarian arch- by invading Yugoslavia. The country was duke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serb occupied by German, Italian, Bulgarian, and nationalist. Hungarian forces, along with the Ustasˇa. The downfall of both the Austro- Two rival resistance groups rose up to Hungarian and Ottoman empires by the end oppose the Nazi occupation: the Cˇ etniks, of the war opened the door for the realiza- Serbian nationalists; and the Partisans, a tion of Balkan nationalistic desires. On Communist group led by a Croatian-Slovene December 1, 1918, the Kingdom of Serbs, named Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980). While Yugoslavia 339 both groups fought the Nazis, they ultimately Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006), an extreme nation- had different ideas for the reconstitution of alist, gained power in Serbia. Milosˇevic´ the Yugoslav state. The Cˇ etniks sought a instituted severe measures to support his resumption of Serbian dominance while the nationalist cause. Those measures inclu- Partisans wanted to establish a Communist ded press censorship and the reversal of federation divided along ethnic lines. autonomy for the Kosovo and Vojvodina Although both sides committed atrocities regions, which had populations that were during the war, the Partisans secured the sup- predominantly Albanian and Hungarian, port of the Allies and gained control of the respectively. country when the war ended. Milosˇevic´ tried to increase the centraliza- Under Tito, the country was organized as tion of power and to revive the concept of a a federation with six republics loosely di- greater Serbia at the same time that Croatian vided along ethnic lines: Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenian leaders sought increased Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzego- decentralization. As it became clear that vina, and Montenegro. Yugoslavia was Milosˇevic´ was intent on increasing Serbian established as a Communist state, and more authority, Croatia and Slovenia declared liberal political organizations were sup- their independence from Yugoslavia in pressed. The government moved rapidly to June 1991. Despite a constitutional provi- introduce nationalization and other instru- sion that allowed for the secession of repub- ments of Communist control, but over time, lics, the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav army it developed a less centralized model that actively opposed the withdrawal of Croatia included workers’ councils that managed and Slovenia. The independence of Slovenia individual enterprises. Yugoslavia gradually was conceded after a 10-day war that the adopted an independent line that initially Yugoslav forces lost. However, the Serb alienated the Yugoslav leadership from the minority in Croatia joined forces with the rest of the Communist bloc. Eventually, Yugoslav army to gain control of vast Tito’s regime was able to forge a middle territory there. way, which often had strained relations Yugoslavia had a similar response when with both the East and the West. Not surpris- Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded the follow- ingly, Tito was a key player in the formation ing year. With their campaign of ethnic of the nonaligned movement. cleansing, the Serbs succeeded in killing or The death of Tito in 1980 revealed the forcing out much of the Muslim and Cro- cracks in the Yugoslav political system. atian populations of large parts of Bosnia. He was replaced by a collective presidency The United Nations imposed international made up of representatives from each of sanctions against Yugoslavia for its actions. the republics. However, the nation’s eco- Around the same time, Macedonia also nomic problems, which included a huge for- seceded without much of a struggle from eign debt, began to cause difficulties, and Belgrade because its Serbian population the new government proved weak. Both was small. The Yugoslav government recon- problems facilitated a revival of the ethnic stituted the country as a two-republic federa- and religious rivalries that were suppressed tion that now included only the dominant under Tito. A nationalist movement in Serbia and smaller Montenegro. Inter- Serbia gained control of the League of national sanctions against Yugoslavia were Communists of Yugoslavia, and Slobodan eased in 1995 after Milosˇevic´ blockaded 340 Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces in World War II

the Serbian forces in Bosnia and signed the new state community of Serbia and Dayton Agreement (1995), which returned Montenegro. large territories to Bosnia and Croatia; how- Richard C. Hall ever, there was continued Serbian resistance See also: Cold War in the Balkans; Dayton to the peace plan from within those two Peace Accords; Tito, Josip Broz (1892– countries. Milosˇevic´ had been forced to act 1980); Yugoslavia in World War II in part because of the devastation the sanc- tions had brought to Yugoslavia with infla- Further Reading tion running at unheard-of rates and the Clissold, Stephen, ed. A Short History of Yugo- state under the threat of disintegration. slavia: From Early Times to 1966.Cam- By early 1998, however, Milosˇevic´ had bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966. renewed his campaign for a greater Serbia Dedijer, Vladimir, et al. History of Yugoslavia. by turning his attention to the predominantly Translated by Kordija Kveder. New York: ethnic Albanian region of Kosovo. Though McGraw-Hill, 1974. the Serb-controlled Yugoslav army was sent Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- into the province ostensibly to root out slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. members of the rebel Kosovo Liberation New York: Verso, 1993. Army, the military campaign led to numer- ous civilian deaths, as hundreds of thou- sands of villagers fled to the mountains and Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation forests for safety. Milosˇevic´’s refusal to Forces in World War II sign an internationally brokered peace agreement in March 1999 precipitated a On April 6, 1941, German, Hungarian, and North Atlantic Treaty Organization air cam- Italian units attacked Yugoslavia. These paign to crush Serbia’s military strength and included the German Second and 12th a Serbian offensive to drive out Kosovo’s Armies, eight Hungarian brigades, and the Albanian population. Milosˇevic´ attempted Italian Second and Ninth Armies. The to extend his hold over the country by call- invaders crossed Yugoslavia’s borders with ing early elections in September 2000; how- Germany (Austria), Hungary, Romania, and ever, he was surprised by the public’s Bulgaria. Confronted with overwhelming election of Vojislav Kostunica (1944–). force, the Yugoslav armed forces disinte- Milosˇevic´ initially refused to concede defeat grated within a week. and attempted to void a portion of the bal- In the aftermath of the Yugoslav defeat, lots. His actions incited massive protests, the Germans and their allies divided the coun- which saw demonstrators take over the try. Germany annexed northern Slovenia, Federal Assembly building while the police while Italy annexed southern Slovenia and stood by; hours later, Milosˇevic´ agreed to Dalmatia and attached Kosovo to its Albanian step down. Shortly after Milosˇevic´’s defeat possession. Hungary took a part of eastern at the polls, the European Union and Slovenia, and Bacˇka, a part of Croatia. the United States lifted sanctions against Bulgaria, which did not participate in the Yugoslavia, which had been in place since actual invasion, annexed Macedonia. Nomi- 1998. On February 5, 2003, the Yugoslav nally independent states emerged in Croatia, Parliament proclaimed the creation of the Montenegro, and Serbia. Germany and its Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces in World War II 341 three allies maintained military forces on occupation of Yugoslavia to allied and col- these territories throughout the course of the laborationist forces. The development of re- war. These soon came under attack from sistance in the summer of 1941 made this indigenous resistance organizations, includ- impossible. Especially important for the ing but not limited to the Serbian-oriented Germans was control of the vital Vienna- Cˇ etniks and the Communist-oriented Parti- Salonika railroad, and some important sans. Bulgarian, German, Hungarian and Ital- mining locations. ian forces spent much of their time and effort With most of its best units committed to in operations directed against this resistance. the Eastern Front, the Germans relied upon second-rate units, made up of older person- Bulgaria nel, and locally raised units. Chief among The Bulgarians considered Macedonia to the latter was the SS Prinz Eugen Division. be a “liberated” part of Bulgaria. In the Increased resistance activity force the aftermath of the Yugoslav defeat, the Germans to increase the quality and size of Bulgarian occupied Macedonia. their occupation forces. They collected It established its headquarters in Skoplje. several formations in , the The Bulgarians encountered no resistance. former Twelfth Army, commanded by Luft- Bulgarian police and special units also waffe general Alexander Lo¨hr (1885– were assigned to Macedonia. This amounted 1947), an erstwhile Austro-Hungarian and to around 40,000 men. At the beginning of Austrian officer. The formations in this com- 1942, the Germans requested additional mand undertook seven anti-Partisan offen- Bulgarian troops be sent to Yugoslavia sives from 1942 to 1944. Partisan activities so that German occupation forces could and the Allied landings in Sicily caused the be transferred to the Eastern Front. The Germans to further increase their troop Bulgarian First Army deployed to southern levels in Yugoslavia because of concerns Serbia and established its headquarters at that the Allies might attempt to cross the Nisˇ. The Bulgarians undertook stringent Adriatic. Army Group F under the command anti-Partisan actions in this region. In 1943, of Field Marshal Bulgarian units also participated in anti- (1881–1954) formed with its headquarters Partisan operations in Bosnia and Monte- in Belgrade in August 1943. The Second negro, together with German, Italians, and Panzer Army from the Eastern Front some Cˇ etnik formations. On September 9, strengthened this formation. It had respon- 1944, the Bulgarians changed sides and sibility for all German forces in Yugoslavia. began joint activities with the Red Army, Army Group E assumed control of Greece. sweeping through Macedonia up through The defections of Romania and Bulgaria Serbia and into Hungary. in August and September and the entry of the Red Army into these countries made the Germany German position in the western Balkans The largest number of foreign soldiers on untenable. Army Group E began to with- Yugoslav territory came from Germany. drawal from Greece. The German formations German forces occupied Serbia, Vojvodina, slowly retreated to the north under pressure the northeastern portion of independent from the Partisans and the Red Army. Army Croatia (NDA), and northern Slovenia. Ini- Group E ended up in Austria. Army Group F tially the Germans had hoped to leave the was dissolved in March 1945. Its remnants 342 Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II

combined with Army Group E. All these Bulgarians over the border of western German formations surrendered in Austria in Macedonia. On September 8, 1943, Italy May 1945. surrendered to the Allies. This left the Ital- ian forces in Yugoslavia in disarray. Some Hungary fledtoItaly,somejoinedthePartisans,but On April 11, five days after the German many surrendered to or were captured by and Italian attack, the Third Hungarian the Germans. The Germans shot some of Army moved into Yugoslavia, meeting these unfortunates and sent most of the some resistance. The Hungarians annexed others to Germany as slave laborers. eastern Slovenia Prekmurje parts of Croatia, Richard C. Hall Medjimurje, Baranja, and Bacˇka. The Hun- ˇ garian army committed some atrocities See also: Cetniks; Partisans, Yugoslavia; Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World against the Jewish and Serbian populations War II; Yugoslavia in World War II of the latter two regions. At Novi Sad during January 1942, the Hungarians murdered Further Reading around 3,000 or 4,000 Jews and Serbs Pavlowitch, Stavan K. Hitler’s New Disorder: and threw their bodies into the Danube. The Second World War in Yugoslavia.New Hungarian control of these regions ended in York: Columbia University Press, 2008. the fall of 1944, when Partisan and Red Thomas,N.,andK.Mikulan.Axis Forces in Army forces ejected the retreating Germans. Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Oxford: Osprey, Hungarian possession of eastern Slovenia 1995. ended only in May 1945. Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Italy Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford The Italian occupation of Yugoslavia was University Press, 2001. complicated. They annexed Dalmatia and southern Slovenia directly. They annexed most of Kosovo and western Macedonia to Yugoslavia, Collaborationist their Albanian possession. They also estab- Forces in World War II lished an independent Montenegro. Finally, they maintained forces in southeastern The collapse of Yugoslavia during the Croatia (NDH). This complex arrangement German-Italian invasion of April 1941 required a considerable commitment of resulted in a confusing number of local Italian forces, amounting to 24 Divisions, forces who assisted the occupiers. This col- divided between the Second Army head- laboration took place across all ethnic and quarteredinSusˇak, Dalmatia and the Ninth physical boarders of the former Yugoslav Army headquartered in Tirana, Albania. state. The armed components of collabora- The Italian forces in Croatia and Monte- tionist movements provided varying degrees negro soon found themselves confronted of military assistance to the Bulgarian, with strong Partisan activities. The Italians German, Hungarian, and Italian occupiers. established close relations with local Cˇ etnik units and participated with their Bulgarian Croatia and German allies in anti-Partisan actions. By far the largest component of the collabo- They also engaged in a dispute with the rationist forces in Yugoslavia came from Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II 343

Croatia. There in April 1941, the Germans its fighting abilities, it was destroyed at and Italians, failing to secure help from Stalingrad. prewar Croatian politicians in setting up In addition to the regular Croatian armed an independent Croatian state (NDH), forces, there were also Ustasˇa units. These which included prewar Croatia and Bosnia- were the Croatian counterpart of the Nazi Herzegovina. To run this state, the occupiers German SS (). Like the SS, the turned to the exiled leaders of the Croatian Ustasˇa units were ideological. They mainly fascist movement, the Ustasˇa(Insurgents). took part in actions against Cˇ etnik and TheleaderoftheNDHwasAntePavelic´ Partisan guerillas. They employed brutal (1889–1959). The Germans and Italians di- methods and perpetrated many atrocities vided the NDH into three zones. The Italians during these actions. On November 21, annexed much of Dalmatia, including 1944, the Croatian regular armed forces to comprise Zone 1. The Italians maintained and the Ustasˇa formations combined into garrisons in southwestern Croatia. This was the Croatian Armed Forces under the formal Zone 2. The Germans occupied the north- command of Pavelic´. The Croats fought eastern part of the NDH for Zone 3. alongside the Nazis until the very end of The NDH contributed two military forma- World War II. At the end of the war, the tions to the Nazi cause. The first was the victorious Partisans executed many of the regular armed forces, under the command Croat survivors at Bleiburg. Many others of the former Austro-Hungarian officer served terms of terms of imprisonment in Slavko Kvaternik (1878–1947). They con- Yugoslavia. Pavelic´ escaped to Argentina. sisted of a regular army, of around Wounded in an assassination attempt there 55,000 men, an air arm, a navy and a labor in 1957, he died in Spain in 1959. service. There was also a national police force. The Croat army mainly fought against Serbia Partisan units in Bosnia and Cˇ etnik bands in After the rapid defeat of the Royal Yugoslav the Serbian areas of Croatia, the old Austro- Army in April 1941, the Germans established Hungarian . The Croatian a quasi-independent Serbian state with fron- armed forces, however, were the only col- tiers roughly corresponding to Serbia’s pre- laborationist forces from Yugoslavia to 1912 borders. A number of Serbian military serve outside the territory of the former formations rose to collaborate with the Yugoslav state. Some Croatian airmen par- German occupation. Foremost among these ticipated in the campaign against Soviet were the Serbian State Guard. The com- Russia from 1941 to 1944. Discouraged by mander of this unit, Milan Nedic´ (1877– the Italians from operating in the Adriatic 1946), a former Serbian and Yugoslav officer, Sea, the Croats established a small naval attempted to act as the Serbian Pe´tain. The force in the Sea of . After the Italian Serbian State Guard served as a national surrender, the Croatian navy deployed to police force. After Nedic´ organized it in the Adriatic Sea. Also in May 1942, the March 1942, it established connections with 369th Regiment of Croatian infantry Drazˇa Mihajlovic´’s (1896–1946) Cˇ etniks. deployed with Army Group South to Soviet The State Guard and the Cˇ etniks operated Russia. After participating in several major more or less together and cooperated operations and earning German praise for in actions directed against the Partisans. The 344 Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II

remnants of this formation retreated to the in operations against the Partisans. Usually northwest during the fall of 1944. Many sur- this was done by local commanders. rendered to British forces in Austria at the end of the war. Nedic´ died in prison in mys- Slovenia terious circumstances after the war. After the collapse of Yugoslavia, the Another important Serbian collaboration- Germans and Italians divided Slovenia ist formation was the Serbian Volunteer Com- between themselves, with Hungary receiving mand. Serbian politician Dimitrije Lojotic´ a small portion. Slovene formations began (1891–1945), the leader of the fascist Zbor operating in the Italian section as a Slovene (assembly) movement, formed this armed Legion in the spring of 1941. These operated organization on September 15, 1941. Under as a local gendarmerie. Two Slovene forma- the nominal command of General Nedic´,this tions gradually came into being. The Slovene formation of around 7,000 men engaged in “Blues” were affiliated with the Cˇ etniks. This anti-Partisan actions in Serbia. In the fall of was the largest pro-Cˇ etnik organization out- 1944, it retreated to Slovenia. At the end of side of the areas of Serbian population, but the war, some members of this unit succeeded never had more than 500 men. The Blue com- in remaining in Italy, others returned to a mand maintained contact with the Italians. difficult fate in Tito’s Yugoslavia. The other important Slovene formation A somewhat unusual formation in Serbia was affiliated with the pro-war Slovene Peo- that collaborated with the Germans actually ple’s Party. The Italians together with this consisted of mainly Russians. This was the party organized Village Guard units in Russian Defense Corps. Anti-Soviet Rus- 1942. They came to be known as White sians exiles living in Yugoslavia formed Guards, and numbered around 2,500 men. this unit on September 12, 1941. It com- These were strongly Catholic and anti- prised a Cossack cavalry regiment and four Communist. After the Italian collapse in infantry regiments. Eventually some youn- September 1943, the Partisans launched an ger Russian exiles and Soviet POWs joined. offensive that inflicted serious damage on It mainly engaged in anti-Partisan actions the Blues and the Whites. The remaining in Serbia and later in Bosnia. In the fall of Slovenes joined together as the Slovene 1944, it joined the retreat to the northwest. Defense Legion. Led by former Austro- In May 1945, the remnants of this formation Hungarian and Royal Yugoslav officer surrendered to the British in Austria. General Leon Rupnik (1880–1946), the By far the most important force that Slovene Defense Legion functioned as fought as well as collaborated with the German auxiliaries. At the end of the war, occupiers was the Cˇ etniks. The original pur- many members retreated to Austria. Those pose of the Cˇ etniks, organized by Royal returned by the British to Yugoslavia suf- Yugoslav Army colonel Dragoljub “Drazˇa” fered the same fate at the hands of the Parti- Mihajlovic´ (1893–1946), was resistance to sans as other German collaborators. Tito’s the German occupation. The rapid gain in government executed Rupnik after the war. power by Josip Broz Tito’s (1892–1980) Partisans, however, forced the Cˇ etniks to co- Other Formations operate at times with the occupation forces. Separatist Montenegrins (Greens) organized They received arms and ammunition from a small unit of Voluntary Anti-Communist the Germans and Italians and participated Militia under Italian control in August 1941. Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 345

These later adopted the name Nationalist Yugoslavia. By January 1945, the survivors Army of Montenegro and Herzegovina. were incorporated into the Prinz Eugen Never amounting to more than 5,000 men, Division. this formation generally cooperated with Richard C. Hall the Italians and much larger Montenegrin See also: Cˇ etniks; Greens (Montenegro); Cˇ etnik units against the Partisans. They con- Lojotic´, Dimitrije, Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub tinued this cooperation under the Germans “Drazˇa” (1893–1946); Nedic´, Milan (1877– after the Italian withdrawal and retreated 1946); Partisans, Yugoslavia; Yugoslavia in north in the fall of 1944. The British handed World War II most of them over to the Partisans in May 1945. Further Reading The Germans organized three SS divi- Cohen, Philip J. Serbia’s Secret War: sions from Yugoslav nationals. The first of Propaganda and the Deceit of History. Col- these was SS Volunteer Mountain Division lege Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996. Prinz Eugen, formed in March 1942. It was composed of ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsch) Mu¨ller, Rolf-Dieter. The Unknown Eastern Front: The Wehrmacht and Hitler’s Foreign from Yugoslavia, with others from Hungary Soldiers. London: I. B. Taurus, 2012. and Romania. It mainly participated in anti- Pavlowitch, Stavan K. Hitler’s New Disorder: Partisan actions in Bosnia, Croatia, and The Second World War in Yugoslavia.New Serbia. York: Columbia University Press, 2008. The Germans also organized a Bosniak Thomas,N.,andK.Mikulan.Axis Forces in SS division, the 13th Waffen SS Mountain Yugoslavia, 1941–1945. Oxford: Osprey, Division “Handschar” in February 1943. 1995. Named after a Bosnian sword, this was the Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in first non-Germanic SS unit. Members muti- Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and nied during training in France in Septem- Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford ber 1943. It then was sent to Bosnia and University Press, 2001. Croatia in 1944 for anti-Partisan operations. It retreated north in 1944 and fought in Hungary and northern Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 Another German formation that consisted of Yugoslav nationals was the 21st Waffen On December 13, 1940, Adolf Hitler issued Mountain Division SS Skanderbeg. Named orders for the conquest of Greece (Operation for the fifteenth-century Albanian hero, this Marita) to succor the Italians in Albania and formation was made up of mainly Kosovo protect Germany’s southern flank during the Albanians. Desperate for military man- planned invasion of the Soviet Union. Use of power, the Germans established this unit in the Belgrade-Nis-Salonika railroad line was April 1944. It achieved notoriety for its essential for German operations in Greece, actions against the Serbian civilian popula- and thus the cooperation of Yugoslavia tion of Kosovo. Always ill-disciplined and was needed. Accordingly, Hitler pressured not effective militarily, the Skanderbeg Yugoslavia to join the Tripartite Pact on Division was disbanded on November 1, March 25, 1941. This move precipitated 1944. Remnants continued to fight as the a bloodless military coup in Belgrade Skanderbeg Regiment (Kampfgruppe)in on March 26–27. Prince Regent Paul 346 Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941

Reinhardt’s (1887–1963) XLI Panzer Corps, near Timisoara, Romania (1 Schutzstaffel [SS] motorized infantry division, plus one infantry and one panzer regiment); and General Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist’s (1881–1954) First Panzer Group (five divi- sions in two corps), assembling in Bulgaria for the planned invasion of Greece. Luftwaffe assets assigned to the operation included some 1,148 aircraft of the Fourth Air Fleet in Austria, the VIII Air Corps in Bulgaria, and the X Air Corps on Sicily. The weak Yugoslav army was no match for the Germans. Mobilized on March 29, it totaled fewer than 1 million men in 35 divi- sions, other troops under three army groups, one independent field army headquarters, and the Coastal Defense Command. The Yugoslavs had few modern tanks and little Upon capturing the city, German occupation forces hoist the swastika flag at the city hall in artillery and relied on animal transport. Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Most Yugoslav war mate´riel had been in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, April 16, 1941. obtained from Germany, and there were (AP Photo) few reserves of ammunition or other sup- plies. The Yugoslav air force had some 459 military aircraft, its airfields were vul- (1893–1976) fled to Greece, 17-year-old nerable, and it lacked spares and other King Peter II (1923–1970) took the throne, equipment. The consisted of and the Yugoslav air force’s General one old training cruiser, four modern Dusˇan Simovic´ (1882–1962) formed a new destroyers, four submarines, two river moni- government. Although Simovic´ assured tors, and 16 old motor torpedo boats. Its Hitler that Yugoslavia would remain ships were manned largely by Croats. Politi- friendly, the Fu¨ hrer was enraged by the cally unreliable, the navy would play no role coup, and on March 27, he issued Directive in the coming campaign. No. 25 ordering the German conquest of After only 10 days for planning and prep- Yugoslavia, which assigned supporting arations, the Germans began their assault on roles in the operation to both Italy and April 6, 1941, with a massive air attack on Hungary. Belgrade that killed some 17,000 civilians, The German High Command quickly pre- destroyed much of the Yugoslav air force, pared plans for the operation and began to and cut communications between the Yugo- assemble the necessary forces. The latter slav Supreme Command and its units in the included General Maximilian von Weich’s field. The same day, Field Marshal Sieg- (1881–1954) Second Army, then in Austria mund Wilhelm List’s (1880–1971) Twelfth and southwest Hungary (11 divisions in four Army launched Operation Marita. The corps); Lieutenant General Georg-Hans German XL Panzer Corps took Skopje on Yugoslavia in World War II 347

April 7, thereby cutting off the Yugoslav line then annexed or occupied by the victorious of retreat toward Salonika, and the Twelfth Axis powers, except for Croatia and Bosnia- Army continued into Greece. Herzegovina, which formed the pro-Axis Plans for Operation No. 25 called for a Independent State of Croatia. three-pronged attack aimed at Belgrade. Charles R. Shrader The First Panzer Group attacked from Bul- See also: Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces gariaonApril8ontheNisˇ-Kragujevac- in World War II; Yugoslavia in World War II Belgrade axis, overcame stiff resistance by the Yugoslav Fifth Army, and took Nisˇ on April 9. At the same time, the XLI Panzer Further Reading Corps attacked from Romania and plowed Barefield, Michael R. Overwhelming Force, Indecisive Victory: The German Invasion through the Yugoslav Sixth Army. Using of Yugoslavia, 1941. Fort Leavenworth, bridges over the Danube, Drava, and Sava KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, Rivers seized by the Second Army between U.S. Army Command and General Staff April 1 and 7, the XLVI Panzer Crops College, 1993. attacked toward Belgrade on April 10, rout- Jukic, Ilija. The Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: ing the Yugoslav Fourth and Second Armies Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974. and reaching Novi Sad on April 11. That Littlefield, Frank. Germany and Yugoslavia, same day, Zagreb fell to the LI Infantry 1933–1941: The German Conquest of Corps, aided by the 14th Panzer Division Yugoslavia. New York: Columbia Univer- detached from the XLVI Panzer Corps. sity Press, 1988. Meanwhile, the XLIX Mountain Corps Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull, and Nicola forced the surrender of Yugoslav forces in Malizia. Air War for Yugoslavia, Greece, Slovenia, and the Italian Second Army and Crete, 1940–41. London: Grub Street, attacked from Trieste down the Yugoslav 1999. coast, meeting little resistance. U.S. Department of the Army. The German On the evening of April 12, the three con- Campaign in the Balkans (Spring 1941). Department of the Army Pamphlet 20– verging German corps surrounded Belgrade, 260. Washington, DC: Headquarters, and the next morning, German forces entered Department of the Army, 1953. Belgrade unopposed. The Second Army then assumed responsibility for all operations in Yugoslavia and acted to prevent the with- Yugoslavia in World War II drawal of Yugoslav forces into the Serbian mountains. General von Weich’s two pursuit During World War II, Yugoslavia was the groups moved toward Sarajevo from Zagreb setting for Europe’s greatest resistance and from Belgrade via Uzˇice. On April 14, struggle but also a bloody civil war. A coun- the Yugoslav government was evacuated to try of some 16 million people in 1941, Greece, and negotiations for an armistice Yugoslavia was one of the new states formed began. Sarajevo fell the next day, and on at the end of World War I. Serbia, which had April 17, Yugoslavia surrendered uncondi- been on the winning Allied side in the war, tionally at Belgrade. The armistice went into was its nucleus, with the addition of territo- effect on April 18, ending a 12-day campaign ries from the defunct Austro-Hungarian in which the Germans had only 558 casu- Empire. Unfortunately, the new state con- alties, including 151 killed. Yugoslavia was sisted of nationalities that had been on 348 Yugoslavia in World War II

opposing sides in the war and had strong organization while on a state visit to France. religious, linguistic, and cultural differ- In September 1939, World War II began, and ences. The nation began as the Kingdom of Yugoslavian leaders declared the country Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, but in 1929, it neutral. They hoped to keep their state out of was renamed Yugoslavia, the “land of the the war, although Serb sentiment at least was South Slavs.” The country was held together heavily pro-Allied. Serbs also dominated the notsomuchbycommontiesasbyoutside army officer corps. In late 1940, to counter pressures and by the fact that its peoples Russian moves and to solidify his flanks believed they had a better chance of surviv- before attacking the Soviet Union in Opera- ing together rather than separately. tion Barbarossa, German leader Adolf Hitler The Serbs were the largest single national- forced the Balkan states to join the Axis ity in Yugoslavia, and their king, Alexander, alliance. became head of the new state. Many Prince Paul (1893–1976), regent for the non-Serbs complained of being second-class young King Peter II (1923–1970), tried to citizens, and in 1934, King Alexander was stall for time, but in March 1941, following assassinated by a Macedonian terrorist in the a meeting with Hitler at Berchtesgaden, service of the Croat Ustasˇanationalist he concluded that resistance was futile Yugoslavia in World War II 349 and might lead to the extermination of the Montenegro; Albania annexed the Kosovo Yugoslav state. On March 25, Yugoslav region and Macedonia; Bulgaria received leaders traveled to Berlin to sign the Tripar- Macedonia east of the Vardar River; Hun- tite Pact. In taking this step, they hoped gary took the Bachka and Baranya regions; they were preserving their country’s and Serbia and the Banat fell under German independence; however, Serbian public military control. opinion was sharply opposed to the Axis All ethnic Croatians among the 300,000 alliance. This opposition found expression Yugoslav prisoners of war taken in the inva- in nationwide demonstrations that prompted sion were freed, and by August 1941, the a coup on March 27 by Yugoslav air force Germans had established a Serb collabora- officers, headed by General Dusˇan Simovic´ tionist government under General Milan (1882–1962). He ended the regency and Nedic´ (1877–1946). In Croatia, meanwhile, formed a new government under Peter II. the fascist Ustasˇa began the mass murder of Although the new government assured the minorities and forced Serbs to convert to Germans that there would be no immediate Catholicism from Orthodox Christianity. In change of course in Yugoslav foreign policy, 1941, these Croatian fascists killed at least Hitler interpreted the coup as a personal 200,000 Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies, most of affront and planned a military reprisal. them at the Jasenovac concentration camp. Code-named Operation Retribution, the Yugoslav resistance to the Germans began reprisal began on April 6 and included immediately. Centered in the Serbs, it was heavy air strikes against the Yugoslav divided in two factions. Colonel Dragoljub capital of Belgrade. “Drazˇa” Mihajlovic´ (1893–1946) retreated This Axis operation also involved troops with a small force to the mountains and set from Italy and Hungary (Hungarian premier up the Cˇ etniks (named for Serb guerrillas Pa´l Teleki (1879–1941) committed suicide who had fought the Turks). The Cˇ etniks rather than dishonor himself by participating began receiving assistance from the British in such an act), for a total of 52 Axis divi- Special Operations Executive (SOE) in sions. These units easily defeated Yugoslav June 1941. Mihajlovic´ hoped to build up regular forces, overrunning the country in his strength, avoiding reprisals by the only 11 days. The Yugoslav government Germans against the civilian population, leaders and King Peter fled to London, arriv- and at the opportune time lead an uprising ing there in mid-June. Despite the poor per- against the Germans. He strongly supported formance of their armed forces, Yugoslav restoration of the monarchy. leaders found themselves acclaimed as Josip Broz (Tito) (1892–1980), leader of heroes for having resisted Hitler. Soon, they the Yugoslav Communist Party since 1937, had established a government-in-exile. headed the second major resistance group. Defeated, Yugoslavia was now partitioned Known as the Partisans, the group favored among the Axis states. Slovenia was divided immediate attacks on the Germans regard- between Germany and Italy; Croatia and less of the cost to the civilian population in Bosnia-Herzegovina were combined into German reprisals. Following the German the independent state of Croatia under the invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, direction of the Fascist Ustasˇagovern- 1941, the Wehrmacht redeployed all but ment of Ante Pavelic´ (1889–1959); Italian four of its divisions from Yugoslavia. Tito forces occupied the Dalmatian coast and capitalized on this situation, and the 350 Yugoslavia in World War II

Partisans were particularly active in Monte- 20 civilians killed for every dead German, negro, Serbia, and Bosnia. By autumn usually generated still greater Partisan sup- 1941, Tito’s Partisans numbered 50,000 peo- port. By 1943, both the Nedic´ government ple and contested the Germans for control of in Serbia and the Ustasˇa government in Cro- much of the countryside. In contrast to atia were unstable, and Tito’s strength had Mihajlovic´, Tito stressed a pan-Yugoslav grown to the point where he transformed platform after the war, stressing participa- the Partisans into the National Liberation tion of all ethnic groups and establishment Army of Yugoslavia. Also in 1943, Tito cre- of a federated Yugoslav state. ated a shadow Yugoslav provisional govern- Tito and Mihajlovic´ met on two separate ment known as the Anti-Fascist Council occasions in September and October 1941 for the Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). but failed to develop a cooperative approach Located in Bosnia, the AVNOJ established against the Germans. Hostilities between a network of district committees in Partisan- these two groups began in November 1941 controlled areas of Croatia, Montenegro, when Cˇ etniks attacked the Partisan base at and Serbia. Uzˇice. Moreover, the Cˇ etniks often collabo- The British continued to support ratedwithItaliantroopsandtheNedich Mihajlovic´ and his Cˇ etniks until Decem- government in attempts to rid Serb and ber 1943, when, falsely convinced by a Montenegrin areas of Partisan influence. Communist agent that the Serb-dominated An agreement with German forces con- Cˇ etnik resistance group was not fighting cluded on November 11 allowed the Cˇ etniks the Germans, Winston L. S. Churchill’s freedom of movement in return for taking government decided to channel all its aid to action against the Partisans. the Partisans. On November 29, 1943, the The Partisans’ strength continued to grow. AVNOJ created the Yugoslav National During 1942, their numbers reached Liberation Committee as a shadow govern- 100,000 people, and by 1943, they had ment.ItbannedKingPeterfromreturning swelled to 250,000. By the end of the war, to Yugoslavia and announced its intent to Tito claimed nearly 800,000 followers. create a postwar federated state. So effective were their activities that the When Italian troops surrendered in Yugo- Germans recalled their 113th Division from slavia on September 8, 1943, Tito’s force the Eastern Front and the 342nd Division seized the Italian arms depots. Faced with from France to help contain the Partisans. surprisingly successful resistance move- In addition, the Bulgarians maintained ments in the hills of Serbia and Bosnia, the 8 divisions and the Italians 17 divisions on Germans launched a number of operations, Yugoslav territory. The Yugoslav resistance two of the largest coming in 1943, in an is thus credited with tying down a large num- increasingly frustrated and futile attempt to ber of Axis troops who would otherwise have crush the Partisan movement. Accounts of been available for deployment elsewhere. Partisan survival and heroism in the midst German forces mounted at least six major of these assaults assumed mythic dimen- anti-Partisan operations between 1941 and sions in postwar Yugoslavia. 1944, yet the chief consequence of these When the Germans pulled out many of sweeps was to force Tito to abandon any their troops, the Partisans, largely recruited fixed base of operations. German reprisals from the peasantry, already held most of against civilians, sometimes at the rate of the countryside and the main lines of Yugoslav Military Coup 351 communication. In a coordinated effort Yugoslavia was expelled from the inter- on October 20, 1944, the Soviet army and national Communist movement. Partisan forces moved into Belgrade. On Neville Panthaki and Spencer C. Tucker March 7, 1945, Tito’s provisional government See also: Cˇ etniks; Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub formally declared itself the legitimate leader- “Drazˇa” (1893–1946); Partisans, Yugoslavia; ship of the Federal People’s Republic of Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980); Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia. For Yugoslavia, the toll of World Axis Occupation Forces in World War II; War II had been heavy. By its end, an esti- Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World mated 1.7 million Yugoslavs had been killed, War II; Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 both in combat and in atrocities committed by and against civilians. Further Reading At the end of the war, Yugoslavia attemp- Clissold, S. Whirlwind: An Account of ted to annex Italian Istria and Trieste and the Marshal Tito’s Rise to Power. New York: southern provinces of Austria. Tito’s forces Philosophical Library, 1949. moved into Carinthia and tried to take it by Cohen, Philip J. Serbia’s Secret War: Prop- coup de main. The speedy advance of the aganda and the Deceit of History.College British V Corps prevented this, but there Station: Texas A&M University Press, was a tense standoff. In mid-May 1945, 1996. the threat of force finally convinced the Djilas, Milova´n. Wartime. New York: Harcourt Yugoslavs to leave Austria. Clearly, Tito had Brace Jovanovich, 1980. hoped to seize any area where there was a Roberts, Walter R. Tito, Mihailovic´,andthe blood tie to any ethnic group in Yugoslavia, Allies, 1941–1945.NewBrunswick,NJ: including Carinthia, Istria, and Slovenia. Rutgers University Press, 1973. Tito did exact vengeance on the Croats, Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in manyofwhomhadbeenloyaltotheGer- Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and mans, as had many Slovenes. Within weeks Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford of the war’s end, the Partisans executed University Press, 2001. without trial up to a quarter of a million peo- Trew, Simon. Britain, Mihailovic´, and ple who had sided with the Germans, most the Chetniks, 1941–1942.NewYork:St. of them Croats. In addition, the majority of Martin’s Press, 1998. German prisoners taken in the war perished in a long “march of hate” across Yugoslavia. German soldiers captured in Yugoslavia Yugoslav Military Coup worked as slave laborers; 60 percent of them were dead within a year. Also, despite Yugoslav military officers led a coup that protests by Western governments, the new overthrew the Yugoslav regent, Prince Paul Yugoslav government tried and executed Karageorgevic´ (1893–1976), on March 27, General Mihajlovic´. 1941, and replaced him with his young The fact that the Yugoslav resistance had cousin, 17-year old King Peter II Karageor- fought so well against the Germans and that gevic´ (1923–1970), after Paul had signed a it had liberated most of the country placed military alliance with Nazi Germany in Tito in a strong position to demand and secure Vienna two days earlier. a Red Army withdrawal from those parts of In fall 1940, Adolf Hitler directed the Yugoslavia it occupied. In 1948, however, German High Command to develop plans 352 Yugoslav Military Coup

for the invasion of the Soviet Union. On Britain, arrested the three members of the December 5, Hitler approved the invasion regency—Prince Paul, Dr. Radenko Stan- plans and, on December 18, signed the war kovic´ (1880–1956), and Dr. Ivo Perovic´ directive that authorized the invasion, code- (1882–1958); the premier, DragisˇaCvet- named Operation Barbarossa, to begin on kovic´ (1893–1969); and the vice prime May 15, 1941. Hitler then began negotiations minister, Vlatko Macˇek (1879–1964). The with Romania and Bulgaria to secure the conspirators exiled Paul and installed Peter southern flank of the proposed offensive II as king with full powers; General Dusˇan against a possible attack by the British from Simovic´ (1882–1962), the commander of the south and to protect the vital Romanian the air force, as the prime minister; and oilfields. Romania formally joined the Axis Slobodan Jovanovic´ (1869–1958) as the on November 23, 1940, with German prom- deputy prime minister. ises to return the provinces of Bessarabia and Upon hearing the news of the coup in northern Bukovina, which Hitler had forced Belgrade, Hitler took it as a personal insult, Romania to cede to the Soviet Union in went into a rage, and ordered the High August 1939. On March 1, 1941, Bulgaria Commandtodevelopaplantoinvade joined the Axis in exchange for promises Yugoslavia. The invasion began on April 6, to receive the Macedonian provinces of 1941, with a devastating aerial attack on Yugoslavia and Greece. Belgrade. The Yugoslav army collapsed on Italy’s invasion of Greece from Albania April 17. Also on April 6, the Germans that began on October 28, 1940, compli- invaded Greece and completely occupied cated the situation in the Balkans. Although that country by June 1, 1941. Some histori- the Italian army initially performed well ans contend that these actions delayed the and drove through the Greek defenses, the invasion of the Soviet Union until June 22, Italian advance stalled in muddy and moun- which meant that Hitler’s armies bogged tainous terrain after two weeks of fighting. down in approaching winter weather in The Greek army went on the offensive and October, about 100 miles west of Moscow. drove the Italians back to the Albanian bor- Robert B. Kane der by the end of January 1941. Hitler now See also: GermanyintheBalkansduring felt that he had to prevent the complete World War II; Greece, Invasion of, 1941; defeat of the Italians and the humiliation of Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 his Axis partner, Benito Mussolini. In the meantime, Hitler pressured Prince Further Reading Paul, who hoped to keep Yugoslavia out of Costa, Nicholas J. Shattered Illusions: Alba- the war, into signing the Tripartite Treaty in nia, Greece and Yugoslavia. Boulder, CO: Vienna on March 25, 1941. News of the offi- East European Monographs, 1998. cial signing of the treaty produced anti-Nazi Hopner, Jacob B. Yugoslavia in Crisis, 1934– demonstrations in Belgrade, the Yugoslav 1941. New York: Columbia University capital. When Paul returned to Belgrade Press, 1962. two days later, senior military officers Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans.2 led by the air force’s Brigadier General vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Borivoje Mirkovic´ (1884–1969), opposed Press, 1983. to the treaty and encouraged by anti-Nazi Pavlowitch, Stevan K. The Improbable opposition parties and promises from Survivor: Yugoslavia and Its Problems, Yugoslav-Soviet Split 353

1918–1988. Columbus: Ohio State Univer- ment. They probably thought the transport sity Press, 1988. planes were bombers. Neither side chose to escalate the conflict. The Yugoslavs released Yugoslav Overflight the airmen from the first plane and paid Incidents, 1946 compensation to the families of the airmen in the second plane. Tensions between the Americans and Yugoslavs eased in 1948 as The Yugoslav overflight incidents were a Tito split with his Soviet allies. series of confrontations over Yugoslav air Thisdidnotentirelyendsuchoverflight space during the early Cold War. In 1946, incidents, however. On October 27, 1948, the new Yugoslav Communist government an Italian Air Force P-38 Lightning was headed by Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) shot down over Yugoslavia. Then on Octo- interdicted several American flights that ber 13, 1951, another Italian Air Force had crossed into Yugoslav territory. The P-38L Lightning was shot down over Yugoslavs forced down one British aircraft Yugoslavia. Only with the final resolution and shot down two American planes. Hav- of the Trieste issue in 1954 did Yugoslavia’s ing assumed control by military victory in aggressive defense of their air space against 1945, Tito wanted to demonstrate to the intrusion from the West come to an end. Soviets his commitment to Communism. Richard C. Hall This led him to engage in a dispute over the disposition of the Italian Adriatic port See also: Cold War in the Balkans; Tito, Josip of Trieste. This also caused the Yugoslavs Broz (1892–1980); Trieste Dispute; Yugoslav- to assume an aggressive posture toward the Soviet Split Americans and their allies. In 1946, a Further Reading Yugoslav Air Force Yak-3 had forced down “Intrusions, Overflights, Shootdowns and a Royal Air Force Dakota transport plane Defections during the Cold War and There- near Nisˇ (Serbia). No one was injured after.” http://myplace.frontier.com/~anneled/ in this incident. On August 9, 1946, the ColdWar.html. Yugoslav Air Force operating from Lampe, John. Yugoslavia as History: Twice LjubljanashotatanAmericanC-47flying There Was a Country. Cambridge: Cam- over northern Yugoslav (Slovenia) air space bridge University Press, 1996. land and made it land. One passenger was severely wounded in the incident. Ten days later, on August 19, a Yugoslav Air Force Yugoslav-Soviet Split Yak-3 fighter plane, also from Ljubljana, shot down another American C-47 over This 1948 rupture between Yugoslavia and northern Yugoslavia (Slovenia), killing the the Soviet Union stemmed, in large mea- entire five-man crew. The American flights sure, from personal and geopolitical conflict were apparently unauthorized efforts by the between Stalin and Tito. Following World individual crews to save time in flying from War II, Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Vienna to Venice and Rome. The Yugoslavs Partisan resistance hero Josip Broz Tito, evidently perceived these intrusions as a was the Soviet Union’s most ardent ally in part of a hostile American effort directed Eastern Europe. The Yugoslavs even against the Yugoslav Communist govern- became embroiled in disputes with the 354 Yugoslav-Soviet Split

Americans over the disposition of Trieste neither NATO and the European Common and Yugoslav attacks on American aircraft. Market, nor and the Warsaw Both Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union held Pact. It did briefly enter into a Balkan Pact similar attitudes toward Albanian develop- with Greece and Turkey in 1954, but this ments. The Yugoslavs initially decided to agreement proved to be ephemeral. It also for- subordinate their foreign policy objectives mulated an economic model that included to Moscow by seeking Soviet approval and worker’s self-management, permitted the support for Belgrade’s expansionist objec- emigration of labor to Western European tives toward Albania. Stalin indicated countries, and encouraged foreign tourism. that Yugoslavia might “swallow” Albania. After Stalin’s death, bilateral relations Moscow’s interests, though, transcended were restored between the Soviet Union bilateral Soviet-Yugoslav relations and and Yugoslavia. Nevertheless, the Yugoslavs stressed combating what they saw as a maintained their distance. This ideological permanent U.S. commitment to Western split to some degree precluded further Com- Europe demonstrated by the . munist advancement in Eastern Europe. Stalin sought to reinforce Soviet domi- Even though Stalin had threatened that he nance of the Communist bloc by demanding would lift his little finger and destroy Tito, subservience of all Eastern Europe Commu- Yugoslav national interests were able to sur- nist regimes. He became suspicious of Tito’s vive until its national disintegration in the efforts to establish a early 1990s. This was in part because Stalin including Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugo- did not wish to expend the military effort to slavia. The Yugoslavs, however, resented subdue Tito and his successors when he Soviet efforts to dominate their economy had other global interests to attend to. and military. In particular they, having won Bert Chapman their war against Nazi Germany, disliked See also: Balkan Pact, 1954; Hoxha, Enver receiving the same treatment from the (1908–1985); NATO in the Balkans; Tito, Soviets accorded to former Nazi allies Bul- Josip Broz (1892–1980); Truman Doctrine; garia and Romania. Tito and the Yugoslavs Yugoslav Overflight Incidents, 1946 refused to submit to the Soviet definition of Socialist Internationalism. Further Reading On June 28, 1948, the date recalling the Djilas, Milova´n. Tito: The Story from Inside. Battle of Kosovo in 1389 and the assassina- London: Phoenix Press, 2000. tion of Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863– Majstorovic´, Vojin. “The Rise and Fall of the 1914) in 1914, the Yugoslav Communist Yugoslav-Soviet Alliance, 1945–1948.” Party was expelled from Cominform, the Past Imperfect 16 (2010): 132–64. international Communist organization. As a Pons, Silvio. “Stalin and the European result, Albania, a Yugoslav satellite since Communists after World War Two (1943– 1948).” Past & Present (January 2011, 1945, broke away from Belgrade’s control supplement 6): 121–38. and sought support from Moscow. Also, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. National Yugoslavs discontinued their support for the Foreign Assessment Center. Key Soviet- Greek Communist rebels. The Greek Civil Yugoslav Documents: A Reference Aid. War ended the next year. Finally Tito’s Washington, DC: Central Intelligence government adopted a policy of nonalignment Agency, 1980. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/ in international relations. Yugoslavia joined mdp.39015054429413. Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 355

Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 however, was different. Around 12 percent of the population of Croatia was Serbian. Cro- The Yugoslav Wars were conflicts resulting atian secessionist forces pitted against Serb from years of increasing ethnic antagonism rebels (supported by the JNA) continued in the former nation of Yugoslavia. The out- fighting for another six months with roughly break of hostilities was precipitated by the 10,000 reported deaths. On December 19, death of Communist leader Josip Broz Tito 1991, rebel Serbs declared independence in (1892–1980) in 1980 and the subsequent the Krajina region, which constituted almost collapse of the Cold War and communism. a third of Croatia. On November 17, 1991, Under Tito’s regime, small-scale ethnic the besieged town of Vukovar in eastern Cro- clashes and religious rivalries were quickly atia fell to Croatian Serb and JNA forces. In and forcefully suppressed. Following Tito’s the aftermath the victors massacred civilians death, a nationalistic movement supplanted and wounded Croat soldiers. the League of Communists in Yugoslavia, On January 3, 1992, the United Nations and Slobodan Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006) successfully brokered a cease-fire agree- gained power. On May 8, 1989, Milosˇevic´ ment between the Croatian government was elected president of Serbia. He soon and rebel Serbs. After many subsequent established control over the autonomous breaches, the UN Protection Force installed regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina. Together 14,000 peacekeeping troops in Croatia. with control of Montenegro, this gave him That installation was eventually expanded effective domination of the eight-member to include help in the delivery of humanitar- Yugoslav executive council established as ian aid for those affected by the ongoing an executive body after Tito’s death in hostilities. 1980. As it became clear that Milosˇevic´ The fighting then shifted to Bosnia. On was intent on Serbian authority over the December 21, local Serb leaders in Bosnia entire region, Croatia and Slovenia declared and Herzegovina declared a new republic their independence from Yugoslavia on independent from Bosnia. On March 3, the June 25, 1991. Consequently, the Bosnian Bosnian Muslim and Croat population Serbs, led by Milosˇevic´ and Radovan voted for independence in a referendum Karadzˇic´ (1945–), launched a campaign of denounced by Bosnian Serbs. ethnic cleansing against the Muslim and On April 6, 1992, Bosnian Serbs Croat population. attempted to seize possession of Bosnia’s On June 27, 1991, the Yugoslav People’s capital city of Sarajevo. War broke out Army (JNA) failed to quell the insurgent between Bosnian government forces and Slovenian forces with tank and infantry the rebel Serbs, and war ensued. The Bos- assaults. About the same time, fighting nian Serb attack on Sarajevo failed due to began between Croats and local Serbs in the resistance of the mainly Muslim (Bos- the Krajina region of Croatia. Slovenia’s niak) Bosnian government forces. The Bos- war for independence lasted only a month, nian Serbs then imposed a siege from the with fewer than 70 deaths reported; Milo- hills around Sarajevo. In May, UN sanctions sˇevic´ decidedtocuthislossesinSlovenia. were implemented against Serbia for sup- In any event, Slovenia did not contain a port of rebel Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia. significant Serbian population. Croatia, As heavy fighting continued throughout 356 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995

Bosnian government forces point guns at the Holiday Inn in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on April 6, 1992, after a crowd of tens of thousands of peace protesters came under sniper fire from the hotel windows in Sarajevo. Five people were killed, and police reportedly arrested six Serb gunmen. (AP Photo/Tanjug)

January 1993, the Serbian rebel siege of agreement. On April 10, NATO launched Sarajevo continued. The United Nations its first air strikes against the Serbs in and European Union peace negotiations Banja Luka. failed while war broke out in Bosnia once Bosnian Serbs and the Bosnian govern- more—this time between Muslims and ment signed a truce facilitated by former Croats, who fought over the remaining U.S. president on January 1, 30 percent of Bosnia not already claimed 1995. However, when the agreement exp- by the Bosnian Serbs. On April 13, 1993, ired four months later, the Muslim-led the North Atlantic Treaty Organization government refused to renew the terms, and (NATO) began air patrols over Bosnia to fighting escalated once more. Serbs contin- enforce a UN ban on flights in the region. ued to assail Sarajevo, while on May 26, On February 6, 1994, Serbian rebels 1995, NATO air strikes created a crisis situa- shelled Sarajevo’s central marketplace, tion in which 350 UN peacekeepers were killing 68 people. In retaliation, NATO jets taken by Bosnian Serbs. The Ser- shot down four Serbian aircraft as hostilities bian government (in a bid to improve continued to escalate in the region. This relations with the West) helped to arrange marked the first time that NATO had the hostages’ release. The massacre of used force since its inception in 1949. 8,000 Bosniak men and boys after Bosnian On March 18, 1994, Bosnian Muslims Serb forces led by Ratko Mladic´ (1942–) and Croats signed a U.S.-brokered peace overranSrebrenicaonJuly11,1995, Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 357 provided added incentive for the resolution of these weapons against Serbian authorities of the fighting. In Operation Storm, in Kosovo. The Serbs responded with brutal- launched on August 4, 1995, U.S.-trained ity. NATO undertook a bombing campaign Croat forces undertook the offensive against against the Serbs in February 1999. In theCroatianSerbarmyintheKrajina.The response, in Operation Horseshoe, the Croats rapidly overran the Serbian positions. Serbs attempted to force much of the Alba- In the aftermath of this operation, most of nian population out of Kosovo. Finally, on the Serbian population left or was expelled June 10, 1999, the Serbs agreed to withdraw from the Krajina, where it had lived since from Kosovo. NATO forces assumed the beginning of the eighteenth century. responsibility for the country. Then on August 28, NATO launched a mas- Following a U.S. bombing of Kosovo in sive bombing campaign on Bosnian Serb 1999 and the winding down of the war, positions. This enabled Croat and Bosniak Milosˇevic´ remained in power despite being forces to proceed against the Bosnian declared a war criminal. Finally brought to Serbs. By September 21, 1995, the Croats justice in the year 2000, Milosˇevic´’s trial and Bosniaks had taken about half of began at The Hague on September 26, Bosnia. Both sides were exhausted and 2002. He died of an apparent heart attack ready to talk. on March 11, 2006, before a verdict could Hosted by the United States, peace talks be rendered. As of this writing, two other began on November 1, 1995, near the war criminals awaited justice in The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Hague: Radovan Karadzˇic´,capturedon Ohio, at the Begrime Conference Center. July 26, 2008; and Ratko Mladic, appre- While Serbian president Milosˇevic´ claimed hended by Serbian authorities on May 26, support for the peace talks, Serbian general 2011. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo Mladic´ proclaimed that he would fight the declared its independence from Serbia. terms of the forthcoming peace accord. As While most European states and the United the talks continued, the first NATO peace- States recognized this, Serbia and Russia keeping troops arrived in Sarajevo. have not. A NATO force remains in the On December 14, the Dayton Agreement country. (1995) was signed in Paris, France. The Richard C. Hall terms of the agreement granted 51 percent See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Dayton of Bosnia to the Bosnian-Croat federation Peace Accords, 1995; Kosovo War, 1998– and 49 percent to the Serbs. While this 1999; NATO in the Balkans; Srebrinica agreement officially ended the war, as Massacre, 1995; Vance-Owen Plan, 1993; Serbs withdrew occupation forces in the Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes; Yugoslav region granted to the Bosnian-Croat federa- Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences tion, they destroyed what little was left intact in the aftermath of the conflict, and Further Reading sporadic fighting continued.Fighting then Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- erupted in Kosovo in 1998. A collapse of slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. Albanian government authority in 1997 led New York: Verso, 1993. to the looting of stores of Albanian army Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and weapons and munitions. The next year, the the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) made use wood Press, 1998. 358 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes

Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: of the Sarajevo assassination. The predomi- Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin, nance of the Serbs in the government alien- 1998. ated much of the non-Serbian populations. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan The Croats, who constituted the second- Battlefields: A Military History of the Yugo- largest element in the population, were slav Conflict 1990–1995. Washington DC: especially disaffected. King Alexander Central Intelligence Agency, 2002. (1888–1934) attempted to denationalize the country in 1929 by redrawing the borders of administrative districts to vary the popu- Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, lation and adopted the name Yugoslavia for Causes the country. This had little effect. Nor did the 1939 Sporzum, which granted the Cro- The causes of the Yugoslav Wars began in atian parts of the country some autonomy, the formation of the first Yugoslav state in alleviate the problem. 1918. The Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, The German and Italian attack on and Slovenes that emerged at the end of Yugoslavia in April 1941 demonstrated World War I had a plurality of Serbs scat- how deep the divisions among the Yugoslav tered throughout much of its territory. nationalities had become. Most Serbian These included the population of the King- units in the Yugoslav armed forces resisted doms of Serbia and Montenegro as well as the invaders; many Croatian units did the Serbian populations of Bosnia and not. Yugoslavia dissolved into a German- Croatia. sponsored Croatian state (NDH) and a Many of these Serbs regarded the new German-sponsored Serbian state. Bulgarian, state as theirs by right of their sacrifices German, Hungarian, and Italian forces occu- made during the war against the Central pied the rest of the country. The atrocities of Powers. The assertion of Serbian authority the ruling party in the NDH, the Ustasˇa, and rights often came at the expense of the directed against the Serbian populations of non-Serbian population. Many Bosniaks Bosnia and Croatia, soon led to Serbian re- (Bosnian Muslims), Croats, and Slovenes sistance. At the same time, mainly Serbian had served in the Austro-Hungarian army units of the bypassed during the war, and thus were regarded as during the invasion coalesced with local former enemies by the Serbs. Serbian domi- Serbs in Bosnia and Croatia into a force nation belied the ideal of Yugoslavism, known as the Cˇ etniks. A nonnationalist which regarded all South Slavs as being resistance force led by Josip Broz Tito essentially the same people. Serbs held lead- (1892–1980) and the Yugoslav Communist ing positions in the government, military, Party known as the Partisans became active and police. The monarch was from the after the German invasion of the Soviet Serbian Karageorgevic´ dynasty. To empha- Union on June 22, 1941. A multisided civil size the dominant position of the Serbs, the war ensued among the Cˇ etniks, Partisans, constitution of the new state, essentially an and Ustasˇa. Adding another dimension to updated version of the Serbian Consti- the fighting were occupation forces. Smaller tution of 1903, was enacted on Vidovdan units of various origins—including Monte- (St. Vitus Day), June 28, 1921, the Serbian negrin nationalists (Greens), Slovene Home national holiday and the seventh anniversary Guards, Kosovo Albanian units, and even a Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes 359

Russian Cossack unit—participated in the Tito’s death in May 1980 began the general chaos. While fighting occurred revival of nationalism and, with it, the throughout the country, the epicenter of the slow unraveling of the second Yugoslavia. conflict was Bosnia, which was nominally a Several problems beset the post-Tito part of the NDH. There, all sides committed government. In place of the dictatorial lead- horrific atrocities, and all sides suffered con- ership of Tito was a council consisting of the siderable military and civilian casualties. presidents of the six republics and two The surrender of the Italians in Septem- autonomous regions. Chairmanship of this ber 1943 and the withdrawal of the Germans council rotated on a yearly basis. This in the fall of 1944 left the Partisans to domi- arrangement precluded the rapid and deci- nate Yugoslavia. The NDH held on until sive exercise of executive power. During May 9, becoming the last of the German the 1980s, the Yugoslav economy foun- European allies in World War II to fall. dered. The cost of imported gas and oil Vengeful Partisans pursued the remnants of soared. Yugoslav production faltered. One the Cˇ etniks, Ustasˇa, and others, massacring well-known failure was the Yugo, a cheap around 70,000 of them near Bleiburg in car exported to the United States. Without southern Austria. A legacy of nationalist the adequate repair and supply infrastructure hatred remained. to maintain it, exports plummeted. Another After the war, the new Communist regime problem for the country was the 1989 failure sought to erase the nationalist legacy. of communism throughout Eastern Europe. This meant the imposition of communist This brought the validity of the ruling ideol- ideology in place of nationalism. This also ogy in Yugoslavia into question. meant the establishment of a federal As the post-Tito Yugoslavia faced government, with six republics: Serbia, economic and political crises, nationalism Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, reemerged. Soon after Tito’s death, the Macedonia, and Montenegro. The Tito majority Albanian population of Kosovo regime also carved out two autonomous began to raise demands for the elevation of regions—Kosovo, with a predominately their autonomous region to the status of Albanian population, and Vojvodina, with a republic. Under Tito, the Kosovo Albanians mixed population—out of Serbian territory. had achieved important economic and politi- They were intended to some degree to dilute cal gains in Kosovo. Serbs, however, had Serbian influence and prevent Serbian domi- long regarded Kosovo as the heartland of nation of the new Yugoslavia. Overt expres- their nationalist mythology. Even though by sions of nationalism were forbidden in this 1980 they were in the distinct minority, second Yugoslavia. The Tito regime suc- they considered Kosovo to be an important ceeded to some degree in developing and part of their identity. They perceived the maintaining the idea of Yugoslavia as an in- demands of the Kosovo Albanians for a dependent Communist state. Only in 1971 republic as a threat to Serbian identity. did Croatian intellectuals attempt to empha- Although federal authorities quashed the size their particularism. The regime soon demands for a Kosovo republic in 1981, suppressed this Croatian Spring. This inci- many Serbs remained concerned that their dent demonstrated that nationalist sensibil- domination of that region was in peril. In ities, although muted, remained exeunt in 1986, a group from the Serbian Academy Tito’s Yugoslavia. of Sciences published a memorandum that 360 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences

claimed that the Serbian population of events of World War II. These Serbian com- Kosovo and Croatia was under threat of munities responded by reviving self-defense extermination. The rhetoric grew even organizations based on Cˇ etnik models. more extreme the next year, when a Com- The situation exploded in Croatia in 1991 munist Party official from Serbia, Slobodan as the Zagreb government sought to enforce Milosˇevic´ (1941–2006), told a Serbian its authority in Serbian-inhabited areas. War crowd in Kosovo that “no one [meaning ensued in the Serbian-inhabited areas of the Kosovo ] should dare central and eastern Croatia. It blew up in to beat you.” He implied that the Yugoslav Bosnia in the spring of 1992 after the Bos- government was then replacing the niak and Croat populations voted to estab- Tito-era consideration for the Kosovo lish an independent Bosnian state, rather Albanians with the restoration of Serbian than remain in a Serbian-dominated Yugo- privilege in Kosovo. This performance slavia. These wars persisted until 1995. In elevated Milosˇevic´ to the leadership of the 1999, conflict also came to Kosovo. Serbian nationalists. For him, Serbian Richard C. Hall nationalism became a vehicle to Yugoslav See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Milo- political power. sˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006); Sarajevo, Siege By 1989, Milosˇevic´ had taken over con- of, 1992–1995; Srebrenica Massacre, 1995; trol of the Serbian Communist Party. That Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, same year, he ousted the leaders of the Com- 1991–1995, Consequences munist Parties of Kosovo and Vojvodina and installed his allies in their places. This gave Further Reading him control of three seats in the rotating Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- presidency, together with the ready acquies- slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. cence of Montenegro. With four presidential New York: Verso, 1993. seats under Milosˇevic´’s power, the specter of Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and a Serbian-ruled Yugoslavia appeared again. the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- This was unacceptable to the Croats and wood Press, 1998. Slovenes. These two republics also resented Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: that their greater economic prosperity Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin, 1998. helped to fund Serbian political power through the federal system. They both declared their independence on June 25, Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, 1991. After a short war, the Slovenes Consequences achieved recognition from Belgrade. The in- dependent Croatian state under the strong The Yugoslav Wars were a series of horrific nationalist Franjo Tudjman (1922–1999) disasters for the people living there. These soon revived symbols associated with the conflicts tore apart what had been a stable NDH and the Ustasˇa, such as the checker- and even at times prosperous country. Pre- board shield (sahovnica), and fired Serbs war Yugoslavia had even achieved sufficient from government positions in Croatia. international acclaim to successfully host These actions greatly increased the national- the 1984 Winter Olympics. The cost in ist anxieties of Serbs living in Croatia and lives for the wars remains unclear. At least Bosnia. They remembered the horrible 200,000 people died. Hundreds of thousands Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences 361 more were displaced from their homes. In division of Bosnia into a Bosniak-Croat addition, uncounted numbers of people suf- federation and a Serbian Republic by the fered from deprivation, psychological prob- Dayton Peace Accords of 1995 is unlikely to lems, and rape. Much of Bosnia especially overcome these differences anytime soon. As sustained great material damage. Finally, a result, the federal Bosnian state with its the concept of Yugoslavism, which empha- two components is unlikely to gain economic sized the essential cultural and political and political stability. Any inclusion in wider unity of the South Slavic peoples of south- European organizations such as the North eastern Europe, suffered a blow from which Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or the it is unlikely to soon recover. European Union (EU) remains only a remote The death, devastation, and displacement possibility. An EU military force remains in caused by the fighting did not affect the Bosnia to enforce the peace. lands of Yugoslavia evenly. The most griev- Another area that endured significant ously distressed region was Bosnia- death and destruction from the Yugoslav Herzegovina. Before 1991, this republic Wars was Croatia. Here, the losses were was the most ethnically diverse of all the confined to three distinct areas. In the south- Yugoslav republics, with about 44 percent west, the medieval city of Dubrovnik suf- Bosniaks (Muslim Slavs), 31 percent Serbs, fered considerable material damage while and 17 percent Croats. It also had the highest blockaded by Serbian and Montenegrin percentage of self- professed “Yugoslavs” of forces in the fall of 1991. In eastern Croatia any republic. Before the war, this population (Slavonia) during the same time, the city of was distributed fairly evenly throughout Vukovar endured many civilian and military Bosnia. Around 150,000 Bosnians died in casualties while under siege by the Serbs. the war, although any casualty figures lack Many of its buildings were destroyed in precision. The majority of these victims the fighting. The Serbs massacred many were Bosniaks. survivors when they took the city on Novem- One of the most horrific instances of loss ber 18, 1991. Most of the consequences for of life occurred during the first two weeks Croatia occurred in the traditional Serbian of July 1995 at Srebrenica. There, Serbian areas known as the Krajina. Serbs had forces under the command of Ratko Mladic´ settled this area as a part of the Habsburg (1942–) massacred around 8,000 Bosniak Military Frontier in the early eighteenth cen- men and boys. Much infrastructure was also tury. They constituted around 12 percent of destroyed in the fighting, including many the population of the Croatian republic. mosques and Catholic and Orthodox During Operation Storm in August 1995, churches. The famous Old Bridge (Stari most of the Serbian civilian population fled Most) in Mostar was also ruined, although it from their homes or were driven out by the has since been rebuilt. Among the casualties Croatian army into the Serbian-held areas of was the concept of a multinational Bosnia. Bosnia and Serbia itself. The 200-year-old The ethnic cleansing carried out by all presence of Serbs in south-central Croatia sides, especially the Serbs, has concen- was ended in a week. The independent Cro- trated the Bosniak, Croat, and Serbian atian state became much less ethnically populations in their own ethnic enclaves. diverse. For some time after 1995, Croatia It has also increased the Muslim, Catholic, remained something of an international pariah and Orthodox identities of these groups. The because of the ethnic cleansing. Only after the 362 Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences

death of wartime leader Franjo Tudjman in the pre-1912 state plus Vojvodina, which 1999 did Croatia begin to seek to restrain its remains nominally autonomous. With the nationalist self-righteousness. It began to election of a pro-European government in detain internationally indicted war criminals 2008, the Serbs finally began to seek out inter- and sought inclusion in European organiza- nationally indicted war criminals as a prelimi- tions. Croatia joined NATO in 2009 and nary step to an application to the EU. entered the EU in 2013. For Macedonia, the consequences of the The outbreak of fighting in Yugoslavia in Yugoslav Wars were mixed. Macedonia 1991 raised hopes in Kosovo that Serbian declared independence from Yugoslavia on rule might come to an end. An underground September 8, 1991. While no Yugoslav Kosovo assembly proclaimed independence component challenged this, two problems in the fall of 1991, but the presence of did confront the new state. The Greeks Serbian security forces prevented any objected to the name of the state and its use action. Resentment over the failure of the of certain symbols. They considered the Dayton Peace Accords to address the name Macedonia as a provocation indicating Kosovo issue helped to revive the Albanian designs on the northern Greek province cause. At the same time, the Serbian of the same name. As a result, the Greeks government, under the pressure of the losses obstructed Macedonian admission to in Bosnia and Croatia, became more deter- international bodies such as NATO. The mined than ever to retain Kosovo. The rep- other problem concerned the status of the etition of the same tactics of brutality Albanian minority within the new state. toward the civilian population and ethnic The Albanians, who constitute around a cleansing the Serbs had employed in Bosnia quarter of the population, were emboldened helped to focus the sympathies of the out- by the Albanian success in Kosovo to seek side world on the Kosovo Albanians. greater access to economic and political As a result, NATO intervened and carried power in Macedonia. A brief war ensued in out a bombing campaign against Serbia. 2001. NATO peacekeepers enforced a cease- This caused considerable destruction and fire. As of this writing, EU peacekeepers some loss of life. After the Serbs withdrew remained there. Because of Greek embargoes, from Kosovo, NATO assumed control economic development still lags in Macedo- there. Kosovo remained under UN control nia. Macedonia achieved a precarious inde- from 1999 until its unilateral declaration of pendence but neither international acceptance independence in 2008. nor internal stability. The efforts that Slobodan Milosˇevic´ Montenegro and Slovenia actually ben- (1941–2006) took in 1999 to ensure Serbian efited from the collapse of Yugoslavia. At control of Kosovo and Yugoslavia ended in first Montenegro, the smallest of the Yugo- the loss of Serbian control of both. The slav republics, sided with Serbia in the actions and atrocities committed by some Ser- wars. In April 1992, Montenegro and Serbia bian groups during the fighting in Bosnia and declared themselves the components of a Croatia cast a shadow of international oppro- new Yugoslav federation. Montenegrin brium. The behavior of Serbian forces in enthusiasm for the war and the new Yugo- Kosovo did little to alleviate these impres- slavia waned, however, as the fighting sions. After the separation of Kosovo in dragged on and as EU investment money 2008, Serbia was reduced to little more than became available. Montenegro’s Adriatic Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences 363

Coast attracted much foreign interest. perished as it fell apart. At least 2.5 million NATO’s bombing campaign in 1999 hit people were internal or external refugees. some Montenegrin targets and further The trauma inflicted on the survivors in Bos- eroded the ties between Montenegro and nia and Croatia will endure for a long time. Serbia. In 2003, a looser union between For Serbia, these wars meant physical Serbia and Montenegro replaced Yugoslavia. destruction, territorial retreat, and inter- In 2006, Montenegrins voted for indepen- national humiliation. Everywhere, the con- dence. With the declaration of independence cept of Yugoslavism was also a casualty. on June 3, 2006, for the first time since Cultural, economic, and political unity in 1918, an independent Montenegrin govern- southeastern Europe will now likely only ment ruled the country. The coastline of the occur in the context of a greater European country has sustained extensive development. union. Ironically, for Montenegro, the wars The country seeks admission to the EU and meant the restoration of independence lost NATO. The smallest Yugoslav republic has in 1918. For Kosovo and Macedonia, the gained some prosperity along with its restored collapse of Yugoslavia led to political independence. independence for the first time in their his- The biggest winner in the Yugoslav Wars tories. For Slovenia, they opened a new era was Slovenia. The most developed republic of political independence and economic of Tito’s Yugoslavia fought a brief war in development. August 1991 against the Yugoslav army. Richard C. Hall At a low cost in lives and material, the See also: Bosnian War, 1992–1995; Milo- Slovenes preserved the independence they sˇevic´, Slobodan (1941–2006); Sarajevo, Siege had declared on June 25, 1991. After the of, 1992–1995; Srebrenica Massacre, 1995; withdrawal of federal forces, Slovenia main- Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995; Yugoslav Wars, tained a distance from events in the rest of 1991–1995, Causes Yugoslavia. Slovenia established good com- mercial and political relations with the rest Further Reading of Europe. In 2004, Slovenia became the Benson, Leslie. Yugoslavia: A Concise His- first of the former Yugoslav republics to tory. New York: Palgrave, 2001. join both NATO and the EU. Philips, John. Macedonia: Warlords and The Yugoslav Wars were a horrible Rebels in the Balkans.NewHaven,CT: tragedy for most of the former state of Yale University Press, 2004. Yugoslavia. The exact number of dead and Sell, Louis. Slobodan Milosevic and the displaced will probably never be clear, but Destruction of Yugoslavia. Durham, NC: perhaps 200,000 citizens of the state Duke University Press, 2002. Z

Zhekov, Nikola (1864–1949) In 1917, Zhekov became involved in a plot to oust Bulgarian Premier Vasil Bulgarian army general, later commander in Radoslavov (1854–1929). The Bulgarian chief of the army, Nikola Todorov Zhekov military was then experiencing serious mili- was born on December 25, 1864, at Silven tary shortages, and it was clear the Central in eastern Bulgaria. Zhekov graduated from Powers were losing the war. During the bat- the military academy in Sofia and fought in tle of Dobro Pole in September 1918, Zhe- Bulgaria’s 1885 war against Serbia. Zhekov kov was in Vienna seeking treatment for a received advanced training in Italy and then medical condition. He was thus not on hand commanded first a regiment and then a divi- to direct his forces when they suffered the sion. During the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars, he defeat that knocked Bulgaria out of the war. was chief of staff of the Second Army and With a Bulgarian military defeat immi- participated in the siege of Adrianople. nent, Zhekov fled to Germany. In 1923, he During August–October 1915, he was minis- returned to Bulgaria to defend his actions ter of war under Premier Vasil Radoslavov during the war, but he was promptly impris- (1854–1929), working to prepare his country oned. Granted amnesty after serving three for entry into World War I on the side of the years in prison, Zhekov later espoused Central Powers. He became commander of fascist ideals and led a pro-German group the Bulgarian army in October 1915. in Bulgaria. Although he was granted a Zhekov directed Bulgarian forces that took German pension, Adolf Hitler refused to part in the defeat and occupation of Serbia in install him in power. Zhekov left Bulgaria 1915 under overall German command. at the end World War II and died at Fu¨ssen, Repeatedly the Germans ignored Zhekov’s Germany, on October 6, 1949. proposals for action. In particular they refused Brian C. Trueblood support for the Bulgarians to pursue the See also: Bulgaria in World War I; Dobro defeated British and French across the Greek Pole, Battle of, 1918; Radoslavov, Vasil frontier in the fall of 1915. In , the Bulgarians seized control of the Aegean Further Reading port of Kavala. The Germans, overcommitted Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander militarily, requested the use of Zhekov’s Stamboliski and the Bulgarian National troops in an offensive against Romania led Union, 1899–1923. Princeton, NJ: Prince- by Field Marshal August von Mackensen ton University Press, 1977. (1849–1945). The Bulgarians then had to Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The defend most of the long Macedonian border, Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: with only scant German assistance, to protect Indiana University Press, 2010. Bulgaria against Allied attack from Greece Zhekov, Nikola T. Bu˘lgarskoto voistvo 1878– and Salonika. 1928 g. Sofia: Bratya mladinovi, 1928.

364 Zog, King of the Albanians 365

Zog, King of the Albanians Zog succeeded in centralizing his control (1895–1961) by using oppressive measures that led to a series of revolts and attempts on his life. Ahmed Bey Zogu/Zogolli was born on Yet, he introduced a number of Western October 8, 1895, in the village of Burgayet, reforms and unsuccessfully tried to modern- to Xhemal Pasha Zogolli (1860–1911), ize the poverty-stricken country. In 1929, he the leader of the Muslim Mati tribe in abolished Islamic law and introduced a civil Ottoman-controlled central Albania. The code similar to that of Kemalist Turkey. Zog family of his mother, Sadije´,theToptanis, increasingly turned to Italy for economic claimed descent from the fifteenth-century and military help. By the late 1920s, how- Albanian national hero Skanderbeg (1405– ever, Italy’s growing influence alarmed 1468). Zog received some formal education Zog, and several times in the 1930s, he in Constantinople. He fought for Albanian unsuccessfully tried to lessen Italian control autonomy against the Young Turks in 1911, by turning to other countries. and against the invading Serbs in 1912, In April 1938, Zog married Geraldine who sought Albanian territory. In the same Apponyi de Nagy-Apponyi (1915–2002), a year, he was one of the signers of Albanian half-Hungarian, half-American aristocrat. On independence. During the First World April 5, 1939, she gave birth to Albanian War, Zog served in an Austro-Hungarian- Crown Prince Leka (1939–2011). Two days sponsored unit. Austro-Hungarian author- later, Italy invaded after Zog refused to turn ities later detained him in Vienna. He his country into an Italian protectorate. Zog returned to Albania in 1919. and his family fled to Greece and spent most In 1920, he served as a delegate to the of World War II in Britain. The Communist Congress of Lushnje¨, which met to deal government of Enver Hoxha abolished the with internal crisis and possible partition. monarchy in 1945. After the war Zog and He then served as an interior minister and his family lived in Egypt, and later France. commander of the military. After stabilizing He died in Suresnes, Hauts-de-Seine, France, the country, Zog became prime minister in on April 9, 1961. Despite his devious methods 1922. He left the government in 1924, after and uneven rule, Zog remained an Albanian popular sentiment turned against him and patriot throughout his life. an assassination attempt, but he continued Gregory C. Ference to run the country. A liberal rebellion in See also: Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911; Alba- June 1924 forced him to flee to Yugoslavia. nia, Italian Occupation of, 1939; Young Turks In December 1924, with Yugoslav backing and accompanied by White Russian troops, Further Reading Zog returned to Albania and overthrew Fischer, Bernd J. King Zog and the Struggle the government of American-educated for Stability in Albania. Boulder, CO: East Orthodox bishop Fan S. Noli (1882–1965). European Monographs, 1984. A month later, he had the parliament name Tomes, Jason. King Zog of Albania: Europe’s him president. Parliament then approved a Self-Made Muslim King. New York: New new constitution granting him dictatorial York University Press, 2004. powers, and finally, in September 1928, Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern proclaimed him as king. History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. This page intentionally left blank Chronology

National Wars 1897 April 14: Greco-Ottoman War 1804 Serbian Revolt against begins Ottoman Empire May 18: Armistice in Greco-Ottoman War 1813 Serbian Revolt suppressed 1903 Ilinden Revolt in Macedonia 1818 Serbian Revolt renewed 1908 Young Turk Revolt 1821 Greek Revolt against Ottoman Bosnian Crisis Empire begins 1827 October 20: Battle of World War I Navarino 1912–1913 First Balkan War 1829 May–September: 1912 October 17: Ottoman Empire Russo-Ottoman War declares war on Bulgaria, September 14: Treaty of Greece, and Serbia Adrianople October 24: Battle of Kumanovo 1859 Wallachia and Moldavia unite November 9: Salonika under Prince Alexander Curza surrenders to Greeks 1876 April 20: Bulgarian Revolt November 17: Battle of against Ottomans begins Chataldzha Serbo-Ottoman War 1913 March 6: Fall of Janina to Greeks 1877–1878 Russo-Ottoman War March 25: Fall of Adrianople to Bulgarians 1877 August 7–11: Battle of Shipka April 24: Fall of Scutari to Pass Montenegrins 1878 March 3: Treaty of San May 30: Preliminary Peace of Stefano London July 1: Treaty of Berlin 1913 Second Balkan War June 30: 1885 November 2–16: Bulgarian- Bulgarian Forces attack Serbian War Greeks and Serbs

367 368 Chronology

July 18: Battle of Kalimantsi August: Battle of Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, August 10: Treaty of Bucharest Romania September 30: Treaty of 1918 May 7: Treaty of Bucharest, Constantinople Romania leaves war 1914 June 28: Sarajevo Assassination September 14: Battle of July 28: Austria-Hungary Dobro Pole begins declares war on Serbia September 16: Battle of August 15: Battle of Cer Doiran begins Mountain September 29: Bulgaria signs December 15: Austro- armistice, leaves war Hungarians evacuate Belgrade October 30: Ottoman Empire leaves war 1915 October 5: British and French November 9: Romania reen- troops begin to arrive in ters war on side of Entente Salonika December 4: Kingdom of October 14: Bulgaria declares Serbs, Croats and Slovenes war on Serbia (Yugoslavia) proclaimed October: Serbia overrun by Central Powers 1919 September 10: Treaty of December 20: Bulgarians Saint-Germain, Austria deploy along Greek frontier, dismembered Macedonian Front established November 27: Treaty of Neuilly, Bulgaria punished 1916 January: Austro-Hungarian forces overrun Montenegro 1920 June 4: Treaty of Trianon, January 25: Montenegro Hungary dismembered surrenders August 10: Treaty of Se`vres, August 17: Bulgarian Ottoman Empire dissolved offensive on Macedonian Front begins Interwar August 27: Romania enters 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War war on side of Entente, invades Austria-Hungary 1921 Little Entente established September 2: Central Powers 1923 October 29: Turkish Republic invade Romania proclaimed October 23: Central Powers 1934 February 9: Balkan Pact signed take Constant¸a November 19: Serbs take 1939 April 7: Albania invaded Bitola by Italy December 7: Central Powers occupy Bucharest World War II 1917 July 2: Greece enters war on 1940 June 28: Soviet Russian army side of Entente occupies Romanian Bessarabia Chronology 369

October 28: Italian forces October 1: Red Army enters invade Greece from Albania Yugoslavia November 7: German forces October 14: British troops enter Romania enter Athens November 23: Romania joins October 20: Red Army and German alliance Partisan forces liberate Belgrade 1941 March 4: Yugoslavia joins December 3: Battle of Athens German alliance begins March 27: Anti-German government seizes power in 1945 Partisan victories in Yugo- Yugoslavia slavia and Albania April 6: Yugoslavia and Greece invaded by Germany, Cold War Hungary, and Italy 1945–1949 Greek Civil War April 17: Yugoslavia surrenders April 27: Greece surrenders 1948 June 28: Yugoslav-Soviet Split May: Chetnik resistance in 1954 August 9: Balkan Pact Yugoslavia begins May 20: German paratroops 1955 Warsaw Pact established land in Crete June 22: German and Roma- Yugoslav Wars nian forces invade Soviet 1980 May 4: Death of Tito Russia; Partisan resistance begins in Yugoslavia 1991 February: Serbs in Krajina October 16: Romanian forces resist Croatian government, occupy Odessa beginning of Croat War June 25: Declarations of Croat 1942 July 1: Fall of Sevastopol to and Slovene independence German and Romanian forces June–July: Slovene war November 19: Soviet Russian July 7: Slovene War ends counterattack at Stalingrad November 17: Fall of Vukovar begins 1992 April: Bosnian War begins 1943 February 2: German and Romanian forces surrender 1995 July 12: Srebrinica Massacre at Stalingrad September 11: Operation August 28: Death of Czar Storm begins Boris III November 11: Dayton Peace Accords end Bosnian War 1944 August 23: Romania defects from Axis, joins Soviet 1998 Kosovo Revolt begins Russia; Marshall Antonescu 1998–1999 Operation Horseshoe arrested September 9: Bulgaria defects 1999 March: NATO air assault from Axis on Yugoslavia begins 370 Chronology

June 12: NATO troops enter 2006 March 11: Death of Slobodan Kosovo Milosˇevic´ June 3: Montenegro declares 2001 January: Macedonian conflict independence begins August 13: Ohrid agreement 2008 February 17: Kosovo formally ends fighting in Macedonia declares independence Bibliography

Adams, John Clinton. Flight in Winter. Prince- the Paris Peace Conference. Westport, ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1942. CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks. Oxford: Burgwyn, H. James. Mussolini Warlord: Clarendon Press, 1969. Failed Dreams of Empire, 1940–1943. Autry, Phyllis. Tito, a Political Biography. New York: Enigma Books, 2012. New York: Penguin, 1974. Campus, Eliza. The Little Entente and the Bal- Axworthy, Mark, Cornel Scafes, and Christian kan Entente. Bucharest: Editura Academ- Craciunoiu. Third Axis, Fourth Ally: iei, 1978. in the European Cervi, Mario. The Hollow Legions: Mussoli- War, 1939–1945. London: Arms and ni’s Blunder in Greece, 1940–1941.Gar- Armour, 1995. den City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. Banac, Ivo. The National Question in Yugo- Chary, Frederick B. The History of Bulgaria. slavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ithaca, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011. NY: Cornell University Press, 1984. Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece. Barnett, Michael B. Prelude to Blitzkrieg: The Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1916 Austro-German Campaign in Romania. 1992. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013. Crampton,R.J.Bulgaria 1878–1918: A His- Bell, John D. Peasants in Power, Alexander tory. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian graphs, 1983. Union, 1899–1923. Princeton, NJ: Prince- Cohen, Philip J. Serbia’s Secret War: Pro- ton University Press, 1977. paganda and the Deceit of History.College Benson, Leslie. Yugoslavia: A Concise Station: Texas A&M University Press, History. New York: Palgrave, 2001. 1996. Biondich, Mark. The Balkans: Revolution, Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The War against the War, and Political Violence since 1878. Jews, 1933–1945. New York: Holt, Rine- Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. hart and Winston, 1975. Blau, George E. Invasion Balkans! The German Djilas, Milova´n. Tito: The Story from Inside. Campaign in the Balkans, Spring 1941. London: Phoenix Press, 2000. Shippensburg, PA: Burd Street Press, 1997. Djilas, Milova´n. Wartime, New York: Harcourt Tarnstrom, Ronald. Balkan Battles. Lindsbrog, Brace Jovanovich, 1977. KS: Trogen, 1998. Dragnich, Alex N. Serbia, Nikola Pasˇic´,and Burgwyn, H. James. The Legend of the Muti- Yugoslavia. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers lated Victory: Italy, the Great War, and University Press, 1974.

371 372 Bibliography

Durham,M.Edith.The Struggle for Scutari Haynes, Rebecca, and Martyn Rady. In the (Turk, Slav, Albanian). London: Edward Shadow of Hitler: Personalities on the Arnold, 1914. Right and Center in Eastern Europe. Erickson, Edward J. Defeat in Detail: The London: I. B. Taurus, 2011. Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912– Hellenic Army General Staff. AConcise 1913. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. History of the Balkan Wars, 1912–1913. Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History Athens: Army History Directorate, 1998. of the Ottoman Army in the First World Helmreich, E. C. The Diplomacy of the Balkan War. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Wars, 1912–1913.Cambridge,MA: 2001. Harvard University Press, 1938. Falls, Cyril. Military Operations, Macedonia. Hitchins, Keith. Rumania, 1866–1947. 2 vols. Nashville, TN: Battery Press, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. 1996. Hoare, Marko. Genocide and Resistance in Fischer, Bernd. Albania at War, 1939–1945. Hitler’s Bosnia: The Partisans and the West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Chetniks, 1941–1943. London and New Press, 1999. York: Oxford University Press (for the Fischer, Bernd. King Zog and the Struggle for British Academy), 2006. Stability in Albania. Boulder, CO: East Honig, Jan Willem, and Norbert Both. European Monographs, 1984. Srebrenica: Record of a War Crime.New Fryer, C. E. J. The Destruction of Serbia in York: Penguin, 1996. 1915. Boulder, CO: East European Mono- Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans.2 graphs, 1997. vols.Vol.1,Eighteenth and Nineteenth Gerolymatos, Andre´. The Balkan Wars: Con- Centuries;Vol.2,Twentieth Century.Cam- quest, Revolution, and Retribution from bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. the Ottoman Era to the Twentieth Century Jelavich, Barbara. Russia’s Balkan Entangle- and Beyond.NewYork:BasicBooks, ments, 1806-1914, Cambridge: Cam- 2002. bridge University Press, 1991. Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, Judah, Tim. Kosovo: War and Revenge.New War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000. New York: Viking, 2000. Judah, Tim. The Serbs: History, Myth and the Glenny, Misha. TheFallofYugoslavia:The Destruction of Yugoslavia.NewHaven, ThirdBalkanWar. 3rd ed. New York: CT: Yale University Press, 1997. Penguin, 1996. Kerner, Robert Joseph, and Harry Nicholas Groueff, Stephane. Crown of Thorns: The Howard. The Balkan Conferences and Reign of King Boris III of Bulgaria the Balkan Entente 1930–1935. Westport, 1918–1943. Latham, MD: Madison CT: Greenwood Press, 1970. Books, 1987. Kira´ly, Be´la K., and Dimitrije Djordjevic, eds. Hall, Richard C. Balkan Breakthrough: The East Central European Society and the Battle of Dobro Pole 1918. Bloomington: Balkan Wars. New York: Columbia Uni- Indiana University Press, 2010. versity Press, 1987. Hall, Richard C. The Balkan Wars, 1912– Lampe, John R. Yugoslavia as History.Cam- 1913: Prelude to the First World War. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. London: Routledge, 2000. Langer, William L. European Alliances and Hall, Richard C. The Modern Balkans: A His- Alignments 1871–1890. 2nd ed. New tory. London: Reaktion, 2011. York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1950. Bibliography 373

Leon, George. Greece and the Great Powers. Perry, Duncan. The Politics of Terror: The Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, Macedonian Revolutionary Movements, 1978. 1893–1903. Durham, NC: Duke Univer- MacKenzie, David. The “Black Hand” on sity Press, 1988. Trial: Salonika 1917.Boulder,CO:East Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern European Monographs, 1995. Serbia, 1804–1918.2vols.NewYork: MacKenzie, David. The Lion of Tashkent: The Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. Career of General M. G. Cherniaev. Petsalis-Diomidis, N. Greece at the Paris Athens: University of Georgia Press, Peace Conference (1919). Thessaloniki: 1974. Institute for Balkan Studies, 1979. MacKenzie, David. The Serbs and Russian Philips, John. Macedonia: Warlords and Pan-Slavism 1875–1878.Ithaca,NY: Rebels in the Balkans.NewHaven,CT: Cornell University Press, 1976. Yale University Press, 2004. Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugo- Roba, J. Louis. Seaplanes over the Black Sea: slavia: Tracking the Breakup 1980–1992. German Romanian Operations, 1941– New York: Verso, 1993. 1944. Bucharest: Editura Modelism Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece.New International Ltd., 1998. Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. Remak, Joachim. Sarajevo: The Story of a Mazower, Mark. Salonika: City of Ghosts. Political Murder. New York: Criterion, New York: Vintage, 2006. 1959. Miller, Marshall Lee. Bulgaria during the Roberts, Allen. The Turning Point: The Assas- Second World War. Stanford, CA: Stan- sination of Louis Barthou and King ford University Press, 1975. Alexander I of Yugoslavia.NewYork:St. Martin’s Press, 1970. Milton, Giles. Paradise Lost, Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a Christian City in Roberts, Elizabeth. Realm of the Black Moun- the Islamic World.NewYork:Basic tain: A History of Montenegro. Ithaca, Books, 2008. NY: Cornell University Press, 2007. Mitrovic´,Andrej.Serbia’s Great War, 1914– Rogel, Carole. The Breakup of Yugoslavia and 1918. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- the War in Bosnia. Westport, CT: Green- sity Press, 2007. wood Press, 1998. Mojzes, Paul. Balkan Genocides. Lanham, Rossos, Andrew. Macedonia and the Macedo- MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, nians: A History. Stanford, CA: Hoover 2011 Institution Press, 2008. Oren, Nissan. Bulgarian Communism: The Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The Annexation of Road to Power 1934–1944.NewYork: Bosnia 1908–1909. Cambridge: Cam- Columbia University Press, 1971. bridge University Press, 1937. Palmer, Alan. The Gardeners of Salonika. Sell, Louis. Slobodan Milosevic and the New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965. Destruction of Yugoslavia.Durham,NC: Duke University Press, 2002. Papacosma, S. Victor. The Military in Greek Politics: The 1909 Coup d’E´ tat.Kent, Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezul Kural Shaw. His- OH: Kent State University Press, 1977. tory of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.Vol.2,Reform, Reaction and Pavlowitch, Stavan K. Hitler’s New Disorder: Republic: The Rise of Modern Turley, The Second World War in Yugoslavia. 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge New York: Columbia University Press, University Press, 1977. 2008. 374 Bibliography

Shepherd, Ben. Terror in the Balkans: German Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford Armies and Partisan Warfare. Cambridge, University Press, 2001. MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugo- Silber, Laura, and Allen Little. Yugoslavia: slavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks.Stanford, Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin, CA: Stanford University Press, 1975. 1998. Tomes, Jason. King Zog of Albania: Europe’s Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453.New Self-Made Muslim King.NewYork:New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958. York University Press, 2004. Stickney, Edith Pierpont, Southern Albania or Torrey, Glenn. Romania and World War I. Ias¸i: Northern Epirus in European Center for Romanian Studies, 1998. International Affairs, 1912–1923.Stan- Torrey, Glenn. The Romanian Battlefront in ford, CA: Stanford University Press, World War I. Lawrence: University Press 1926. of Kansas, 2011. Tarnstrom, Ronald. Balkan Battles. Lindsbrog, Treadway, John D. The Falcon and the Eagle: KS: Trogen, 1998. Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908– Thadden, Edward C. Russia and the Balkan 1914. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univer- Alliance of 1912. University Park: Penn- sity Press, 1983. sylvania State University Press, 1965. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Balkan Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan. Axis Forces in Yugo- Battlegrounds: A Military History of the slavia, 1941–1945. Oxford: Osprey, 1995. Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995.2vols. Thomas, N., and K. Mikulan. The Yugoslav Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Wars (2): Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia Agency, 2002–2003. 1992–2001, Botely, Oxford: Osprey, Vachkov, Alexander. The Balkan War 1912– 2006. 1913. Sofia: Anzhela, 2005. Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Vickers, Miranda. The Albanians: A Modern Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. Editor and Contributors

Editor Richard C. Hall Department of History and Political Science Georgia Southwestern State University

Contributors Jon C. Anderson Jr. Bernard Cook Virginia Military Institute Provost Distinguished Professor of History Walter F. Bell Loyola University, New Orleans Independent Scholar Maeve Cowan Bestami S. Bilgic Independent Scholar Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University & Turkish Historical Society (Turkey) Brig. Gen. Uzal W. Ent (Ret.) Military Historian Anna Boros Independent Scholar Gregory C. Ference Professor of History Dino E. Buenviaje Salisbury University Lecturer Riverside Community College Timothy L. Francis Historian Antoine Capet, FRHS Naval Historical Center (NO9B) Head of British Studies Department of the Navy University of Rouen James W. Frusetta Bert Chapman Assistant Professor Government Information, Political Hampden Sydney College Science, & Economics Librarian Purdue University Libraries

375 376 Editor and Contributors

Richard C. Hall Lisa McCallum Chair Independent Scholar Department of History and Political Science Georgia Southwestern State University Joseph McCarthy Independent Scholar Neil A. Hamilton Professor of History James Brian McNabb Spring Hill College Professor Department of Social Science Laura J. Hilton American University of Iraq, Sulaimani Associate Professor and Chair Department of History Karen Mead Muskingum University. Independent Scholar

Gordon E. Hogg Marko Milivojevic Special Collections and Archives Independent Scholar University of Kentucky Libraries Alexander Mikaberidze John J. Horton Assistant Professor Deputy Librarian Department of History and Social Sciences University of Bradford Louisiana State University, Shreveport

Michael D. Johnson Josip Mocnik Independent Scholar Director of Libraries Georgia College Robert B. Kane Director of History Irina Mukhina Air University Assistant Professor of History Maxwell Air Force Base Assumption College

Gary Kerley Michael S. Neiberg Independent Scholar Professor of History Co-Director of the Center for the Study Lucian N. Leustean of War and Society Senior Lecturer University of Southern Mississippi Aston University Jason Newman Bonnie K. Levine-Berggren Professor of History Adjunct Professor Consumnes River College Georgia Southwestern State University Christian Nuenlist Alessandro Massignani Professor Independent Scholar University of Zurich Editor and Contributors 377

Eric W. Osborne Gerald D. Swick Adjunct Professor of History Senior Editor for Digital Media Virginia Military Institute Weider History Group, Inc.

Ahmet O¨ zcan David Tal Faculty Member Professor C¸ ankırı Karatekin University Tel Aviv University

Neville Panthaki James Tallon Independent Scholar Assistant Professor Lewis University Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr. Brian C. Trueblood Fellow Virginia Military Institute Military History, ABC-CLIO, Inc. Spencer C. Tucker John David Rausch Jr. Senior Fellow Teel Bivins Professor of Political Military History, ABC-CLIO, Inc. Science West Texas A&M University Brandon H. Turner Virginia Military Institute Annette Richardson University of Alberta Mesut Uyar Associate Professor Karl Roider University of New South Wales Alumni Professor of History Louisiana State University Dierk Walter Hamburger Institut fu¨r Sozialforschung Margaret Sankey Hamburg, Germany Professor of History Minnesota State University, Moorhead A. J. L. Waskey Professor of Social Science Mary Kate Schneider Dalton State College University of Maryland Tim J. Watts Charles R. Shrader Content Development Librarian Independent Scholar Kansas State University

Brian G. Smith James H. Willbanks Associate Professor of Political Science Director, Department of Military Georgia Southwestern State University History U.S. Army Command and General Eva-Maria Stolberg Staff College Lecturer Institute of Russian History 378 Editor and Contributors

Hedley P. Willmott Fatih Yes¸il Honorary Research Associate Faculty Member Greenwich Maritime Institute Hacettepe University

Anna M. Wittmann Gu¨ltekin Yildiz University of Alberta Faculty Member University of Istanbul Topical Index

Entry Category Conflict Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Albania in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars Balkan League Organization Overview Balkan Wars Balkan War, First, 1912–1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Balkan War, Second, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes Event Overview Balkan Wars Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences Event Overview Balkan Wars Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Naval Campaigns Event Overview Balkan Wars Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Balkan Wars Constantinople, Treaty of, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Contested Zone (Macedonia), 1912 Place Overview Balkan Wars Greece in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars Greek Military Coup, 1909 Movement Overview Balkan Wars Janina, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Balkan Wars London, Treaty of, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Lyule Burgas-Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Balkan Wars Mahmud Muhtar Pasha Individual Overview Balkan Wars Montenegro in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars Novi Pazar, Sanjak of Place Overview Balkan Wars Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars Organization Overview Balkan Wars Romania in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars Sarkoy and Baloyir, Battles of Event Overview Balkan Wars Savov, Mihail Individual Overview Balkan Wars Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars Serbia and the Balkan Wars Event Overview Balkan Wars

379 380 Topical Index

Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r Individual Overview Balkan Wars, Interwar Years Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia Individual Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Dimitriev, Radko Individual Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Enver Pasha Individual Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Epirus Place Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria Individual Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Salonika Place Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Stepanovic´, Stepa Individual Overview Balkan Wars, World War I Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria Individual Overview Bulgarian-Serb War Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885 Event Overview Bulgarian-Serb War Slivnitsa, Battle of, 1885 Event Overview Bulgarian-Serb War Balkan Pact, 1954 Organization Overview Cold War Ceausescu, Nicolae Individual Overview Cold War Cold War in the Balkans Event Overview Cold War Corfu Channel Incident, 1946 Event Overview Cold War Cyprus War, 1974 Event Overview Cold War Djilas, Milova´n Individual Overview Cold War Greek Civil War Event Overview Cold War Hoxha, Enver Individual Overview Cold War North Atlantic Treaty Organization Organization Overview Cold War Papandreou, George Individual Overview Cold War Transnistrian War Event Overview Cold War Trieste Dispute Place Overview Cold War Truman Doctrine Event Overview Cold War Vaphiadis, Markos Individual Overview Cold War Warsaw Pact Event Overview Cold War Yugoslav Overflight Incidents, 1946 Event Overview Cold War Yugoslav-Soviet Split Event Overview Cold War Carol II, King of Romania Individual Overview Interwar Years Corfu Incident, 1923 Event Overview Interwar Years Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924 Place Overview Interwar Years Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941 Event Overview Interwar Years Topical Index 381

Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922 Event Overview Interwar Years Greens (Montenegro) Movement Overview Interwar Years Iron Guard Organization Overview Interwar Years Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923 Event Overview Interwar Years Little Entente Organization Overview Interwar Years Metaxas, Ioannis Individual Overview Interwar Years Mihailov, Ivan Individual Overview Interwar Years Military League (Bulgaria) Organization Overview Interwar Years Neuilly, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview Interwar Years Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1919 Event Overview Interwar Years Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 1919 Thing Overview Interwar Years Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 Event Overview Interwar Years Se´vres, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview Interwar Years Smyrna, Destruction of, 1922 Event Overview Interwar Years Trianon, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview Interwar Years Zog, King of the Albanians Individual Overview Interwar Years Abdulhamid II Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Adrianople, Treaty of, 1829 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Alexander Obrenovic´, King of Serbia Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Ali Pasha Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Berlin, Treaty of, 1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, 1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Bosnian Revolt, 1876 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Bulgarian Horrors, 1876 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Carol I, King of Romania Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Cherniaev, M. G. Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Cretan Crisis, 1896 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Crimean War, Balkan Operations Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts 382 Topical Index

Greco-Ottoman War, 1897 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Herzegovina Revolt, 1875 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Ilinden Uprising, 1903 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Karageorge (George Petrovic´) Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Levski, Vasil Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Mehmet Ali Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Montenegro in Balkan Events, 1876–1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Navarino, Battle of, 1827 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Obrenovic´, Milan Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Obrenovic´, Milosˇ Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations in Event Overview Ottoman the Balkans and Crete Conflicts Ottoman Empire Organization Overview Ottoman Conflicts Pleven, Siege of, 1877 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Romanian Peasant Uprising Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Selim III Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Topical Index 383

Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Shipka Pass, Battles of, 1877–1878 Event Overview Ottoman Conflicts Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Tepelene, Ali Pasha Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Vladimirescu, Tudor Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts VMRO Organization Overview Ottoman Conflicts Ypsilantis, Alexander Individual Overview Ottoman Conflicts Albania in World War I Event Overview World War I Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during Event Overview World War I World War I Averescu, Alexandru Individual Overview World War I Black Hand Organization Overview World War I Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918 Event Overview World War I Bulgaria in World War I Event Overview World War I Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914 Event Overview World War I Constantine I, King of Greece Individual Overview World War I Corfu Declaration, 1917 Event Overview World War I Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin Individual Overview World War I Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918 Event Overview World War I Doiran Battles, 1915–1918 Event Overview World War I Gallipoli, 1915 Event Overview World War I Germany in the Balkans during World War I Event Overview World War I Greece in World War I Event Overview World War I Italy in the Balkans during World War I Event Overview World War I Kosovo, Battle of, 1915 Event Overview World War I Lake Prespa, Battle of, 1917 Event Overview World War I Macedonian Front, 1915–1918 Event Overview World War I Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 1917 Event Overview World War I Montenegro in World War I Event Overview World War I National Schism (Greece), 1916–1917 Event Overview World War I Nikola I, King of Montenegro Individual Overview World War I Odessa, Siege of, 1941 Event Overview World War I Ottoman Empire in World War I Organization Overview World War I Princip, Gavrilo Individual Overview World War I Putnik, Radomir Individual Overview World War I Radomir Rebellion, 1918 Event Overview World War I Romania in World War I Event Overview World War I 384 Topical Index

Romania, Invasion of, 1916 Event Overview World War I Sarajevo Assassination, 1914 Event Overview World War I Serbia, Invasions of, 1914 Event Overview World War I Serbia, Invasions of, 1915 Event Overview World War I Serbia in World War I Event Overview World War I Serbian Retreat, 1915 Event Overview World War I Venize´los, Eluthe´rios Individual Overview World War I Young Turks Organization Overview World War I Yugoslav Military Coup Event Overview World War I Zhekov, Nikola Individual Overview World War I Kemal, Mustafa Individual Overview World War I, Interwar Years Albania, Italian Occupation of Event Overview World War II Albania in World War II Event Overview World War II Antonescu, Ion Individual Overview World War II Balkan Entente, 1934 Organization Overview World War II Balli Kombetar Organization Overview World War II Bessarabia Place Overview World War II Black Sea Campaign, 1941–1944 Event Overview World War II Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria Individual Overview World War II Bukovina Place Overview World War II Bulgaria in World War II Event Overview World War II Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” 1944–1945 Event Overview World War Ii Cˇ etniks Organization Overview World War II Crete, Battle of, 1941 Event Overview World War II Dobrudja Place Overview World War II Dodecanese Campaign, 1944 Event Overview World War II EAM/ELAS Organization Overview World War II EDES Organization Overview World War II Germany in the Balkans during Event Overview World War II World War II Greece, Invasion of, 1941 Event Overview World War II Greece in World War II Event Overview World War II Handschar SS Division Organization Overview World War II The Holocaust in the Balkans Event Overview World War II Italy in the Balkans during World War II Event Overview World War II Michael I, King of Romania Individual Overview World War II Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” Individual Overview World War II Nedic´, Milan Individual Overview World War II Partisans, Albania Organization Overview World War II Partisans, Bulgaria Organization Overview World War II Partisans, Yugoslavia Organization Overview World War II Pavelic´, Ante Individual Overview World War II Topical Index 385

Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944 Event Overview World War II Romania, Invasion of, 1944 Event Overview World War II Romania in World War II Event Overview World War II Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1944–1945 Event Overview World War II Romanian Coup, August 1944 Event Overview World War II Skanderbeg SS Division Organization Overview World War II Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 Event Overview World War II Tsolakoglou, Georgios Individual Overview World War II Ustasˇe Organization Overview World War II Vienna Award, Second Event Overview World War II World War II Peace Settlement in the Event Overview World War II Balkans Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces in Organization Overview World War II World War II Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in Movement Overview World War II World War II Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 Event Overview World War II Yugoslavia in World War II Event Overview World War II Tito, Josip Broz Individual Overview World War II, Cold War Yugoslavia Place Overview World War II, Cold War, Yugoslav Wars Bihac´ Place Overview Yugoslav Wars Bosnian Forces, 1992 Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Bosnian War, 1992–1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Brioni Agreement Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Croat Forces, 1991–1995 Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Croat War, 1991–1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Dayton Peace Accords, 1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Horseshoe, Operation, 1998 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Izetbegovic´, Alia Individual Overview Yugoslav Wars JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Karadzˇic´, Radovan Individual Overview Yugoslav Wars Kosovo Liberation Army Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Kosovo War, 1998–1999 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Macedonia Place Overview Yugoslav Wars Macedonian War, 2001 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Milosˇevic´, Slobodan Individual Overview Yugoslav Wars Mladic´, Ratko Individual Overview Yugoslav Wars NATO in the Balkans Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Slovene War, 1991 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Srebrenica Massacre, 1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars 386 Topical Index

Storm, Operation, 1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Tudjman, Franjo Individual Overview Yugoslav Wars UNPROFOR Organization Overview Yugoslav Wars Vance Owen Plan, 1993 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Vukovar, Siege of, 1991 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences Event Overview Yugoslav Wars Categorical Index

Events Category Adrianople, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Adrianople, Treaty of, 1829 Event Overview Albania, Italian Occupation of Event Overview Albania in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Albania in World War I Event Overview Albania in World War II Event Overview Albanian Uprisings, 1910–1911 Event Overview Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during World War I Event Overview Balkan War, First, 1912–1913 Event Overview Balkan War, Second, 1913 Event Overview Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Causes Event Overview Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Consequences Event Overview Balkan Wars, 1912–1913, Naval Campaigns Event Overview Berlin, Treaty of, 1878 Event Overview Black Sea Campaign, 1941–1944 Event Overview Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, 1878 Event Overview Bosnian Crisis, 1908–1909 Event Overview Bosnian Revolt, 1876 Event Overview Bosnian War, 1992–1995 Event Overview Brioni Agreement Event Overview Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913 Event Overview Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918 Event Overview Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Bulgaria in World War I Event Overview Bulgaria in World War II Event Overview Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” 1944–1945 Event Overview Bulgarian Horrors, 1876 Event Overview Bulgarian-Serb War, 1885 Event Overview Cer Mountain, Battle of, 1914 Event Overview

387 388 Categorical Index

Chataldzha, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Cold War in the Balkans Event Overview Constantinople, Treaty of, 1913 Event Overview Corfu Declaration, 1917 Event Overview Corfu Channel Incident, 1946 Event Overview Corfu Incident, 1923 Event Overview Cretan Crisis, 1896 Event Overview Crete, Battle of, 1941 Event Overview Crimean War, Balkan Operations Event Overview Croat War, 1991–1995 Event Overview Cyprus War, 1974 Event Overview Dayton Peace Accords, 1995 Event Overview Dobro Pole, Battle of, 1918 Event Overview Dodecanese Campaign, 1944 Event Overview Doiran, Battles of, 1915–1918 Event Overview Gallipoli, 1915 Event Overview Germany in the Balkans during World War I Event Overview Germany in the Balkans during World War II Event Overview Greco-Italian War, 1940–1941 Event Overview Greco-Ottoman War, 1897 Event Overview Greco-Turkish War, 1919–1922 Event Overview Greece, Invasion of, 1941 Event Overview Greece in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Greece in World War I Event Overview Greece in World War II Event Overview Greek Civil War Event Overview Greek Military Coup, 1909 Event Overview Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832 Event Overview Herzegovina Revolt, 1875 Event Overview The Holocaust in the Balkans Event Overview Horseshoe, Operation, 1998 Event Overview Ilinden Uprising, 1903 Event Overview Italy in the Balkans during World War I Event Overview Italy in the Balkans during World War II Event Overview Janina, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Kalimantsi, Battle of, 1913 Event Overview Kosovo, Battle of, 1915 Event Overview Kosovo War, 1998–1999 Event Overview Kumanovo, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Lake Prespa, Battle of, 1917 Event Overview Lausanne, Treaty of, 1923 Event Overview London, Treaty of 1913 Event Overview Lyule Burgas-Buni Hisar, Battle of, 1912 Event Overview Categorical Index 389

Macedonian Front, 1915–1918 Event Overview Macedonian War, 2001 Event Overview Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 1917 Event Overview Montenegro in Balkan Events, 1876–1878 Event Overview Montenegro in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Montenegro in World War I Event Overview National Schism (Greece), 1916–1917 Event Overview Navarino, Battle of, 1827 Event Overview Odessa, Siege of, 1941 Event Overview Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations Event Overview in the Balkans and Crete Pleven, Siege of, 1877 Event Overview Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 1943–1944 Event Overview Radomir Rebellion, 1918 Event Overview Romania, Invasion of, 1916 Event Overview Romania, Invasion of, 1944 Event Overview Romania in the Balkan Wars Event Overview Romania in World War I Event Overview Romania in World War II Event Overview Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1919 Event Overview Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1944–1945 Event Overview Romanian Coup, August 1944 Event Overview Romanian Peasant Uprising Event Overview Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812 Event Overview Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829 Event Overview Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878 Event Overview Sakarya River, Battle of, 1921 Event Overview San Stefano, Treaty of, 1878 Event Overview Sarajevo, Siege of, 1992–1995 Event Overview Sarajevo Assassination, 1914 Event Overview Sarkoy and Baloyir, Battles of, 1913 Event Overview Scutari, Siege of, 1912–1913 Event Overview Serbia, Invasions of, 1914 Event Overview Serbia, Invasions of, 1915 Event Overview Serbia and the Balkan Wars Event Overview Serbia in World War I Event Overview Serbian Retreat, 1915 Event Overview Serbian War of Independence, 1804–1817 Event Overview Serbo-Ottoman War, 1876 Event Overview Shipka Pass, Battles of, 1877–1878 Event Overview Slivnitsa, Battle of, 1885 Event Overview Slovene War, 1991 Event Overview Smyrna, Destruction of, 1922 Event Overview 390 Categorical Index

Srebrenica Massacre, 1995 Event Overview Stalingrad, Battle of, 1942–1943 Event Overview Storm, Operation, 1995 Event Overview Transnistrian War Event Overview Truman Doctrine Event Overview Vance-Owen Plan, 1993 Event Overview Vienna Award, Second Event Overview Vukovar, Siege of, 1991 Event Overview Warsaw Pact Event Overview World War II Peace Settlement in the Balkans Event Overview Yugoslavia, Invasion of, 1941 Event Overview Yugoslavia in World War II Event Overview Yugoslav Military Coup Event Overview Yugoslav Overflight Incidents, 1946 Event Overview Yugoslav-Soviet Split Event Overview Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995 Event Overview Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Causes Event Overview Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995, Consequences Event Overview

Individuals Abdulhamid II Individual Overview Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia Individual Overview Alexander Obrenovic´, King of Serbia Individual Overview Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria Individual Overview Ali Pasha Individual Overview Antonescu, Ion Individual Overview Averescu, Alexandru Individual Overview Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria Individual Overview Carol I, King of Romania Individual Overview Carol II, King of Romania Individual Overview Ceausescu, Nicolae Individual Overview Cherniaev, M. G. Individual Overview Constantine I, King of Greece Individual Overview Dimitriev, Radko Individual Overview Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin Individual Overview Djilas, Milova´n Individual Overview Enver Pasha Individual Overview Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria Individual Overview Hoxha, Enver Individual Overview Izetbegovic´, Alia Individual Overview Karadzˇic´, Radovan Individual Overview Karageorge (George Petrovic´) Individual Overview Kemal, Mustafa Individual Overview Categorical Index 391

Levski, Vasil Individual Overview Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan Individual Overview Mahmud Muhtar Pasha Individual Overview Mehmet Ali Individual Overview Metaxas, Ioannis Individual Overview Michael I, King of Romania Individual Overview Mihailov, Ivan Individual Overview Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” Individual Overview Milosˇevic´, Slobodan Individual Overview Mladic´, Ratko Individual Overview Nedic´, Milan Individual Overview Nikola I, King of Montenegro Individual Overview Obrenovic´, Milan individual Overview Obrenovic´, Milosˇ Individual Overview Papandreou, George Individual Overview Pavelic´, Ante Individual Overview Princip, Gavrilo Individual Overview Putnik, Radomir Individual Overview Savov, Mihail Individual Overview Selim III Individual Overview Stamboliski, Aleksandu˘r Individual Overview Stepanovic´, Stepa Individual Overview Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha Individual Overview Tepelene, Ali Pasha Individual Overview Tito, Josip Broz Individual Overview Tsolakoglou, Georgios Individual Overview Tudjman, Franjo Individual Overview Vaphiadis, Markos Individual Overview Venize´los, Eluthe´rios Individual Overview Vladimirescu, Tudor Individual Overview Ypsilantis, Alexander Individual Overview Zhekov, Nikola Individual Overview Zog, King of the Albanians Individual Overview

Organizations Balkan Entente, 1934 Organization Overview Balkan League Organization Overview Balkan Pact, 1954 Organization Overview Balli Kombetar Organization Overview Black Hand Organization Overview Bosnian Forces Organization Overview Cˇ etniks Organization Overview Croat Forces, 1991–1995 Organization Overview 392 Categorical Index

EAM/ELAS Organization Overview EDES Organization Overview Greens (Montenegro) Organization Overview Handschar SS Division Organization Overview Iron Guard Organization Overview JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) Organization Overview Kosovo Liberation Army Organization Overview Little Entente Organization Overview Military League (Bulgaria) Organization Overview NATO in the Balkans Organization Overview North Atlantic Treaty Organization Organization Overview Ottoman Empire Organization Overview Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars Organization Overview Ottoman Empire in World War I Organization Overview Partisans, Albania Organization Overview Partisans, Bulgaria Organization Overview Partisans, Yugoslavia Organization Overview Skanderbeg SS Division Organization Overview UNPROFOR Organization Overview Ustasˇa Organization Overview VMRO Organization Overview Young Turks Organization Overview Yugoslavia, Axis Occupation Forces in during World War II Organization Overview Yugoslavia, Collaborationist Forces in World War II Organization Overview

Places Bessarabia Place Overview Bihac´ Place Overview Bukovina Place Overview Contested Zone (Macedonia), 1912 Place Overview Dobrudja Place Overview Epirus Place Overview Fiume/Rijeka, 1919–1924 Place Overview Macedonia Place Overview Novi Pazar, Sanjak of Place Overview Salonika Place Overview Trieste Dispute Place Overview Yugoslavia Place Overview

Treaties Neuilly, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 1919 Thing Overview Se´vres, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview Trianon, Treaty of, 1920 Thing Overview General Index

Note: Page numbers in bold font indicate main entries.

A., Harry, 229 Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia, 11–12, Abdic, Fikret, 36 148, 338, 348 Abdu¨laziz, Ottoman Sultan, 300, 301 Alexander II, Czar of Bulgaria, 13, 60 Abdulhamid I, Ottoman Sultan, 180, 212, 303 Alexander II, Czar of Russia, 204, 257 Abdulhamid II, 1–2 Alexander III, Czar of Bulgaria, 14, 60 and Albanian uprisings, 10 Alexander Obrenovic´, King of Serbia, dethronement of, 183 11–13,93 and Kemal, 160 Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of true agreement with Serbia, 44 Bulgaria, 13–14, 60–61, 106 and Young Turks, 334–36 Alexander the Great, 174–75 Accolade, Operation, 97 Alexandrov, Todor, 326 Acheson, Dean, 88, 313 Ali, Mehmet, 185–86, 199 Adrianople, Siege of, 2–3 Alia, Ramiz, 143 Adrianople, Treaty of, 3, 182, 256 Ali Pasha, 14–15 Agamemnon, 222 Allenby, Edmund H., 161 Ahtisaari, Martii, 166 Allied Force air campaign, 142 Albania Allied Supreme War Council, 309 in Balkan Wars, 5–7 Anti-Fascist Council of the People’s Liberation in World War I, 7–8 of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ), 154, 350 in World War II, 8–10 Antipater, 174 Italian occupation of, 3–4 Antonescu, Ion, 15–16 Jewish protection, 138 arrest of, 250 Albanian Fascist Party, 4, 142 and Iron Guards leaders, 145–46 Albanian National Liberation Army and Jewish population in Romania, 140 (ANLA), 224 and Michael I, 16, 187 Albanian uprisings, 10–11 and Odessa, Siege of, 211 Aleksandrov, Todor, 187 and Romanian Coup, 250–51 Alexander, Czar of Russia, 282 as Romania prime minister, 324 Alexander, King of Greece, 124 and Tripartite Pact, 238, 250 Alexander I, Czar of Russia, 253 and World War II, 245–47

393 394 General Index

Apis. See Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin siege of Adrianople, 2 , 221 and Treaty of London, 75, 172 Arafat, Yasser, 65 Balkan War, Second, 26–28, 175 ARBiH (Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia, 11 and Herzegovina), 43–44 and Antonescu, 15 Armenian Genocide, 215 Bulgaria in, 106, 157, 172 Armistice of Moudros, 119 causes of, 30 Army Group Scholtz, 113, 177 naval campaigns, 32–33 Army of Epirus, 24, 105, 122 and Treaty of Bucharest, 47–48, 54 Army of the Republic of Bosnia and and Treaty of Constantinople, 75 Herzegovina (ARBiH), 43–44 Balkan Wars, causes, 28–30 Army of Thessaly, 24, 122 Balkan Wars, consequences, 31–32 Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye Balkan Wars, Naval Campaigns, 32–33 (Victorious Troops Balli Kombetar (BK), 18–19, 33–34, 224 of Muhammad), 181 Banditry, 303 Asia Minor Campaign, 313 BANU (Bulgarian National Agrarian Asia Minor Catastrophe, 261 Union), 236, 297 See also Greco-Turkish War; National Barbarossa, Operation, xix, 38, 117, Struggle 120–21, 352 Atatu¨rk, Mustafa Kemal. See Kemal, Battles. See specific battles Mustafa Belgrade Convention, 309 Austria-Hungary in the Balkans during Benkovski, George, 60 World War I, 16–18 Berlin, Treaty of, 34–35 Austro-Hungarian First Army, 237 Austria-Hungary invasion of Bosnia and Austro-Turkish War, 15 Herzegovina provinces, 40–41, 45, 137 Averescu, Alexandru, 18–19, 243 and Balkan states, xvii AVNOJ (Anti-Fascist Council of the People’s and Bulgaria, 60 Liberation of Yugoslavia), 154, 350 and Dobrudja, 96 infraction of, 42 Balfour Declaration of 1917, 285 and Montenegro, 193–94 Balkan Entente, 20 Berlin Peace Treaty, 212 Balkan League, 20–21 Besa, 138 attack on Albania, 5 Bessarabia, 35 and disposition of Macedonia, 26 Bey, Enver, 218 and First Balkan War, 31 Bey, Hasan Riza, 270 formation of, xviii, 132 Bihac´, 36 Balkan Pact, 21–22 Birdwood, William, 110 Balkan War, First, 22–26 Black George. See Karageorge (George Balkan League in, xviii Petrovic´) Bulgaria in, 106 Black Hand, 36–37, 93, 232, 266–67 causes of, 28–30 Black Sea Campaign, 37–38 commencement of, 5, 122 Boletini, Isa, 5 and Italy, 21 Bolshevik Revolution, 259 naval campaigns, 32–33 Bolshevism, 246 General Index 395

Bonacini, Luigi, 78 Bulgarian Horrors, 59–60 Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria, 39–40, Bulgarian National Agrarian Union 106, 203, 236 (BANU), 236, 297 Bosnia, Austrian Occupation, 40–41 Bulgarian Second Army Bosnian Crisis, 29, 41–42 and Greek army, 27, 98, 123 Bosnian forces, 43–44 and Serbian Second Army, 2, 25, 52 Bosnian Revolt, 44–45 Bulgarian-Serbian Treaty, 27 Bosnian Serb Army (BSA), 292 Bulgarian-Serb War, 60–61, 288 Bosnian War, 45–46 Bulgarian Third Army Bratianu, Gheorghe, 250 defeated by Serbian army, 52 Brereton, Lewis H., 230 and Ottoman Fortress of Lozengrad, 173 Brioni Agreement, 47 in Thrace, 92 British Expeditionary Force (BEF) Byron, Lord, 304 and Bulgarian Second Army, 98 evacuation from Dunkerque, 111 Cabrinovic´, Nedjelko, 232 evacuation from Greece, 80–81 Campioni, Inigo, 97–98 and Germany’s invasion of Greece, 121 Carden, Sackville, 108 Bra˘tianu, Ionel, 19, 242 Carol I, King of Romania, 62–63, 242 Brusilov, A. A., 113 Carol II, King of Romania, 63–64, 145, 211, Bucharest, Treaty of, 1886, 61 245, 324 Bucharest, Treaty of, 1913, 47–48 Cassander, 174 and Albania, 6 Castenfelt, Peter, 166 and Bessarabia annexation, 35 Catholicism, 349 and Dobrudja, 53, 96 Cavallero, Ugo, 116 and Serbia independence, 159 Ceausescu, Nicolae, 64–66 Bucharest, Treaty of, 1918, 48–49 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 310 and Dobrudzha, 56 Cer Mountain, Battle of, 66–67 signing of, 243–44 Cˇ ermak, Ivan, 300 Bucharest pogrom, 140, 146 Cˇ ervenko, Zvonimir, 299 Bukovina, 49–50 Cˇ etniks, 67–68, 338–39. See also Bulgaria Mihajlovi’, Dragoljub “Drazˇa” anti-Jewish laws in, 138–39 Charles I, Karl Eitel Friedrich. See Carol I, in the Balkan Wars, 50–53 King of Romania Macedonia invasion, 341 Chataldzha, Battle of, 68–69 in World War I, 53–57 Cherniaev, M. G., 70, 283–84 in World War II, 57–58 Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 166 Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP), 225 Chernyayev, Mikhail Grigorievich, Bulgarian “Fatherland War,” 58–59 70, 283–84 Bulgarian First Army Chervenkov, Vulko, 96 Battles of Doiran, 99 Chetas, 325 led by Kutinchev, 23–24 Childe Harold, 304 Macedonia invasion, 341 Chotek, Sophie, 266 and Serbian army, 162 Christea, Miron, 64 Bulgarian Fourth Army, 36, 157 Christianity, 242, 349 396 General Index

Christians Croatian Defense Council, 84 Balkan Orthodox, 337 Croatian Democratic Union and Great Smyrna Fire, 291 (HDZ), 314 Greek- and Turkish-speaking, 262 Croatian Spring movement, 314 Orthodox, 258, 318 Croat War, 84–87. See also and Young Turks, 335 Yugoslav Wars Christmas Rebellion, 134 Crown Prince Alexander, 24, 37 Chuikov, Vasily, 294 Crown Prince Constantine, 24, 122, 153 Churchill, Winston Crown Prince Danilo, 24, 269 and Dodecanese, 97–98 Csa´ky, Istva´n, 323 and Gallipoli campaign, 108 , 329 and Greek Civil War, 130 Culcer, Ioan, 241 and Stalin, 71 Culture CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 310 Greek, 304 Ciano, Galeazzo, 323 Muslim, 265 Clinton, Bill, 91 Ottoman, 214 Codrington, Sir Edward, 200 Cunningham, Andrew, 81 Cold War in the Balkans, 70–72 Cuza, Alexandru, 62 Committee of Union and Progress Cvetkovic´, Dragisˇa, 352 (CUP), 216, 267, 334–35. See also Cypriot Civil War, 87–88 Young Turks Cyprus War, 88–90 Communist Partisans, 202 Congress of Berlin, 207, 229 Danckelmann, Heinrich, 202 Constantine I, King of Greece, 73–74 Danev, Stoyan, 27, 52 abdication, 124, 322 D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 107 neutrality declaration, 119 Dartmouth, 201 Venize´los resignation demand, 74 Daskalov, Raiko, 236 Constantine II, King of Greece, 223 Davies, Mostyn, 225 Constantinople, Treaty of, 28, 53, Dayton Agreement, 152, 158, 265, 75, 172, 219 315, 340, 357 Contested Zone (Macedonia), 75–76 Dayton Peace Agreement, 45, 83, 91 Convention of Akkirman, 256 Dedakovic´, Mile, 327 Conversations with Stalin (Djilas), 94 Deed of Agreement (Sened-i Ittifak), 180 Corfu Channel Incident, 76–77 de Gaulle, Charles, 206 Corfu Declaration, 77–78 Delchev, Gotse, 325 Corfu Incident, 78–79 Delfino, 116 Corti, Luigi, 78 Delphin, 33 Craiova, Treaty of, 57, 96, 241, 332 Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), 101, 320 Cretan Crisis, 79–80 de Nagy-Apponyi, Geraldine Apponyi, 365 Crete, Battle of, 80–82 de Rigny, Henry Gauthier, 200 Crimean War, 82–83, 256 de Robeck, John, 108 Crna Ruka. See Black Hand d’Espe´ray, Louis Franchet, 168, 309 Croat Forces, 83–84 Determined Falcon, Operation, 164 Croatia, 342–43 Deva, Xhafer, 287 General Index 397

Dimitriev, Radko, 92 as Greek National Liberation Front armed attack on Ottomans, 69, 173 component, 127–28 and Bulgarian Third Army, 23–24 and National and Social Liberation, 129 resignation from post of Bulgarian and National Republican Greek minister, 54 League, 102 Dimitrijevic´, Dragutin, 11, 37, See also EAM (Greek National Liberation 93, 266 Front) Disarmament Conference, 206 Elena, queen of Italy, 134 Djilas, Milova´n, 94, 307 Elli, 116 Djuic, Momcilo, 68 Emmanuel III, Victor, 4, 8, 148 Djukanovic´, Milo, 134 Ent, Uzal G., 230 Dobro Pole, Battle of, 11, 95 Enver Pasha, 102–4, 160, 183, 221, 267 Dobrudja, 96 Epirus, 104–5 Dodecanese Campaign, 97–98 Etairia, Filiki, 133 Doiran, Battles of, 98–99 European Community, 265, 290–91 Dordevic, Vladan, 12 European Community Monitor Mission DSE (Democratic Army (ECMM), 47 of Greece), 101, 320 European Union (EU) Dual Monarchy, 41, 112–13 sanctions against Yugoslavia, 340 Dubcˇek, Alexander, 330 Vance-Owen peace plan and, 319 Duca, Ion, 145 Yugoslav Wars and, 356, 361 Dumlupinar, Battle of, 120 , 98 “Fatherland Front,” 225 Fatherland War, 58–59 EAM (Greek National Liberation Front), Ferdinand, Czar of Bulgaria, 203, 100–101 236, 269, 297 and German occupation, 129 Ferdinand, Franz Greek Civil War, 129–31 assassination of, 93, 112, 231–32, 234, National Popular Liberation Army as 266–67, 278, 338 armed component of, 127–28 and Black Hand organization, 266 and National Republican Greek Ferdinand, Sophie, 231 League, 128 Ferdinand I, Czar of Bulgaria, 106 See also ELAS (Greek People’s abdication of, 56 Liberation Army) joining Central Powers, 54 Eastern Orthodox Christianity, 242 ordered attacks on Serbs and ECMM (European Community Monitor Greeks, 52 Mission), 47 and Savov, 27, 30 EDES (National Republican Greek League), and victory over Ottomans, 51 101–102, 128–29 Ferdinand I, King of Romania, 242 Einsatzgruppen, 137 Ferdinand of Saxe-Gotha-Coburg, Prince of Eisenhower, Dwight D., 97, 205 Bulgaria, 61 ELAS (Greek People’s Liberation Army), Filiki Etairia (Society of Friends), 337 100–101 The Final Solution, 137. See also Hitler, and Greek Civil War, 129–31 Adolf; Holocaust in the Balkans 398 General Index

First Jassy-Kishinev Operation, 239 Great Serbian Retreat, 162 Fiume/Rijeka, 106–7 Great Smyrna Fire, 291–92. See also Foreign Affairs, 307 Smyrna, Destruction of Four Power Pact. See Balkan Entente Greco-Italian War, 116–17 Frasheri, Mehdi, 9 Greco-Ottoman War, 118–19 Fretter-Pico, Maximilian, 239 Greco-Turkish War, 119–20, 261, 286, 322 Freyberg, Bernard, 81 Greece in the Balkan Wars, 122–23 Gallipoli campaign, 108–11 invasion of, 120–21 Garda de Fier. See Iron Guard Jewish population during World War II, Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 153 139–40 Garibaldi, Ricciotti, 24, 153 in World War I, 123–25 George, David Lloyd, 285 in World War II, 125–29 George II, King of Greece Greek Army of Epirus, 105, 153 crowning as king, 74 Greek Civil War, 129–32, 223, 263, 306 government-in-exile, 127, 129 Greek Communist Party (KKE), Zervas on, 101 100–101, 129–31 George Papandreou Party, 223 Greek culture, 304 Georgios Averof, 22, 32, 122 Greek First Army, 121 German Eleventh Army Greek military coup, 132 attack on Serbia, 112 Greek Revolt, 254 Bulgarian troops in, 95, 113, 177 Greek Second Army, 121 German Ninth Army, 237 Greek War of Independence, German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, 133–34, 199 35, 64, 245 Greens (zelenasˇi), 134 German Twelfth Army, 114–15, 121 Grigorescu, Eremea, 184 Germany Guillaumat, Louis, 177 in the Balkans during World War I, Gurko, Iosif, 286 111–13 in the Balkans during World War II, Halder, Franz, 294 113–15 Hamidiye, 23, 33 in Yugoslav territory, 341–42 Hamilton, Ian, 109 Gerstenberg, Alfred, 231, 251 Hampel, Desiderius, 135 Geshov, Ivan E., 51–52 Handschar SS Division, 135–36, 345 Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 64–65 Haradinaj, Ramush, 164 Gligorov, Kiro, 176 Helen of Greece, 63, 187 Goering, Hermann, 295 Helle, 125, 148 Gonatas, Stylianos, 102 Herzegovina Revolt, 136–37 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 330–31 Herzl, Theodor, 1 Gorchakov, Alexander, 83 Highlander’s Rebellion, 10–11 Gorchakov, Mikhail, 82 Himmler, Heinrich, 135, 287 Gotovina, Ante, 84, 300 Hitler, Adolf Goudi Coup. See Greek Military Coup attack on Soviet Union, 38, 114, 351–52 Grande Arme´e, 282 attack on Yugoslavia, 114, 121, 126, 338 General Index 399

and attack on Yugoslavia, 345–46 Independent State of Croatia invasion of Greece, 117, 120–21 (NDH—Nezavisna Drzˇava and Operation Blau (Blue), 293 Hrvatska), 226 Soviet Union, invasion of, 211 Internal Macedonian Revolutionary and Stalingrad, Battle of, 293–96 Organization (IMRO, or VMRO), 144, and Ustasˇa regime, 228 174, 187–88, 325–26 and World War II, 245–46, 338, International Boundary Commission, 78 348–49 International Court of Justice, 46, 77 and Yugoslav Military Coup, 351–52 International Criminal Tribunal, 315 HMS Leander, 76 International Criminal Tribunal for the HMS Mauritius, 76 former Yugoslavia (ICTY) HMS Orion, 76 formation of, 45 HMS Saumarez, 76 and Haradinaj, 164 HMS Superb, 76 indictment under, 91 HMS Volage, 76 and Milosˇevic´, 191 Hohenzollern, Carol, 237 and Mladic´, 193 Holocaust in the Balkans, 137–41. See also International Security Assistance Force Hitler, Adolf (ISAF), 199 Horseshoe, Operation, 141–42, 357 Intra-Allied War. See Balkan War, Second Horthy, Miklo´s, 309 Iron Guard, 145–46 Hoth, Hermann, 294 and Carol II, 63–64 Hoxha, Enver, 142–43, 224, 288 and killing of Jews, 145–46 and Albania, 10 leaders and Antonescu, 15 and Albania’s premiership, 143 Islam, 214–15, 336–37 death of, 143 Islam between East and West meeting with Mao Zedong, 72 (Izetbegovic´), 150 Hrvatska vojska (HV). See Croat Forces Italian Air Force P-38 Lightning, 353 Hrvatsko vijec´e obrane (HVO). See Italo-Ottoman War, 29 Croatian Defense Council Italo-Turkish War, 51, 97, 160 Hungary Italy Romanian campaign of 1919 in, 248 in the Balkans during World War I, 146–47 Romanian campaign in the Balkans during World War II, of 1944–1945 in, 249 148–50 and Yugoslavia, 342 occupation of Yugoslavia, 342 Hunter-Weston, Aylmer, 110 Ivanov, Nikola, 2, 24 Izetbegovic´, Alija, 150–51 Ilinden-Preobrazhenski Uprising. and Bosnian forces, 43 See Ilinden Uprising signing Dayton Agreement, 152 Ilinden Uprising, 144, 174, 214, 325 Imperial School of Military Janina, Siege of, 153 Engineering, 271 Jankovich, Bozhidar, 25 IMRO/VMRO (Internal Macedonian Jansˇa, Janez, 290 Revolutionary Organization), 144, 174, Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 330 187–88, 325–26 Jellicoe, George, 97 400 General Index

Jeschonnek, Hans, 295 KKE (Greek Communist Party), 100–101, Jews 129–31 in Albania, 138 Knezes, 281–82 in Bulgaria, 138–39 Konev, Ivan G., 328 in Greece, 139–40 Koryzes, Alexander, 127 in Romania, 140 Kosovo, Battle of, 162, 337 in Yugoslavia, 140–41 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), 163–64 JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army), 154–56 and Kosovo insurgency, 141 and Bosnian forces, 43 and Serbian authorities, 357 in Croatia, 83 Kosovo Verification Mission, 164 in Croat War, 84–86 Kosovo War, 164–66 establishment of, 43 Kostunica, Vojislav, 340 Joseph, Franz, 37, 93, 144, 266 Kragujevac massacre, 202 Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija. See JNA Krajisnik, Momcilo, 158 (Yugoslav People’s Army) Kremlin, 71–72 Kucˇan, Milan, 289 Kadyr-Bey, Abdul, 3 Ku¨c¸u¨k, Fazil, 87–88 Kalimantsi, Battle of, 157 Kumanovo, Battle of, 166–67 Kamensky, Mikhail, 253 Kun, Be´la, 244, 248 Karadzˇic´, Radovan, 157–58, 319, Kunchev, Vasil Ivanov. See Levski, Vasil 355, 357 Kupi, Abas, 8–10 Karageorge (George Petrovic´), 158–60, 210 Kutinchev, Nikola, 173 Karageorgevic´, Alexander, 68, 210 Kutinchev, Vasil, 24 Karageorgevic´, Peter, 338 Kutuzov, Mikhail, 253 Karamanlis, Constantine, 88 Kvaternik, Slavko, 343 Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen, 62 Lake Prespa, Battle of, 168 Ka´rolyi, Miha´ly, 308–9 Lambrino, “Zizi,” 63 Karteria, 200 Lausanne, Treaty of, 120, 169–70, 284 Kemal, Mustafa, 160–61 League of National Christian accomplishments, 161 Defense, 145 establishment of rival government, 169 League of Nations, 8, 34, 204, 261, 284 and Greco-Turkish War, 119–20 League of Private Initiative and nationalist movement in Anatolia, 104 Decentralization, 335 and Young Turks, 335 Lebed, Alexander, 308 Kharkov, 38 Levski, Vasil, 170–71 Khrushchev, Nikita S. Liberator Tsar. See Boris III, Czar of de-Stalinization campaign, 143 Bulgaria focus on relationship with Tito, 72 List, Wilhelm Siegmund, 121, 293, 346 visit to Belgrade, 22 Little Entente, 171–72 and Warsaw Pact, 328–30 Logothetopoulos, Konstantinos, 127 King’s Own, 98 Lo¨hr, Alexander, 341 King Unifier. See Boris III, Czar of Bulgaria Loisinger, Johanna, 14 Kitchener, Marshal Horatio, 108, 110–11 Lojotic´, Dimitrije, 344 General Index 401

London, Treaty of, 172 death, 117, 120 and Albania’s independence, 6, 146 and Italian invasion of Greece, 125 and First Balkan War, 75, 78 and Nazi Germany, 116 and Ottoman Empire, 31, 219, 256 outlaw of KKE, 100 and Sanjak division, 207 Metaxas Line, 121, 126 London Conference of Ambassadors, 78–79 Michael I, King of Romania, 187, 239, 247, London Protocol of 1830, 79, 133–34 249, 250 Long Range Desert Group, 98 Michelson, Ivan I., 253 Ludendorff, Erich, 49 Mihailov, Ivan, 187–88, 326 Lupescu, Elena “Magda,” 187, 245 Mihajlovic´, Dragoljub “Drazˇa,” 188–89 Lyule Burgas–Buni Hisar, Battle of, 173 emergence of cetniks, 67 execution of, 68, 351 Macedonia, 174–76 leading Cetniks, 349 Macedonian Front, 176–78 Serbian massacre, 226 Macedonian War, 178–80 and Tito’s Partisans, 305 Macˇek, Vlatko, 352 Military League (Bulgaria), 132, 189 Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan, 133, 180–82, Milne, George, 168, 285 185, 254, 304 Milosˇevic´, Slobodan, 190–92 Mahmud Muhtar Pasha, 182–84 as Balkan peacemaker, 191 Makarios III, 87–89 death of, 192 Makedonia, 33 economic sanctions on, 319 Malinovsky, Rodion, 239 and Kosovo Liberation Army, 163 Malobabic´, Rade, 37 nationalist policies of, 134 Manastir (Bitola), Battle of, 6 Operation Horseshoe, 141–42 Maniu, Iuliu, 250 and Serbia, 339–40, 355, 360 Manoilescu, Mihail, 323 and Slovene War, 289 Mao Zedong, 72, 143 and Vance-Owen peace plan, 319 Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 184 and Yeltsin, 164 Marasti, 38 and Yugoslav Wars, 355, 360, 362 Marita, Operation, xix, 117, 121, 126, 149 Mirkovic´, Borivoje, 352 Markacˇ, Mladen, 300 Mladic´, Ratko, 192–93 Martic´, Milan, 299–300 apprehended by Serbian Martinovic´, Anastasia, 204 authorities, 357 Martinovich, Mitar, 24, 270 Srebrenica invasion, 292 Masˇin, Draga, 12, 209 and Srebrenica invasion, 45 Maurer, Ion, 64–65 war crimes attributed to, 192–93 McLean, Neil, 18–19 Monro, Charles, 111 Mecid I, Abdul, 136, 185 Montenegrin National Assembly, 205 Mecidiye, 23, 33 Montenegro Mehmet II, 214 in Balkan events, 1876–1878, 193–94 Mehmet Ali, 185–86, 199 in the Balkan wars, 194–95 Mekteb-i Harbiyye. See Ottoman Military in World War I, 195–96 Academy Moskva, 38 Metaxas, Ioannis, 186 Ma˘ra˘s¸es¸ti, Battle of, 184 402 General Index

Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 133, 181 National Republican Greek League (EDES), Munich Agreement, 172 100–102, 128–29 Mu¨rzteg agreement, 144 National Schism, 124, 197–98, 263, 321 Muslims National Struggle, 261. See also Asia Minor Balkan Wars and, 219 Catastrophe; Greco-Turkish War Bosnian, 292–93 NATO in the Balkans, 198–99. See also North Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and, 334 Naval campaigns, Balkan Wars, 32–33 culture, 265 Navarino, Battle of, 133, 199–201 Great Smyrna Fire and, 292 Nazi-Soviet Pact, 225, 226 Serbian War of Independence and, 281–82 Nedic´, Milan, 127, 201–3, 314, 343, 349 Yugoslav Wars and, 355–56, 358, 361 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 307 Muslim SS, 135 Neuilly, Treaty of, 203–4 Mussolini, Benito and Bulgaria, 39, 57 and annexation of Albania, 8 and Romania, 49 invasion of Albania, 148 The New Class (Djilas), 94, 307 invasion of Corfu, 79 Nicholas, Grand Duke, 229 plans to invade Greece, xix, 105, 114–17 Nicholas I, Czar of Russia, 82, 254, 337 and Yugoslav state, 148 Nikola I, King of Montenegro, 204–5 Mustafa III, 270 and Central Powers, 196 Mustafa IV, 271 and Herzegovina unrest, 193 Montenegrin forces commander, 24 Nadezhda, 33 and Ottoman territory in Albania, 194 Napoleonic Wars, 159, 282, 304, 336 personal regime, 32 Narodna Odbrana (National Defense), 37 Nixon, Richard M., 65 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 306 NLA (National Liberation Army), 154–55, National Guard Corps. See Croat Forces 179–80 Nationalism Noli, Fan S., 365 Albanian, 304 Non-Aligned Movement, 198, 306 Croatian, 314 North Atlantic Cooperation Council, 206 Croat radical, 317 North Atlantic Council (NAC), 206 Romanian, 324 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Serbian, 232, 360 (NATO), 205–7 Slavic, 258 air patrols over Bosnia, 356 Turkish, 300, 334, 336 air strikes against Yugoslavia, 163, 191 western European, 216 in the Balkans, 198–99 Nationalist Army of Montenegro and bombing campaign on Bosnian Herzegovina, 345 Serb, 356–57 National Liberation Army (NLA), 154–55, and Bosnian War, 45 179–80 commencement of, 91 National Liberation Movement. See Croatia and, 362 Partisans, Albania International Security Assistance Force National Peasants, 63 (ISAF), 199 National Radical Union, 223 and Kosovo War, 165–66 General Index 403

Military-Technical Agreement, 163 in the Balkan Wars, 215–20 and North Atlantic Cooperation Council, and Bosnian Crisis, 41 206 and Bulgarian-Serb War, 60–61 and North Atlantic Council (NAC), 206 and Greco-Turkish War, 119 Operation Determined Falcon, 164 and Greek War of Independence, 133 and Slovenia, 291 and Karageorge, 158–60 Slovenia and, 363 and Russo Turkish War, 28 staff of, 207 and Treaty of Berlin, xviii and Warsaw Pact, 328–30 and Treaty of Constantinople, 219 Yugoslav Wars and, 356–57 and Treaty of London, 26, 172 Northern Epirus, 8 in World War I, 220–22 Novi Pazar, Sanjak of, 207–8 World War I and the destruction of, 215 Ottoman Military Academy, 181–82 Obrenovic´, Milan, 12, 44, 60, Ottoman Peace, xvii 209–10, 288 Ouchy, Treaty of, 216 Obrenovic´, Milosˇ, 210, 282 Owen, David, 319–20 Obrenovic, Alexander, 11–13, 93 Obrenovic, Natalija, 12 Pact of Corfu, 279 Odessa, Siege of, 1941, 210–12 Pact of Halepa, 79 Ohrid Framework Agreement, 180 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 65 Operation Accolade. See Accolade, Pandurs, 324 Operation Panic´,Zˇ ivota, 327 Operation Barbarossa. See Barbarossa, Papagos, Alexander, 116, 121, 131 Operation Papandreou, Andreas, 223 Operation Determined Falcon. See Papandreou, Damaskinos, 140 Determined Falcon, Operation Papandreou, George, 223 Operation Horseshoe. See Horseshoe, government of national unity, 100, 102 Operation as Greece prime minister, 129 Operation Iraqi Freedom, 199 resignation as Greece prime minister, 130 Operation Mandibles, 97 Paris Peace Conference Operation Marita. See Marita, Operation and Neuilly, Treaty of, 203 , 84 and Romania, 244 Operation Storm, 299–300 and Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 259–60 Operation Storm (Oluja), 87 and Trianon, Treaty of, 308 , 295 and Venize´los, 322 Orlov, Aleksey, 3 Paris Peace Treaty, 50, 96, 107 Orthodox Christianity, 349 Partisans Osman I, 214 Albania, 224–25 Ottoman Alasonya Army, 118 Bulgaria, 225–26 Ottoman Counterinsurgency Operations in Yugoslavia, 226–27 the Balkans and Crete, 212–14 Partisans, Yugoslav, 310 Ottoman culture, 214 Partnership for Peace Program, 198 Ottoman Empire, 214–15 Pasha, I˙smail, 212 and Armenian Genocide, 215 Pasha, Abdu¨lkerim Nadir, 283, 286 404 General Index

Pasha, Abdullah, 23, 173 People’s League Party, 19 Pasha, Agha Huseyin, 254 Perovic´, Ivo, 352 Pasha, Alemdar Mustafa, 180–81, 271 Pe´tain, Henri, 314 Pasha, Ali, 14–15 Pe´tain, Henry, 127 Pasha, Djemal, 335 Peter I, King of Serbia, 205, 234, 280 Pasha, Enver, 102–4, 160, 183, 221, 267 Peter II, King, 227, 306 Pasha, Esat, 153 Peter II, King of Yugoslavia, 227, Pasha, Ferik Abdullah, 217 346, 348, 351 Pasha, Ferik Mehmed Sukru, 2 Peter II Karageorgevic´, 115, 188 Pasha, Hasan Riza, 5–6 Peter I Karageorgevic´, 11, 13, 93, 195–96 Pasha, Hassan Tahsin, 24 Petrescu, Constantin Titel, 250 Pasha, Hu¨seyin Avni, 301 Petrovic´, George, 282 Pasha, Husvre, 181 Petrovic´-Njegosˇ, Danilo, 204 Pasha, Ibrahim, 200 Petrovic´-Njegosˇ, Mirko, 204 Pasha, Mahmud S¸evket, 267–68 Petrovic´-Njegosˇ, Nikola Mirkov. See Nikola Pasha, Mahmud Muhtar, 182–84 I, King of Montenegro Pasha, Mehmed Ali, 301 Philip II, 174 Pasha, Muhammad Ali, 181 Plastiras, Nikolaos, 101, 130, 223 Pasha, Mustafa Naili, 212 Plavsic´, Biljana, 158 Pasha, Nazim, 217, 218 Pleven, Siege of, 228–29 Pasha, O¨ mer Lu¨tfu¨,82 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), 65 Pasha, Osman, 229 Ploest¸i, Bombing of, 229–31 Pasha, Rauf, 301 PMR (Romanian Workers’ Party), Pasha, Reshid Mehmed, 255 64–65 Pasha, Selim, 181 Political Committee of National Liberation Pasha, Shevket Turgut, 10 (PEEA), 100, 129 Pasha, Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨, 286–87 Political Consultative Committee Pasha, Talaat, 335 (PCC), 328 Pasha, Tepedelenli Ali, 180–81 Potiorek, Oskar, 66, 93, 271 Pasha, Zeki, 218 Prasca, Sebastiano Visconti, 116 Pasˇic, Nicola, 77, 93 Prince Paul of Yugoslavia, 114, 338, 348, Pasˇic, Nikola, 37 351–52 Paskevich, Ivan F., 254 Princip, Gavrilo, 231–32, 266 Paskievitch, Ivan, 82 Pa˘tra˘s¸canu, Lucretiu, 250 Paulus, Friedrich, 293 Putnik, Radomir, 232–35 Pavelic´, Ante, 135, 227–28, 317–18, 343 attack on Ottomans, 24, 167 Pavichenko, Vera, 211 and Austrian invasion, 66 Pax ottomanica, xvii, xx battle of Cer Mountain, 278 PCC (Political Consultative health of, 233–34 Committee), 328 PCR (), 64–65 Queen Natalija, 209 Peasant Revolt, 15 PEEA (Political Committee of National Radetzky, Josef, 13 Liberation), 100, 129 Radomir Rebellion, 236–37 General Index 405

Radoslavov, Vasil and Dodecanese, 97 as Bulgarian prime minister, 52 and Stalin, 71 as commander of Bulgarian army, 364 Royal Air Force (RAF) joining Triple Alliance, 203 bases in Greece, 120–21, 126 neutrality proclaimation, 54 and Dodecanese campaign, 98 resignation from prime ministerial and Greco-Italian War, 117 position, 56 Royal Irish Fusiliers, 98 and Treaty of Bucharest of 1913, 48 Rugova, Ibrahim, 164 Raguz, Martin, 152 Rupnik, Leon, 344 Raiding Forces’ Levant Schooner Russian Civil War, 226, 305, 313 Flotilla, 98 Russian Revolution, 211, 221, 243 Rambouillet Accords, 165 Russian Southern Group, 286 Rapallo, Treaty of, 107, 147 Russo-Japanese War, 274 Red Army Russo-Ottoman War formations, 341–42 of 1806–1812, 252–53 inavsion of Bulgaria, xx, 58 of 1828–1829, 254–56 in southeastern Europe, 72 of 1877–1878, 256–58 Regina Maria, 38 Russo-Ottoman War, 1768–1774, 49 Reinhardt, Georg-Hans, 346 Russo-Ottoman War, 1806–1812, Religion, Committee of Union and Progress 180, 252–53 (CUP) and, 336 Russo-Ottoman War, 1828–1829, Revolution of April 21, 1967, 223 181–82, 254–56 Rhallis, Ioannis, 127 Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878 Roman Catholicism, 318 Dimitriev in, 92 Romania initiation of, xvii, 44 in the Balkan Wars, 240–42 Treaty of Adrianople, 3 invasion of 1916, 237–38 Russo Turkish War, 28 invasion of 1944, 238–39 and siege of Odessa, 210–11 Sadat, Anwar, 65 in World War I, 242–45 Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 50, in World War II, 245–48 259–61, 309 Romanian Boy Scouts, 63 Sakarya River, Battle of, 261–62 Romanian Campaign in Hungary Salonika, 262–64 of 1919, 248–49 Sampson, Nick, 88 Romanian Campaign in Hungary of Sanatescu, Constantin, 250 1944–1945, 249–50 San Stefano, Treaty of, 264 Romanian Communist Party (PCR), 64–65 Bulgarian state, 28, 50 Romanian coup, 250–51 and Greater Bulgaria, 257 Romanianization, 140 and Ottoman Empire, 40, 45, 60 Romanian Peasant Uprising, 251–52 revision of, 34 Romanian Workers’ Party (PMR), 64–65 Serbia and Montenegro Roosevelt, Franklin D. independence, 338 bombing of Ploesti, 230 Sapountzakes, Constantine, 24, 153 death of, 70 Sarajevo, Siege of, 265–66 406 General Index

Sarajevo Assassination, 266–67. See also Sevastopol, 38 Ferdinand, Franz Se`vres, Treaty of, 119, 169–70, 284–86 Sarkoy and Bolayir, Battles Shehu, Mehmet, 143, 224 of, 267–68 Shipka Pass, Battles of, 286–87 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 207 Siantos, Georgios, 100 Sarrail, Maurice, 168, 177, 243 Siege of Scutari (Shkode¨r), 5–6 Sauberzweig, Karl-Gustav, 135 Sima, Horia, 145–46 Savino, Francesco Jacomoni di San, 4 Simeon II, 40, 58 Savov, Mihail, 268–69 Simovic´, Dusˇan, 346, 349, 352 attack on Greek and Serbian S¸inik-oglu, Hadji Mustapha, 281 positions, 27, 51 Skanderbeg, George Kastrioti, 287 battle of Kalimantsi, 157 Skanderbeg SS Division, 287–88 and Czar Ferdinand, 27, 30 Slivnitsa, Battle of, 288–89 as leader of Bulgarian armies, 23 Slovene War of 1991, 289–91 Sazonov, Sergei, 240 Slovenia, 344 Schleiffen Plan, 112 Smiley, David, 9 Schmidthuber, August, 287–88 Smyrna, Destruction of, 291–92 Scobie, Ronald, 129–30 Social Liberation movement (EKKA), Scutari, Siege of, 269–70 100, 129 SDA (Stranka Demokratske Akcije), 151 Soddu, Ubaldo, 116 Second Jassy-Kishinev Operation, 239 Solidarity crisis, 330 Second Vienna Award, 245 Special Boat Squadron, 98 Selim, Mehmed, 254 Sˇpegelj, Martin, 83 Selim II, Sultan of Ottoman, 215 Srebrenica Massacre, 292–93 Selim III, Sultan of Ottoman, 270–71 SRS (Serbian Radical Party), 68 and Alemdar, 180–81 SS Reischfu¨hrer, 287 and Karageorge, 159 SS-Standartenfu¨hrer, 287 reoccupation of Egypt, 185 Stalin, Joseph Serbia and Churchill, 71 and the Balkan Wars, 274–77 death of, 72 collaboration with Germany, 343–44 and Djilas, 94 invasions of 1914, 271–72 and Romania, 247 invasions of 1915, 272–73 and Roosevelt, 71 in World War I, 277–80 and Stalingrad Battle, 294–95 Serbian First Army, 11, 26 Stalingrad, Battle of, 293–97 Serbian Radical Party (SRS), 68 Stamboliski, Aleksanduˇr, 52, 189, 203, 236, Serbian Retreat, 1915, 280–81 297–98, 326 Serbian Second Army Stambolov, Stefan, 14 and Bulgarian Second Army, 2, 25, 52 Stankovic´, Radenko, 352 invasion of Montenegro, 196 Star of David, 141 Serbian War of Independence, Stepanovic´, Stepa, 25, 66, 298 281–83 Stepinac, Aloysius, 306 Serbo-Ottoman War, 233, 283–84 Storm, Operation, 299–300, 357 Seselj, Vojislav, 68 Stranka Demokratske Akcije (SDA), 151 General Index 407

Strategic Defense Initiative, 206 and Yugoslav-Soviet split, 320, 353–54 Student, Kurt, 81 and Yugoslav Wars, 355, 359–60 Sturdza, Dimitrie, 252 Tittoni-Venizalos agreement, 105, 147 Sturm, Pavle Jurisich, 66 Tolbukhin, Fyodor, 239 Suleiman I, Ottoman Sultan, 214 Topanti, Essad Pasha, 5–6 Su¨leyman Hu¨snu¨ Pasha, 300–302 Toptani, Esat Pasha, 270 Sultane, 201 Total National Defense, 155 Supremists, 325 Townshend, Charles, 221 Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, 285 Trajkovski, Boris, 176 Trajkovski, Branko, 176 Tankosi, Vojislav, 232 Transnistrian War, 307–8 Teleki, Pa´l, 323, 349 Treaties. See specific treaties Tellini, Enrico, 78 Treaty of Alliance, Political Cooperation, Ten Days War. See Slovene War of 1991 and Mutual Assistance, 22 Tepelene, Ali Pasha, 303–4 Trianon, Treaty of, 49, 171, 244, 308–10,322 Thaci, Hashim, 163–64 Trieste Dispute, 310–11 13 SS Frei.Gebirgs Division (kroatien), 135 Tripartite Pact, 121, 154, 345, 349 13 Waffen-Gebirgs-Division der SS Truce of Foscani, 243 ‘Handschar’ (kroatische Nr. 1). See 13 Truman, Harry S., 71–72, 131 SS Frei.Gebirgs Division (kroatien) Truman Doctrine, 311–13 Thirty Years’ War, 260 Trumbic, Ante, 77 Thompson, Frank, 225 Tsolakoglou, Georgios, 313–14 Tito, Josip Broz, 305–7 as , 127, 313–14 and Albanian Communists, 224 surrender to German invaders, 121, 126 and Balkan Federation, 354 surrender to Italians, 127 and Belgrade, 115 Tudjman, Franjo, 83–84, 314–15 and Communist Partisan resistance Turkmenchay, Treaty of, 3 movement, 305–6 21st Waffen Mountain Division SS and Communist Party of Greece, 131 Skanderbeg, 345 death of, xx, 156, 175, 306–7, 339, 359 and Djilas, 94 UCY (Union of Communist Youth), 64 federal republic regime, 84 Ujedinjenje ili Smrt. See Black Hand interdictation of American flights, 353 Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Unification leading Partisans, 349–50 or Death), 37 and Macedonians, 175 Union of Communist Youth (UCY), 64 and Mihajlovic, 188 United Nations National Front, formation of, 306 Operation Storm and, 299 and Soviet Union, xx sanctions against Yugoslavia, 339 and Treaty of Friendship, 22 Security Council, 316 and Ustasˇa, 318 Slovenia and, 291 during World War II, 154 Srebrenica Massacre and, 292–93 and Yugoslav Communist Party, 305 United Nations Protection Force, 292, 316–17 and Yugoslav Partisans, 226–27, Vance-Owen peace plan and, 319 310, 349–51 Yugoslav Wars and, 355–56, 362 408 General Index

United Nations Protection Force von Hoetzendorf, Franz Conrad, 162 (UNPROFOR), 86, 316–17 von Kleist, Paul Ludwig Ewald, 294, 346 United Nations Security Council, 316 von Kuhlmann, Richard, 49 Unity or Death. See Black Hand von Mackensen, August, 19, 112, 237–38, 279 UNPROFOR (United Nations Protection von Manstein, Erich, 294 Force), 86, 316–17 von Obwurzer, Herbert, 135 Ustasˇa, 317–18 von Ribbentrop, Joachim, 323 Von Richtofen, Wolfram F., 296 Vance, Cyrus, 86, 88, 319–20 von Sanders, Otto Liman, 110, 161, 221 Vance-Owen Plan, 319–20 von Weichs, Maximilian, 293, 341, 346 Vancho. See Mihailov, Ivan Vukmanovic´, Svetozar, 224 Vandenberg, Arthur, 313 Vukotic, Milena, 204 Vaphiadis, Markos, 320 Vukotich, Janko, 24 Vardar Army, 6, 167, 218 Vukovar, Siege of, 327 Varkiza Agreement, 101, 130 Vulovic´, Ljubomir, 37 Velestinlis, Rhigas, 133 Velvet Revolution of 1989–1990, 311 Waffen SS, 135 Venize´los, Eleuthe´rios, 321–22 Warsaw Pact, 328–30 abdication of Constantine I, 119, 322 and Albania, 72, 329 death of, 322 creation of, 328 differences with Constantine I, 74, 322 crisis, 330 National Schism, 197 and Gorbachev, 331 national schism, 124 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 155 and Papandreou, 223 and Khrushchev, 328–30 at Paris Peace Conference, 322 Warsaw Treaty Organization, 205 as premier of Greece, 73 White Guards, 344 resignation as Greece’s premier, 74, Wiesel, Elie, 140 123–24, 321 Wilhelm II, German Emperor, 73, 112, 197, 242 resignation of, 263 William of Wied, 273 Versailles, Treaty of, 259 Wilson, Henry Maitland “Jumbo,” 121 Vienna Award, Second, 322–24 Wilson, Woodrow Vladimirescu, Tudor, 324, 337 and Armenian borders, 284 VMRO/IMRO (Internal Macedonian Fourteen Points, 309 Revolutionary Organization), 144, 174, and independent Albania, 78 187–88, 325–26 and Paris Peace conference, 148 von Battenberg, Alexander, 288 and World War I, 57 von Below, Otto, 168 World War I von Bismarck, Otto, 112, 137, 264 Albania in, 7–8 von Bock, Fedor, 293 Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, 16–18 von Bu¨low, Berhard, 42 Battle of Mt. Cer and, 272 von der Goltz, Colmar, 153 Bulgaria in, 53–57 von Diebitsch, Hans Karl, 255 Germany in the Balkans, 111–13 von Falkenhayn, Erich, 48, 162, 237 Greece in, 123–25 von Hindenburg, Paul, 49, 56 Italy in the Balkans, 146–47 General Index 409

Ottoman Empire in, 215, 219, 220–22 Yugoslavia, 337–40 Romania, invasion of, 237–38 and Axis occupation forces in World Romania in, 242–44 War II, 340–42 Salonika and, 262–63 and collaborationist forces in World Serbia in, 277–80 War II, 342–45 siege of Odessa and, 211 invasion of, 345–47 Treaty of Trianon and, 308 in World War II, 347–51 Tsolakoglou, Georgios and, 313 military coup, 351–52 VMRO and, 325–26 Yugoslav overflight incidents, 353 Young Turks and, 335 Yugoslav People’s Army. See JNA World War II (Yugoslav People’s Army) Albania in, 8–10 Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA), 289–91, 299 Battle of Stalingrad, 293 Yugoslav Royal Army, 202 Bulgaria in, 57–58 Yugoslav-Soviet Split, 353–54 Germany in the Balkans, 113–15 Yugoslav Wars, 355–57 Greece in, 125–29 and Bihac´,36 Italy in the Balkans, 148–50 and Bosnian forces, 43 National Liberation Movement causes, 358–60 (Partisans) and, 224 consequences, 360–63 peace settlement in the Balkans, and Croat War, 84 331–33 Romania in, 245–47 Zabtiye organization, 212 siege of Odessa and, 210–11 Zachariadis, Nikolaos, 100 Tsolakoglou, Georgios and, 313 Zanella, Riccardo, 107 Tudjman, Franjo and, 314 Zbor, 344 Ustasˇa and, 317 Zbor narodne garde (ZNG). See Croat Forces Yugoslav Partisans and, 226 Zeki Pasha, Halepli, 167 Zelea Codreanu, Corneliu, 63, 145 XLIV Panzer Corps, 114 Zervas, Napoleon, 101, 128 XLIX Mountain Corps, 347 Zhekov, Nikola, 364 XL Panzer Corps, 346–47 and Macedonian Front, 176 XLVI Panzer Crops, 347 medical treatment of, 95 Zhukov, Georgii, 294 Yanya Corps, 118 Zog, King of the Albanians, 365 Yeltsin, Boris, 308 escape from Albania, 8 Young Turk Coup, xviii, 132 grants by Facists, 4 Young Turks, 334–36 Zogu/Zogolli, Ahmed Bey. See Zog, King of Ypsilantis, Alexander, 133, 324, 336–37 the Albanians Yugoslav Committee, 279 zu Wied, Wilhelm, 7 Yugoslav Communist Party (YPJ), 305 Zveno, 188–89 This page intentionally left blank About the Editor

Richard C. Hall, PhD, is a professor of his- of Consumed by War: European Conflict in tory at Georgia Southwestern State Univer- the 20th Century (2009); Balkan Break- sity. His research focuses primarily on early through: The Battle of Dobro Pole 1918 twentieth-century diplomatic and military (2010); and Bulgaria’s Road to the First conflicts in the Balkans. Hall is the author World War (1996).

411