RICE UNIVERSITY

FRANCESCO GEMINIANI'S SIX CELLO SONATAS

COMMENTARY AND PERFORMING EDITION

by

Ellen Judd Rennie

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

MASTER OF MUSIC

APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE:

UL. . IT cl Ui VsUUptSJ. , IlUiebbUi UJ. Music, Composer in Residence Chairman

Dr. Anne Sc Associate Professor of Music

Music

HOUSTON, TEXAS

MAY 1980 ABSTRACT

FRANCESCO GEMINIANI'S SIX CELLO SONATAS COMMENTARY AND PERFORMING EDITION

by

Ellen J. Rennie

Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762) was considered to be an eminent composer and one of the finest violinists of his day. Yet modern scholars have generally overlooked him in favor of other masters such as J.S. Bach and George

Frederick Handel. The reasons for this neglect are multi¬ faceted.

Most present-day music historians have relied upon the accounts of Charles Burney and Sir John Hawkins as the sole source of their information concerning Geminiani's life and musical skills. While these two histories offer interesting insights into eighteenth-century musical prac¬ tices, they are often biased and the facts frequently mis¬ leading since both authors depended heavily upon memory and hearsay evidence for their accounts. The criticisms of

Geminiani found in these documents have undoubtedly tinged the attitudes of twentieth-century scholars toward the

Italian master. The scarcity of readily available per¬ forming editions has greatly hindered the performance of

Geminiani's works and has further impeded efforts to ob¬ tain a true understanding of Geminiani’s contributions to the development of music and musical style.

Such an understanding is not easily attained since

Geminiani represents an enigma in music history. His com¬ positions and treatises obviously reflect his ties to the Baroque traditions of composition and performance. Many of his tenets, however, were so far in advance of their time that they required rediscovery in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Because he represents such an enigma, scholars have been unable to place him neatly in one of the accepted periods of music history. These same schol¬ ars have, therefore, considered Geminiani to be a "transi¬ tional” figure in music history and have relegated him to the rather nebulous domain of the pre-Classical era. As a "transitional" figure, Geminiani's works have not been judged upon their own merits but rather in comparison with the works of his more well-known contemporaries. Although his compositions and treatises are uneven in quality, they stand as important documents for any student of Baroque performance practices. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze Gemini¬ ani's contributions to the literature and development of

iii Of music. This analysis will be effected by means of a study of Geminiani's Six Sonatas for Violoncello and Basso-

Continuo, Op. 5 which were originally published in Paris and at the Hague in 1746. These same works were subse¬ quently printed in London in 1747. The second part of this project is a new performing edition of the six sonatas in which, it is hoped, the figures of the basso-continuo have been realized in such a manner as to reveal the composer's ideals of accompaniment and good taste in the performance of his works.

iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Gratitude amd appreciation are here expressed to the members of my committee who were of invaluable assistance

during the course of this research:

To Dr. Paul Cooper for suggesting this study and for

painstakingly reading and aiding in the revision of the manuscript and the edition itself.

To Dr. Anne Schnoebelen, who contributed valuable advice

on procedure and organization, and who patiently aided in

the editing of the manuscript.

To Shirley Trepel for her suggestions pertaining to the

edition.

Acknowledgments are also due Ralph Holibaugh and the

staff of Interlibrary Loan of the Fondren Library for their

aid in obtaining rare documents. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF PLATES viii PART ONE: COMMENTARY

Chapter

I. FRANCESCO GEMINIANI 1

II. THE CELLO SONATAS, OP. 5 PRINTING AND NOTATION 25

III. FORMAL STRUCTURES IN THE CELLO SONATAS 37

IV. THE EDITION 60

CONCLUSION 68

APPENDIX 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY 76 PART TWO: EDITION PREFACE 82 SONATAS :

I 83

II 96

III 114 SONATAS : Page

IV .127

V. .134

VI .147

vii LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

I. Fingerings for chromatic passages, from Art of Playing on the Violin 13

II. Table of Ornaments from Taste II 33

III. Realization of a descending scale, from The Art of Accompahiament, II Example XXIV 63 CHAPTER I

FRANCESCO GEMINIANI

As a composer, theorist, and performer, Francesco

Saviero Geminiani represents an enigma in music history.

Chronologically, historians have placed him in the rather nebulous domain of the "pre-Classical" era, yet his unique

styles of composition and performance clearly illustrate characteristics of both the Baroque and Classical periods. At the same time, his compositions and treatises reveal techniques which were greatly in advance of their time and required rediscovery in the nineteenth and twentieth cen¬ turies. Born in Lucca in 1687, Geminiani began his violin

studies in Milan with Carlo Lonati, known as "il Gobbo" (the hunchback) . He subsequently went to Rome where he

studied composition with Alessandro Scarlatti and received further instruction on the violin from Arcangelo Corelli.

His formal training completed, Geminiani moved to Naples

(ca. 1710) where he conducted the Signoria Orchestra. His

somewhat less than illustrious career in that city is re¬

counted by Charles Burney in A General History of Music. ... he went to Naples, where from the reputation of

1 2

his performance at Rome, he was placed at the head of the orchestra; but according to the elder Barbella, he was soon discovered to be so wild and unsteady a timist, that instead of regulating and conducting the band, he threw it into confusion; as none of the performers was able to follow him in his tempo rubato, and other accel¬ erations and relaxations of measure. After this dis¬ covery ... he was never trusted with a better part than tenor Ci.e., violaD» during his residence in that city.1 Soon after leaving the Signoria Orchestra, Geminiani moved to London in 1714, one year after the death of his mentor, Corelli. It was in the two great capitals, London

and Paris, that Geminiani made most of his contributions to the development of composition and violin technique. Geminiani's decision to move to London seems to have followed closely on the heels of several commentaries on the state of music in England in the early years of the

eighteenth century. Two such reports were made by contem¬ poraries of the Italian master, Roger North and Johann

Mattheson. In his Musicall Grammarian, North stated that "the English would follow Musick and drop their pence freely."2 In 1713, Mattheson offered the advice to musi¬

cians, that "he who in the present time wants to make a

1Charles Burney, A General History of Music, ed. by Frank Mercer, (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1935), II, p. 991.

2Roger North , Musicall Grammarian, ed. by Hilda Andrews, (London, 1925), quoted in David D. Boyden, The History of Violin Playing from its Origins to 1761, (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 232. 3 profit out of music betakes himself to England.''^

The rise of a class of amateur musicians in England after the Restoration in 1660 created a large market for music teachers, and since the violin was the favored in¬ strument of these English dilettantes, the demand for Ital¬ ian violinists reached its peak during the opening years of the eighteenth century. Observing the myriad of teach¬ ing and performing opportunités, Geminiani, like many other Italians, decided to capitalize on his good fortune and moved to England. His skill as a performer was recog¬ nized immediately, and Geminiani soon included among his students many members of the English nobility.

It is generally agreed by most scholars that Geminiani remained in London, teaching, composing, and per¬ forming, until 1733, at which time he paid an extended visit to his friend and former pupil, Michael Dubourg, in Dublin. Edmund van der Straeten, in his book on the his¬ tory of the violoncello, presents evidence which indicates that Geminiani may have returned to Italy in 1725. Van der

Straeten states that, in 1725, Geminiani was seen at a con¬ cert given by the violoncellist, Franschiello, in Naples.^

3Boyden, History of Violin Playing, p. 232.

^Edmund van der Straeten, History of the Violon¬ cello, the Viol da Gamba. Their Precursors and Collateral Instruments, (London: William Reeves £1910; reprint edi¬ tion, London: Lowe and Brydone (Printers), 1971), p. 155. 4

Geminiani returned to London in 1726 at which time he arranged Corelli's Opus 5 trio sonatas for concerto grosso instrumentation. He issued similar arrangements of

Corelli's Opus 3 trio sonatas in the following year. In 1728, Lord Essex, a friend and pupil of Gemini¬ ani, procured for him the position of master and composer of the State Music in Ireland. Geminiani's affiliation with the Roman Catholic Church prompted heated debates by

Robert Walpole and other Protestant leaders concerning the appointment, and in order to avoid further argument, the Italian refused the post.5 He did, however, pay frequent and lengthy visits to Dubourg who went to Dublin in his teacher’s stead. One such visit occurred in 1733 and lasted until 1740. While residing in Dublin, Geminiani continued his teaching and apparently spent much of his time revising many of his early compositions. He returned to the English capital after having been granted a license to print by George II in 1739.

He remained in London until 1750. For many years, the Italian composer had admired the fine craftsmanship of the French engravers, and he wished to have many of his own works reprinted in that country. In order to finance a trip to Paris, Geminiani produced a "Concerto Spirituale"

^Hugh A. Scott, "London Concerts from 1700-1750," The Musical Quarterly XXIV/2 (1938): 196. 5 at a. theater in Drury Lane on April 11, 1750. Although the performance was marred by numerous flaws, the concert was well-received by the English audience, and the venture proved to be so financially successful that Geminiani was able to remain in Paris from 1750 to 1755.6 Reports indicate that Geminiani returned to London in that year and stayed in the city until 1759 when he re¬ visited his friend, Dubourg, in Dublin. In 1762, the com¬ poser's failing health was severely aggravated by the theft of an unfinished manuscript of a new and complete musical guide. Death followed several days later on September 17, 1762.

During his long career as a composer, Geminiani produced no dramatic works. Rather, he excelled in the ab¬ stract forms of the sonata and the concerto grosso and con¬ centrated his efforts on the expansion and refinement of these forms.7 Since the English audiences of that time generally preferred the theatrical entertainment offered by the opera and other dramatic musical forms, Geminiani drew little public attention. Consequently, "the sense of

6ln the eighteenth century, benefit concerts, known as "concerti spirituali," were a common means by which com¬ posers raised money for themselves. See Scott, "London Concerts," p. 96. ^Geminiani is credited with the expansion of the concerto grosso concertina from a trio to a full string quartet by the addition of the viola to that ensemble. 6 his merits existed only among those who had attained a com¬ petent skill in the practice of instrumental harmony to judge of them, and to these his publications were ever acceptable.”®

Geminiani also rarely appeared in public, and like his compositions, his concerts were intended for a small group of musical elite. Perhaps his most famous concert was the one presented before George I soon after the Ital¬ ian's arrival in London. The performance of Geminiani's Opus 1 violin sonatas took place at the command of the king at the court at St. James, and, as requested by the violin¬ ist, Handel provided the continuo accompaniment.9

Because of his lack of public exposure and the limited appeal of his works, Geminiani failed to become a popular musical idol in England. Within one hundred years of his death, the Italian master was virtually for¬ gotten. Except for brief entries in music history texts and dictionaries, Geminiani's name has, until recently, remained in relative obscurity. Modern scholars have over¬ looked him in favor of other masters such as J.S. Bach and

Handel. Most writers have relied upon the accounts of

®Sir John Hawkins, A General History of the Science and Practice of Music, with an Introduction by Charles Cudworth, (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1963), II, p. 915. 9Ibid., p. 847. 7

Charles Burney and Sir John Hawkins for the bulk of their data concerning Geminiani's life and skill as a composer and performer. While these histories provide interesting insights into eighteenth-century musicians and musical practices, the accounts are often biased and the facts frequently misleading since both authors depended heavily upon memory and second- or even third-hand information.

Failure of many early twentieth-century scholars to corro¬ borate their findings has led to many misconceptions con¬ cerning Geminiani's life and works, and the scarcity of readily available performing editions has greatly hindered the performance of his music.Hence,very little effort has been made to analyze thoroughly and critically Gemini¬ ani's role in music history.^ The fact that Geminiani was regarded as an eccentric by some of his peers may have caused more than a few his¬ torians to treat his place in music history with undeserved

^®Four modern performing editions of Geminiani's works are known to this writer. Ross Lee Finney has edited Geminiani's Opus 1 violin sonatas (Geminiani, Twelve Sonatas for Violin and Piano, ed. by Ross Lee Finney, "Smith College Music Archives, Number 1," (Northampton, Smith College, 1935)). Editions of the six sonatas for cello, Op. 5 and violin transcriptions of the same by Walter Kolneder (1964) are published by C.F. Peters. Another edi¬ tion of the sixth cello sonata by Merrick-James is offered by G. Schirmer.

l^One exception to this statement is an excellent study by Marion E. McArtor, Francesco Geminiani, Composer and Theorist, (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, T93Tn 8 levity. The story concerning the Italian's stay in Naples and the following quote are characteristic of several reports which may have tinged the attitudes of present-day historians. After the publication of his second set of solos, his productions seem to have been the offspring of whim, caprice, expedients, and an unprincipled change of style and taste. . . . One day he would set up French Music against all other; the next English, Scots, Irish - any thing but the best compositions of Italy or Handel. . . . his melody was even inferior, and there is frequently an irregularity in his measures and phraseology, and a confusion in the effect of the whole, from too great business and dissimilitude of the several parts, which gives to each of his com¬ positions the effect of a rhapsody or extemporaneous flight, rather than a polished and regular produc¬ tion. 12

Both Burney and Hawkins offer additional damaging remarks in their accounts of Geminiani's somewhat question¬ able practices as an art dealer and of his accrual of busi¬ ness debts for which he was imprisoned at least once.

While Burney is a bit more scathing in his criticisms than is Hawkins, both writers admit that Geminiani's behavior demonstrated a general lack of character and principle.13

Needless to say, these narratives have been inju¬ rious to Geminiani's reputation. Consequently, scholars who have drawn most of their information from the histories of Burney and Hawkins have questioned the value of Gemini-

l^Burney, General History, pp. 993-4. ^Ibid., pp. 993-4; and Hawkins, Science and Prac¬ tice of Music, p. 915. 9 ani's contributions to the development of music and musi¬

cal style.

Yet one finds in the writings of these same two eighteenth-century scholars, passages which contain only the highest praise for Geminiani as both a performer and composer. According to Hawkins, Upon Geminiani's arrival

in London, "he so recommended himself by his exquisite performance, that all who professed to understand or love music, were captivated at hearing him. . . ."14 Burney likewise acknowledged the import of Geminiani's arrival in

London, and he regarded several of his compositions in the highest esteem.

Soon after this, . . . his Opera terza, or second set of concertos appeared, which established his charac¬ ter, and placed him at the head of all the masters then living, in this species of composition. His second concerto of the second set ... is the most - * ’ rfect composition of the kind, within

The Italian master was also lauded by his contem poraries for his treatise entitled Art of Playing on the

Violin, Op. 9. Published in 1751, the treatise was so widely accepted as the definitive method on playing the violin in the style of Corelli that it was reissued the following year in Paris with only a few minor revisions. Other editions were published throughout the Western world

^Hawkins, Science and Practice of Music, p. 915. 15surney, General History, pp. 991 and 994n. 10 until 1805. The only publications over which the author

had complete control were the 1751 London edition and the

French translation of 1752.^6

While certainly not the first violin treatise to

be written, Geminiani's tutor!7 is significant as the first work to treat the subject of violin playing with

such thoroughness.18 The treatise consists of three sec¬ tions: an explanatory text, examples of the principles

discussed in the text, and finally, compositions which employ these same principles.

The contents of the treatise show the author to be something of a conservative as well as an iconoclast re¬ garding violin technique. It contains no mention of tech¬ niques of later violinists such as trills in thirds and

sixths, consecutive trills, and harmonics. Geminiani’s conservative attitude toward the subject is not surprising

since his objective was to set forth the principles of violin playing as established by his teacher, Corelli.

l^For a complete list of these editions, see Francesco Geminiani, Art of Flaying on the Violin, fac¬ simile edition, ed. with an Introduction by David D. Boyden, (London: Oxford University Press, n.d.), p. x. l^In eighteenth-century England, the term ’’tutor" was used synonymously with the word "treatise." ^Geminiani’s treatise predates Leopold Mozart's Vio1inschule (1756) by five years. 11

Geminiani, did, however, attack some long-held

beliefs about string technique, not the least of which was what he termed "that wretched Rule of drawing the Bow down at the first Note of every Bar."^9 While strict adherence to this rule had its place in the dance music of the French, according to Geminiani, it was not suited to the abstract musical forms of the Italians and should be employed only when indicated by the composer.

The Art of Playing on the Violin also contains the

first reference to the continuous use of vibrato. Here,

the author distinguished between two types of vibrato, or¬

namental and structural. The occasional use of the tech¬ nique as an ornament was, by Geminiani's standards, suit¬

able for the flute. He advocated the continuous use of vibrato for string instruments, saying, "when it is made on

short Notes, it only contributes to make their Sound more agréable QsicJ and for this Reason it should be made use of as often as possible."20 Vibrato is, of course, always desirable on long notes.

Geminiani's experimental tendencies are also dem¬ onstrated by his fingerings for shifts for which he at¬ tempted to provide every possible solution. He generally

favored large shifts of the hand, thereby decreasing the

^Geminiani, Violin, p. 4.

20Ibid., p. 7. 12 number of required changes. As seen in the examples con¬ tained in Plate I, he also supported the use of separate fingerings for each tone in chromatic passages as this would lend more clarity to each tone. This technique is contrary to the normal Baroque practice of sliding one finger between a tone and its altered form in chromatic passages. Although his compositions are rather conservative in range, Geminiani described seven playing positions, or

"orders,’' in his violin tutor. The examples include dou¬ ble stops which require the use of the seven orders on all four strings. Triple and quadruple stops are also included and are shown mainly as being arpeggiated in per¬ formance. Further evidence of the composer's progressive attitude is apparent from his inclusion of dynamic markings to create special effects such as "echoes" in repeated passages. Geminiani's addition of dynamic markings in the continuo part in the treatise compositions as well as other works implies the significance of the continuo as a dramatic element in his works. The opinions on expression in performance which

Geminiani enunciated in this and other treatises were thosje generally held by most eighteenth-century musicians.

^^Boyden, The History of Violin Playing, p. 375. 13 Fingerings for chromatic passages, from Art of Playing on the Violin 14

He heartily opposed the French practices of imitation in the descriptive sense, saying that a pleasing performance was one which gave the "Instrument a Tone that shall in a

Manner rival the most perfect human Voice."22 Geminiani's sentiments are echoed by Quantz in the following statement from the flute treatise.

Musical execution may be compared with the deliv¬ ery of an orator ... to arouse or still [the lis¬ teners G passions, and to transport them now to this sentiment, now to that.23 The Art of Playing on the Violin was one of the most important treatises of the eighteenth century, and it alone has assured Geminiani a position in the history books, albeit a minor position. The document was signi¬ ficant in its day as a codification of the principles of the classical violin school of Corelli. Yet while it looked to the past in some respects, it was progressive in many others. Owing to the brevity of the text, much of its significance must be ascertained by the discerning student through implication. Nevertheless, it still stands as a major treatise for all students of Baroque string technique.

22Geminiani, Violin, p. 1. It is interesting to observe that the "Preface" was omitted from the Paris edi¬ tion because of the attacks that Geminiani made on certain practices of French musicians.

23j0hann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, trans. with an Introduction and notes by Edward R. Reilly, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1966), p. 119. 15

If Geminiani was highly acclaimed by his contem¬ poraries as a theorist, composer, and performer, he at¬ tracted equal notice as an innovator in the field of har¬ mony and modulation. Geminiani achieved his desired sonor¬ ities by means of highly chromatic melody and bass lines.

Hawkins was effusive in his praise of the Italian's novel use of harmony and modulation.

It is observable upon the works of Geminiani, that his modulations are not only original, but that his harmonies consist of such combinations as were never introduced till his time; the rules of transition from one key to another, which are laid down by those who have written on the composition of music, he not only disregarded, but objected to as an unnecessary re¬ straint on the powers of invention. He has been fre¬ quently heard to say, that cadences in the fifth, the third, and the sixth of a key which occur in the works of Corelli, were rendered too familiar to the ear by the frequent repetition of them: and it seems to have been the study of his life, by a liberal use of semitonic intervals, to increase the number of harmon¬ ic combinations; and into melody to introduce a greater variety than it was otherwise capable of.24 In 1742, Geminiani produced a compilation of his harmonic principles in another treatise entitled Guida Armonica.25 The fundamental basis of Geminiani's chord

24nawkins, Science and Practice of Music, pp. 902-3. Considering the importance of the semitone to Geminiani's compositions, it is not surprising that he should have ad¬ vocated the use of separate fingerings which would cause these semitones to be rendered with the utmost clarity.

25A1though 1742 is generally accepted as the date of publication, McArtor has revealed evidence that the Guida may have been written as late as 1754. See McArtor, Geminiani, pp. 344-7. 16 usage has been described by McArtor in the words of Matthew

Shirlaw as the "rule of the octave."26 This rule repre¬ sents a correlation of chord choice to bass notes in the continuo. Although Geminiani never used such terminology to characterize his chord choices, the underlying implica¬ tions are apparent from a study of his compositions and treatises. These inferences are also perceptible in the following quotes from The Art of Accompaniament j~sic~1 Parts I and II. The Art of Accompaniament consists in displaying Harmony, disposing the Chords, in a just Distribution of the Sounds whereof they consist, and in ordering them after a Manner, that they may give the Ear the Pleasure of a continued and uninterrupted Melody. This Observation, or rather Principle, is the Ground of my Method, which teaches the Learner to draw from the Har¬ mony, he holds under his Fingers, diversified and agreeable Singings.27 . . . the Art of Accompaniament consists principal¬ ly in two things, which I call Postion and Motion. By Position I mean the placing of the proper Chord upon any Bass Note; and this constitutes Harmony. By Motion I mean the passing from one Sound to another, either acute or grave; and this constitutes Melody.28

It is clear from these two statements that Gemini- ani*s melodic concepts were inextricably bound to his chord

^Matthew Shir law, The Theory of Harmony, (London: Novello and Co., D.917U), pp. 118-20.

27prancesco Geminiani, The Art of Accompaniament rsicl, Op. 11, Part I, (London:-John Johnson, C1754D), p. 1. 2®Ibld., Part II, "Introduction," p. 1. 17

choices and concomitantly, to the bass line. Further impli

cations of Geminiani's compositional technique are evident

in a statement from the "Preface" to the Supplement to the

Guida Armonica (1756).

... I still affirm, that the Notes of the Bass, to which numbers are annexed in the Guida Armonica include Harmony, Modulation and Melody. . ! . good Melody is implied in good Harmony and Modulation.29 This chordal approach to composition seems to have been so widespread in the Baroque era that it warranted comment by Manfred Bukofzer. The chordal "continuo thinking" pervaded all aspects of theory. Even the approach to counterpoint was gov¬ erned by harmonic consideration...... The Rules How to Compose (ca. 1610) by Cope- rario very clearly demonstrate the intrusion of chordal thinking into contrapuntal theory, especially in the manner of reckoning all voices from the bass.30

Later, referring to practices of the middle Baroque, Bukof¬

zer states:

Progressive was the tendency to reduce all voices to chords which could be figured from the bass. This method of chord formation ultimately led to the recog¬ nition of tonality. . . . Retrospective was the method of chord progression. Before the establishment of tonality chord progressions were regulated not by a harmonic, but as yet by a melodic principle, namely by the actual bass line itself.31

Geminiani's preoccupation with the chordal deriva-

29"preface" to the Supplement to the Guida Armonica, quoted in McArtor, Geminiani, p. 236.

30Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era, (New Yorw: W.W. Norton & Company, 1947), pp. 382-3. 31lbid., p. 386. 18 tions of his melodic content is equally clear in his compo¬ sitions where the solo material is, at times, a direct realization of the figures in the bass. It would appear that Geminiani's compositional method combines both the progressive and retrospective principles represented by Bukofzer. The Italian's reliance on the melodic bass line for chord choices often causes his chord selections to seem somewhat arbitrary. Because of this feature, Geminiani's compositions acquire their needed cohesiveness from the lyrical bass line and from the prin¬ ciple of "continuous expansion." Of this principle, Bukof¬ zer states that "Whether applied to figurative harmony, continuo-polyphony, continuo-homophony, chordal texture, or contrapuntal texture ... it always served as the same formal principle."32 That counterpoint played an important part in

Geminiani's compositional style is witnessed by his use of imitative devices including fugal writing. The cello sona¬ ta, Op. 5, No. 2 contains fugato treatment of the melodic material with the continuo sharing equally in the presenta¬ tion of that material. While this is the only fugato move¬ ment found in the Opus 5 set, imitative devices pervade the fast movements of the remaining five sonatas.

Contrapuntal devices also played a major role in

32ibid., p. 361. 19

Geminiani's style of keyboard accompaniment. This feature is particularly evident in the examples found in The Art of Accompaniment where contrapuntal devices are abundant and where the accompaniment, at times, reaches soloistic proportions. Although many of these realizations are very florid, they are intended as teaching pieces, and the stu- is encouraged to determine a suitable style of accompani¬ ment for each musical work. The suspension, a familiar contrapuntal device, is also found in profusion in Geminiani's realizations and is indi¬ cated in the figured basses of his compositions. Appoggia- ture and accented and unaccented passing tones are freely used in the realizations in the treatise. Although contra¬ puntal devices play a vital role in Geminiani's style of composition and accompaniment, strict chordal implications always serve as the basis for his writing.

The list of Geminiani's compositions is relatively small when compared with the catalogues of such composers as J.S. Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Antonio Vivaldi.

This fact is somewhat surprising since, according to Burney and Hawkins, Geminiani's works were awaited with great anti¬ cipation and generally received with warm praise by his peers. It has already been observed, however, that Gemini¬ ani's audience was in actuality a small group of musical elite, and therefore his works were never subject to popu- 20 lar demand. In addition, the publishing and printing prac¬ tices in eighteenth-century London were such that composers were responsible for the costs of publication. Despite the fact that Geminiani had several friends and pupils from the English nobility, there is no indication that he was supported in his publishing enterprises by any wealthy pa¬ tron. Burney and Hawkins attribute Geminiani's small out¬ put to the fact that much of his time was consumed by his art business. Geminiani also spent a great deal of time revising and arranging his own works. The composer's diminutive yield cannot, in all likelihood, be attibuted to a single cause; rather, it probably resulted from a combination of many factors, a few of which have been enu¬ merated above.

In addition to the works mentioned above, a survey of Geminiani's works reveals 24 sonatas for violin and basso continuo divided equally between Op. 1 and Op. 4, and 18 concerti grossi (Opp. 2, 3, and 7, each set con¬ taining six concerti). His arrangements, in addition to those cited previously, include trio sonata and concerto grosso transcriptions of the violin sonatas, Op. 1 and Op. 4, respectively. Geminiani's works without opus num¬ bers also include six sonatas for flute, a set of teaching pieces known as The Hamonical Miscellany, two sets of

Pièces de clavecin, and The Enchanted Forest. Although 21 the subtitle of the last work states that it is "an in¬ strumental composition expressive of the same ideas as the poem of Tasso," Burney belittles the work's programmatic character, saying . . . but music has never had the power,, without vocal articulation to narrate, or instruct; it can excite, paint, and soothe our passions; but it is utterly in¬ capable of reasoning; or conversing, to any reasonable purpose.33 Three treatises may be added to the inventory pre¬ sented earlier. The first two treatises are entitled

Rules for Playing in a True Taste on the Violin, German

Flute, Violoncello and Harpsichord, Op. 8 0.748] and A

Treatise on Good Taste in the Art of Musick (1749). The latter work was designed to serve as a supplement to the former, and the two treatises are often referred to as

Taste I and Taste II, respectively. The third treatise was written in 1760, two years before the author's death. Another instrumental method, this essay is known as The

Art of Playing on the Guitar or Cittra. The texts of all of the treatises are remarkable for their brevity. The violin treatise, although still relatively short, contains the most detailed text of all, and it is the only essay which Geminiani considered to be complete in itself and for which he did not provide a supplement.

Most of Geminiani's compositions require that

33Burney, General History, p. 992. 22

soloists have a formidable technique and complete command of their instruments regarding multiple stops, ornaments, passaggi , and shifts of position. While the intricacies of the works undoubtedly brought him notice as a composer of significance among his peers, they probably placed his works out of the grasp of the average musician. Geminiani,

therefore, arranged many of his solo compositions for larger ensembles, thereby simplifying them and making them

suitable for performance by amateurs.

As a result of his small oeuvre and its limited appeal, Geminiani did not long remain in a position of popularity in England after his death. Nevertheless, the impression that he made through his writings greatly influ¬ enced the tenor of English musical criticism during the latter half of the eighteenth century. The chief exponent of Geminiani's principles was one of his students, Charles Avison (ca. 1710-1770) who, in 1753, produced his treatise on aesthetics, An Essay on Musical Expression. Avison wrote very highly of his teacher in the treatise, and in certain passages, the choice of words and the syntax is

identical to that found in Geminiani's violin treatise.34

^^Thurston Dart has speculated that Charles Avison may have written the texts for Geminiani's Tast I and II as well as for the violin treatise. See Thurston Dart, "Francesco Geminiani and the Rule of Taste," The Consort 19 (July 1962): 122-27. 23

Historically, Geminiani stands between the Baroque and Classical periods. His compositions strongly resem¬

ble instrumental music which is commonly classified as

late Baroque or Galant. Although his contrapuntal skill rivaled that of other contemporary composers, he failed to exploit fully his potential in that field of composi¬

tion. Similarly, his experiments in tonality failed to lead him to the truly harmonic style of the Classical period because of his insistent retention of the continuo- homophony principle. Geminiani's efforts to expand the sonata form and the forms of the individual movements were thwarted by his preoccupation with continuo-homophony rather than with melodic (i.e., thematic) ideas. Single movements in his compositions are still rooted in the principle of "continuous expansion." Thematic contrast within move¬ ments is not a part of his style, and concomitantly, evi¬ dence of developmental techniques is minimal. When repe¬

tition of thematic material occurs, it is reiterated

exactly with little or no attempt at development. As a result, the longer movements and sections are rather rhap¬

sodic and free in their structure. Similarly, his larger structures are based mainly on contrasting meters and

keys rather than on thematic contrast, another indication of his hold on the traditions of the past. 24

Geminiani's treatises offer enlightening details of his methods of composition and his opinions concerning performance practices. While the texts are brief, Gemini- ani was extremely careful in his notational practices, and as cited earlier, the significance of the treatises may be implied through exhaustive scrutiny of the musical exam¬ ples contained in them. Close examination of his other compositions (and especially the transcriptions of Corelli's

sonatas) is also required in order to gain a true under¬ standing of his compositional and performance ideals. Musically, Geminiani's compositions are uneven in quality, as indicated by the testimony of his contempo¬ raries. While some of his works seem ordinary and lacking in imagination, others were considered to be the finest examples of their time. Since he was regarded with great respect as a violinist, and because his treatises and com¬ positions illustrate his ideals of composition and perfor¬ mance, Geminiani merits attention, if only from an his¬ torical perspective. CHAPTER II

THE CELLO SONATAS, OP. 5

PRINTING AND NOTATION

Unlike Geminiani's other works, the six sonatas for violoncello and basso continuo were originally published in Paris by LeClerc and Boivin. The first edition appeared in 1746 and was followed by another edition published at the Hague later that same year. The sonatas were subse¬ quently issued in London in 1747 by Philips. The London edition has been used for this study and the performing edition. The title of the 1747 edition is as follows: VI/ Sonate/ DI/ Violoncello e Basso Continuo/ Da/ F. Geminiani/ Opera V/ Nelle quali egli a procurato di renderle non/ solo utile a quelli che bramano per- fettionarsi/ sopra il detto Stromento ma ancora per quelli che accompagno di cembalo/ LONDRA Philips seul.

Violin transcriptions of these same sonatas were printed in Paris and at the Hague in 1746 and in London in 1747. As indicated by the addition of the following subtitle, the transcriptions show only minor modifications of the original score.

Sono dallo trasposte per il VIOLINO con Cambiamenti proprij e necessarij alio Stromento

25 26

The original keys of the cello sonatas were re¬ tained in transcriptions of Sonatas I and III which are

in A major and C major, respectively. The remaining four sonatas were transposed in order to facilitate the perfor¬ mance of them on the violin. The original keys of Sonatas

II, IV, V, and VI are D minor, major, F major, and A minor, respectively. The arrangements for violin, however, use F# minor, D major, major, and D minor for these

same sonatas.^ The melodic and harmonic structure of the violin

transcriptions is essentially the same as in the cello

sonatas. Only slight modifications were made, especially regarding the ornaments, triple stops, and octave dis¬ placements, many of which are unplayable on the violin.

The London edition of the cello sonatas is remark¬ ably clear and precise in its notation. It appears from

the boldness of the note heads and the uniform shape of other notational symbols (such as clefs, rests, and acci¬ dentals) that Philips employed the method of punching the

characters into pewter plates, a method of engraving which originated in France in the late seventeenth century.

This technique was perfected in the early eighteenth cen-

^-McArtor has incorrectly listed the keys of the cello sonatas and the violin transcriptions, assigning the keys of the violin arrangements to the cello sonatas and giving the keys of the cello sonatas as the keys of the violin transcriptions. See McArtor, Geminiani, pp. 336-7. 27

tury by the two English publishers, Walsh and Hare.2 The use of this method of engraving causes the printed page

to have th appearance of heaviness and boldness such as

that found in the Philips edition of the Opus 5 cello sonatas.3 Another tradition of printing established by Walsh

during the early eighteenth century was the custom of omit'

ting the dates of publication from music books. According to Burney: The late Mr. Walsh, finding old music books were like old almanacks, ceased very early in this century to ascertain the time of their birth by dates which have ever since been as carefully concealed as the age of stale virgins.^ Unfortunately, this practice was continued by most English

publishers, including Philips, until well into the twenti¬ eth century. Consequently, precise dating of many of

Geminiani's works is nearly impossible and subject to a

^Before the introduction of the punching method, all engraving was done by hand on copper plates. As the cost of these copper plates became prohibitive, Walsh and Hare perfected a method of stamping frequently used charac¬ ters into reusable pewter plates. Despite criticism from such printers as Thomas Cross, the punching method was employed almost universally until the invention of the lithographic processes. See Kathi Meyer in collaboration with Eva Judd O’Meara, "The Printing of Music, 1473-1934," The Dolphin, (New York: Limited Editions Club, 1934-26), IÏV p. 1927 ^For a comparison of national printing styles, see Meyer, "Printing," p. 192.

^Burney, General History, p. 613. 28

great deal of speculation.

Accidentals.- In the majority of his works, Geminiani held to the tradition of vertically aligning the acciden¬

tals contained in the key sinatures. Although he adopted the staggered arrangement after 1743, he was not consis¬

tent in his choice of a particular system of distribution.

In the 1747 edition of the cello sonatas, only the first movement ("Andante") shows a staggered arrangement of the three sharps in the A major key signature. All other move¬

ments of this and the remaining sonatas show a vertical alignment of the accidentals (see Fig. 1).

After 1743, Geminiani also adopted the practice

of using complete key signatures for keys having one or

two flats. With one exception, all key signatures in the

six cello sonatas are complete. The exception occurs in the third and fourth movements of Sonata III which are

in the key of C minor (the fourth movement is in C major

with one section in the parallel minor). Here, the A^

has been omitted from the key signature. In general, the Italian composer's use of transi- 29 ent accidentals follows the principles outlined by Frank

T. Arnold in The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-

Bass. Arnold states:

It must be remembered that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, an accidental did not, as in modern music, hold good for the duration of the bar.^

In short, the rule for transient accidentals is that an accidental affects only the note which it immediately precedes, as shown in Fig. 2a. Its effect continues, how¬ ever, for repeated pitches if no other intervening pitches occur (see Fig. 2b). An accidental's effectiveness also continues across the barline if the first note of the succeeding measure is a repetition of the chromatically altered final note of the preceding measure (see Fig. 2c).

The practice of repeating an accidental within the measure if intervening pitches occur was not observed consistently by Geminiani.

In the cello sonatas, Op. 5, Geminiani did not employ the seventeenth-century practice of cancelling a sharp with a flat or a flat with a sharp. No double flats

5Frank T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass as Practised in the XVIIth & XVIIIth Centuries, (London: Oxford University Press, 1931), p. 888. 30 or double sharps were encountered in the sonatas.

Rhythmic Notation.- Except for his extensive use of tempo rubato in performance, Geminiani did not advocate the rhythmic alterations described by his contemporary Quantz and modern scholars such as Dolmetsch, Babitz, and Neumann. 6 The subject of rhythmic inequality is not men¬ tioned in Geminiani's treatises, and in the Art of Playing on the Violin, he specifically cautioned against stressing or4 marking all notes which Quantz calls "principal" or

"good notes. McArtor speculates that there is one instance where rhythmic alteration might be required in the perfor¬ mance of Geminiani's music. The suggested alteration occurs whenever there is a triple division of the time unit. Here, McArtor suggests, the J! and J.J» figures should be modified to V and .8 According to Dol-

6See Quantz, Flute, Chapter XI, $ 12; Arnold Dol¬ metsch, The Interpretation of the Music of the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries, (London: Novello and Company, 1915 ), pp.53-87; Robert Donington, "A Problem of Inequality," The Musical Quarterly LIII (1967): 503-17; Sol Babitz, "A Problem of Rhythm in Baroque Music," The Musical Quarterly XXXVIII (1952); 533-65, and "Concerning the Length of Time that Every Note Must be Held," The Music Review XXVII (1967): 21-37; and Frederick Neumann, "The French Inégales, Quantz and Bach," Journal of the American Musicological Society XVIII (1965): 313-58. 7Geminiani, Violin, p. 9; and Quantz, Flute, Chap¬ ter XI, $ 12. ^McArtor, Geminiani, p. 32. 31 metsth, the use of «J-J1 é to equal U arose from an imper¬ fect system of notation.9 Problems such as those described by McArtor concerning this type of rhythmic alteration were not, however, encountered in the cello sonatas.

The cello sonatas are remarkably free of the complex rhythmical problems found in Geminiani's earlier works and which are discussed so extensively by McArtor. McArtor surmises that the complexities of rhythmic notation found in these works may have been the result of Geminiani's efforts to indicate tempo rubato in his scores.

In the later publications of Geminiani (i.e., those editions published after Walsh's death in 1739) and espe¬ cially in the French editions, one finds dots employed instead of ties to indicate the lengthening of a note value.

Although the problem for modern performers is a relatively minor one when such a notation occurs within a measure, the problem is complicated when a dot is used to extend the value of a note across a barline as in Fig. 3.

^Dolmetsch, Interpretation, pp. 65-70. l^For a complete discussion of the complexities of rhythmic notation found in Geminiani's early works, see McArtor, Geminiani, pp. 27-32. 32

Bowings and Graces♦- As his concern with expression in performance increased, Geminiani's care and precision in

the notation of articulation and ornamentation also in¬ creased. Toward this end, he devised an elaborate set of notational symbols which he first revealed in Taste II.

The examples of the ornaments are given in Plate II . Geminiani also included this same table of ornaments in the Art of Playing on the Violin, but in this treatise,

his discussion of expressive playing was expanded to in¬ clude an extensive essay on the subject of bowing. The tutor also contains examples of various bowings to which

the author affixed the following judgements: Buono (good),

Mediocre, Cattivo (bad), Cattivo o Particolare (bad or particular), Meglio (better), Ottimo (very good), and

Pessimo (very bad). Although Geminiani offered no bases

for his qualitative judgements, it may be deduced that he

did not consider "plain" bowing of individual notes "good"

except in the case of sixteenth notes in an allegro tempo.

He judged superior bowings to be those with nuance, slur¬ ring, and mixtures of bowings.^ Apart from advocating the continuous use of vibra¬ to (or the "close shake") and denouncing the "wretched" rule of the downbow, Geminiani cautioned the performer

against playing in too florid a style since "without some-

11 Geminiani, Violin, Example XX, p. 27. PLATE II

Table of Ornaments from Taste II 33 34 times suffering the pure Note to be heard, . . . the Melo¬ dy would be too much diversified."12 He further advised that long, smooth bow strokes should be employed and that In playing all long Notes the Sound should be begun Soft, and gradually swelled till the Middle, and from thence gradually softened till the End.13 The text of the violin treatise contains no men¬ tion of the use of detached strokes played on the string, a technique which results in what is generally thought to be the normal eighteenth-century string staccato. In

Example XX of the treatise, Geminiani employed a diagonal dash(/) above a note to indicate that the note is to be "play'd plain and the Bow is not to be taken off the

Strings." He further stated that a vertical dash(') indi¬ cates a staccato, "where the Bow is taken off the Strings at every Note."l^ In the Introduction to the violin treatise, Boyden speculates that the diagonal dash (/) may have been Geminiani's method of indicating the normal

Baroque string staccato.15 Geminiani's close attention to detail in matters of notation is particularly apparent in his indications

l2Ibid.. p. 7.

13Ibid., p. 2. ^Ibid., p. 8.

15ibid., "Introduction," p. viii. 35 for appoggiaturas. In the treatises as well as in the com¬ positions, every effort was made by the composer to indi¬ cate the relative length of each appoggiatura. In general, sixteenth-note appoggiaturas are found preceding an eighth note, eighth-note appoggiaturas preceding a quarter note, and quarter-note appoggiaturas preceding a half note.

Sometimes, however, an eighth-note appoggiatura is found in the place of a sixteenth note before a principle eighth note. Its relative value remains the same as if it were a sixteenth-note appoggiatura. In the text of the violin treatise, Geminiani offered the following instructions for the playing of appoggiaturas:

It should be made pretty long, giving it more than half the Length or Time of the Note it belongs to, observing to swell the Sound by Degrees, and towards the End to force the Bow a little: If it be made short, it will . . . still have a pleasing Effect, and it may be added to any Note you will.

Other Notational Symbols.- The cello sonatas are the only compositions of Geminiani which use the word "crescendo" to indicate a swelling of the sound. This indication is used sparingly; Geminiani usually employs the symbols- to notate a gradual swelling and diminishing of the sound. Other dynamic markings are indicated as Pia. (p) and For.

(f). The use of a specific terminology to indicate a

16Ibld., p. 7. 36

cadenza is also unique to the cello sonatas. One such

indication occurs in Sonata IV in the second movement

("Allegro Moderato") with the following notation, "Fant? at lib." Another cadenza is encountered in the third movement ("Adagio") of Sonata V. It is marked by the phrase "Cad? al Solito." Each cadenza occurs immediately before a cadence in the key of the dominant and is pre¬ ceded by a tonic six-four chord in the new key. Geminiani

offered no aid to the performer concerning the realization of the cadenzas in either the compositions or the trea¬

tises, but it may be assumed that they consisted mainly

of elaborate arpeggios and scale passages.

Because of the care with which all of the orna¬ ments and bowings were indicated by the composer, the

sonatas offer significant insights into Geminiani's style

of composition and his ideals of expression in perfor¬ mance. The sonatas themselves provide a fairly complete

catalogue of the elements of expression found in the violin treatise. Of the fourteen ornaments found in the document, Geminiani included all but four ("Holding the Note," "Swelling and Softening the Sound," the "Antici¬ pation," and the "Separation") in the cello sonatas. CHAPTER III

FORMAL STRUCTURES IN

THE CELLO SONATAS

Melody

As discussed in Chapter I of this paper, the melo¬ dic structures found in Geminiani's compositions exist primarily as realizations of the harmonic implications of the melodically-conceived bass line. They are never con¬ ceived as truly independent structures and therefore do not lend themselves either to development in the Classical sense of the word or to constant "spinning out" (Fort- pinnung) in the style of Bach or Vivaldi. The melodic designs, therefore, lack the continuity of the balanced phrase structure of the Classical period and the uniformity afforded by the Baroque device of Fortspinnung. The melo¬ dic material is totally dependent upon the bass line for continuity and uniformity and therefore reflects neither a truly homophonie nor a contrapuntal style. Although Geminiani attempted to employ devices of continuous expan¬ sion in his melodic structures, this spinning out was always governed by the implied chord progressions of the 37 38 bass line. Bukofzer uses the term "ccmtinuo--homophony" to describe this relationship between melody and chord progression.^- As a composer whose melodies were increas¬ ingly conditioned by the harmonic accompaniment, Geminiani was a precursor of the school of Mannheim composers whose compositions were first written in a true homophonie style As a result of his attempts to utilize the principle of continuous expansion within an emerging homophonie style, Geminiani's melodies frequently sound like irregular and rhapsodic elaborations of a chord progression. Technically, the melodies consist mainly of broken chord passages which are enhanced by notated passaggi and divisions. Although these devices originated in the

Renaissance as elements of improvisation, Geminiani em¬ ployed them as fundamental components of his melodies.

Suspensions, passing tones (both accented and unaccented), escape tones, and appoggiaturas all play significant roles in the melodic structure. The abundance of these devices, which now serve a structural rather than an ornamental function, precludes the necessity for improvisation on the part of the performer except in those places where a caden za is specifically indicated.

Apart from the intricate passage work, Geminiani's practice of using octave displacement of melody tones pro-

^Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era, p. 221. 39 vides no small degree of difficulty to the performer. At times, the displacement may occur over the span of one and one-half octaves or more (see Fig. 4).

Harmony

In an overall analysis, tonic and dominant function chords account for almost 80% of all chordal structures employed in the cello sonatas. This number is distributed equally between the two chord classes and uneqivocably shows Geminiani's awareness of the tonic-dominant rela¬ tionship in the establishment of tonality within a given work. Predictability of dominant resolutions is frequently thwarted as the resolution is either completely denied or is momentarily delayed by a sudden decrease in the rate of the harmonic rhythm. Generally, the harmonic rhythm is relatively fast, being one or two harmonic changes per beat.

Denial of normal dominant-chord resolutions usually occurs at cadence points where a deceptive resolution is effected, thereby extending the length of the cadence 40 group. Resolution may also be denied momentarily, as in Fig. 5, where the resolution of the V/V is delayed by move¬ ment to a supertonic chord in first inversion. The third of the supertonic chord, which is found in the bass, is then suspended across the barline where it becomes the

seventh of the dominant-seventh chord in third inversion.

Dominant-function denial is also encountered in movements in minor keys in which the dominant chord fre¬ quently progresses to the tonic chord of the relative major key (see Fig. 6a). Negation of dominant resolution also occurs, as in Fig. 6b, when the root of the dominant

chord is chromatically altered, becoming the third of a

dominant six-five-three of the submediant.

Fig. 6 41

While Geminiani emphasized the dominant-tonic re¬ lationship in all of his compositions, deviations from normal dominant resolutions infuse his works with an air of vitality and unpredictability and keep the compositions from sounding like chains of dominant and tonic chords.

The extensive use of dominant-function chords coupled with the use of resolution denial further enhances the asymme¬ try and irregularity of the melodic structures.

Study of tonic and dominant usage necessarily leads to a study of cadential treatment in Geminiani's compositions. McArtor makes it clear that, to the Italian composer, cadence points served primarily as mere punctua¬

tions in the process of "continuous expansion." He states further that Geminiani was not particularly concerned with the placement of the cadence point and did not regard the cadence as a device for regulating either phrase structure or form.^ This fact is particularly evident in the cello

sonatas where a cadence is often anticipated or foresha¬ dowed only to be avoided either by means of a deceptive resolution, cadence evasion, or elision.

Deceptive resolutions in Geminiani's works may include the substitution of a rest, a subdominant, or sub¬ mediant chord for the tonic harmony. Although the pro¬ gression V - IV6 predominates in the deceptive cadences in

^McArtor, Geminiani, pp. 51-2. 42

the early works (through Op. 4),3 the cello sonatas show

V - VI to be the preferred deceptive progression. The use of a rest to effect such a resolution was not encoun¬

tered in the cello sonatas. Although the dominant harmony may be followed by a rest in the bass, the cello line in¬ variably contains the resolution to the tonic. McArtor defines cadence evasion as a progression

toward the tonic in which the impact of the cadence is

lessened 1) by deflecting one or more voices from a reso¬ lution to a tonic chord tone, or 2) by repeating material from the same phrase.^ Cadence evasion might also include

those progressions in which an elaboration upon the domi¬ nant harmony delays a resolution for one or two measures.

These dominant-chord elaborations are usually found in the cello part and are frequently coupled with elisions. The

latter device occurs when the conclusion of one phrase

coincides with the beginning of the succeeding phrase. Elision occurs most frequently in works which are contra¬

puntal in nature (see Fig. 7). All three types of cadence evasion are present in the cello sonatas.

With few exceptions, all of the authentic cadences found at important structural points are of the perfect

3lbid., p. 62.

4Ibid., p. 53. 43 m & 'rjEfarticrgiriTi

Fig. 7

type. While the melodic formula 2-1 was found in the

soprano part in approximately three-fourths of the authen¬

tic cadences in Geminiani's early works,5 the ratio is turned in favor of the progression of leading tone to ton¬

ic (7 - 8) in the cello sonatas. The melodic movement

dominant to tonic (5 - 1) is also found in these same pieces, although the 7-8 progression is more common. One

significant exception to this procedure occurs in the final cadence of Sonata I where the cello line proceeds from

supertonic to mediant (2 - 3), thereby creating an imper¬ fect authentic cadence. This is the only final cadence in the tonic key in which the cello does not take the tonic

pitch.

In the choice of the pre-cadence chord, the cello sonatas indicate the composer's preference for the tonic six-four or the supertonic six-five-three chord. These

two chords account for approximately three-fourths of all pre-cadence chords used in authentic cadence groups. In

5lbid., p. 53. 44 order to achieve variety in the cadence group, Geminiani also used the subdominant chord in root position or first inversion and the tonic chord in root position for the pre-cadence chord, although less frequently than the ijjj or IIÉj.

It is difficult to describe accurately in terms of numerical figures the usage of the tonic six-four chord since, in perfect cadence groups, the unfigured dominant pitch may be realized as ij? - V if allowed by the harmonic context. Similar difficulties are encountered regarding the realization of the unfigured fourth scale degree.

The question arises in this case as to whether the tone should be realized as a IV as indicated or as a 11^ as is frequently implied by the harmonic context. It would seem, from the extensive use made of the figures | in

£ cadence groups, that the choice of either IV or II^ is entirely at the discretion of the keyboardist depending upon the desired texture.^

Perfect authentic cadences are found primarily at the end of the fast movements in the cello sonatas. Half cadences, however, account for almost all of the final cadences in the slow movements. These half cadences nor¬ mally take the form of phrygian progressions in which the subdominant six-three chord proceeds to the dominant har-

6Ibid., pp. 44-5. 45

mony. Despite a few exceptions found in the Opus 5 set, the extensive use by Geminiani and other eighteenth-cen¬ tury composers of the phrygian cadence to close slow move¬ ments and foreshadow the beginning of the following fast movement caused this cadential formula to become a stereo¬ type of Baroque compositions. The cadential dominant chord is normally preceded by IVy^g or IVg and very rarely in movements in a minor key by iv^g* Geminiani's use of the altered subdominant chord known as the augmented six- three chord (or the "Italian sixth") occurs only once in the six cello sonatas. It serves as the pre-cadence chord in the final cadence group of the first movement of Sonata

VI in A minor. For the most part, the cello sonatas show the composer's preference for the unaltered subdominant chord.

In internal cadences, Geminiani made frequent use of the added seventh to the dominant chord in an attempt to vary the typical authentic cadence group. When accom¬ panied by a major third, the minor seventh was considered by Geminiani to be a consonance. As such, it could be em¬ ployed as the preparation for a 4 - 3 suspension in the following tonic chord as often occurs in the six sonatas.?

A statistical comparison of dominant-seventh usage in in¬ ternal and final cadences would be pointless since the

7Geminiani, Accoinpaniament, II, pp. 3-4. 46

Baroque keyboardist was at liberty to add a passing sev¬ enth to the dominant chord in cadence formations. As a further variation of the authentic cadence group, Geminiani often added the passing seventh in the bass to create a dominant-seventh chord in third inversion. By progressing to the normal resolution of the (i.e., to a Ig), the progression is deflected from conclusion by forming an imperfect authentic cadence. In addition to the V7 and the v\, Geminiani also utilized the dominant-seventh chord in first inversion.

This chord structure is found with approximately the same frequency as the dominant seven-five-three. It is often incompletely figured as 5 or The notation is clarified by a passage from Geminiani’s Guida Armonica as follows:

A Note which has a 5 over it, with a Dash across its Tail thus signifies that 'tis a Dissonant Har¬ mony and it must have a 3rd and 6th, for its Accom- panyment Qslc].8 Judging from the statistical evidence of dominant- tonic usage cited at the beginning of this section, Gemini¬ ani' s compositions appear, at first, to be little more than chains of dominant-tonic progressions and stereotypical Baroque cadential formulae. Yet, his inclusion of indefi¬ nite cadential progressions and his techniques of cadence denial lend an air of unpredictability to the harmonic

8Geminiani, Supplement to the Guida Armonica, quoted in McArtor, Geminiani, p. 47. 47

structure. These devices further indicate Geminiani's attempts to retain the melodic principles of continuous expansion while composing within the boundaries of con- tinuo-homophony.

Modulation

Although his melodies were considered inferior by his contemporaries, Geminiani was hailed in his day as a great master of harmony and modulation and regarded as the chief exponent of a new code of harmonic and modu¬ latory practices. The following quotes from Burney and

Hawkins clearly establish Geminiani's skill in these matters.

As a musician, he was certainly a great master of harmony, and very useful to our country in his day. ... he had more variety of modulation, and more g skill in diversifying his parts than Corelli ...

That we are at this time in a state of emancipa¬ tion from the bondage of laws imposed without author¬ ity [i.e., by Dr. Pepusch], is owing to a new investi¬ gation of the principles of harmony, and the studies of a new class of musicians, of which Geminiani seems to have been the chief; . . .

If one accepts the definition of modulation to be the "change of key within a composition, these comments

^Burney, General History, p. 994.

^Hawkins, Science arid Practice of Music, p. 902. l^Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music. (Cam¬ bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 536. 48 seem somewhat unwarranted when one considers that, in the cello sonatas, modulations occur at the relatively infre¬ quent rate of seven modulations per 100 measures.12 it appears, therefore, that a broader definition of the term "modulation" is necessary if a true understnading of

Geminiani's role as a master of harmony and modulation is to be obtained. Although Geminiani never defined modula¬ tion as it related to his own compositions, McArtor has, through studies of the various treatises, deduced that modulation could refer either to changes of key or merely to the progression from one chord to another.13

Considering the latter definition, it is obvious that transient modulations are of paramount importance to Geminiani's harmonic and modulatory techniques. By momen¬ tarily leaving the principal key and then returning direct¬ ly to the tonic level, these brief harmonic "excursions" actually enhance rather than destroy the tonality of a particular section or movement. Due to the fact that, even in the briefest departures from the principal tonal area, Geminiani employed authentic cadential formulae, the ques-

l^Only true modulations were used in this calcula¬ tion; transient or "passing" modulations were not consi¬ dered. The rate of modulation in the cello sonatas is less than that found in Geminiani's early works. Here, McArtor discovered that the rate of change was 25.9 modulations per 100 measures. This figure includes both transient and true modulations. See McArtor, Geminiani, p. 84. 13Ibid., pp. 66-8. 49 tion of transience becomes a matter of duration. For exam¬ ple, in the first movement of Sonata I in A major, the first deviation to the level of the supertonic (B minor) comprises only three measures (mm. 7-9). It is achieved by means of a chromatically altered chord in the tonic key

(V j?/A = iv^/b) . The tonic key is quickly re-established in m. 10, and retrospectively, the movement to the super¬ tonic level is perceived as an harmonic coloration of the principal key. The return to the tonic level is, however, short-lived. In m. 11, a move to the dominant level is instituted, and because of its length and harmonic content, this may be considered as a true modulation (see Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Geminiani’s techniques of modulation take two forms. The first type is connective modulation, a technique in which the change of key is made through a diatonic or chromatically altered pivot chord. The second type of 50 modulation is direct modulation, an abrupt change of key effected without special preparation. Contrary to Mc-

Artor's discoveries concerning connective modulations in

Geminiani's early works,chromatic modulation is the principal means of effecting key changes in the cello sonatas, be they transient or true modulations. In chroma¬

tic modulations, the preferred chords for alteration are V^3 and 11^ in major keys, and I^g and 1^ in minor keys.

It is significant that a great number of chromatic modula¬

tions in the cello sonatas are effected through altered tonic and dominant chords. When employed, diatonic com¬ mon chord modulations occur chiefly in movements in minor

keys where the modulation is toward the level of the rela¬ tive major key.

Direct modulation is of special importance in the structure of Geminiani's works since it is found primari¬

ly at critical points in the form. It usually occurs as a juxtaposition of the two tonic levels which are a third

apart. The juxtaposition may occur within or between move ments. One of the most pungent forms of direct modulation is found between movements which exhibit a contrast be¬ tween relative major and minor key areas. In slow move¬ ments in minor keys, the indefinite phrygian cadence on

the dominant at the conclusion of the movement normally

14Ibid., p. 76. 51

foreshadows a resolution to the tonic minor at the opening of the following fast movement. Instead of the expected resolution, however, the fast movement may begin abruptly on the tonic of the relative major, as in Sonata V between

the third and fourth movements (see Fig. 9).

Direct modulation is also employed in the sonatas to re-establish the tonic after a lengthy modulatory sec¬ tion within a given movement. The return to the tonic may be effected by means of an altered tone in the bass line, a short scale figure in the tonic key, or without any preparation whatsoever.

While transient modulations are used frequently throughout these sonatas, they are usually brief in dura¬ tion and do not affect the principal tonality of the move¬ ment. They normally occur only after the tonic key has been firmly established. True modulations, although longer in duration, also have little effect upon the basic tonali¬ ty. Many of the lengthy modulatory passages contain inter¬ polations of the tonic level. 52

For transient modulations, no preference for a

particular key level was discovered. For true modulations within movements, however, Geminiani seems to have favored

equally the levels of the supertonic, mediant, and domi¬ nant. Between movements, changes of key are either to the level of the relative major or minor or to the level of the parallel minor. The dominant level does not serve as a secondary key level in the overall sonata structure. In Geminiani's compositions, modulation seems to serve a two-fold purpose. In the first case, it enhances the principal tonality of a movement when it occurs with¬

in that movement. This undoubtedly accounts for the abun¬

dance of transient modulations, especially those of the

chromatic type, since, when used in a transitory manner, chromaticism, further enhances the tonic level. Secondly, modulation plays an important role in determining the form of each movement and the sonata as a whole. Since

thematic contrast was not yet an integral element of formal definition, it was necessary that contrasting key areas should function as the primary determinants of the form.

Design

Sonata Plan.- The six sonatas for cello display the stan 53 dard four-movement plan of the sonata da chiesa (slow- fast-slow-fast) as established by Corelli. Continuing the

Corelli tradition, Geminiani also included dance-like move¬ ments in three of the six sonatas (i.e., numbers III, IV, and V), thereby further weakening the line of demarcation between the sonata da chiesa and the sonata da camera. These three sonatas, however, give an outward appearance of the sonata da chiesa plan since the composer did not avail himself of the appropriate dance titles. Geminiani's attempts to modify the sonata form externally as well as internally are witnessed also by the joining of movements two and three in Sonata VI and by the interpolation of a section in ^ meter labelled "Non Tanto" within the final

"Allegro" in $ of the same sonata.

In all but two of the cello sonatas, Geminiani re¬ tained another Corelli tradition of composing three of the four movements in the tonic key. The exceptions to this practice are found in sonatas IV and VI in which all four movements are written in the tonic key. As may be ex¬ pected from this tonal scheme, these two sonatas are the shortest of the six works. In those sonatas which dis¬ play a change of key between the movements, the tonal contrast is always contained in the third movement. In Sonata I in A major and Sonata V in F major, the change of key is to the level of the relative minor in the third 54 movements. Sonata III in C major employs the key of the parallel minor for the third movement. The second sonata of the set in D minor uses the level of the relative major. It is significant that the dominant level is never employed for inter-movement tonal contrast; rather

it is reserved for modulatory passages within movements.

Internal Structure.- For internal designs, Geminiani em¬

ployed one-part structures, binary and ternary forms. The term "one-part design" is used here to describe those move ments which conclude on an open cadence and which contain no formal divisions in the structure. This plan necessari ly requires that the movement be relatively brief in dura¬

tion or that it be based on some other unifying principle

such as Fortspihnung. In the cello sonatas, one-part

design is generally reserved for the slow movements which are normally shorter than the fast movements. All but one of the slow movements in the sonatas display one-part

design. The exceptional case is found in the third move¬ ment of Sonata III which is written in rounded binary form. In this movement, designated "Affetuoso " Cki£i.

each section is repeated and a modified restatement of section I is encountered at the end of section II. Fol¬ lowing the typical binary form, the first section con¬

cludes with an open cadence on the dominant. Section II

is in the key of the relative major (Eb major) which pro- 55 ceeds to the tonic level by means of a direct modulation.

Composed in a homophonie style, section I comprises 8 measures which are clearly divided into antecedent and consequent phrases of four measures each. Similarly, the section in the relative major is divisible into two phrases of equal length; this time, however, each phrase is length¬ ened by two measures resulting in a 6+6 distribution.

The modified restatement of the principal theme also shows extended phrase lengths of eight measures each. A short closing of four measures follows the final cadence in the tonic. Although this movement carries the title,"Affetu- oso," it displays characteristics of the eighteenth-century

Italian sarabanda. Another slow movement which contains features of the sarabanda is the third movement of Sonata IV. Once again, Geminiani avoided the use of a dance title, and instead, the movement is labelled "Grave." For its formal structure, the movement is based on one-part design. The movement begins in Bb major and within the span of 12 mea¬ sures progresses to a half cadence in the key of the rela¬ tive minor. Written predominantly in the movement contains three measures for which a time signature of ^ q is indicated. The £ meter is quickly reinstated for the remaining three measures. The first movement of Sonata IV ("Andante") also merits special mention. Composed in a one-part design, the 56 movement illustrates features of the French overture style with its stately character and abundance of dotted rhythms.

This movement is followed by a fast movement in a contra¬ puntal style which is also based upon a one-part design. The second movement also employs some of the same dotted rhythms found in the first movement. In this movement, labelled "Allegro, Moderato," the contrapuntal sections alternate freely with passages in a homophonie style and do not effect structural divisions within the movement.

One-part design is also used as the formal device in the second movement of Sonata V, which like the second movement of Sonata IV is contrapuntal in nature. Once again, passages of continuo-homophony are freely interpo¬ lated in a predominantly contrapuntal style.

In the four-movement sonata plan, the slow move¬ ments generally function as introductions to the succeeding fast movements. The exception to this plan is found in Sonata VI. Here, the short "Grave" section which consti¬ tutes the third movement is appended to the second move¬ ment by means of a cadential elision. Progressing from tonic to a cadence on the dominant, this section serves the dual function of a conclusion to the second movement and a transition to the final fast movement.

In general, the fast movements are more contra¬ puntal than the slow movements in the six cello sonatas.

They are clear indications of Geminiani's attempts to 57 retain the Baroque technique of Fortspinnung within an emerging homophonie style. The second movement, "Presto," of Sonata II in D minor is composed in a fugato style. Here, the subject material reappears intermittently and is treated in a fugal manner, but no attempt has been made to introduce the points of imitation in any orderly sequence of episode and subject entry. In this movement, as in most movements in a contrapuntal style, the sections of imitative writing alternate with passages of continuo-homophony.

As mentioned previously, the second movement of Sonata IV is based upon the principle of continuous expan¬ sion. There are no clear formal divisions, and although there are a few transient modulatory sections, the tonic level is never abandoned. In the process of "spinning out," the thematic material alternates between the cello and the bass. This alternation of material always occurs at cadence points, and in this manner, any definite cadence is erased and the movement acquires the character of a perpetuum mobile.

Dance-like movements are found in the final move¬ ments of Sonatas III, IV, and V, and in the third move¬ ments of Sonatas III and IV. Except in the case of Sonata V, the dance forms of the third and fourth movements are paired as in a suite. For instance, in Sonata III, the third movement which is composed in the style of a sara- 58 banda is paired with the final movement which takes the form of Gavottes I and II. The sarabanda is in a simple

O triple meter (£) while the gavottes are in a simple duple (C) . The "Adagio" of Sonata V does not appear to display any features of a particular dance form, yet the concept of contrasting meters between this and the ensuing move¬ ment is apparent. The third movement is written in' sim¬ ple quadruple meter (C), while the following "Allegro," which displays characteristics of the Italian giga, is written in a compound duple meter (^).

The third and fourth movements of Sonata IV (sara banda and corrente, respectively) are both in simple tri¬ ple meters although the sarabanda-like movement is in ^ 3 (alternating with Q) while the corrente-like fourth move- 3 ment is in g. The final movement of Sonata VI is written in a compound ternary design. The form of this movement, which begins in g3 and contains a section in £3 is as follows :

l A : || B J A ||=2 C :||= D C =||| A| The form of this movement is similar to that found in the fourth movement of Sonata III. Unlike Sonata III, how¬ ever, the final movement of the sixth sonata does not dis play any rhythmic patterns which are characteristic of standard dance forms of this period. 59

While all of the cello sonatas appear to have been composed in the sonata da chiesa style, Geminiani's

efforts to alter the form are evident in his inclusion of

dance-like movements in the third and fourth movements of some of the sonatas. Further evidence of modification

attempts may be found in the linking of the third and fourth movements of Sonata VI, thereby changing the formal

scheme of "introductory slow-fast | introductory slow-fast" to "introductory slow-fast-slow | fast." This modification of the Baroque four-movement plan seems to foreshadow the

three-movement design of the Classical sonata.

While thematic contrast within the movements was not yet a standard feature of the internal structure,

Geminiani attempted to infuse the sectional movements of

his sonatas with elements of contrast by means of con¬ trasting key levels and most noticeably through the use of contrasting meters within and between movements.

His modifications of the overall structure clearly

anticipate the structure of the eighteenth-century Classi¬ cal sonata. Yet his preference for relative and parallel major and minor keys over dominant key areas for inter- movemental contrast and his use of metrical changes within the movements just as equally emphasize his ties to the

Baroque traditions of multi-movement composition. CHAPTER IV

THE EDITION

The following performing edition of the Six Sonatas for Violoncello and Basso Continuo, Op. 5 by Francesco

Geminiani is based upon the London edition of 1747. The new edition consists of a realization of the figured bass and slight modifications in the notation of the cello part.

Modifications in the solo part do not affect either the melody or the phrase structure of the line. The al¬ terations have been made solely in order to clarify certain rhythmical ambiguities created by standard printing prac¬ tices in eighteenth-century England. One particular prob¬ lem requiring attention was the matter of the dot which was often used as a substitute for a tie in order to extend the vlaue of a note. In the new edition, ties have been employed wherever appropriate.

Neither bowings nor ornaments have been altered.

Because the composer took great care in notating all orna¬ ments and bowings, alterations did not seem appropriate.

A table of ornaments and realizations of the graces has been provided in the preface to the edition. Since the ornaments serve a structural rather than a purely decora-

60 61 tive function, a true performance of these graces is essen¬ tial. Cadenzas have been provided for Sonatas IV and V although the cellist is at liberty to formulate individual cadenzas as desired. All of the original performance directions have been retained in the new edition. These, too, have been explained in the preface. The bulk of the editing is to be found in the realization of the figured bass. Using Geminiani's trea¬ tises on accompanying, every effort has been made to real¬ ize the figures in the style of the composer and in such a way as to create a fitting counterpart to the cello line.

Unlike many modern realizations of Baroque fig¬ ured basses, the realizations in this edition do not con¬ sist only of blocked chordal structures above the given bass line. Rather, the realizations have been conceived as compositions which enhance the cello line and provide counterpoint for the given melody. This is not to say, however, that vertical structures are not to be found in the accompaniments; these have, of course, been employed where appropriate, especially in movements which are pri¬ marily in a homophonie style. Every attempt has been made to create an accompaniment which is suitable for the style of the individual movements.

Models for the realizations in the present edition were provided by the examples in the Art of Accompaniament,

Part II. Excerpts from one example are contained in Plate 62

III and may give some idea of Geminiani's manner of real¬ izing a figured bass.

That Geminiani considered the art of accompanying from a figured bass to be the composition of a new melody by the keyboardist is obvious from the following quotes from The Art of Accompaniament, Parts I and II.

The Art of Accompagniament rsic~1 consists in dis¬ playing Harmony, disposing the Chords, in a just Dis¬ tribution of the Sounds whereof they consist, and in ordering them after a Manner, that they may give the Ear the Pleasure of a continued and uninterrupted Melody. This observation, or rather Principle, is the Ground of my Method, which teaches the Learner to draw from the Harmony, he holds under his Fingers, diversified and agreeable Singings. This Work will also be useful in leading the Learner into the Method of Composing, for the Rules of Composition do not differ from those of Accompagniament.

I repeat here, what I have said in my Preface, that the Art of Accompagniament chiefly consists in rendering the Sounds of the Harpsichord lasting, for frequent Interruptions of the Sound are inconsistent with true Melody. The Learner is therefore to observe not to exhaust the Harmony all at once, that is to say, never to lay down all his Fingers at once upon the Keys, but to touch the several Notes whereof the Chords consist in Succession.2

By recalling yet another quote cited earlier in this paper, it becomes apparent that, to Geminiani, the art of accompanying entailed more than merely realizing vertical structures above the given bass figures.

. . . the Art of Accompagniament consists princi¬ pally in two things, which I call Position and Motion.

^■Geminiani, Accompaniment, I, Preface, p. 1.

^Ibid., Example 1, p. 2. 63

PLATE III

Realization of a descending scale, from The Art of Acconvpariiament, II Example XXIV 64

By Position I mean the placing the proper Chord upon any Bass Note, and continuing the same during the whole Time of that Note; and this constitutes Harmony. By Motion I mean the passing from one Sound to another, either acute or grave; and this constitutes Melody. So that Harmony cannot subsist without Posi¬ tion, nor Melody without Motion.^ Apart from Geminiani's compositional approach to accompaniment, several ideals of performance may also be ascertained from these quotes. One of the most important of these is the composer's desire that the tones of the melody should be lasting since "frequent Interruptions of

the Sound are inconsistent with true Melody." Considering the composer's wishes, it is advised that in the perfor¬ mance of the accompaniments in the present edition, full

chords should be gently "rolled," fast or slow, depending upon the tempo of the individual movement. One particular notational symbol used in the realizations which requires that the chords be broken is the slash which accompanies some of the vertical structures, thus This sign in¬ dicates an acciaccatura, a dissonsnt tone which is intro¬ duced into a chord and released immediately. The disso¬ nant tone may be either diatonic or chromatic, depending upon the harmonic context. The only chromatic acciacca-

turas which are employed in the present edition are those which are leading tones to the tonics of minor chords.

3lbid., II, Introduction, p. 1. 65

According to Geminiani, acciaccaturas are most pleasing when used in slow movements.

It will perhaps be remarked by some that the accom¬ paniments in the new edition do not slavishly reflect the figures in the bass. The reasons for the occasional omissions are two-fold. As discussed earlier, the solo line exists primarily as a direct realization of the fig¬ ured bass. In these cases, strict representation of the

figures in the accompaniment is neither warranted nor de¬ sirable. Secondly, since the accompaniments in the pre¬

sent edition have been conceived as contrapuntal lines

to the cello part, the counterpoint would have been lost had the figures been strictly realized as more blocked

chords would have been necessary and the accompaniments would frequently have resulted in duplications of the

cello part. Therefore, in those passages in which the solo part is a realization of the figured bass, an effort

has been made to create a suitable counterpoint in the

accompaniment, even if such a creation precluded the real¬ ization of certain figures. According to Geminiani's compositional style, the

accompaniment is an integral part of the entire composi¬ tion. The importance of the accompaniment is evident in

Geminiani's request that Handel accompany him at the harp¬

sichord during the command performance of his Opus 1 vio- 66

lin sonatas. The consequence of the accompaniment is fur¬ ther witnessed by the treatises on this subject written by Geminiani. Considering the significance of the accom¬ paniment to the entire composition, care has been taken to integrate the new accompaniments in the works as a whole. The accompaniments in this edition may be per¬ formed on either the harpsichord or the piano. Some

"purists" might question the validity of performing music of this period on the piano. It should be remembered, however, that by the date of these compositions, the piano had already reached an important stage in its development (the perfection of the escapement and the hammer check) and was widely accepted as a superior instrument for accompanying. The possibilities offered by this instru¬ ment for dynamic shadings and shaping of the tone make it ideal for the performance of Geminiani's music. Most

importantly, since legato playing was essential to Gemini- ani's style of accompanying, the piano may even be con¬ sidered to be better suited to a performance of the Ital¬

ian's music than the harpsichord. The piano further offers possibilities for percussive playing, much like the harpsichord.

The purpose of this new edition of the six cello sonatas is, first, to provide accompaniments which attempt to offer a true interpretation of the figured bass in the 67 style of the composer. The accompaniment should not, how¬ ever, be considered as the only possible solution; modifi¬ cations and embellishments are always warranted where appropriate. The second purpose of the edition is to pro¬ mote further investigation into the compositional and performance practices of Geminiani and other composers, who, despite their contributions to the development of music and musical style, have been overlooked in modern times. 68

CONCLUSION

Today, musicologists and performers are becoming

increasingly concerned about performance practices in the various musical eras. A true understanding of these prac¬ tices will be obtained, however, only through the study

of the techniques of many composers and performers, in¬ cluding the so-called "minor" musicians as well as the acknowledged great masters. History has proven that it

is the "minor" musicians who pave the way for the "greats" of any musical period.

Through his treatises, Geminiani became the chief exponent of the classical school of violin technique as

established by his mentor, Corelli. Yet many of the

string techniques advocated by Geminiani were extremely

progressive, and some, such as the fingerings for chroma¬

tic passages, were so far ahead of their time that they had to be rediscovered in the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries.

In his compositions, Geminiani's extensive use of the principle of "continuo-homophony" and his attempts to alter the form of the Baroque sonata signify that

Geminiani was one of the most important precursors of the eighteenth-century Calssical style of composition. The 69

abundant chromaticism and transient modulations found in the Italian's works are not encountered again until the late nineteenth century. Yet his insistence upon the use of "continuous expansion" and of the "rule of the octave" as bases for his melodic composition place this composer in the mainstream of the late Baroque style of composition His use of contrasting key areas and changing meters as internal structural devices similarly indicate his ties with the Baroque tradition. Geminiani's compositions and treatises are excel¬ lent examples of both the late Baroque and emerging Classi cal styles of composition and performance. Coupled with evidence from the "great masters," Geminiani's works offer significant and exciting insights into musical practices of the late eighteenth century. APPENDIX

ORNAMENTS OF EXPRESSION

This section contains a discussion and explanation of the ornaments found in Plate II.

1. Trillo semplice (Plain Shake) - The trill is indicated by the sign ^» . It is begun on the upper note, and

unless otherwise indicated, it is continued for the entire length of the principal note. According to

Geminiani, it is proper for use in fast movements and may be played upon any note.

2. Trillo composto (Turned Shake) - Here, Geminiani uses

the sign for the normal Baroque mordent. Like the trillo semplice, the trillo composto is begun on the

note above the principal note and continued for the

length of that note. Unlike the trillo semplice, how¬ ever, this ornament concludes with a Nachschlag.

3. Appoggiatura superiore (Superior Appoggiatura) - In Geminiani*s words, the appoggiatura "should be made

pretty long, giving it more than half the Length or

Time of the Note it belongs to . . ." There is very

little evidence in the cello sonatas to indicate that

71 72

Geminiani actually intended that the appoggiatura be

held for more than half the value of the principal note.

Since the cello part is often a realization of the fig¬ ures in the bass, and because the appoggiatura often occurs as a suspension, the length of the appoggiatura should be determoned from the placement of the figures in the bass and from the harmonic rhythm. In all cases

in the cello sonatas, appoggiaturas which accompany notes of duple value receive half the value of the prin¬ cipal note, while appoggiaturas which are affixed to

notes of triple division receive two-thirds of the value of the principal note. Confusion often arises with the

In cases of this type, the rest should be disregarded and the appoggiatura given

the value of one quarter note. The following realiza

tion then results: OJ-.

4. Appoggiatura Inferlore (Inferior Appoggiatura) - The notation and realization of this ornament are essen¬ tially the same as that of the superior appoggiatura

except that it occurs below rather than above the prin cipal note.

5. Tratten£° sopra la Nota (Holding the Note) - Geminiani indicated that this ornament was to be employed fre¬

quently in order to allow the pure note to be heard at times and to prohibit playing in too florid a style. 73

When accompanied by another ornament, the note should

be held for at least one-half of its value, leaving the

ornament(s) to be realized during the remaining value of

the note. This elements of expression is not used

extensively in the cello sonatas, and it is assumed that

it was indicated in passages where an ambitious perfor¬

mer might be inclined to play in too florid a manner.

It might also have been intended as a means of clarify¬

ing ambiguous passages where an ornament would seem to

be appropriate but where the composer specifically

desired that there should be no graces. Since Geminiani

meticulously notated the ornaments in the cello sonatas,

there are few passages in which additional elaboration

is required, and therefore, there was little need for

the composer to make great use of the "hold."

6. Staccato - This ornament is intended to indicate a rest,

which, as appears from the example in Plate II, is of

a longer duration than the principal note. The note

is, therefore, to be played very short, and the bow is

to be taken completely off of the strings.

7. - 8. Aguin? e dim?e di Suono (Swelling and Diminishing

the Sound) - Geminiani used a set of "wedges" to indi¬

cate crescendos and decrescendos in his scores. These

symbols, however, do not appear in the cello sonatas.

9. - 10. Piano and Forte - To indicate these dynamic 74

nuances in his scores, Geminiani used the following

abbreviations: Pia. (piano) and For, (forte). Since

Geminiani considered a pleasing performance to be one

in which the instrument is given "a Tone that shall in

a Manner rival the most perfect human Voice,these

two elements of expression are vital to a true perfor¬

mance of his works.

11. _ Anticipatione (Anticipation) - According to Geminiani,

the anticipation should always be ornamented with a

beat, trill, turned shake, or other ornament since it

will then have a greater effect. Its use is particu¬

larly appropriate at cadence points.

12. Séparassione (Separation) - This ornament is employed

when the melody rises a second or a third or descends

by the interval of a second. The Separation, which

resembles an escape tone, should be accompanied by a

beat, shake or other ornament, and, according to the

composer, the sound should always be swelled during

the course of the ornament. It is always followed by

an appoggiatura on the succeeding principal note.

13. Mord^e (Mordent or Beat) - This grace, which consists

of repercussions between a principle note and its

lower neighbor, resembles the normal Baroque mordent ex

^•Geminiani, Violin, p. 1.

2Ibid., p..7. 74

shadings in his scores, Geminiani used the following

abbreviations: Pia. (piano) and For, (forte). Since

Geminiani considered a pleasing performance to be one in which the instrument is given "a Tone that shall in

a Manner rival the most perfect human Voice,"! these two elements of expression are vital to a true perfor¬ mance of his works.

11. Anticipâtione (Anticipation) - According to Geminiani, the anticipation should be ornamented with a beat, trill, turned shake, or other ornament since it will then have

a greater effect. Its use seems particularly appropri¬

ate at cadence points.

12. Séparassione (Separation) - This ornament is used fre¬

quently when the melody rises a second or a third or

descends by the interval of a second. This ornament, which resembles an escape tone, should be accompanied by a Beat, Shake, or other ornament, and according to

Geminiani, it should also be accompanied by a crescendo.2

The Separation is always followed by an appoggiatura on the succeeding note.

13. Mordente (Beat) - This ornament consists of reper¬ cussions between the the principal note and its lower neighbor. It resembles the normal Baroque mordent ex-

^Geminiani, Violin, p. 1. ^Ibid., p. 7. 75

cept that instead of being short, the Beat is continued for the length of the note unless otherwise indicated

by another ornament.

14. Tremolo (Close Shake) - Geminiani used this symbol (-w) to indicate a vibrato. According to the composer,

the realization of this ornament cannot be notated, but

he gave the following instructions to performers:

To perform it, you must press the Finger strongly upon the String of the Instrument, and move the Wrist in and out slowly and equally. ... it should be made use of as often as possible.3

3Ibid, p. 8. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973. Arnold, Frank T. The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough- Bass as practised in the XVIIth & XVlllth Centuries, 2 vols. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1965. Bach, C. P. E. Essay oh the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. Translated and edited by William J. Mitchell.New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949. Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians., Revised by Nicolas Slonimsky. Sixth Edition. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1978. Boyden, David D. The History of Violin Playing from its Origins to 1761. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Bukofzer, Manfred F. Music in the Baroque Era: From Monteverdi to bach. New Ÿork: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1947. Burney, Charles. A General History of Music. Vol. II. Edited by Frank Mercer. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1935. Couperin, Francois. The Art of Playing the Harpsichord. Translated and edited by Margery Halford. Port Washington, New York: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 1974. Dart, Thurston. The Interpretation of Music. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963. Deutsch, Otto Erich. Handel, a Documentary Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, n.d. Dolmetsch, Arnold. The Interpretation of the Music of the XVIIth and XVIIIth CenturiesT London: Novello and Company, 1915. 76 77

Donington, Robert. The Interpretation of Early Music. London: Faber and Faber, 1975. ' A Performer's Guide to Baroque Music. London: Faber and Faber, 1975.

Dorian, Frederick. The History of Music in Performance. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1966. Hadow, W. H. English Music. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1931^ Hawkins, Sir John. A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. 2 vols. Introduction by Charles Cudworth. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1963. Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti. New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell Company, 1968.

Lang, Paul Henry. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1941. Mather, Betty Bang. Interpretation of French Music from 1675 to 1775, for Woodwind and Other Performers. New York: McGinnis & Marx Music Publishers, 1973. McArtor, Marion E. Francesco Geminiani, Composer and Theorist. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Michigan, 1951. Neumann, Frederick. Ornamentation in Baroque and Post- Baroque music, with Special Emphasis on J. S. Bach. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1978. Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Baroque Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959. Quantz, Johann Joachim. On Playing the Flute. Translated with an Introduction and notes by Edward R. Reilly. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1966.

Rowen, Ruth Halle. Early Chamber Music. New York: Colum¬ bia University Press, 1949. Serre, J. Adam. Observations sur les principes de l'har¬ monie, occasionnées par quelques écrits modernes sur ce sujet, & particulièrement par l'Article Fondamental' de M. d'Alembert dans l'Encyclopédie, le Traith de Théorie de M. Tartini, et le Guide . 78

Harmonique de M. Geminiani. Geneve: H. A. Gosse, et J. Gosse, 1763. Shirlaw, Matthew. Thé Theory of Harmony. London: Novello and Co., 1917 .

Smith, William C. A Bibliography of thé Musical Works Pub¬ lished by John Walsh During the Years 1695-1720T~ London: Oxford University Press, 1948. Van der Straeten, Edmund. History of the Violoncello, the Viol da Gamba, Their Precursors and Collateral Instruments. London: William Reeves, 1914 ; reprint edition, London: Lowe and Brydone (Printers), 1971.

Periodicals

Aldrich, Putnam. "The Authentic Performance of Baroque Music." Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison by His Associates. Cambridge: Harvard University, Department of Music, 1957.

Babitz, Sol. "A Problem of Rhythm in Baroque Music," The Musical Quarterly XXXVIII (1952): 533-65. . "Concerning the Length of Time that Every Note Must be Held." The Music Review XXVIII (1967): 21-37. "Differences Between 18th Century and Modern Violin Bowing." The Score 19 (1957): 34-55.

; Byrt, John; and Collins, Michael. "Three Further Views on Notes Inégales." Journal of the American Musicological Society XX (1967): 473-85. Barbour, J. Murray. "Irregular Systems of Temperament." Journal of the American Musicological Society I (Summer 1948): 215-25.

Bergmann, Walter. "Some Old and New Problems of Playing the Basso-Continuo." Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association (1960-61): 31-43.

Boyden, David D. "Geminiani and the First Violin Tutor." Acta Musicologica XXXI (1960): 169-70. 79

' "Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation." Journal of the American Musicological Society.IV <1951): 202-19. Buelow, George J. "The Full-Voiced Style of Thorough-Bass Realization." Acta Musicologica XXXV (1963); 159-71. Dart, Thurston. "Francesco Geminiani and the Rule of Taste." The Consort 19 (July 1962): 122-27. . "Performance Practice in the 17th and 18th Cen¬ turies: Six Problems in Instrumental Music." Report of the Eighth Congress. New York, 1961. Edited by Jan La Rue. Vol. I. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1961. Donington, Robert. "A Problem of Inequality." The Musical Quarterly LIII (1967): 503-17.

? and Buelow, George J. "Figured Bass as Improvi¬ sation." Acta Musicologica XL (1968): 178-9.

Flood, W. H. Gratten. "Geminiani in England and Ireland." Zeitschrift der Internationelen Musik-Gesellschaft, Zwblfter Jahrgang^ 1910-11. Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig. Meyer, Kathi in collaboration with Eva Judd O'Meara. "The Printing of Music 1473-1934." The Dolphin. New York: Limited Editions Club. II (1935): 171-98. Oberdoerffer, Fritz. "Neure Generalbassstudien." Acta Musicologica XXXIX (1967): 182-201.

Revitt, Paul J. "Domenico Corri's New System for Reading Thorough-Bass." Journal of the American Musico- logical Society XXI“(1968): 93-8.

Scott, Hugh Arthur. "London Concerts from 1700-1750." The Musical Quarterly XXIV (1938): 194-209.

Works by Geminiani

Geminiani, Francesco. The Art of Accompaniament fsic~| , or A new and well digested method to learn to pertorm the Thorough bass on the Harpsichord^with Propriety and Elegance, Opera 11th, Parts I and 80

II. London: John Johnson, £l75^, and 1756. (microfilm, New York Public Library).

Thé Art of Playing on thé Violin Containing all the Rules necessary to attain to a Perfection on that Instrument, with great variety of Compositions, which Will also be very useful to those who study the Violoncello, Harpsichord, &c., Opera IX. Fac¬ simile edition. Edited with an Introduction by David D. Boyden. London: Oxford University Press, n. d.

Compleat Instructions for the Violin Containing the easiestand best Method for Learners to obtain a Proficiency with some Useful Directions, Lessons, Graces. &c. London : G. Gouldins, n. d. (micro¬ film, New York Public Library).

Rules for playing in a true Taste on the Violin, German Flute, Violoncello and Harpsichord parti- cularly the Thorough, Bass, Exemplify in a variety of Compositions on the Sublets tsicJ of English, Scotch and Irish Tuhe¥. Opera VII. n. p. £l74£0 .

VI Sonate di Violoncello e Basso Continuo, Nelle "quali egli procura to di renderle non solo utile a quelli che pramano perfettionarsi sopra il detto Stromento ma ancora per quelli che accompagnano di Cembalo*! Opera V. London: Philips, P-747J . (microfilm, University of Indiana Library).

VI Sonate di Violoncello e Basso Continuo, Sono 'dallo s tes so trasposte per il Violino con Cambial" menti proprij e necessarij alio Stromento. Opera V. London: John Johnson, £1747!] . (microfilm, New York Public Library).

A Treatise of Good Taste in the Art of Musick. "Facsimile edition. Edited with an Introduction by Robert Donington. New York: Da Capo Press, 1969. PREFACE

The present edition of the Six Sonatas for Violon-

cello and Basso Continuo. Op. 5 by Francesco Geminiani is

based upon the London edition which was published in 1747.

All of the original bowings and ornaments have been re¬

tained in this new performing edition. Geminiani devised

his own unique system of notation for ornaments, and

because the realization of these ornaments may present

difficulties to performers who are unaware of Geminiani’s

style, a table of ornaments has been provided below.

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