Doctor of Philosophy

A USER‐FRIENDLY COLOUR MATCHING SYSTEM FOR TIE‐DYE/BATIK PRODUCERS

Charles Frimpong

(BA. PG.DIP., Art Education, MSc. Textile Technology)

A dissertation submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in Art Education

Faculty of Fine Art, College of Art and Social Sciences

August, 2009

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the PhD and that, to the best of my knowledge, it contains no material previously published by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree of the university, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Charles Frimpong (PG8000105) ….…………………….… ………..………………..

Student Name & I. D. Signature Date

Certified by:

Dr. P. Osei Opoku ……..…………………….. .………………………….

Name of Supervisor 1 Signature Date

Certified by:

Dr. S. K. Amenuke …………………………… .…………………………..

Name of Supervisor 2 Signature Date

Certified by:

Dr. Joe Adu-Agyem ………..…………………… ..……….…………………

Name of Head of Department Signature Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project is as a result of the selfless benevolence, effort and contribution in diverse ways from various individuals whom God almighty used to be a blessing to me.

I will first like to express my heartfelt thanks to Professors Charles Joyner, Harold

Freeman, Dr. Chandra and indeed the entire Study Abroad Office staff of NC

State University who facilitated my travel to and stay in the North Carolina, USA, to enable me conduct trial dyeing tests in the Wet processing laboratory of the

College of Textiles. Several individuals at different other labs that were used to process materials and data in no small way have contributed to the success of this project.

My supervisors, Dr. P. Osei-Poku and Dr. S.K. Amenuke have through their constructive criticisms and concern helped to make this report see the light of day.

To all who in diverse ways helped to make this effort a reality, I express my warmest gratitude. May the Good Lord bless you all.

ABSTRACT

The tie-dye/batik industry in Ghana has not lived to its full potential due to

shortcomings that include the narrow range of colours available on the market, which

in turn, have resulted in products having similar colour schemes. The methods

employed in this project are a result of inspiration drawn from colour matching

systems used in various industries. Test dyeing experiments were conducted to

generate a scheme for generating different shades out of two colours. This scheme

was used to generate 130 different shades out of an initial 9 colours.

Spectrophotometer tests that serve to determine the unique characteristics of each

colour were conducted and spectral curves generated for each mixture. Additionally,

tests of reproducibility were conducted on selected mixtures to determine the extent

of success of the scheme adopted for mixing. The colours generated, together with

some vital information about the mixture have been documented in a catalogue that

every tie-dye/batik producer can use and achieve same results. As the first step in

changing the status quo, it has been recommended that this solution be brought to the knowledge of producers of tie-dye/batik through the organization of workshops and re-training programmes by interested governmental and private agencies. This coupled with the availability of the basic elements of the system will surely make this

solution effective.

September, 2010 C.F.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION..…………………..…………………………………………………………… i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………… ii

ABSTRACT………………………..………………………………………………………… ....iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………….…………………. iv

LIST OF FIGURES………………..…………………………………………………………… v

LIST OF PLATES…………………………………………………………………………….. viii

LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………….. xii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………. … 1-7

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………………………………………..……8-25

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………….26-46

CHAPTER FOUR

TOOLS, MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT…………………………………………………47-64

CHAPTER FIVE

GENERAL PROCEDURES…………………………………………………………….65-105

CHAPTER SIX

RESULTS AND THEIR DISCUSSION………………………………………………106-145

CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………146-152

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………153

APPENDIX

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Fig. 5.1 Reflectance curves of Atul Blue dyed at different concentrations………...... 77

Fig. 5.2 Reflectance curves of Atul Violet dyed at different concentrations ……….…77

Fig. 5.3 Reflectance curves of Atul Black dyed at different concentrations...……..….78

Fig. 5.4 Reflectance curves of Dystar Red/ Blue dyed at different time of dyeing...... 83

Fig. 5.5 Reflectance curves of Dystar Blue/ Yellow dyed at different

time of dyeing……..………………………………………...…………...…………83

Fig. 6.1 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow/ Atul Violet mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………….………………..107

Fig. 6.2 Spectral curves for Atul Green/ Atul Yellow mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………..………………………………………….108

Fig. 6.3 Spectral curves for Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Blue mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………………………….…………...…109

Fig. 6.4 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Black mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………..…………………………….…110

Fig. 6.5 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow/ Atul Brown mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………………………………………..111

Fig 6.6 Spectral curves for Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Red mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………………………………………..112

Fig. 6.7 Spectral curves for Dystar Red/ Atul Violet mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………..…………………………………………….....113

Fig. 6.8 Spectral curves for Dystar Red/ Dystar Blue mixtures at different

time of dyeing………………………………………………..……………..……...114

Fig. 6.9 Spectral curves for Atul Red/ Atul Black mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………..……………………………….………….115

Fig. 6.10 Spectral curves for Atul Red/ Atul Brown mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………….116

Fig. 6.11 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Violet mixtures at

different time of dyeing……………………………………….…………………..117

Fig. 6.12 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/ Dystar Blue mixtures at

different time of dyeing…………………………………..……………….……..118

Fig. 6.13 Spectral curves for Atul Golden/ Atul Brown mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………..………………………………………………………..119

Fig. 6.14 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Brilliant Green

mixtures at different time of dyeing…..………………………………………...120

Fig. 6.15 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Black mixtures at

different time of dyeing…………………………………………………………121

Fig. 6.16 Spectral curves for Atul Blue/ Atul Green mixtures at different

time of dyeing………………………………………………………………...... 122

Fig. 6.17 Spectral curves for Atul Pink/ Atul Red mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………....123

Fig. 6.18 Spectral curves for Atul Pink/ Golden Yellow mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………………………………………124

Fig. 6.19 Spectral curves for Atul Orange/ Atul Brown mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………...125

Fig. 6.20 Spectral curves for Atul Orange/ Atul Blue mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………...126

Fig. 6.21 Spectral curves for Atul Orange/ Atul Green mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………….……………………………………….……………127

Fig. 6.22 Spectral curves for Atul Orange/ Atul Red mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………….……………………………………………….128

Fig. 6.23 Spectral curves for Atul Orange/ Atul Black mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………….…………………………………………………….129

Fig. 6.24 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow/ Atul Orange mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………….…………………………….130

Fig. 6.25 Spectral curves for Atul Violet/ Atul Green mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………….131

Fig. 6.26 Spectral curves for Dystar Blue/ Atul Violet mixtures at different

time of dyeing……………………………………………………………………132

Fig. 6.27 Spectral curves for Dystar Blue/ Dystar Yellow mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………….137

Fig. 6.28 Spectral curves for Atul Green/ Atul Yellow mixtures at different

time of dyeing………………………………………………………………….....138

Fig. 6.29 Spectral curves for Dystar Red/ Dystar Yellow mixtures at different

time of dyeing…...……………………………………………………….…..…..139

Fig. 6.30 Spectral curves for Atul Red/ Atul Brown mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………….140

Fig. 6.31 Spectral curves for Atul Red/ Atul Green mixtures at different

time of dyeing…………………………………………………………………….141

vii

LIST OF PLATES

Page

Plate 3.1 Limited range of colours available for use on the market seen in

in almost every piece on display…………………………….………45

Plate 4.1 The Minolto CM 3600d Benchtop Spectrophotometer …...………..48

Plate 4.2 The Spectronic 20D Spectrophotometer.....………………………....50

Plate 4.3 The Niken Eclipse 50i video microscope system…..…...………….51

Plate 4.4 A Spatula for portioning out small quantities of chemicals.………..53

Plate 4.5 A Hot plot………...………………………………………………………54

Plate 4.6 Graduated beaker and Cylinder………………………………………55

Plate 4.7 Melther Toledo Balance………………………………………………..56

Plate 4.8 Disposable pour out boats……………………...……………………...57

Plate 4.9 Safety razor blade………….…………………...………………………58

Plate 4.10 Pyramex Safety Eye glasses…….…………………………………..60

Plate 5.1 Dyed with 0.245g of vat dye….…………………...…………………...74

Plate 5.2 Dyed with 0.490g of vat dye…………………………………………...74

Plate 5.3 Dyed with 0.735g of vat dye…………………………………………...74

Plate 5.4 Dyed with 0.980g of vat dye….…………………...…………………...74

Plate 5.5 Dyed with 0.145g of vat dye…….………………...…………………...75

Plate 5.6 Dyed with 0.217g of vat dye………….………………………………..75

Plate 5.7 Dyed with 0.326g of vat dye…….………………………………...…...75

Plate 5.8 Dyed with 0.490g of vat dye…….……………...……………………...75

Plate 5.9 Dyed with 0.735g of vat dye………….…………...…………………...75

Plate 5.10 Dyed with 0.245g of vat dye………….…………...………………….76

viii

Plate 5.11 Dyed with 0.490g of vat dye……………………………………...…76

Plate 5.12 Dyed with 0.735g of vat dye…………………...... …………………76

Plate 5.13 Dyed with 0.980g of vat dye…………………………..……………76

Plate 5.14 Dyed with 0.245g of dye…..………………………………………...79

Plate 5.15 Dyed with 0.480g of dye……………………………………………..79

Plate 5.16 Dyed with 0.735g of dye……………………………………………..79

Plate 5.17 Dyed with 0.980g of dye……………………………………………..79

Plate 5.18 Final shade of dyed samples showing the time allowed for

dyeing...... 82

Plate 5.19 Atul Yellow/ Atul Violet combinations………………………………88

Plate 5.20 Atul Yellow/ Atul Green combinations……………………………...88

Plate 5.21 Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Blue combinations………………………….88

Plate 5.22 Atul Yellow/ Atul Black combinations…….…………………………89

Plate 5.23 Atul Yellow/ Atul Brown combinations………….…………………..89

Plate 5.24 Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Red combinations…………………………..89

Plate 5.25 Dystar Red/ Atul Violet combinations….…………………………....90

Plate 5.26 Dystar Red/ Dystar Blue combinations……….…………………….90

Plate 5.27 Atul Red/ Atul Black combinations………….………………………90

Plate 5.28 Atul Red/ Atul Brown combinations……....…………………………91

Plate 5.29 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Violet combinations…….………………..91

Plate 5.30 Atul Golden Yellow/ Dystar Blue combinations…….……………...91

Plate 5.31 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Brown combinations……………………..92

Plate 5.32 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Green combinations……………………..92

Plate 5.33 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Black combinations………………………92

Plate 5.34 Atul Blue/ Atul Green combinations…………………………………93

Plate 5.35 Atul Pink/ Atul Red combinations…………………………………....93

Plate 5.36 Atul Pink/ Atul Golden Yellow combinations………………………..93

Plate 5.37 Atul Orange/ Atul Brown combinations…….………………………..94

Plate 5.38 Atul Orange/ Atul Blue combinations…...... ………………………..94

Plate 5.39 Atul Orange/ Atul Green combinations...…… …………………...94

Plate 5.40 Atul Orange/ Atul Red combinations…….…………………………..95

Plate 5.41 Atul Orange/ Atul Black combinations…….…..…………………….95

Plate 5.42 Atul Orange/ Yellow combinations…………………………………..95

Plate 5.43 Atul Green/ Violet combinations……………………………………..96

Plate 5.44 Atul Violet/ Blue combinations……………………………………….96

Plate 6.1 Dyed samples of Dystar Blue/ Dystar Yellow at the

same proportions...... 133

Plate 6.2 Dyed samples of Atul Green/ Atul Yellow at the

same proportions…………………………………………………..….134

Plate 6.3 Dyed samples of Dystar Red/ Dystar Yellow at the

same proportions…………………………………………………...…134

Plate 6.4 Dyed samples of Atul Red/ Atul Brown at the

same proportions………………………………………………….…..135

Plate 6.5 Dyed samples of Atul Red/ Atul Green at the

same proportions….…………………………………………………..135

Plate 6.6 Prepared fibre cross-section samples ready for

viewing under the electronmicroscope……………………...…….....143

Plate 6.7 Fibre cross-sections of yarns from dyed fabrics at different

dyeing times……………………………………………………………144

Plate 6.8 Fibre cross-sections of yarns from dyed fabrics at different

dyeing times……………………………………………………………145

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1 Stratified sampling indicating the number of individuals in

each category……………………………………………………………29

Table 3.2 Occupational categorisation of sample selected for survey……….32

Table 3.3 An assessment of depth of knowledge on colour distinction……...33

Table 3.4 Results of responses to question that seeks to determine extent of

satisfaction of producers with the scope of colour available on the

Ghanaian market…………………………….………………..………..34

Table 3.5 Analysis of results of data on responses that indicates a preference

for already dyed backgrounds…….………………….……………….35

Table 3.6 Analysis of results indicating extent of effort on the part of producers

at generating tertiary colours……….…………………………………36

Table 3.7 Analysis of results to identify problems faced in mixing colours…..37

Table 3.8 Results of responses to determine source of inputs used in the

production of tie-dye/ batik……………………………………………..38

Table 3.9 Results of responses to assess the level of knowledge of source of

inputs used in the production of tie-dye/ batik…………….………...38

Table 3.10 Results of responses to determine the source of inputs…………..39

Table 3.11 Results of responses to determine how producers of tie-dye/ batik

use dyes and chemicals in the absence of literature on the use of

products………………………………………………………………….40

Table 3.12 Results of responses indicating the type of dye mostly used……..41

xii

Table 3.13 An assessment of the level of knowledge and consistency in the

use of the dye classes available…….………………………………...42

Table 5.1 List of colours used as against the shades developed in their

leuco state………………………………………………………………...67

Table 5.2 Scheme for the combination of colours……….……………………….87

Table 5.3 Scheme for the generation of colours……..…………………………...87

Table 5.4 Quick reference of quantities of dyebath ingredients and water

required, calculated against weight of fabric to be dyed……..………97

Table 5.5 Percentage quantities of dyes expressed in real values in grams

as quick reference………………………………………………………..98

xiii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Tie and dye/ Batik production is not an indigenous fabric production method. It is believed to have been introduced into the country from the countries west of Ghana viz., Guinea, Sierra Leone and La Cote D’Ivore many years ago (Picton, 1995) and later found its way into the educational system. Its introduction came along with materials and methods that are not necessarily Ghanaian. Worthy of mention is the use of synthetic dyes notably Direct, Vat and Reactive dyes. These colours provide the best means of dyeing cotton goods with very good fastness properties and in colours that appeal to the taste of the Ghanaian.

Although the technique is not indigenous, it has caught up easily with most

Ghanaians as one of the easiest ways of starting a business. Most organizations – governmental and non-governmental – have trained and continue to train people of all age groups in the making of these fabrics in an attempt to create employment and alleviate poverty. Others have also acquired the technique at different levels of the educational ladder and these have also gone into business. Consequently the Ghanaian market is flooded with fabrics that reflect the different levels of training acquired by the producers. It is therefore not surprising that some products exported to

1 developed countries have, in the past, got rejected due to their sub-

standard nature. Prime among reasons for rejection have been poor

colour fastness of the orders supplied, which could not have been from the

type of dye used, but from the procedure of application and in the lack of

design proficiency.

The present Ghanaian attitude to standardization and diligence at work

have not helped in the strict adherence to production parameters such as

time for dyeing and the use of the correct bath ratio for dyeing.

Additionally, producers of these fabrics have not stuck to the correct amounts of dyes and dye auxiliaries used. To most producers, achieving

the tie-dye/ batik effect is enough, and since there are really no means of

ascertaining whether they meet set quality standards, they almost have a

field day. Lack of consumer education and the attitude to make do with

whatever is available without voicing out to push for better products have

also largely contributed to the status quo.

The colours mainly employed in the dyeing of the fabrics have largely

consisted of a narrow range of primary and secondary colours which by

themselves represent an extension of the Ghanaian indigenous use of

colour, which for the most part is narrow consisting mainly of white, black,

red, green and yellow. Any shade of these colours could best be

described as ‘being like’ these. This situation has led to our having to

2 make do with the limited range of colours available. People have therefore unconsciously not sought for an extension in the colour range even though the average Ghanaian has overtime become trendy and open to other tastes from foreign cultures. This is evident in the colours of garments people buy when presented with a wider range of choice.

There have been attempts for some time now to penetrate the international market with tie-dye/ batik fabrics without much success. The problem has mainly been that of quality, and the narrow colour range that is incapable of satisfying the tastes and preferences of the western world.

Consumers are always presented with a wide variety of choice in a significant number of products and our exports of tie-dye/ batik fabrics must also be presented to suit such preferences if we are to make the needed impact.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The production of tie-dye/batik fabrics, although not indigenous to Ghana has come to be accepted as a fabric production method with an identity that has largely been noted as African.

Most visitors to Ghana acquire garments made from these fabrics in order to identify with the local culture and also to blend in and feel a part of the local fashion. Perhaps apart from kente, the next cultural icon in terms of

3 textiles is tie-dye/batik. This has served to create an identity uniquely

Ghanaian in a world that is constantly changing, with cultures borrowing from each other. It also offers a garment appropriate to our kind of weather and in colours that match the complexity and vibrancy of our environment.

The production of tie-dye/batik fabrics has also found uses in areas outside of garment production such as interior decoration and in the making of fashion accessories such as footwear, bags, etc. It has also featured prominently in the production of souvenir for tourists.

The production activities involved in the making of tie-dye/batik and the subsequent marketing generate employment for a lot of people. It has also generated so much foreign exchange in the past as all trade exhibitions and expositions both in Ghana and abroad, have not been without the inclusion of tie-dye/batik fabrics.

In spite of the benefits accruing from the production and use of tie- dye/batik fabrics, their patronage has not been appreciable especially in attempts at penetrating the western markets. Notable amongst the varied causes have been the narrow range of colours used which has simply been as a result of the fact that only a limited range of primary colours and a few secondary colours are available for sale on the Ghanaian market.

4 Consequently, producers of tie-dye/batik fabrics use them just as purchased, thereby presenting for sale fabrics in a narrow range of colours. Colours different from the usual are oftentimes accidentals resulting from trial and error and hence are non-repetitive.

The problem with the lack of success in producing reproducible secondary and tertiary colours is as a result of a lack of an appropriate colour matching system that enables producers attain the same shade all the time. Therefore choice of colours for use is limited in range which in turn limits design possibilities.

1.3 Objectives

1. To quantify the weight of dyes, auxiliaries and time generally used

in dyeing a one yard piece of cotton fabric.

2. To generate a blend formular by mixing the available colours of Vat

dyes on the market in different proportions and at different

concentrations for actual dyeing of fabric samples.

3. To design and print a user-friendly catalogue from dyed samples

generated from dyeing proportions adopted for the project, for use

as a colour matching system by tie-dye/batik producers.

5 1.4 Hypothesis

The use of a colour matching system for producers of tie-dye/batik will

lead to reproducible dyeing in an increased range of colours.

1.5 Delimitation

There are three main classes of dyestuffs available on the Ghanaian

market for dyeing cotton fabrics which happen to be mostly used in tie-

dye/batik production. The dye classes include vat, reactive, and sulphur

dyes. Out of these, vat dyes hold sway over the others in the Ghanaian

tie-dye/batik production which is why it is used in the project experiments.

As already stated, cotton happens to be grown and processed in Ghana

by local textile mills. It is therefore the dominant fiber used for the

production of tie-dye/batik fabrics. The project will therefore be restricted

to the use of cotton fabrics although other cellulosic fabrics such as linen

and rayon exist.

1.6 Definition of terms

To facilitate understanding of the project, technical terms used in the text

are explained as follows:

Colour: The particular visual sensation caused by the light emitted by an object. (Tubbs and Daniels, 1991).

Colour matching system: A system used in reproducing a colour upon

similar or different materials.

6 1.7 Importance of the study

1. The project findings will encourage a culture of the use of weights

and measurements in the production of tie-dye/batik fabrics.

2. The study will broaden the scope of colours presently available for

the production of tie-dye/batik.

3. The catalogue generated as part of this project will serve as ready

reference for matching colours on tie-dye/batik fabrics.

4. The project report will serve as resource material for further

research in colour matching systems

7 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction Colour plays a significant role in the life of human beings especially in the determination of the aesthetic qualities inherent in an object. It is an interesting subject upon which a vast deal of theory is usually expounded, though excellent but usually in the end tending to confuse the general reader. This review will attempt to simplify the theory of colour, its use as it relates to the making of tie-dye/batik in West Africa, systems for colour matching and their presentation.

2.2 Colour

Colour is simply the interaction between the colour-giving property of an article and light (Trotman, 1984). Light contains all the colours of the electromagnetic spectrum, so that when light falls on a coloured object, part of the colours of the spectrum is absorbed and the rest reflected. The degree of reflectance (wavelength) determines the brightness of the colour which then is the real colour of the object receiving light. These are known as the chromatic colours.

When there is constant absorption over the whole spectrum which ranges from 400nm to 700nm, you have white (i.e. 100% reflection), grey (50%

8 reflection), and black (0% reflection). These are known as achromatic

colours (Trotman).

Cool colours range from blue to violet. These have shorter wavelengths

(derived from the reflectance curves), and have a calming effect

(www.pantone.com). They are frequently used for backgrounds to set off

smaller areas of warm colours. Used together, cool colours can look clean

and crisp, implying status and calm. It is important to note however that

usage of cool and bright colours generate more excitement than medium

to dark colours.

Warm colours on the other hand range from red to yellow. Such colours in

contrast have longer wavelengths. They are active, attention grabbing and

aggressive (www.pantone.com). They stimulate the emotions and motivate, and seem to come forward of the substrate.

Colour is seen simply because it produces a sensation in the eyes which the brain interprets as that colour (Agoston, 1979). Whether the perceived colour is desirable at a particular time or not depends very much on a gamut of factors that includes tastes, preferences, culture and the stage in the development of the individual.

Perhaps in traditional Africa, the overriding factor in determining colour perception and use is cultural. Colour in West Africa and to be specific,

9 Ghana, has deep philosophical connotations that tend to perpetuate their

significance. Although limited in scope, they are cleverly put together to represent the mood of the social celebration (Asihene, 2006).

The basic difference between colour use in temperate countries and that of the tropics is that, cooler (or pastel) shades are predominantly used in the temperate areas of the world, thus highlighting the role played by climate and environment in the use of colour.

The interesting and vibrant use of colour in African Textiles demonstrates

the development of taste overtime, but it is still mostly rooted in shades

available from natural sources. These were first introduced at the turn of the 19th century when the Dutch began producing wax prints for the

African market (www.gtpwax.com). The colours that gained popularity were mainly dull greens, ochres, scarlet etc., which the local people could

easily identify with. With time however, different colours have been

introduced with good results.

Current trends in the colour schemes of fabric that have received tremendous patronage suggest that the colour preferences of Ghanaians and for that matter Africans are very diverse and complex. Colours that in time past were unknown and so didn’t have in most cases and still do not have local names, have been generally accepted in traditional textiles.

10 This is largely attributed to the greater influence of western education

which in different ways has enriched the recognition and language of colour due to the high level of sophistication in that area. It is without question that languages with modern vocabulary tend not only to have modern terminology in the naming but also a means of identifying and

clarifying nuances in shades. It seems, perhaps, that the only reason for

their acceptance is their beauty. Africans like beautiful things and so will

use a cloth that has the perfect combination of colours for it to be deemed acceptable both to the wearer and to others. Some of these beautiful colours are mixtures of the primary colours of red, yellow and blue which produce secondary colours such as green, purple and orange and all the various shades and variations of the primary and secondary colours

(www.scienceofcolour). It is worth-mentioning here that these are the primary colours of pigments and that different systems apply to the colours

of light.

Mixing colours in textiles can be done prior to application to substrate or

done “in situ”. In all cases, ranges of the resultant mixture are possible

according to the proportion of the individual elements in the mixture. It has

been the desire of the textile industry to be able to always reproduce this

resultant colour, in the same shade, all the time. This challenge has been

a daunting one in the local tie-dye/batik industry. More often than not,

colours are used as purchased with some possibility of accidental

11 mixtures during production. There is therefore the need of a colour

matching system that meets the needs of the local tie-dye/batik producer.

2.3 Colour matching systems

A colour matching system works on the principle that, colour is

measurable and so is reproducible. The system allows the identification of

colour since the human mind is notoriously deficient in remembering

specific shades and no single person can recall the exact differences in a

hue without a sample as a guide. In other words, the measurement of colour for reproduction is a challenging exercise due to physiological

differences between observers which bring in the matter of subjectivity.

The situation has long been overcome by an objective assessment of

colour that involves the characterization of colour by means of figures

obtained with a standardized measuring instrument. The classic

instrument for measurement is the colorimeter which determines colour in

terms of the three primaries viz., red, yellow and blue which are reflected

by the coloured object under a given illumination. The knowledge of each

amount of reflected basic colour in combination with the light source used

makes it possible to match the colour in an approximate manner

(MacAdam, 1985). In recent times, the spectrophotometer is used to

measure the amount of light reflected by a test sample which falls within

the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum referred to earlier. The

12 test result is a spectral reflectance curve which is a graphic representation of the colour composition under a certain illumination. With this available, it is then possible to put together a recipe that matches the test sample though the final composition is arrived at in an iterative way.

The CIE (Commission International de l’Eclairage) in 1974 developed a standardized method in determining the proportion of each of the three (3) primaries present in a certain colour. This later attempt came as a result of various attempts to develop systems based on theory that, every colour can be obtained by combining three basic or primary colours in a certain proportion (Trotman). The system from CIE was developed further for uniformity.

One area in textiles colouration that has employed the use of the colour matching systems is dyeing. Most dye manufacturers in selling their products produce swatches of dyed fabrics with adequate information about that particular textile dye. A dye house can then decide to use the dye straight from the container and according to the prescribed information or they can mix colours in order to arrive at a desired colour.

2.4 Colour mixing

The mixing of colours is done in a colour kitchen in the textile industry.

This was once manual systems used for weighing dyestuffs and dye

13 auxiliaries based on the operator’s judgement, and secondly, dyebath preparation was carried out by operators who manipulated the colour kitchen based on human discretion in the reproduction of the same colours when needed. The situation of inconsistencies in dye bath that is reproduced and the resultant colours were later corrected by introducing automated colour kitchens equipped with dispenser systems which can reproduce the recipes established by the operator by means of a computer which weighs, mixes and dissolves the dye auxiliaries (Bellini,

2001).

With the advent of automated colour kitchens, instructional guides or manuals are programmed electronically into the form of a catalogue.

These contain the various shades of colours and their recipes, making it possible for reproduction of any desired shade of colour without any hits and misses by just a push of the necessary buttons on the computer, a facility well beyond the reach of our local tie-dye/batik producers.

To obtain the different shades of a particular colour, it requires the mixing of two of the primary colours of red, yellow and blue in both equal and varying amounts to produce shades of secondary colours (orange, green and violet). Further mixing of any of these colours together will result in varying range of shades of browns and greys. A tertiary colour is usually the name assigned to such colours that result and are also referred to as

14 neutral colours. They contain all the three primary colours and mixing

either all three primaries or a primary and secondary colour creates them

(Canady, 1980).

There is the opinion that there is no boundary to the mixing and attainment

of the tertiary colours making the name “tertiary colours” superfluous. For

example, by varying the quantity of a single colour chosen, a colour is

resulted whose degree of purity may be higher of lower than the original colour from which the new colour was produced. This new colour is a

tertiary colour (Well, 1997).

These different ranges of such a procedure are however available on

commercial scale in developed countries as dyestuffs to be applied on

textile materials, a situation that is non-existent on the Ghanaian market.

2.5 Dyeing

Dyes are chemical substances which at least during some stages of their

application have inherent affinity for the material. Dyes can diffuse into

fibres and interact with the polymer structure of the fibre through either a

process of dyeing or printing (Trotman). They can be classified in two

ways i.e. the chemical structure (chromophore) or according to their

method of application.

15 Trotman in classifying dyes according to the method of application puts

them into eight major groups. Five of them mainly used on cellulosic fibres

are direct dyes, sulphur dyes, azoic dyes, reactive dyes and vat dyes. The

remaining three are mainly for protein and synthetic fibres; these are acid

dyes, basic dyes and disperse dyes.

Dyes just like any other substance capable of giving colour have an

inherent property that is capable of giving colour. That property is possible

thanks to the existence of a chemical group called chromophore (Leene,

1972) which causes the dye molecules to reflect specific light

wavelengths. Leene adds that the dye molecules also have other chemical groups called auxochromes, which govern the solubility of the molecule and other properties such as colour intensity and power of fixation to the

substrate even though colour intensity is also determined by the

concentration of the dye molecules present. Slight differences in the basic

dye molecule may bring about a shift in the absorption wavelength and

hence colour (Trotman).

Dyeing itself is the process of colouring textile fibres, yarns or fabrics so

that the colouring matter becomes an integral part of the material rather

than a surface coating (Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2002).

The task that must be accomplished in dyeing is to transfer dye from the

bath to the fibre. The term exhaustion is used to express the degree of

16 dye transfer from the dye bath to the fibre (Thomas, 1954). It is usually expressed as a percentage of the amount of dye originally placed in a dye bath that is transferred to the fibre. For example, if ¾ of the dye originally added to the bath transfers to the fibre, the exhaustion is 75%. The depth of colour achieved depends mainly on how much dye is added to the fibre.

Dyes close to the surface of the fibre or fabric contributes more to the apparent depth than those deeply penetrated. Thus, the shade effect for two fabrics containing exactly the same amount of dye will not necessarily be the same because the fabric dimensions have to be considered in order to make good comparisons between dyed fabrics. Thomas points out that, dyeing processes are reversible, i.e., as dye molecules transfer from the dye bath into the fibre, others desorp from the fibre and re-enter the dye bath. The numbers of dye molecules in the fibre increases with dyeing time until the rates at which dye molecules enter and leave the fibre are equal. Here, equilibrium condition is established because the amount of dye in the fibre does not change with additional time. The time required to reach equilibrium depends on the temperature, type of dye, type of fibre, presence of dyeing auxiliaries, and liquor ratio.

The same conditions are responsible for differences in shade of two fabrics containing the same amount of dye mentioned earlier. Thomas states that, “variables in dyeing may be of several types including substrate variations, variations in chemicals or additives including water,

17 variation in preparation of the substrate for dyeing and procedural variation” (Thomas, 1954, Pp. 107-108). These are the exact parameters that the project attempts at controlling to achieve reproducible results.

Obviously, dye and chemical computations and weighing must be considered when varying the components for dyeing. Dyeing cycle time, dyeing temperatures and agitation of the substrate and dye bath all must be controlled for dyeing to be successful. Variations in substrates mentioned earlier in a quote attributed to Thomas, is the subject of an investigation conducted by Wells.

She found that the effect of dyes on Different fabrics made from different fibres and different structures also contribute to defects in dyeing such as causing variations in the shade (Wells). For example, polyester fabric dyed with vat dye will exhibit paler shade than mercerized cotton dyed with vat dye. The mercerized cotton will give darker shades but this will depend on the variations in other components.

2.6 Catalogues

As stated in the project objectives, the end result of this effort is the generation of a user-friendly colour catalogue as a colour matching system for tie-dye/batik producers.

18 Catalogues fall within the group of useful tools that serve as aids to the proper operation and application of a product. Other such tools in the group include manuals, references or instructional guides.

A manual is “a book containing information or practical instructions on a given subject”. This definition is again compared to a hand book which is

“a small book giving useful facts” (Hornby, 1998, p.174). Encarta’s definition in a way very much ties the two together by giving an example of a manual as a small hand book about how to do or use something, especially a machine. It also assesses the tasks required to assemble or operate a piece of machinery or equipment and presents these tasks in a set of sequential, easy to follow instructions (Encarta, 2002).

Hornby describes reference guides or instructional guides as books

intended to be consulted for information on specific matters, or during the

process of teaching, an order or direction given to do something.

Reference guides and manuals are made by manufacturers and usually

come with various machinery or equipment giving instructions regarding

their operation. They show and teach what exactly is to be done or

followed in operating a machine or during an activity. But for some

reasons, the outlined sequences of operations provided by some

19 manufacturers have been proven either too technical to comprehend or

insufficient to apply by some users.

Instructional guides, manuals or reference books can also be presented

by manufacturers of various products in the form of catalogues or as

catalogues providing for the user, flexibility in the application of the item.

A catalogue is a complete list of items, usually in a special order or

sequential format and with a description for each in a particular area of

application (Chambers, 1983). For example, Niemiec (1997) in her booklet

which is a catalogue and also serves as a manual for the application of

Procion dyes, gives laid down step-by-step guides for the use of the dyes

on various textile materials. This she illustrates in pictures, the stages

involved in colouring the materials.

This example goes to establish the fact that a catalogue, serving as a

reference guide or manual for dyeing is an appropriate proposition since dyeing is a complex, specialized science and art involving the use of chemicals and procedures that if not well controlled could lead to avoidable damages.

The written and/or pictorial work referred to as a catalogue is used in everyday activity to help transfer information about a product or service

20 between people in a general or technical manner. They are of prime

importance in industry and commerce where references are useful in the

manufacture and sale of various items. One major area of industry and

commerce where manuals, guides, catalogues etc., are widely used is in

the dyeing industry, due mainly to the reason assigned previously that it is

a complex process. The researcher is consequently convinced that a

catalogue showing the results of the project findings will be the best

means of providing such complex information in a simplified manner.

In providing such useful information, it becomes necessary that the

presentation be tailored to the user characteristics. The words must be

appropriate, fitting to both users and the subject matter

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User guide). Catalogues provide basic information

about the product or service and this must be accomplished in such a way

for the user to be receptive to the message. Wording must be tailored to

the subject area, such that users will be conversant with the terminology

used. Moreover, the level of terminology used must be adapted to the

users. For instance, producing a colour catalogue for lower primary pupils

will entail use of language and terminology suited to that age group and

devoid of a lot of technical words, whereas the same catalogue targeted

this time at university students studying textiles will also have a slightly

“sophisticated” use of terminology. It is always important to note that not all catalogues must remark the same things in the same way (www. cataloguedesignservices.com/catalogues). It is in this light and in the view

21 of the researcher, therefore, to produce a colour catalogue that users at

different levels of the educational ladder can use effectively, that both

appropriate and effective use of fonts have been combined with visual

imagery to communicate the information contained in it.

Since the aim of a catalogue is to promote the product or service being

offered, knowledge of the elements required for its success is very

important. Some may be more effective with literature whiles others may

require the use of a less expensive paper. The use of appropriate paper

quality alongside good visuals tells volumes about the seriousness of the

company. Use of a low quality paper for a very perceptive target group

could mar the returns of the venture. The decision no doubt hinges on the

ability to afford, and where the resources are available, it is recommended to go for the best quality at all times. But since this most often is not the case, it is important to keep rigorous criteria when choosing the suitable paper for each catalogue. Even though the selection of paper is important,

there are no laid down specifications as to what is best. The choice of a

suitable one has to be made amidst a number of considerations, some

already outlined. This decision definitely depends on both the company

and its graphic designer, and must factor in the intended duration of the catalogue and the sort of message that is conveyed alongside the visuals in the catalogue. For example, it will be highly unreasonable to use a high quality paper for a catalogue meant to advertise the month’s offers. In

22 such a case, a low quality paper such as newsprint will be suitable. On the

other hand if the catalogue is providing technical information about a

product, it is expected to last its whole life time so that it can be useful

whenever the need arises. This later scenario will therefore call for durable

paper and in some cases, a case cover to protect the book block itself.

In terms of design, a catalogue must be properly rendered to show whatever is being communicated neatly, so that they can be easily recognized and at the same time must be attractive to be effective. The

layout must be strategically arranged in order to give more importance to certain items or to make the catalogue look more eye-catching

(www.cataloguedesignservice.com/catalogues). Vital information must be well

located in a way that will call for a response from the reader without

him/her having to exert much effort. For example in the case of some

products, the contact number could be sited right next to the product in

order to prevent delay between the intention of buying a well exhibited

product and the purchase of same. Due to this delay, the prospective

buyer may forget or change his/her mind about the idea of buying the

product. In the light of this, all vital information related to the mixing of the colours has been so located as not to miss the attention of the user. A hot tips section that give further information about the blend proportions have been provided on each page of the catalogue.

23 A catalogue must have three parts: the front cover, the content and the

back cover (www.cataloguedesignservice.com/catalogues). Each part has

slightly different functions and demands special work. Even though the

three parts are not too different from each other, it is important that a

catalogue make-up is separated into three parts, so that the information

layout may be attractively arranged. Each part has specific characteristics

which when well managed and adapted for use promotes its persuasive

power.

The front cover must be eye-catching and attractive, but not overfilled with

too much content. Furthermore, it must in the case of say, a company that sells goods introduce the company in a clear way and also inform the reader about what is available.

The content is made up by the pages that are between the front and back

cover. It can be likened to a mall and as such consumers should be able

to read through the pages looking for something to buy, prices and offers.

The content can be divided into sections, offers or anything as long as an

order is maintained that runs through the whole catalogue just as goods in

a shop are arranged in an orderly manner for maximum impact. Whereas

the front cover must not be filled with too much information, on the

content, the designer must take full advantage of this, but information that

may distract the attention of readers should be avoided, since the intention

24 is to draw their attention to the products, and in some cases, to the written content which describes the goods basic characteristics. It is very important to be careful when designing the content layout since it not only must include as many products as possible, but it has to be easy reading as well.

The back cover which is the last page of the catalogue can either serve as the last page for the content or could have its own features. If it serves as the final page of the content, then the same criterion applied for the content pages would also apply. If the designer chooses to attach to the back cover a particular style, then he/she can include additional information such as methods of payment, contact addresses etc.

25 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter discusses methodology of the research and is considered as the procedures section which underlies the need for the research to be carried out (Baumgartner et al, 2002). Included in this methodology are the research design, research setting, and population of the study, research instruments, administration of research instruments and data analysis.

3.1 Research Design The research design adopted for the project is the pluralistic type where both qualitative and quantitative methods of generating enquiries are employed. In an attempt to develop a user-friendly catalogue for small scale tie-dye/batik producers that offers numerous advantages including the cultivation of use of appropriate tools and methods of work and the certainty of achieving reproducible shades, it became necessary to first find out what the practitioners of the trade are doing now. Their work culture which includes procedures and quantities of dyes and auxiliaries used was carefully studied by observation and by the administration of a structured interview (Appendix 1). This focus group included graduates of the textile programme at KNUST, students and other producers with a primary school level of education. The qualitative research method provided a useful means of gaining an in-depth understanding of what

26 pertains in the different studios of practitioners. The information so generated formed a significant part of this chapter which set the stage for determining the test procedure for the project. After designing colour mixing proportions and actually dyeing samples with the dye and testing the influence of process parameters on the shade generated, it became necessary to use prescribed (objective) quantitative methods of assessment to measure shade of colour developed and other observed phenomena during dyeing. Such assessment yielded after processing, very descriptive analyses of the phenomena studied. The catalogue generated from this project can be a tool that sets the stage for research of any type.

3.2 Research setting

There are several workspaces where tie-dye/batik making are carried out in Ghana. The more established producers and, tertiary institutions and other training facilities have large and adequately resourced studios, whilst those who work on a smaller scale do so from spaces created for the purpose in homes and other make shift structures. The researcher carefully selected 49 individuals working in these different kinds of environments in the Kumasi metropolis. The characteristics of this population is discussed further on.

3.3 Population of the study

Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations which provides some knowledge about a population of concern. Each member in the population is supposed to bear the characteristics, but due to the problem of large numbers it becomes practicable to work with a small number (sample) that is a representative of the population under investigation.

In this report, a population is a group of persons having information on the production of tie-dye/ batik. As a result, graduates of the Textiles programme at KNUST who have tie-dye/batik making studios, technicians, students at the tertiary level studying textiles and finally practitioners of the trade with qualification up to senior secondary school level were captured in the population.

Such stratification is necessary since they represent distinct categories and mainly ensure that the different segments of the population are well represented in the study and also to improve efficiency by gaining greater control on the composition of the sample. Such control can be achieved through the use of lower sample sizes when the sample size is varied from stratum to stratum. The sample size so generated is made proportional to the relative size of the strata.

28 3.3.1 Characteristics For The Population Under Study

The sample selected for the project had 49 individuals and was divided into four categories comprising the following:

1. For Category one (A), only graduates who are involved in the

production of tie-dye/ batik after school were selected.

2. Category four (B) was composed of producers of tie-dye/ batik with

educational qualification up to Senior Secondary School level and

who have been engaged in production for no less than a year.

3. For Category two (C), only technicians at the tertiary education

level with not less than 2 years working in the area of tie-dye/ batik

were selected.

4. Category three (D), comprises tertiary students at the tertiary level,

especially Polytechnic and University level studying textiles.

Table 3.1 shows the different categories and the number of individuals

in each category.

Table 3.1 Stratified sampling indicating the number of individuals in each category.

Category A (Stratum 1) 7

Category B (Stratum 2) 27

Category C (Stratum 3) 4

Category D (Stratum 4) 11

Total 49

3.4 Survey Instruments

Questionnaires, interviews and observations were the main tools used to

generate data from respondents for the survey.

3.4.1 Questionnaire

Copies of a questionnaire were sent out particularly to people the researcher could not reach or were too busy at the time to answer some

questions in an interview, and who could read and write well.

The questionnaire was so structured in order to determine amongst others, the extent of scope of colours available on the market and whether they meet the satisfaction of producers. Some questions also sought to find out about attempts made by producers at generating their own unique shades and the problems they encounter with that effort. These plus other ancillary ones in no small way, helped to provide enough justification for the generation of a user-friendly colour catalogue for tie-dye/batik producers. A detailed copy of the questionnaire is presented in appendix

3.4.2 Interviews

Formal interviews with the questionnaire in appendix 1 as a guide, were a fundamental part of gathering information for this project. The method

30 adopted was face to face type that allowed the researcher to sense the sentiments of those interviewed toward the project. The direct verbal

interaction it involves allowed the respondents to provide vital information

in the language they could freely communicate in. Some members in

Category B who formed the bulk of respondents provided useful

information in Twi.

The responses so generated from both the questionnaire and interviews

were then analysed using the statistical programme for the social sciences

(SPSS). Each question was analysed using the percentage of responses

in the options provided in the questionnaire. The following are the

analyses of the respective questions in the questionnaire.

Data Analysis

Question 1. What is your Occupation?

Finding out the occupation of members in the sample was for purposes of

categorizing them into sub-groups and to be able to determine how their

level of education and their involvement in the production activity affects

their appreciation of the problem the researcher seeks to solve. Table 3.2

shows results of responses to the question posed.

Table 3.2 Occupational categorization of sample selected for the survey.

What is your occupation?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

. Batik Producers - Graduates 7 14.3 14.3 14.3 of Tertiary Institution

Batik Producers - Producers 27 55.1 55.1 69.4 with educational level of SHS and below

Technicians 4 8.2 8.2 77.6

Student at tertiary level 11 22.4 22.4 100.0

Total 49 100.0 100.0

Table 3.2 shows that well over half (55.5%) of the respondents consisted producers with an educational level up to the senior high school who are engaged in tie-dye/batik making as their main occupation. The lowest of

4% were made up of textile technicians at the two tertiary institutions of

KNUST and Kumasi Polytechnic. Even though they represent a small group, their contribution to the investigation was invaluable since they are key to the delivery of technical knowledge in the area of interest. The students at the tertiary level representing 22.4% were randomly selected students in their penultimate and final years of study in textiles at the

KNUST and Kumasi Polytechnic. Their input, together with graduates from these institutions who were full-time producers of tie-dye/batik equally provided insightful information into the subject under investigation.

Question 2. What colours do you normally use for your tie-dye/batik business?

In response to question 2, almost 90% of respondents based their choices mostly on what is on offer and only a few actually showed a conscious preference for specific colours that although not readily available had to be

formulated for use (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3 An assessment of depth of knowledge on colour distinction

What colours do you normally use for your tie-dye/batik business?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Whatever is available on the 44 89.8 89.8 89.8 market.

Primary colours only. 1 2.0 2.0 91.8

Primary & secondary colours 3 6.1 6.1 98.0

Primary, secondary & tertiary 1 2.0 2.0 100.0 colours

Total 49 100.0 100.0

This group represented 4% (i.e. those who used primary and secondary

colours, and those who used tertiary colours in addition to the primary and

secondary colours). Those who even indicated that they used primary

colours only, representing 1% actually were among those dedicated to the generation of additional colours from the primaries. Incidentally, most of

such respondents fall within the group that had had a higher education in

textiles, and so have become sophisticated in their appreciation and use

of colours.

Question 3. Are you satisfied with the number of available colours?

Table 3.4 shows in simple percentages the level of satisfaction of

satisfaction of producers with colours available on the market, since it

takes the expression of such discontentment to cause producers to

consider ways of generating additional colours. The results shown on the

table reveal that as many as 67.3% indicated their displeasure at the

number of colours available on the market thereby giving enough

justification for carrying out the project.

Table 3.4 Results of responses to question that seeks to determine extent of satisfaction of producers with the scope of colours available on the Ghanaian market. Are you satisfied with the number of available colours?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Yes 16 32.7 32.7 32.7

No 33 67.3 67.3 100.0

Total 49 100.0 100.0

Question 4. What type of fabric do you normally use for the tie-

dye/batik business?

The statistics reveal a preference for a dyed background to begin with

which tones down the general brightness of the colour scheme thereby enhancing the beauty of the fabric.

34 Since the fibre used a lot over the years is cotton the dyes available on the

market are all applicable to cotton and other cellulose fibres like rayon and linen. For those interviewed, few have endeavoured to work with the other two cellulosic fabrics mentioned due to the fact that they are not readily available and also come expensive. Dyed damask provides an evenly dyed background mostly dyed with bright reactive colours that can be discharged with sodium hydrosulphite. The discharged area remains white thereby enhancing the design possibilities. Alternatively, a vat dye of a different colour can be used in place of the discharged dye, which also adds to the beauty of the fabric. It is this preference to enhance the beauty of the fabric that 42.9% of the respondents used already dyed damask

fabrics (Table 3.5). This is ample proof of the desire for variation in the

scope of colours available for sale on the market, and also a desire to

have reproducible colours in the designs made. Where undyed mercerized

and damask fabrics are used, there are either for the retention of some

white areas of the fabric by waxing those areas, or for the need to dye in a

colour not readily available in the already dyed cotton or rayon fabrics on

the market. Such a need to dye the base colour oneself could be to

reduce the final cost of the fabric, since already dyed fabrics could be

expensive. Here too, the need for shades preferred either by the client or

the designer, is highlighted and consequently a guide to facilitate the

formulation of such colours is needful.

Table 3.5 Analysis of results of data on response that indicates a preference for already dyed backgrounds. What type of fabric do you normally use for the tie-dye/batik business?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Already dyed Damask 21 42.9 42.9 42.9

Undyed Mercerized Cotton 26 53.1 53.1 95.9 or Damask

Others like Rayon, Linen, etc. 2 4.1 4.1 100.0

Total 49 100.0 100.0

Question 5. Have you made attempts at generating other colours on

your own from what is available?

Responses to this question revealed that 61.2% of the respondents have attempted to generate colours that were not available on the market, whilst a smaller percentage of 38.8% have never made the attempt (Table

3.6). The latter group mostly represented those who produced very small orders and whose level of education was not past the senior secondary school level.

36 Table 3.6 Analysis of results indicating extent of effort on the part of producers at generating tertiary colours.

Have you made attempts at generating other colours on your own from what is available?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Yes 30 61.2 61.2 61.2

No 19 38.8 38.8 100.0

Total 49 100.0 100.0

Question 6. If yes, what problems are realized as a result of that effort.

All 30 respondents who have tried to generate colours by themselves, attested to the fact that colours generated are not reproducible no matter how close they may come to previous shades. Table 3.7 shows analysis of results recorded.

Table 3.7 Analysis of results to identify problems faced in mixing colours.

If yes, what problems are realized as a result of that effort?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Colours obtained are not 30 100.0 100.0 100.0 reproducible.

Question 7. What are the sources of the inputs you use for your

business?

37 The above question was relevant in order to acquire some inputs for the project and also determine the reliability of service rendered in the sale of such inputs. From Table 3.8 it is evident that all producers of tie-dye/batik no matter their level of experience and education purchased their inputs from the local market. As a result, almost all of them hardly have any idea the country of importation of these inputs including the dyes as is shown in

Table 3.9.

Table 3.8 Results of responses to determine source of inputs used in the production of tie-dye/batik.

What are the sources of the inputs you use for your business?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Purchased from the local 49 100.0 100.0 100.0 market

Table 3.9 Results of responses to assess the level of knowledge of source of inputs used in the production of tie-dye/batik.

Do you know the country of importation for these inputs?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 1 2.0 2.0 2.0

No 48 98.0 98.0 100.0

Total 49 100.0 100.0

Question 8. Is any literature provided on these inputs (especially dyes) to indicate how it must be used?

38 As to whether any literature is provided on inputs purchased (especially

dyes) that give guidelines as to its use, all respondents answered in the negative (Table 3.10). This perhaps is due to the fact that most of these

retailers are purely businessmen/women themselves and that they are not actively engaged in the production of tie-dye/batik fabrics. Since such

items are not produced in the country, their consideration is purely profit and not quality service provision in the form of well-labeled products that

ensure that users get the best value for money spent. Additionally,

consumer protection rights have not gained enough roots in Ghana to

ensure that all such products, no matter the quantity in the retailed

package, are well labeled with directions for use.

Table 3.10 Results of responses to determine the source of inputs.

Is any literature provided on these inputs (especially dyes) to indicate how it must be used?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

No 49 100.0 100.0 100.0

39 Is any literature provided on these inputs (especially dyes) to indicate how it must be used?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Question 9. If no, how then do you use these products?

A follow up question to find out how the producers of tie-dye/batik use products purchased from the market in view of the fact that these come without usage instructions, showed a very subjective approach to it. As many as 31 out of 49 representing 63.3% (Table 3.11) use the products according to methods developed through personal experience. Such people do not have a documented procedure for most activities involved in the production processes, mostly due to the need to guard jealously what they refer to as trade secret gained through several years in the business. This was necessarily in order to find out if there were well-documented methods of production especially in the formulation of a dye recipe such a documentation would have been a ready reference for the project since a major objective was to stay within the confines of what is already known by the producers.

Table 3.11 Results of responses to determine how producers of tie-dye/batiks use dyes and chemicals in the absence of literature on the use of products.

If no, how then do you use these products?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid According to methods 31 63.3 63.3 63.3 developed through experience.

40 Is any literature provided on these inputs (especially dyes) to indicate how it must be used?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

According to method learnt 18 36.7 36.7 100.0 during training.

Total 49 100.0 100.0

The rest of the respondents representing 36.7 % also picked on what they

learnt during training and is likewise not documented and subjective as

those with time also gather experience which they add to what they started with.

Question 10. Which type of dyes do you use for your business and why?

In order to find out the class of dyes popular with these producers, it came

to light that a greater percentage of 73.5% used vat dyes because they

were familiar with its usage (Table 3.12). From this revelation therefore, the researcher settled on the use of vat dyes for the project since its

outcome will impact on a lot of people. This notwithstanding, other

reasons were assigned for the use of other classes such as reactive dyes

and sulphur dyes. Their use is however limited to 26.6% of the

respondents.

Table 3.12 Results of responses indicating type of dye mostly used. Which type of dyes do you use for your business and why?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

41 Valid Vat dye - because they are 36 73.5 73.5 73.5 the type familiar with.

Question 11. Which auxiliaries (chemicals) do you use with the

dyes?

Again, in an attempt to find out the level of knowledge and consistency with the use of these dye classes available, respondents were asked about chemicals they use alongside the dyes. The closeness of the statistics in Table 3.13 is enough demonstration of exactly what is required for each dye class. The slight difference recorded in the number of respondents for those who used caustic soda in combination with hydros on one hand, and those who used salt in addition to ‘hydros’ and caustic

soda, was a matter of experience. The researcher therefore felt

comfortable to stay with the chemicals known and used by all producers

which were, caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite with vat dyes.

Table 3.13 An assessment of the level of knowledge and consistency in the use of the dye classes available. Which auxiliaries (chemicals) do you use with the dyes?

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

42 Valid Caustic and Hydros 35 71.4 71.4 71.4

Soda Ash 9 18.4 18.4 89.8

Sodium Sulphite, Salt Hydros 5 10.2 10.2 100.0 and Caustic Soda.

Total 49 100.0 100.0

The following are highlights of general conclusions drawn on the analysis

of responses to the questionnaire administered:

1. There are different categories of individuals involved in the

production of tie-dye/batik with different levels of educational

attainment which in most cases has an effect on their sense of

colour appreciation and usage.

2. There is enough reason to conclude that there is a strong desire for

a wider colour palette to permit variation in the combination of

colours used in designs.

3. There is clear evidence that attempts have been made by some

producers at generating tertiary colours for use in tie-dye/batik

production, albeit, such colours are not reproducible.

4. The results from the questionnaire also helped to identify most

widely used dye class in the business i.e. the vat dye.

5. It was finally established that there was a need to establish

standards in the generation of tertiary colours and in the dyeing

procedure.

In conclusion, responses generated from the questions administered, in no small way gave enough justification for undertaking the project as it

43 made evident the need for a cataloque that provides information on how to match colours.

3.4.3 Observation

Since the project deals a lot with methodology of work and work culture, it became expedient to visit the studios and workshops of producers of tie- dye/batik cloths in order to observe and note on-the-spot activities and actions. This served to buttress some of their responses and views held by the researcher.

3.5 Library Research

The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology main library, the College of Art library, the College of Textiles library, North Carolina

State University, Department of Art Education library were all visited a number of times. Books, publications, periodicals, magazines and theses were the sources from which secondary data were collected.

3.6 Studio Research Conducted

The researcher visited and interviewed a number of studios in the Kumasi

Metropolis to mainly determine the common practices in the manufacture of tie-dye/batik. Interviews and observation were the means by which

44 information was obtained. At each studio the working culture of each artist/practitioner was closely observed and appropriate notes were taken.

For those who were not in production, a questionnaire was administered to solicit answers to the questions.

The highlights of this survey conducted were to find out the ratio of dyes and auxiliaries used to the yardage dyed, and also the ratio of water to goods (bath ratio). The research revealed that there were inconsistencies in the amount of dyes and auxiliaries used to goods and to the amount of water which was a major factor responsible for differences in shade produced between dyeing cycles.

It also became clear that almost all interviewed admitted the lack of a broader variety of colours limits their creative potential in the use of colours. The limited use of colours seen in displayed fabrics for sale corroborated this revelation.

Plate 3.1 Limited range of colours available for use on the market seen in almost every piece on display.

The available colours were repeatedly used in most cases in their original shades except when colours are mixed in the course of the dyeing process as a result of the technique employed.

It also became clear that a lot depended on the personal judgment of the cloth producer which hinges very much on the trust that whatever is purchased from the dye seller is of the right potency and kind. Dyes and auxiliaries are dispensed without instructions and the low level of education has also contributed to a situation where the sale and production of both inputs and products are not regulated.

46 CHAPTER FOUR

TOOLS, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

In constructing the colour catalogue for tie-dye/batik users, several tools,

equipment and materials were used which are clearly described in this chapter.

4.1 Tools and Equipment

These are mainly laboratory machines and devices used in dyeing and testing of dyed fabrics and yarns. They include spectrophotometers, a

video microscope system, a variety of laboratory ware and safety

equipment of different kinds, and book-making materials. Below are

selected tools and equipment used.

4.1.1 THE MINOLTA CM 3600d Benchtop Spectrophotometer

This spectrometer was used for this research in determining the reflectance curve of the dyed samples to enable differences and similarities to be established between them. This became necessary since

slight deviations in colour may not be that visible to the naked eye. But an

objective assessment provides a means of settling disputes that arise due

to human limitation. Amongst other things, it was employed to determine

the effect of time of dyeing on the shade produced and also to detect the

marginal differences of dyeing tests to establish reproducibility of the test

procedure. It is important that a colour matching system proposed should

47 yield reproducible colours and proof of such a claim could only be

determined by an instrument such as the Minolta Benchtop

spectrophotometer (plate 4.1).

Plate 4.1 The Minolta CM 3600d Benchtop Spectrophotometer

It is a rectangular shaped measuring instrument with a circular slit in front of it. The major feature is a spring-loaded sample holder that holds the test piece firmly over the oval slit for measurement. The device is connected to a computer which displays the test results which are an average of four measurements taken of an individual sample. All other related data necessary for processing the results are generated by the computer

48 programme in excel format. The data is downloaded and processed in

excel in the form of reflectance curves.

The instrument actually works by measuring the amount of light reflected

by a surface as a function of wavelength to produce a reflectance

spectrum. The sample is illuminated with white light; measurements are

taken at intervals of 10nm, from 400 to 700nm, which are well within the

visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is done by passing

the reflected light through a monochromating device that splits up the

light into the several wavelength intervals. The instrument is calibrated

using a white tile whose reflectance at each wavelength is known

compared to a perfectly diffused reflecting surface. The reflectance of a

sample is expressed between 0 and 1 (as a fraction) or between 0 and

100 (as a percentage). Values expressed in the project report are mainly

reported as fractions.

4.1.2 Spectronic 20D spectrophotometer

The benchtop spectrophotometer described above was used in the

research for determining the light reflecting properties of the dyed samples produced from the different dye solutions made according to the dyed formular created for the project. This enabled the formulated shade to be assessed objectively.

49 The spectronic 20D spectrophotometer (plate 4.2) however was used to

determine the concentration of dye in the prepared dye solution so as to

assess the effect of time and temperature on exhaustion of dye molecules

in the course of the dyeing procedure. This procedure allowed very

important parameters of the dyeing process to be established. It measures

approximately 35cm x 20cm x 20cm. It has a display screen where

readings are made and also buttons for measuring different properties

such as transmittance, absorbance and concentration of the dye solution.

Plate 4.2 The Spectronic 20D Spectrophotometer

The instrument also has two control knobs; one for adjusting the reading to a reference value before actual reading of dye solution is taken, and the other, for setting the desired wavelength with the wavelength control knob.

50 The spectronic 20D can be used for wavelengths ranging from 400nm to

700nm.

4.1.3 NIKON Eclipse 50i video microscope system

This is a high-tech binocular microscope with a CCD (Charge Coupled

Device) camera attached to it that enables shots to be made of the object under view via a DSC port over a cable to a Sympodium monitor (plate

4.3). Adjustments and definition of picture can be done later on the monitor before capture.

Plate 4.3 The Nikon Eclipse 50i video microscope system

51 The microscope is of a sturdy design with a stable and smooth platform

that allows exchange of specimens while preventing the surface from

being scratched by the repeated exchange of slide glasses.

It also comes with a white LED illumination that allows the intensity of light to be increased without the increase in heat that might in the long run affect the test specimen. The eye piece is also adjustable to accommodate differences in physique of the operator. It has infinity optics with different magnification ranging from 10x to 100x. A centering and focus adjustments are also provided.

4.1.4 A Spatula

A spatula (plate 4.4) is used to take small quantities of solid chemical. It

serves like a spoon and normally has a long handle and a broad flat edge;

it refers solely to a mixing and spreading implement. The long handle helps keep the holder’s hand away from what is being handled. The blade of the device is wide and/or thin. The shape of the blade varies, with square and rectangular shapes being the most common. The blade as was with the type used in the dyeing processes was somewhat flexible.

They are often made of plastic or metal though there are some wooden ones which help to insulate the implement when used in hot circumstances. This implement was used especially in taking small amounts of dye for weighing and also for the dual task of turning the fabric

52 in the dye solution and for pressing the fabric to submerge well under the

surface of the dye liquor.

Plate 4.4 A Spatula for portioning out small quantities of chemicals

3.1.5 A Hot Plate

A hot plate (Plate 4.5) is useful laboratory equipment often used as an alternative to the Bunsen burner in laboratories. This small electric stove is

used to heat glassware and is used to provide uniform heating of samples,

liquids, solutions and other substances. Hot plates do generate high heat

but at the same time they do not have the hazards associated with gas

burners and high temperature provided by a Bunsen burner. It was used in

this project to warm water for dissolving the dye before vatting, and also

for raising the dyebath temperature and maintaining it for instances where

the dyebath required such temperatures for maximum exhaustion as was

the case in dyeing Atul Violet and Blue.

Plate 4.5 A Hot plate

3.1.6 Glassware

Various glassware was used in the project. These were employed where

exact volumes of solutions had to be measured in preparing the dye bath.

In dyeing, liquor to goods ratio plays a significant part in ensuring that

reproducible dyeing is achieved. Consequently all additions to the dissolved dye must be scrupulously measured in graduated cylinders

(Plate 4.6). The dye itself to which dissolved chemicals are added is first

dissolved with a measured quantity of water in a glass beaker (Plate 4.6).

The final volume of reduced dye is measured in a graduated beaker which is then added to a measured volume of water in a stainless steel laboratory dye trough.

Plate 4.6 Graduated beaker and cylinder

4.1.7 Stainless steel dye canisters

Since laboratory dyeing of the sort employed for this project required smaller amounts of dye liquor, stainless steel dye containers were used as troughs for the dyeing proper. The stainless steel quality enables it to be washed easily without leaving a trace of colour behind. Their narrow cylindrical sides allow the fabric to be submerged in as little a liquor ratio as possible.

55 4.1.8 The Mettler Toledo Sensitive Balance The Mettler Analytical Balance with a capacity of 240g and a sensitivity of

0.01mg was used in weighing all dye and chemical samples used in all the

dyeing tests. It is shielded on both sides and at the top with glasses that

slide back if pushed via attached handles. This helps to prevent influences

caused by slight change in air flow around the balance. Such a change

could be caused by the breadth of whoever is using it.

Plate 4.7 Mettler Toledo Balance

4.1.9 Disposable Weigh Boats

Weigh boats can be utilized for liquids and solids during weighing procedures as was the case with this project which saw the weighing of so

56 many samples in order to complete a dyeing operation. It is produced from

special grade of rubberized polystyrene with smooth and rounded corners

provided for easy removal of powdered and granular samples.

It is biologically inert and resistant to dilute acids, alcohol and bases which

make it suitable for use in weighing the chemicals used for the project.

Plate 4.8 Disposable pour out boats

4.1.10 Single Edge Carbon Steel razor blade

The blade made of carbon steel is .009” thick with a length and breadth of

1 ½ “x ¾ “(plate 4.9). It has an aluminum cover at one edge of it thus making it easier to use without injuring oneself. In the creating of cross sections for viewing under the microscope to determine the depth of dye penetration, it was used to shear off the ends of yarns protruding on both sides of the slide that houses the hole through which the yarns are drawn.

57 As a result, a cross section is created which can be viewed under an

electron microscope.

Plate 4.9 Safety razor blade

4.1.11 HP Digital Camera

A digital camera is camera that captures video or still photographs, or both

digitally on a light sensitive sensor. They often include features that are

not found in film cameras. These include the ability to display an image on

the camera screen immediately after capture and also the capacity to take

several images on a single small storage device. They have the ability to

record video with sound, edit images and even allow images to be deleted

so that storage space can be released for re-use.

The digital camera was used in capturing shots used in this project.

58 4.1.12 Personal Computer

A computer is a programmable machine with two principal characteristics:

1. It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.

2. It can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions.

The researcher utilized this equipment as the main tool in processing

readings taken from the Spectronic 20D and spectrophotometer

instruments. It was the major machine employed in the design of the

colour catalogue.

4.2 Laboratory Safety Outfit

To undertake a project like this, long hours were spent in a wet laboratory

with the handling of corrosive chemicals and gaseous substances. As a

result strict laboratory safety measures which included the wearing of appropriate clothing and safety gadgets were duly followed. These included amongst others; eye glasses and laboratory clothing.

4.2.1 Eye glasses

Because of gaseous fumes that emanate from dissolving dyes and chemicals used together with the dyes, it becomes absolutely necessary that undertaking such test dyeing be done with good eye protection. The

Pyramex Eye glasses (plate 4.10) were selected for use by the

59 researcher. That comes with shields on the sides of the main lens thereby

providing maximum protection against splashing.

Plate 4.10 Pyramex Safety Eye Glasses

4.2.2 Laboratory clothing

A lab overcoat was worn before the start of each day’s tasks. The overcoat serves as a barrier against splashes landing on the researcher’s clothing which could cause damage to both body and clothing.

4.3 Materials

4.3.1 Dyes

A dye is a substance which has an inherent affinity for a textile material.

They are soluble in the dyeing medium during or at least in some stage of

the dyeing process which is important if the dye is to enter the pores of the

fibre and bond with its internal structure. Some dyes however at the

60 beginning of the process is insoluble and so have to be reduced to the

soluble form before it can dye the fabric.

Dyes may be classified according to chemical structure or according to the method of application. Whilst the classification according to the chemical structure might be most useful to the dye chemist, classification according to the method of application is what interests the textile technologist.

Vat dyes are selected for use in this project because it is the most widely used dye for tie-dye/batik production in Ghana. The name is derived from the method of application which in the past required that the natural indigo vat plant was stepped in tanks for a significant amount of time until reaction by fermentation has set in. These tanks were large wooden vessels called vats. The present process of reducing the synthetic vat dye into a soluble form before addition to the dyebath is still referred to as vatting.

Vat dyes are used mainly on cellulosic fibres although some can be applied to protein fibres. They have outstanding colour fastness properties. They are usually more expensive but give good shades with most colours. It is used together with sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydrosulphite, the active ingredient which is responsible for reduction gives a pungent smell when potent. This

61 however has led to its unpopularity in some developed countries. Sodium hydroxide on the other hand is highly corrosive and must be used with care.

4.3.2 Sodium Hydrosulphite

Sodium hydrosulphite (aka. sodium hydrosulfite or sodium dithionite) is a white crystalline powder with a weak sulphurous odor. Although it is stable under most conditions, it will decompose in hot water and in acid solutions. This compound is a water-soluble salt, and can be used as a reducing agent in aqueous solutions. It is used as such in some industrial dying processes, where an otherwise water-insoluble dye can be reduced into a water-soluble alkali metal salt. The reduction properties of sodium dithionite also eliminate excess dye, residual oxide, and unintended pigments, thereby improving overall colour quality. It can also be used as bleach, in for instance, paper pulp, cotton, wool, and kaolin clay.

This chemical can also be used for water treatment, gas purification, cleaning, and stripping of reactive dyes from dyed fabrics. It can also be used in industrial processes as a sulphonating agent or a sodium ion source. In addition to the textile industry, this compound is used in industries concerned with leather, foods, polymers, photography, and many others. Its wide use is attributable to its low toxicity.

62 4.3.3 Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium Hydroxide is a white crystalline odourless solid that absorbs moisture from the air. It is produced as flakes, pellets, sticks and cakes.

When dissolved in water or neutralized with acid, it liberates substantial heat which may be sufficient to ignite combustible materials. Its exothermic reaction with liquids is the reason why when it is used in dyeing, it is advisable to use cold water in its dissolution before it is added to the dye bath. It is also advisable to use plastic containers for the same purpose and reason.

It is caustic and so gives off hazardous gaseous fumes when it is being dissolved, which makes it an important requirement to use a nose mask when working with it. It is generally used as a solid which is how most most tie-dye/batik users know it or as a 50% aqueous solution. It should be stored in a cool, dry and well ventilated location separate from organic and oxidizing materials, acids and metal powders. It is used in the manufacture of soaps, rayon, paper, explosives, dyestuffs and petroleum products.

4.3.4 Cotton Cloth

The cotton cloth used in the dyeing tests in this project is made from the cotton fibre which comes from the plant Gossypium. They are usually off- white in colour although some varieties have been bred to incorporate a

63 natural colour. Each fibre is formed by the elongation of a single cell from

the surface of the seed. The word cotton is derived from its Arabic name

pronounced ‘kutan’, ‘qutn’ or ‘qutan’ depending on the dialect.

Cotton consists typically of between 88 to 96% cellulose with the rest

being protein, pectic substances, ash and wax. After scouring and

bleaching, cotton then becomes 99% cellulose. The fibres are weakened

and destroyed by acids but are resistant to alkalis.

Mercerized cotton, the type used in this research is treated to permanently

straighten the cotton fibres which then become smooth and rod-like,

uniform in appearance with a high luster. Cotton is often blended with

other fibres such as polyester, linen, and wool to blend the best properties

of each fibre. It is worth mentioning however that all cloths use for this project is 100% cotton. Depending on the type of weave and texture of the material, cotton takes different names such as; organdy, sailcloth, poplin seersucker, oxford, gauze, diaper cloth, gingham etc.

Cotton fibre burns readily and is not inherently resistant to oxidizing agents, and biodegradation, as well as acids. Despite these shortcomings cotton has a good wear life. Its properties can also be readily modified by chemical finishes which provide enhanced performance, e.g. crease resistance and flame resistance.

64 CHAPTER FIVE

GENERAL PROCEDURES

5.1 Introduction

Even though the topic for the project suggests the production of a physical object called catalogue, preliminary work prior to the making of the book

itself had to be carried out to generate the needed content. This

comprised the design of a mixing formula for generating the desired shades, followed by dyeing sample fabrics with dye liquor prepared

according to the mixing formula. In the end about 125 different shades of

dyed fabrics were produced which formed the input to creating the colour

catalogue.

The catalogue construction itself is the second part of this project which resulted in a graphical collection of all the 125 shades of colour and which

provides useful information as to how to reproduce those same shades on

fabric.

To enable the reader appreciate fully the test method adopted for dyeing,

it is necessary to describe a typical dyeing procedure derived from data

collected from the studios and workshops visited.

Every dye class is suitable for use in dyeing a particular fiber type or

types. As a result there are dyes applicable only to fibres of cellulosic

origin such as cotton, flax etc. and some other applicable to fibres from

65 animal origin such as wool, hair, mohair etc. Dyes found on the market in

Ghana are predominantly applicable to cotton goods since it is the major fibre produced in Ghana and also used in producing tie-dye/ batik. As a result vat dyes which are widely used in Ghana because of its ease of application and good light and wash fastness properties was selected for use. As purchased from the market they come mainly in the form of powder or microperles and are insoluble.

These structures contain the chromophore (c=o) a carboxyl group which when treated with reducing agents such as sodium hydrosulphite used in the experiment, combine with hydrogen to form leuco compounds containing a secondary alcohol (C.OH) which does not dissolve in water but form soluble derivatives (C.ONa) in the presence of alkalis, in this case, caustic soda (Trotman, p.407). On exposure to air, the sodium compound is re-oxidised to the insoluble coloured compounds by exposure to atmospheric oxygen. In industrial dyeing however oxidation is achieved by treating the cotton goods with oxygen containing compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, potassium dichromate, potassium perborate etc.

The anthraquinone range of vat dyes give coloured leuco compounds which is characteristic to it aside of the use of strong alkalis such as caustic soda necessary to bring it into solution. In most cases the colour

66 developed is the exact complement of the insoluble dye. Table 5.1 shows

the colours used in this experiment and the colour observed of the leuco compound.

Table 5.1 list of colours used as against the shades developed in their leuco state.

COLOUR OF INSOLUBLE DYE COLOUR OF LEUCO COMPOUNDS

(final colour observed on fabric)

1) DYSTAR YELLOW Dark Reddish Brown

2) DYSTAR RED Dark Green

3) DYSTAR BLUE Dark Turquoise

4) ATUL Red Dark Coffee

5) ATUL Yellow Dark Fluorescent Violet

6) ATUL Blue Dark Fluorescent Green

7)ATUL Green Dark Fluorescent Blue

8)ATUL Black Dark Umber

9)ATUL Brown Dark Fluorescent Golden Brown

10) ATUL Violet Dark Fluorescent Blue

11) ATUL Orange Fluorescent Violet

5.1.1 Justification for Using Dystar and Atul Colours

Dystar and Atul colours were used since these represent the companies that command a significant size of the dyestuff retail business in Ghana at

67 the time of this project Dystar is a European Company whilst Atul is an

Indian company.

5.2 A typical dyeing procedure

In a typical dyeing procedure using vat dyes on cotton fabrics, correct liquor ratio is first determined and usually works around 3 litres to a yard of fabric. The water which should as much as possible be soft is poured into an open plastic basin with a diameter that will allow the goods to be well submerged and at the same time have enough room for free movement. It is important that plastic ware is used so that there will not be catalytic decomposition of the dye solution as a result of reaction with the metal.

Stainless steel metal vessel could be used without any problems.

Next, the appropriate amount of dye and dye auxiliaries is determined by the dyer. In local small scale vat dyeing, an average of 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls is used for a 3 yard piece of mercerized fabric, which works up to about 11.7 grams of dye. It is recommended that plastic tablespoons be used for the same reason cited earlier for the dye vessels. The spoon must be dry before used in taking dye from the container that holds the dye. In the survey conducted, it was observed that most dyers took the dyes directly from the plastic bags in which they were dispensed. The amount of dye taken is then put into a smaller plastic container that could be held in the palm. To this dye, enough water is added to form a solution

68 after which 2 to 4 tablespoonful of caustic soda in the form of pellets is first

dissolved with cold water and then added to the dissolved dye.

It is very important that cold water is used to prevent a spluttering of the

chemical during its dissolution. This may occur since the action of the

water on caustic soda results in an exothermic reaction and without

adequate protective clothing one could end up with burns on the skin. The cold water used in dissolution could be taken from the amount already measured out in the plastic dye vessel. This is important in order to ensure that the amount of water already determined for the quantity of fabric remains the same so that all things being equal, there would be some level of reproducibility with the resultant shade of dyeing.

Next, about 70mls of water is used to dissolve 2 tablespoonfuls of sodium hydrosulphite, the active ingredient in the dyeing process. The solution is then added to the dye liquor to form a stock solution. After a few seconds the solution changes colour as the dye molecules are solubilized. This stock solution is what is referred to as the leuco compound earlier on mentioned. This solution is stirred gently at intervals before it is added to the dye bath after 10 minutes. The dye bath is also stirred gently to ensure it is well dissolved in the water. The dye bath at this stage is ready to be used for dyeing.

69 The fabric to be dyed at this point must be washed in water to get rid of any trace of size finishes that might be on it after which it is introduced into the dye bath in open width. The dyer must ensure that the fabric remains submerged the whole period of dyeing to forestall premature oxidation.

The fabric is gently moved in the dye solution from time to time to ensure that the solution has access to every part of the fabric. Fifteen to thirty minutes may be allowed for dyeing depending on the potency of the dye bath which is also dependent on the potency of the chemicals used in dyeing, the liquor ratio, temperature of dye bath, and the nature of the fabric to be dyed.

Most dyes and chemicals sit on shop shelves and storerooms for significant amounts of time and in conditions that in the end deteriorate them leading to loss of strength. In such cases greater amounts of chemicals may be required to be effective in the dyeing procedure or in a worse scenario could completely retard the dyeing process.

A high water to goods, dye and auxiliaries ratio, results in a loss of strength of the dye bath hence affecting the rate of dyeing. Temperature of the dye bath has a direct influence on the speed of dyeing. With most dyes, an increase in temperature excites the dye molecules which therefore cause them to approach the fabric surface (adsorption) faster.

70 Moreover increased temperature helps to open up the pores of the fibre so that dye molecules could easily penetrate (sorption) to dye the fibre.

However, the effect of heat in increasing rate of dyeing is only up to a point beyond which the rate of dyeing reduces. But there is a limitation to the use of heat in batik dyeing due to the action of heat on wax. A used but clean cotton fabric that has gone through a number of washings dye better than a new fabric. This is because the washing process opens up the pores of the fibre completely, getting rid of all other finishes and also loosen twist in the yarn so that dye molecules could have unhindered access into the pores of the fibre.

Once dyeing is complete the fabric is taken out of the dye bath, rinsed and then aired. After a few minutes the true colour of the dye develops after which the fabric can be washed with soap to dislodge all surface adhering dye molecules so as to obtain a clearer shade of colour. If it is batik fabric, the subsequent processes of de-waxing first in boiling water and later in soapy water followed by rinsing is enough to dislodge all adhering dye particles and produce a clearer shade of colour. In fact, a batik fabric finished this way will have the colour turning out to be very fast to washing.

In the de-waxing process, two large aluminum bowls are filled three quarter of the way with water. These are set on a fairly hot flame of fine

71 which could be from gas or from firewood. Sufficient mild soap is cut into smaller pieces or scrapped and put into the second bowl of water. This dissolves after some time to form soapy boiling water. With a pair of sticks to control the fabric with, the fabric is let down in open width into the first bowl. The fabric stays in there for some few minutes and then removed after a few repeated dips of sections of it into the water from time to time, all in an attempt to rid it of the melted wax. When the fabric is taken out from the first bowl, it is transferred immediately into the boiling soap solution which completely takes out any trace of wax that might still be in the fabric. Meanwhile, the melted wax on the surface of the water in the first bowl is skimmed off and poured into a bowl of cold water for recovery.

The wax so recovered is opened out in a flat piece of wood or metal and aired to get rid of the water. This can then be used again for waxing. The de-waxed fabric is then aired to dry before ironing.

5.3 Determination of test parameters

Every dyeing procedure just as described above, is governed by process parameters that to a large extent determine the success or otherwise of the dyeing procedure. These parameters are known industry wide and are

originally determined by the dye manufacturer based on the properties of

both dye and fabric.

72 Vat dyes are insoluble but are rendered soluble by the use of sodium

hydrosulphite in the presence of caustic soda to ensure complete

dissolution. More than the theoretical stoichiometric quantities of both

‘hydros’ and ‘caustic’ is required (Trotman, 1985) meaning that, an excess

of the calculated quantities of hydros and caustic are required for proper

dissolution of dye liquor. The active ingredient ‘hydros’ reduces the

solution to a colour usually different from the “real colour”. The stock

solution so prepared can then be added to the dye bath before

introduction of the goods. The dye bath which includes ingredients that

assist dyeing and water is the main medium for dye transport. The weight of water to goods called the ‘bath ratio’ is determined for a particular dye

by consulting literature provided by the dye manufacturer and is

dependent on the shade required. The magnitude of the dye to goods ratio

affects the concentration of dye molecules in the dye liquor; a situation

that influences the amount of dye pick-up.

5.3.1 Variation of Concentration of Dye

To determine the right amount of dye that will give a good effect and at the

same time be economical in order to enable practitioners make profits,

varying amounts of dye were used in different dyeing to determine the

degree of dye diffusion which has an effect on the depth of shade

achieved on the fabric.

73 Three different colours (black, blue and violet) were selected and dyed with different concentrations and at different dyeing temperatures. Black was dyed at the usual time of 20 minutes at a temperature of 27ºC whereas blue and violet were dyed at a higher temperature of 50ºC.

Plates 5.1 through to 5.13 are dyed samples of the three colours selected and dyed with different amounts of dye for the same weight of fabric in each case.

Plate 5.1 Dyed with .245g of vat dye Plate 5.2 Dyed with .490g of vat dye

Plate 5.3 Dyed with .735g of vat dye Plate 5.4 Dyed with .980g of vat dye

Plate 5.5 Dyed with .145g of Vat dye Plate 5.6 Dyed with.217g of Vat dye

Plate 5.7 Dyed with .326g of Vat dye Plate 5.8 Dyed with .490g of Vat dye

Plate 5.9 Dyed with .735g of Vat dye

Plate 5.10 Dyed with .245g of Vat dye Plate 5.11 Dyed with .490g of Vat dye

Plate 5.12 Dyed with .735g of Vat dye Plate 5.13 Dyed with .98g of Vat dye

The curves shown in the graphs (Figs. 5.1 to 5.3) below represent

reflectance measurements carried out on the dyed samples which all

show a characteristic peaking in the region corresponding to the colour of the dye. Thus, the curves for blue showed a peak in the region indicating of reflectance (580nm to 700nm) and a dip in the lower wavelengths indicating absorption of light by the substrate.

Fig. 5.1 Reflectance curves of Atul Blue dyed at different concentrations.

Violet dyed at 50ºC likewise shows a peak in the middle wavelengths of

(490nm- 610nm) and a dip at both sides of the spectrum (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2 Reflectance curves of Atul Violet dyed at different concentrations.

77 Black on the other hand, showed curves with a fairly even absorption and reflection along the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig.

5.3).

Fig. 5.3 Reflectance curves of Atul Black dyed at different concentrations.

In all cases it would be observed that the curves showed higher levels of reflectance for increasing quantities of dye. But they all at anytime followed the same characteristics.

The curve representing the selected weight of dye used for the test that corresponds with the amount of dye actually used by the practitioners of the trade lie in all cases between the highest dye concentrations and the

78 lowest. This shows a fairly good penetration of dye as seen in the fibre

cross sections taken for the different dye concentrations for black.

Plate 5.14 Dyed with .245g of dye Plate 5.15 Dyed with .49g of dye

Plate 5.16 Dyed with .735g of dye Plate 5.17 Dyed with .98g of dye

Plates 5.14-17 Fibre cross-sections at different dye concentrations for Atul Black Vat dye

These cross sections viewed under an electron microscope reveals higher

number of lighter areas and in some cases fewer spots of white indicating

lesser penetration or indeed no dye especially in the core of some of the

yarns used, as the concentration of dye reduces.

79 5.3.2 Variation of Time of Dyeing

Other parameters worthy of consideration is the time of dyeing. The longer

the textile stays in the dye liquor, the greater the amount of dye molecules

adsorbed, all things being equal. There will be movement of dye

molecules to the fibre so long as there is a dye concentration gradient between the solution and the fabric. However once equilibrium conditions are reached there is no more dye transfer and even under certain conditions such as rise in temperature, there is a reverse action causing an alteration on shade.

In spite of the existence of standardized process parameters as outlined above and of those specific to dyeing under factory conditions, small scale dyeing for purposes of craft as in tie-dye batik production in Ghana, employ slightly different parameters.

In producing a colour catalogue for use by practitioners in the craft industry therefore, it was prudent to study their processing methods with the view of adapting it for the research.

The questionnaire (see appendix) administered to selected producers in the Kumasi metropolis revealed that a majority employed the following process parameters;

80 • Time of dyeing - 20mins

• Bath/ liquor ratio - 1: 40

• Amount of dye used per yard - 3.9g

• Amount of caustic used - 8g

• Amount of hydros used - 8g

The respective quantities as given in their responses have been converted

to weights here.

In order to find out if there was any justification in dyeing for 20 minutes and not longer or shorter, the time for dyeing was varied for a test sample

of 15g and with the following parameters;

• Amount of dye used - .49g

• Amount of caustic soda used - .98g

• Amount of hydrosulphite used - .98g

These are figures derived based on a proportionate scaling of the respective dye bath ingredients in view of the fabric sample weight of 15g instead of the previous 120g of a yard of fabric. Plate 4.2 show dyed fabric samples after dyeing for different lengths of time for dyeing.

10 mins 20 mins 30 mins 40 mins

Plate 5.18 Final shade of dyed samples showing the time allowed for dyeing

Since a visual assessment at this stage was not enough to tell the differences between the dyed samples, it became necessary to measure the reflectance of these fabrics with a spectrophotometer. The curves produced after processing the values recorded by the instrument for each colour are shown in figs 5.4 and 5.5.

Fig. 5.4 Reflectance curves of Dystar Red/Blue dyed at different time of dyeing.

The reflectance curves produced by all four samples show a similar bend indicating that the shades are close with minor differences showing as higher reflectance values with samples dyed for 10 minutes.

Fig. 5.5 Reflectance curves of Dystar Blue/Yellow dyed at different time of dyeing.

83 A similar effect is shown here in the reflectance curves for Dystar

Blue/Yellow although it shows a more compact combination.

It is clearly shown by the curves that the shade of colour seen as indicated by the reflectance show slight differences from 20 minutes onwards, and

indeed prolonged dyeing has marginal effect on the intensity of shade. A

dyeing time of 20 minutes was therefore justifiable and gave a good

enough shade that is suitable for the test requirement.

In almost all the cases, the curves showed similar characteristics indicating that a similar shade of colour was produced in almost all

instances, but it was significantly evident that the shorter dyeing times

showed a higher reflectance than for the longer dyeing time. This is

understandable since at larger dyeing times, more dyes picked up leading

to a greater depth in shade and hence a darker hue which reflects lesser light. Again in most cases (Dystar red/Blue) and especially (Dystar

Blue/yellow), the difference in reflectance for 30 minutes and 20 minutes

of dyeing was not great.

From the foregone analysis therefore, the selected dyeing time for the test

was appropriate for best results coupled with the opportunity it affords for

more tests to be conducted within the time constraint.

84 5.4 General Description of Dyeing Procedure

5.4.1 Preparation and Handling of Fabric Sample

Fabric used for the test is 100% mercerized cotton, the type used in

Ghana for tie-dye/batik. The weight of fabric used in this test procedure is derived from the weight of fabric to dye ratio for a yard. Therefore the weight of dye previously calculated for the test .49 grams should be able to dye 15 grams of fabric for the same effect of shade derived from 3.9 grams of dye on 20 grams of fabric (1 yard).

For every yard, the fabric is folded into 8 equal parts which brings the dimensions to 17.5 inches x 12 inches. The weight of this piece of fabric comes to approximately 15grams. The fabric is conditioned in a standard testing atmosphere of 20ºC ± 2ºC, 65% r.h ± 2% r.h for a period of 24hrs.

Time is very essential here and so each test is scrupulously allowed 20 minutes from start to finish. Before dyeing, the fabric is carefully opened up and then immersed with the aid of a spatula as fast as possible. This is necessary in order to forestall any variations in colour as a result of the leading part of the fabric staying in longer contact with the dye than the rest. The opening up of the fabric also reduces variations in shade due to the formation of folds and pleats. During dyeing, the fabric sample is turned once every 6 minutes accompanied by gentle movements to

85 ensure that the fabric remains submerged all the time so as to prevent

premature oxidation. At the end of 20 minutes the fabric is removed and

then rinsed thoroughly first with cold running water to get rid of all excess

dye that might still be on the surface of the fabric. This is done to give

better clarity of shade.

During this rinsing procedure residual ‘caustic’ and ‘hydros’ is also gotten

rid of. The fabric sample is then opened up and aired. The dye absorbs atmospheric oxygen which completes the oxidation process thereby developing the true shade of colour. This process actually starts during the rinsing with the cold running water because of the oxygen in the water.

After colour development which takes about 2 minutes, the fabric is gently washed with a mild soap in warm water; this procedure removes any loosely adhering dye and gives clarity to the final shade. The dyed fabric sample is then dried in a convection oven at a temperature of 65ºC for 15 minutes and then ironed. Appropriate protective clothing is necessary during the test to prevent the inhalation of toxic fumes and burns resulting from accidental spillage.

Care should be taken so as not to aerate the dye solution which leads to premature colour development which when attached to the surface of the fabric could lead to poor rubbing fastness if not well washed. It also leads to a potential loss of colour on the fabric.

86 5.5 Scheme for Generating Colours

In all 9 colours were used for the project. These were yellow, golden

yellow, orange, red, brown, blue, green, and black. Out of these colours, the first four were initially selected each to be mixed with all the other colours. For instance, yellow was mixed with each of the other colours to obtain a series of binary blends as presented in the Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Scheme for the combination of colours. 1. Yellow Violet 2. Yellow Green 3. Yellow Blue 4. Yellow Black 5. Yellow Brown 6. Yellow Red

Each of these combinations was mixed in the proportions indicated in

Table 5.2 such that each combination resulted in 5 different shades. An

example is shown with the first combination in the table 5.3

Table 5.3 Scheme for the generation of colours. YELLOW VIOLET RESULTANT SHADES 90% 10% 1 70% 30% 2 50% 50% 3 30% 70% 4 10% 90% 5

Presented in plates 5.19 to 5.44 are shades generated from the different combinations.

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.19 Atul Yellow/Atul Violet combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.20 Atul Yellow/ Atul Green Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.21 Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Blue Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.22 Atul Yellow/ Atul Black Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.23 Atul Yellow/ Atul Brown Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.24 Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Red Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.25 Dystar Red/ Atul Violet combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.26 Dystar Red/ Dystar Blue combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.27 Atul Red/ Atul Black combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.28 Atul Red/ Atul Brown combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.29 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Violet combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.30 Atul Golden Yellow/ Dystar Blue combinations

1 2 3 4 5

Plate 5.31 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Brown combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.32 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Green combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.33 Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Black combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.34 Atul Blue / Atul Green combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.35 Atul Pink/ Atul Red combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.36 Atul Pink/ Atul Golden Yellow combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.37 Atul Orange/ Atul Brown combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5. 38 Atul Orange/ Atul Blue combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.39 Atul Orange/ Atul Green combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.40 Atul Orange/ Atul Red combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.41 Atul Orange/ Atul Black combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.42 Atul Orange/ Yellow combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5.43 Atul Green/ Violet combinations

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 5. 44 Atul Violet/ Blue combinations

The colours so generated formed the main content of the catalogue whose production is outlined in the following section.

5.6 Catalogue design

The design of the catalogue is in two stages. First, the cover pages were

done before the inside ones that actually gave information as to how to

reproduce the colours. Instructional information by way of a quick

reference was generated to facilitate easy calculation of dye ingredients to

96 correspond with different yardages. This has been provided in the first two

pages after the book block itself. A copy is provided in table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Quick reference of respective quantities of dyebath ingredients and water required calculated against weight of fabric to be dyed. FABRIC (g/yd) DYE CAUSTIC SODA HYDROS VOLUME OF (g) (g) (g) WATER (ml/l) 15g (1/8 yd) 0.49g 0.98g 0.98g 375ml

60g (1/2 yd) 1.96g 3.92g 3.92g 1500ml

120g (1 yd) 3.92g 7.84g 7.84g 3 litres

240g (2 yds) 7.84g 15.68g 15.68g 6 litres

360g (3 yds) 11.76g 23.52g 23.52g 9 litres

480g (4 yds) 15.68g 31.36g 31.36g 12 litres

600g ( 5 yds) 19.60g 39.30g 39.30g 15 litres

720g (6 yds) 23.52g 47.04g 47.04g 18 litres

840g (7 yds) 27.44g 54.88g 54.88g 21 litres

960g (8 yds) 31.36g 62.72g 62.72g 24 litres

1080g (9 yds) 35.28g 70.56g 70.56g 27 litres

1200g (10 yds) 39.20g 78.40g 78.40g 30 litres

1320g (11 yds) 43.12g 86.24g 86.24g 33 litres

1440g (12yds) 47.04g 94.08g 94.08g 36 litres

In addition, to enhance easy determination of the actual weight derived from the percentages provided in both the project report and the

97 catalogue, a table was generated as an easy and quick reference (Table

5.5)

Table 5.5 Percentage quantities of dyes expressed in real values in grams as quick reference. DYE (g) 10% 30% 50% 80% 90%

0.49g 0.05g 0.15g 0.25g 0.34g 0.44g

1.96g 0.20g 0.59g 0.98g 1.37g 1.76g

3.92g 0.39g 1.18g 1.96g 2.74g 3.53g

7.84g 0.78g 2.35g 3.92g 5.49g 7.06g

11.76g 1.18g 3.53g 5.88g 8.23g 10.58g

15.68g 1.57g 4.70g 7.84g 10.98g 14.11g

19.60g 1.96g 5.88g 9.80g 13.72g 17.64g

23.52g 2.35g 7.06g 11.76g 16.46g 21.17g

27.44g 2.74g 8.23g 13.72g 19.21g 24.70g

31.36g 3.14g 9.14g 15.68g 21.95g 28.22g

35.28g 3.53g 10.58g 17.64g 24.70g 31.75g

39.20g 3.92g 11.76g 19.60g 27.44g 35.28g

43.12g 4.31g 12.94g 21.56g 30.18g 38.81g

47.07g 4.70g 14.11g 23.52g 32.93g 42.34g

98 5.6 Cover design

The major consideration for the cover design and indeed for the whole

book was to make it suitable across the target groups. The following

stages describe the processes carried out.

5.6.1 Thumbnail Stage

The researcher at this stage illustrated different ideas which were

developed into layouts for the execution of the cover page. Out of the

different layouts, four were selected and further developed at the rough

stage for clarity.

5.6.2 The Rough Stage

At this stage the researcher developed the four selected thumbnails using a personal computer for a better expression of ideas.

5.6.3 Comprehensive Stage

This stage involves the development of the cover pages to look just like

the final cover. Works produced at the rough stage were shown to some

selected producers of tie-dye/batik and other anchors in the graphic

design profession to solicit their views. Their comments were factored in

the development of roughs to qualify them for this stage.

99 5.6.4 The Final Stage

Even though any of the designs developed at the comprehensive stage could each be used effectively as a cover page, one was chosen as the one that best fits the cover of the catalogue and indeed was used as the cover design of the catalogue.

A detailed description of how the final stage was developed is outlined below.

5.7 Rendering the Final Cover

5.7.1 The Concept

The concept was derived from the kinds of rigorous activities that go on in the process of tie-dye/ batik production. In any busy workshop splashes of colour could be found everywhere which although not intentioned result from the activities carried out. The idea of colour mixing was also worked into the design as in some areas resultant shade developed from an overlap of the two neighbouring colours are shown. Finally, a woven structure was overlaid on the splashes of colour to denote the intended use which is textiles. Adobe Photoshop was the software used in the execution of this part of the project.

100 5.8.2 The Spine

The spine was furnished with text in the form of the book title because of

its thickness. The binding method used also lent itself for that purpose.

5.8.3 The Back Cover

The back cover design was created to have a lesser impact than the front

cover. It was filled with black and a strip created towards the lower end.

That strip was treated with a variety of vertical strips of colour to create balance and emphasis. A portion was also provided for credits.

5.9 Page Design

In order to achieve the stated objective of producing a user-friendly colour catalogue for producers of tie-dye/ batik, the pages carrying the information of how to obtain the variety of shades had to be communicative. Very vital points were considered:

 The elements and the principles of design were appropriately

applied for maximum effect.

 In order to communicate effectively, a combination of perfect

rendering and good illustration had to be employed.

 The layout was also applied to perfectly communicate the

information the pages carry.

101 The consideration of all these points together in the designing process yielded the layout that best communicated the researcher’s idea.

5.9.1 Idea Development and Thumbnail Stage

The research instruments used revealed the sort of measuring tool used in portioning quantities of dye and chemicals needed in preparing the dye liquor.

Different sketches were however made with a view of arriving at one that best communicates to the user. Six of these sketches were selected and developed well for the thumbnail stage. These sketches were then developed to a rough stage.

5.9.2 Rough Stage

The rough stage which follows the thumbnail stage saw the further development of 3 out of the 6 developed at the previous stage through the addition of details such as colour and the detailed rendering of the images for better communication. Anchors in graphic design were again consulted on the layout. Their contribution led to the development of one design for the comprehension stage. This selection was justified above all the others mainly due to the depiction of the spoon as the measuring tool.

102 5.9.3 Comprehensive Stage

A number of important things were dealt with at this stage as it precedes the final stage of the design development. The page size was considered

and the elements of design so distributed using the principles of design to

communicate well. The size of each page measured 17 centimeters wide and 22 centimeters high. The researcher at this stage came up with the prototype of the page for the catalogue.

Dominance, a visual principle was used by the researcher to create emphasis. As a result, the shade to be derived by mixing two others on any page is distributed over the page more than the other possible results indicated alongside it at the top of the page. The illustration and layout was improved upon for better communication until the best communicated layout was arrived at the final stage.

5.9.4 Rendering the Final Layout

After the final layout was settled on, it became necessary to find out from the target users whether it rightly communicated the information provided.

Responses gathered revealed that the layout appropriately suited the information treated.

In order to be able to execute the process of rendering the final work, a series of actions that involved planning and structuring the scheme of work was necessary. After all the necessary tools and materials needed

103 for the work has been gathered, a methodology was devised via the computer software programme used i.e. Photoshop that would execute specific actions resulting in specific effects. These specific actions were recorded in view of the fact that actions in Photoshop are sets of scripts embedded in the software that can be recorded and saved for further use on other similar files that may need the same execution some other time.

For a series of actions to be recorded, a function key has to be selected to customize that set of actions so that anytime that key is activated the same set of actions are deployed. Now, since the page layout was the same for all pages, it became necessary to adopt such a scheme of work.

A sample colour achieved as a result of mixing any two colours was imported into Photoshop. The image is then made to fit the size of the box assigned to it at the top right of the page. This required a series of actions to achieve and therefore recorded as explained earlier. The same colour imported and placed in the manner described in one of the 5 boxes representing the 5 mix proportions is this time placed at the topmost right hand of the page. This box contained the page number.

Getting the right colours from each combination was achieved by first importing the sample dye material into Photoshop. With the aid of the colour palette, a component of the programme, an exact match in

Photoshop in the form of a number specific to that shade of colour alone is

104 generated. This way, the same colour can be printed from the programme by the printer attached to the computer.

Text added to the pages was done by utilizing the text tool in the tool palette. On every page, the names of the colours in the mix are legibly provided. This was however again abbreviated to serve as a code for that particular colour e.g. Atul Red and Blue combination in a 10% to 90% mixing proportion is rendered thus: AT R1/B9. The hot tips section displays the percentage and its equivalent mixture.

5.10 The Binding Process

The following materials were used in the binding process: white glue, wire helix and a perforator.

The major requirements of the book necessitated the method of binding adopted. For instance, since the pages of the catalogue had to open back on itself without breaking the spine, the spiral binding or coil binding method was used. This required the making of holes along the entire length of the spine of the page and winding a wire helix which is basically a spring, through the holes to provide a fully flexible hinge at the spine.

105 CHAPTER SIX RESULTS AND THEIR DISCUSSION

An initial testing of the information provided in the catalogue was carried

out to find out whether the shades provided were reproducible, which is

indeed, the major requirement of any colour matching system.

Even though the blend formular used for this project was designed to

generate shades with marked differences, there were some cases that it

became difficult for the human eye to tell such variation. The main

objective of the project however, was to produce a variety of shades from

the existing range of colours. It therefore became necessary to provide a

proof of differences in shade. This offers the opportunity for both the client and the tie-dye/batik producer to be exact on the shade desired and rid the whole process of colour identification and interpretation of likely disagreements and confusion generated by such nuances.

Again, in the area of determining whether indeed the blend proportions given would produce the same colour each time it is used, there was the need to conduct a test of reproducibility to determine whether the shades generated are reproducible.

6.1 Results of Reflectance Curves for Different Colour Combinations

Reflectance curves were produced after processing results obtained from the spectrophotometer. The curves so generated enabled differences

106 between shades to be verifiable and also define the character of each colour.

1. Atul Yellow/ Atul Violet Combinations

In fig. 6.1, the curves generally show an even reflectance over the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is explained by the fact that the resultant effect of the different mixing proportions of yellow and violet produced different shades of grey which is normally the case when complementary colours are mixed together. Pure grey is a mixture of white and black which reflects half the incident light and absorbs the other half.

In this case however, higher reflectance values are recorded in all the curves from the beginning at 400nm, but show differences as they approach the longer wavelengths. The dip in the curve at the end is indicative of a lower content of red in the violet.

Fig. 6.1 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow/Atul Violet mixtures

107 2. Atul Green/ Atul Yellow Combinations

As was characteristic of fig. 6.2, the curves representing the five resultant shades all follow the same pattern. It will be observed however that the lowest parts of the curves kept shifting from the green region (480-570

nm) to the yellow region (590-570 nm) as the proportion of yellow in the

mix increased whilst that of green decreased.

Fig. 6.2 Spectral curves for Atul Green/Atul Yellow mixtures

108 3. Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Blue Combinations

The phenomenon explained earlier repeats for this set of mixtures and

again there is high reflectance in the blue and yellow to red regions whilst

the curves dipped at different points but mainly in the green region of the

spectrum. The trend however gradually shifts in absorption to the green

region. The reflectance values recorded for each of the components that

make up the mix in most cases, recorded high reflectance values

indicating a higher proportion of that particular colour. A typical example is

Dystar blue/yellow.5 which has more blue and lesser yellow. This feature changes as the curve approaches the yellow-red region of the spectrum, which could be explained by the lower amount of yellow in the mix (fig.

6.3)

Fig. 6.3 Spectral curves for Dystar Yellow/Dystar blue mixtures

109 4. Atul Golden Yellow / Atul Black Combinations

The curves represented in fig. 6.4 show clearly which shades are lighter

and which are darker. Curves that dip in reflectance towards the yellow-

orange-red regions, from 570-700nm, show increasing degree of darkness. Thus, Atul golden yellow/black.5 is the lightest in the group with a yellowish brown hue (burnt sienna) whilst Atul golden yellow/black.1 is the darkest with a colour close to very dark green.

Fig. 6.4 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow/Atul Black mixtures

110 5. Atul Yellow/ Atul Brown Combinations

The strong effect of the inclusion of brown in the mix is made evident by the high reflectance values recorded for all curves in the violet-blue-green area of the curve around 400-570nm. The incremental influence of yellow in the mixture is seen as the curves approach the yellow region of the visible spectrum (fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow/Atul Brown mixtures

111 6. Dystar Yellow/ Dystar Red Combinations

The curves in fig. 6.6 show slight differences mainly because of the strong influence of Red in each mixture. Therefore, increases in the proportion of yellow in the mixture do not result in significant changes in shade.

Fig. 6.6 Spectral curves for Dystar Yellow / Dystar Red mixtures

112 7. Dystar Red/ Atul Violet

These set of curves in fig. 6.7 reveal a dominant reflectance in the violet to green portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Clear differences are seen only after the curve enters the orange to red portions. Now, since violet contains red and blue, further additions of red to the mixture, increases the intensity of that colour and hence a greater reflectance value as seen in Dystar Red/Atul Violet.1.

Fig. 6.7 Spectral curves for Dystar Red / Atul Violet mixtures

113 7. Dystar Red/ Dystar Blue

The significant difference in the resultant hue is seen in the violet to blue sections of the visible region of the spectrum. The influence of the colour

blue and red in the resultant violet colour generated can be seen in a

higher proportionate reflectance in those sections of the visible spectrum

(fig. 6.8).

Fig. 6.8 Spectral curves for Dystar Red / Dystar Blue mixtures

114 8. Atul Red/ Atul Black

These set of curves follow the trend already outlined in the mixtures analysed (fig. 6.9). The colours generally exhibited a dark blue hue which is indicated by the high reflectance in the violet to green sections of the visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The slight differences seen in the colour generated is made possible by the different percentages of red added to a particular mixture. The higher the percentage of red, the lower the reflectance in that region of the spectrum, meaning that, the further addition of red to the mixture did not significantly improve the brilliance of the final colour.

Fig. 6.9 Spectral curves for Atul Red / Atul Black mixtures

115 9. Atul Red/ Atul Brown

The curves produced from the combinations in this set appear to follow the same characteristics from the violet-blue region where the different proportions of red cause the differences in shade (fig. 6.10).

Fig. 6.10 Spectral curves for Atul Red / Atul Brown mixtures

116 10. Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Violet

The Atul Golden Yellow/Violet combination was done in six steps. With the

6th step dyed with violet only which produced a curve distinctly different

from the rest. The high reflectance recorded in the violet-blue region of the spectrum is not at all surprising since the colour is not mixed with any

other. All the others show good reflection across the spectrum with clear

variations as the curves enter the yellow-orange region (fig. 6.11).

Fig. 6.11 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow / Atul Violet mixtures

117 11. Atul Golden Yellow/ Dystar Blue

This set of blending options reveals very interesting reflectance curves

(fig. 6.12). Two of the resultant effects notably Atul Golden Yellow/Dystar

Blue.1 and Atul Golden Yellow/ Dystar Blue.2 had shades that are bluish resulting from the lower content of Yellow in the two samples. The shade then changes from the third combination to the fifth, each successive one with a greater amount of blue than the previous. This bifurcation is seen on the graph with the first 2 shades producing curves with a lower reflectance in the violet-orange-red region. The other three shades produced curves with different characteristics, peaking at the blue and yellow regions of the spectrum.

Fig. 6.12 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow / Dystar Blue mixtures

118 12. Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Brown

Curves for this combination of Golden Yellow and Brown show interesting features that are attributable to the colour composition of components in the mix especially Brown (fig. 6.13). Brown is made from Green and Red.

Green on the other hand has Blue and Yellow. That means, in the Brown there is Blue, Green and Red. Golden Yellow also has Red and Yellow.

Thus, it takes the strength of the Yellow to bring variations in the different shades generated. As a result clear differences in the curves are clearly seen in the Yellow region of the spectrum.

Fig. 6.13 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow / Atul Brown mixtures

119 13. Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Brilliant Green

Even though curves in this group have same features, the region at which

the incident light is absorbed for the measurement of colour kept shifting

gradually from Atul Golden Yellow /Brilliant Green.1 to Atul Golden Yellow/

Brilliant Green. 5 (fig. 6.14). This same trend is seen in their degree of reflectance; the lighter shades of colour have a deeper absorption in the middle of the spectrum but with minimum reflection overall. The situation changes gradually towards the darker shades. The gradual shift in the area of absorption is indicative of clear differences in the hue especially in the isolated curve i.e. Atul Golden-Yellow / Brilliant Green. 5, which is distinctly yellowish in tone.

Fig. 6.14 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow / Atul Brilliant Green mixtures.

120 14. Atul Golden Yellow/ Atul Black

The curves represented in fig. 6.15 show clearly which shades are lighter and which are darker. Curves that dip in reflectance towards the Yellow-

Orange-red regions of from 510-700nm, show increasing degrees of darkness. Thus, Atul golden yellow/black.5 is lightest in the group with a yellowish brown (burnt sienna) tone whilst Atul golden yellow/black.1 is the darkest with a colour close to very dark green.

Fig. 6.15 Spectral curves for Atul Golden Yellow / Atul Black mixtures

121 15. Atul Green/ Atul Blue

Although curves in the Blue/Green blend all show similar bend but clearly show different degrees of reflection from Atul Blue-Green.1 through to 5

(fig. 6.16). The samples with darker shades absorbing more light but with reflection lesser than samples with lighter shades. Absorption for all curves appears to be in blue region of the spectrum with a good reflection on both sides.

Fig. 6.16 Spectral curves for Atul Blue / Atul Green mixtures

122 16. Atul Pink/ Atul Red

The curves produced in this blend all show similar characteristics denoting their closeness in shade (fig. 6.17). Clearer differences are however seen in the orange-red region of the spectrum. These differences being a consequence of increases in the quantity of red used in the blend.

Fig. 6.17 Spectral curves for Atul Pink / Atul Red mixtures

123

17. Atul Pink/ Atul Golden Yellow

Curves produced from this set of dyed samples exhibit similar characteristics (fig. 6.18). This it because of the closeness of the two shades; all have red in both colours constituting the blend. The only colour distinctly different in the blend is yellow and therefore differences in the curves are seen mainly in the yellow region of the spectrum.

Fig. 6.18 Spectral curves for Atul Pink / Golden Yellow mixtures

124 18. Atul Orange/ Atul Brown

The reflectance curves produced by this set show slight differences only in the orange to red regions (fig. 6.19). The dyes and samples showed shades corresponding to the varying amounts of a colour in the combination. The greater proportion of red in the blend resulting from the red in orange and again in brown is reflected in the curves as seen in Atul orange brown.1. This has a greater percentage of brown and records higher reflectance values in the orange-red region than for the others.

Fig. 6.19 Spectral curves for Atul Orange / Atul Brown mixtures

125 19. Atul Orange/ Atul Blue

This combination yielded very interesting shades ranging from grey through dark-green to a dull orange (fig. 6.20). The colour significantly different was the grey which is represented by Atul orange blue. 1. The almost horizontal nature of the curve suggests an almost equal reflectance across the spectrum. The rest show a higher reflectance in the blue-green region of the spectrum.

Fig. 6.20 Spectral curves for Atul Orange / Atul Blue mixtures

126

20. Atul Orange/ Atul Green

As evident even in the coloured samples which showed a slightly different

shade of brown for the first blend of Orange and Green, the dip of that

particular curve is shifted slightly towards the right in the region between

green and blue (fig. 6.21). The colour seen is more in the area of orange,

hence a higher reflectance from 600nm. The rest show shades of green

with the colour becoming purer as the proportion of green in the mix increases. They all therefore show a high reflectance in the blue – green regions.

Fig. 6.21 Spectral curves for Atul Orange / Atul Green mixtures

127 21. Atul Orange/ Atul Red

This combination provided shades that were close, as both colours in the blend have something in common which is red. Orange is made from a combination of red and yellow. The spectrum curves produced all showed higher reflectance in the yellow to orange region but surprisingly dip towards the longer wavelengths representing the red region (fig. 6.22).

Fig. 6.22 Spectral curves for Atul Orange / Atul Red mixtures

128 22. Atul Orange/ Atul Black

Reflectance curves describing the above set of combinations appropriately

distinguish the resultant shades (fig. 6.23). The first 3 combinations namely Atul Orange/Black.1, Atul Orange/Black.2 and Atul Orange/Black.3

all show different degrees of reflectance across the spectrum depicting

different shades of grey. The other two curves dyed with increasing

amounts of orange show significant dips in the wavelengths.

Fig. 6.23 Spectral curves for Atul Orange / Atul Black mixtures

129 23. Atul Yellow/Orange

A rather strange occurrence is revealed by the reflectance curves for all the samples dyed in this set (fig. 6.24). Even though the colours used in the blend range between 570-590nm for yellow and 590-610 for orange, the curves showed high reflectance even in the violet-blue region and absorption in the longer wavelengths. Indeed, the curves dip in the red region (610-700m) though red is combined with yellow to produce orange.

In any case major differences are seen especially in the yellow region.

Fig. 6.24 Spectral curves for Atul Yellow / Atul Orange mixtures

130 24. Atul Violet/Green

The reflectance curves for this set generally start from a peak in the violet

–blue region, and then dips slightly only to start peaking from the green region all the way to the red region (fig. 6.25). This phenomenon is as a result of the presence of blue in both secondary colours, with the other colours that make them as red and yellow. This explains the peaking over a large area representing the yellow, orange and red regions.

Fig. 6.25 Spectral curves for Atul Violet / Atul Green mixtures

131 25. Dystar Blue/Atul Violet

The general character of reflectance curves for this set reveal a slight dip in the indigo region of the spectrum and then a significant rise in the blue- green region (fig. 6.26). They level up towards the end of the curves at the red region. This is because of the fact that red and blue produce violet consequently resulting in a high level of reflectance from the blue region all the way to the red region. The curves show a high degree of uniformity indicating closeness in the shades produced.

Fig. 6.26 Spectral curves for Dystar Blue / Atul Violet mixtures

132 6.2 Results of Reflectance Curves for a Test of Reproducibility

The main objective of this project is to device a system that will produce

the same result all the time. It is for this reason that a formulation was put

together in different proportions, specifically in grams, such that if strictly

adhered to, similar results should be achieved.

The test of reproducibility was executed by dyeing five (5) different samples with the same mix each time in five (5) dyeings. The shades realized are provided in plates 6.1 to 6.5

1. Dystar Blue(.147g)/Dystar Yellow(.343g)

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 6.1 Dyed samples of Dystar blue/Dystar yellow, at the same

proportions.

133 2. Atul Green(.049g)/Atul Yellow(.441g)

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 6.2 Dyed samples of Atul green/Atul yellow, at the same

proportions.

3. Dystar Red(.343g)/Dystar Yellow(.147g)

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 6.3 Dyed samples of dystar red/dystar yellow, at the same

proportions.

134 4. Atul Red(.441g)/Atul Brown(.049g)

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 6.4 Dyed samples of atul red/atul brown, at the same proportions.

5. Atul Red (.441g) / Atul Green (.049g)

1 2 3 4 5 Plate 6.5 Dyed samples of Atul red/Atul green, at the same proportions.

135

The different curves for each of the dyeing are also provided in the colour

wavelengths in figs. 6.27 to 6.31. It is clear that the behaviour of the

curves does not vary greatly. The slight deviations observed are due to slight variations in the weighed samples due mainly to rounding off of figures at weighing and retention of minutes grains of colour in the weigh boats used. Such variation in wavelength is not visible to the naked eye and surely doesn’t present a major problem in tie-dye/batik making.

1. Dystar Blue 30% (.147g) / Dystar Yellow 70% (.343g)

The five (5) samples dyed according to the 30%/70% combination of

Dystar Blue and Dystar yellow recorded spectral curves shown in fig. 6.27.

The curves all bend similarly except for the 5th dyeing represented by

Dystar blue-yellow.5. The exception here is mainly as a result of a slight

variation in the quantity of colour used due to the rounding off of figures

during weighing. This difference however is not visible to the naked eye.

The shade of green produced has a strong presence of blue and a

relatively smaller amount of yellow.

136

Fig. 6.27 Spectral curves for Dystar Blue / Dystar Yellow mixtures

2. Atul Green 10% (.049g) / Atul Yellow 90% (.441g)

Fig. 6.28 presents a set of five dyed samples produced very close reflectance curves. The shade produced is lemon green but the strong presence of blue is showing here once again in the Green. Indeed, with the naked eye one cannot tell the difference between each of the samples, a situation that proves that if the exact amounts of each component are used in a blend, the same shade will result.

137

Fig. 6.28 Spectral curves for Atul Green / Atul Yellow mixtures

3. Dystar Red 70%(.343g)/Dystar Yellow 30% (.147g)

The deep orange of the combination produced in fig. 6. 29, recorded similar curves as seen in the graph. These curves showed high reflectance in the violet-blue to green region of the spectrum.

138

Fig. 6.29 Spectral curves for Dystar Red / Dystar Yellow mixtures

4. Atul Red 90% (.441g) / Atul Brown 10 %(.049g)

This set of 5 dyed samples in fig. 6.30 produced curves that were again all bent the same way signifying that a close shade was achieved in all samples. Differences as seen by the naked eye are non-existent and can only be reported with the aid of the spectral curves.

139

Fig. 6.30 Spectral curves for Atul Red / Atul Brown mixtures

5. Atul Red 50 % (.245g) / Atul Green .245g (50%)

The differences seen in the spectral curves shown in fig. 6.31 still did not reflect as visible changes in shade of the dyed fabric. The slight differences in reflectance values are probably as a result of rounding off figures that resulted in marginal increases or decreases in the amount of colour used in the blend for that particular dyeing. But the fact that all curves bend similarly is proof of achieving a similar shade in all the dyed samples.

140

Fig. 6.31Spectral curves for Atul Red / Atul Green mixtures

The catalogue itself was put to test by the researcher by assigning it for use by individuals in all four categories interviewed or had questionnaires administered to them in the survey. The study was not only to determine the communicative strength of the catalogue but also to verify findings in the test of reproducibility. In all cases the selected textile designers were initially introduced to the use of the catalogue and more specifically to the use of scales in determining appropriate portions of dyes and chemicals to use for a specific weight of fabric and volume of water. The effect in each case was that the shades shown in the catalogue were achieved as long as the portions specified were scrupulously complied with. In cases where

141 slight variations resulted, these were a consequence of resultant variations in portions of dye and auxiliaries used. Such variations occurred where the decimals were rounded up.

Variations in concentration due to variation in the exact amount of water needed, also resulted in variation in the intensity of hue.

6.3 Discussion of findings

Once the test of reproducibility proved that the same shade is achieved, when the portions of dyes, chemicals and water are adhered to, it became necessary to find out the extent of dyestuff penetration inside the fibre. To do this, samples of yarns unraveled from the dyed fabric were gathered, wrapped in rayon fibres that serve as a contrasting outer layer under the microscope. The yarns with the rayon outer layer were then forced through a narrow hole about the size of a pin in a thin plastic template.

With the aid of safety razor blades, both sides of the plastic template is shown off the parts of the yarns protruding on both sides resulting in a cross-section with a thickness matching that of the plastic template ( plate

6.6).

142

Plate 6.6 Prepared fibre cross-section samples ready for viewing under the electron microscope.

Samples prepared in the manner described above were then conditioned in a standard testing atmosphere of 65% r.h. ± 2% r.h., and a temperature of 200 C ± 20 C for a period of not less than 24 hours. The conditioned samples were then examined under a Nikon electron microscope to reveal the following pictures that represent different times of dyeing. The following are pictures of an Atul Blue/Yellow combination.

143

a. After 10 minutes of dyeing b. After 20 minutes of dyeing

c. After 30 minutes of dyeing d. After 40 minutes of dyeing

Plate 6.7 Fibre cross-sections of yarns from dyed fabrics at different dyeing time

The pictures reveal largely that the longer the dyeing time, the deeper the penetration of dye molecules inside the pores of the fibre.

Again, in the case of a mix of blue and yellow dyes, the colour of the blend is seen clearly in the cross-section examination meaning that both dyes behaved similarly in that their exhaustion rates were the same and this resulted in a fairer distribution of molecules of both dyes inside the fibre.

This phenomenon is however not true for a mix of red and blue dyes. As is revealed in the plate, the inner layers of the yarn shows a high concentration of red dyes with the blue dye rather concentrated around the borders of the yarn, a situation that results in a lack of clarity in shade

(see plate 6.7).

144

a. After 10 minutes of dyeing b. After 20 minutes of dyeing

c. After 30 minutes of dyeing d. After 40 minutes of dyeing

Plate 6.8 Fibre cross-sections of yarns from dyed fabrics at different dyeing times

The shades produced as content for the catalogue comprised few yellows and purples but lots of greens, browns, blues and reds. There were fewer yellows because it is only in blend proportions where the yellow is dominant (90%) that it maintains the shade but this change with the strength of the colour gradually waning in the other 4 blends.

145 CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

7.1 Summary

Batik, though did not originate from Ghana has for several scores of years

now assumed an important role as one of the major cultural artifacts

produced in the country. It has provided employment for several people as

its making has been taught at different levels of the educational ladder and

also as a trade. Consequently there are differences in quality and general

craftsmanship of the product. Several attempts have been made in the

past to promote its export, an effort which faced and continues to

encounter problems such as poor wash-fastness and lack of variety in the

colours used in production. These coupled with application of

inappropriate production procedures and methods have been the bane to

its marketability outside of this country.

Over the years however, its use in the country has increased from the days when its patronage was affected by negative notoriety in the 1980’s first for being monotonous in design and colour, and also for its bad wash- fastness. A lot has changed since then and products have attained significant improvements in quality and design.

146 But a major concern that still persists is the narrow range of colour

schemes seen in the fabrics produced which is what this project seeks to

address. Few producers in their own ways mix different colours to achieve

various shades of secondary and tertiary colours. In most cases however,

they do not document these and even if they do, are kept as trade secrets.

The objectives of this project were to study the work culture of producers

of tie-dye/ batik in order to identify a general ‘modus operandi’, and also to

device a system of mixing the available colours to achieve different

shades that have formed the content of a catalogue. Useful information

has been provided in the catalogue to make it user-friendly.

In attempting to achieve these objectives the researcher reviewed

literature on colour matching systems, colour and catalogues. These

therefore formed the theoretical base for formulating blend formulae that

provided very distinct shades that satisfy the primary demand of a colour

matching system i.e. reproducibility. The requirements of a communicative

colour catalogue were derived from the review of related literature.

Factored into the execution of this project is a presentation of methods and practices mostly overlooked by people engaged in the making of tie-

dye/batik. The end result of such neglect is that they don’t get the full

benefits of inputs used and also expose themselves to health hazards.

147 The arbitrary use of measures which in itself is subjective has been dealt with, by the use of scales for determining weight of fabric, dyes and auxiliaries used. The government through several agencies have in the past sought to introduce the use of scales in the markets which if had been successful would have spread to all other sectors including those engaged in the trades. The employment of such objective means of determining weight of materials to be used ensures reproducibility of shades obtained no matter the variation in nature of fabrics, dyes and auxiliaries.

The research designs adopted for the research were a combination of the pre-experimental and descriptive methods. Even though the pre experimental research design only considers one group which receives the treatment, it is very practical especially considering that the project covered the manufacture of what can be considered a craft item.

Laboratory dyeing tests carried out to generate the colour catalogue mainly simulated actual dyeing procedures and use of dyes and chemicals, a method akin to a quasi-experimental design but this time devoid of a control group.

7.2 Conclusions

The catalogue has proven that it is very possible to obtain very interesting colours from the existing ones and also achieve the same shade all the

148 time hence to a large extend unpredictability is reduced to a minimum.

Clients can well ahead of receiving orders, tell what to expect and also

due to a wider palette, the catalogue aids in satisfying the diverse tastes of

the increasingly sophisticated Ghanaian market for such goods.

The increased variety of colours available would increase the appeal of the craft item to other foreigners who might have colour preferences way outside that of Ghanaians. The net effect therefore will be increased sales and income to those engaged in the trade.

More importantly, a greater level of professionalism would be infused in the operations of manufacturers of tie-dye/batik resulting in standardization of practices and procedures. Producers who are slow to adapt to change will however not benefit from the innumerable advantages spelt out in the foregoing paragraphs. In the same way the illiterate would be challenged in its use since figures would have to be read and in a few cases simple calculations made in order to arrive at exact quantities needed. An earlier comment made by a producer after the initial trial of the catalogue led to the construction of a calculation table that readily provides corresponding weight of dyes and auxiliaries in relation to the volume of water and weight of dye needed.

149 A major limitation however is that the predictive ability of the catalogue is only for a single colour that can serve as a background colour in a multi- colour work, even though it can still serve as a guide to the shade of colour likely to result if a second colour is dyed on a first one.

7.3 Recommendations

Undertaking this research has revealed several limitations and possibilities that constraints of time and scope of work could not allow the researcher to explore. These are outlined in the recommendations below.

1. The project worked with only the primary colours and four

secondary colours thereby reducing the possible combinations that

could in turn yield a larger number of shades. Even for the colours

selected for use, a greater variety of shades could have resulted if

different concentrations of the colours were used in dyeing to yield

shades in increasing depths of hue. It is therefore recommended

that for a wider colour pallet that offers greater possibilities for

matching different colours, the colours could be used, and the five-

step format adopted for the tests, extended to nine representing a

10% change in the value of each colour combination in each step.

2. Another shortcoming of the project is its concentration on colours

achieved at first-time dyeing. The methods and findings in this

150 project serve as useful basis for any work in predicting shades

resulting from a second dyeing operation that creates mixtures “in-

situ”. The researcher therefore recommends that, for the user to get

maximum benefits from the catalogue, shades generated by trials

of second dyeing onto shades already developed can be

catalogued by the users to serve as additional references.

3. For the most part, it is only the weight of fabric that was considered

as a basis for determining the weight of all other dyebath

ingredients. But in cases where wax is used as resist on the fabric,

the weight of fabric exposed for dye accessibility can be calculated

by simply subtracting the weight of fabric waxed, from the weight of

fabric before waxing. The shade to be achieved will be same for the

same weight of unwaxed fabric. In view of all these which indicate a

great need for users to have basic knowledge in arithmetic, the

researcher recommends that training institutions at all levels

inculcate into their curricula, aspects of basic arithmetic that will be

useful to producers of tie-dye/batik.

4. One thing that came out clearly was that if properly outlined

practices and procedures are used, there is a greater level of

predictability with dyeing for tie-dye/batik production. The

researcher therefore recommends that governmental agencies and

151 NGO’s involved in the small-scale business sector must liaise with

training institutions to update the skills of producers of tie-dye/batik

especially with the adoption and use of the catalogue by these

producers. This will not only aid them imbibe knowledge related to

their area of vocation, but also help standardize practices and

procedures that in the long run lead to better products and hence

higher patronage.

5. In relation to the above, agencies connected to small scale

production activities and especially in the area of tie-dye/batik

should, after disseminating knowledge on improved practices and

methods, must heavily subsidize the cost of portable electronic

scales and the catalogue so as to make them affordable.

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