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I Introduction: the Old Charitable Order and the Promise of Good Government 1 Notes I Introduction: The Old Charitable Order and the Promise of Good Government 1. L. A. Muratori, Trattato della carità cristiana e altri scritti sulla carità, P. G. Nonis, ed. (Rome, 1961), p. 687. 2. Ibid., pp. 3, 19–20, 690. 3. Ibid., intro. pp. 61–2. See also B. Geremek, La pietà a la forca: Storia della miseria e della carità in Europa (Bari, 1986), intro. 4. On the failure of Victor Amadeus II’s attempts in 1716 and 1717 to reform poor relief through state intervention, see S. Cavallo, Charity and Power in Early Modern Italy: Benefactors and their Motives in Turin, 1541–1789 (Cambridge, 1995), ch.5, esp. pp. 182–96. Cavallo seeks to debunk the myth of this Savoyard king as Italy’s Louis XIV. 5. See D. Carpanetto and G. Ricuperati, L’Italia del settecento: Crisi, trasformazioni, lumi (Rome and Bari, 1986), intro. 6. J. P. Trevelyan, A Short History of the Italian People: From the Barbarian Invasions to the Present Day (4th edn, London, 1956), p. 291; S. Woolf, A History of Italy, 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (1979; reprinted London and New York, 1991), pp. 130–5 on Leopold and 125–30 on Joseph II of Lombardy; D. Carpanetto and G. Ricuperati, L’Italia del settecento, ch. 15. 7. F. Venturi, Italy and the Enlightenment: Studies in a Cosmopolitan Century, ed. S. Woolf, trans. S. Corsi (London, 1972), p. 20 et passim. 8. F. Nitti, L’assistenza pubblica in Italia: L’azione della chiesa a l’azione dello stato (Trani, 1892), p. 10. 9. On medieval ideas about charity and their revival in Catholic Counter- Reformation culture, see B. Pullan, ‘Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 26 (London, 1976), pp. 15–34, 27–31. 10. S. Woolf, The Poor in Western Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (London and New York, 1986), intro, esp. pp. 26–7. 11. F. Nitti, L’assistenza pubblica in Italia, p. 13. 12. L. Ricci, Riforma degl’istituti pii della città di Modena (Modena, 1787), cited in S. Woolf, The Poor in Western Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, ch. 3, p. 77. 13. S. Cavallo, Charity and Power in Early Modern Italy, ch. 6; and, by the same author, see ‘Conceptions of Poverty and Poor Relief in Turin in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century’, in Domestic Strategies: Work and Family in France and Italy, 1600–1800, ed. S. J. Woolf (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 148–99. On the opening c.1759 of Milan’s workhouse, see also, G. Ferri Piccaluga, ‘La riforma della pub- blica assistenza sotto il governo di Maria Teresa: l’architetto Francesco Croce e la costruzione dell’Albergo dei Poveri nella città di Milano’, in Timore e carità: I poveri nell’Italia moderna, Atti del convegno ‘Pauperismo e assistenza negli antichi stati italiani’ (Cremona, 28–30 marzo 1980), ed. G. Politi, M. Rosa and F. Della Peruta (Cremona, 1982), pp. 225–35. 303 304 Italy’s Social Revolution 14. See C. Jones, Charity and Bienfaisance: The Treatment of the Poor in the Montpellier Region, 1740–1815 (Cambridge, 1982), p. 161 for a discussion of similar ideas and developments in France. 15. The literature on just how discriminating and selective medieval and early modern Church charity in Italy actually could be is vast. For references, see B. Pullan, Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice: The Social Institutions of a Catholic State, to 1620 (Oxford, 1971). 16. A. Cherubini, Storia della previdenza sociale in Italia, 1860–1960 (Rome, 1977), pp. 11–13. 17. Of course, if you were to take a very long-term view of welfare state-building, then you could plausibly argue that this process began in the sixteenth century, when Italian municipal governments attempted to gain control of Church charitable institutions for poor relief. See S. Cavallo, Charity and Power, ch. 1, esp. p. 15, for a discussion of debates about the late medieval period. Though used indiscriminately by some, the term ‘welfare state’, however, can only meaningfully be applied to the later modern period because it presup- poses the existence of a whole complex set of institutions, policies, and laws, under a guiding central administrative state, which simply did not exist in earlier societies. 18. For a discussion of this concept in a different context, see O. Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1990). 19. The quote is from J. A. Davis, Conflict and Control: Law and Order in Nineteenth- Century Italy (Basingstoke and London, 1988), p. 19; ch. 1 analyses autocratic reformism; D. Carpanetto and G. Ricuperati, L’Italia nel settecento, ch. 21 on the crisis of the old regime. 20. Considerably more is known about the repression of pauperism than about forms of relief targeted at the deserving poor (infants, the aged, the infirm): see, for example, E. Bressan, Povertà e assistenza in Lombardia nell’età napoleonica (Milan, Rome, and Bari, 1985), ch. 1; and S. Woolf, ‘Charité, pauvreté et struc- ture des ménages a Florence au début du xixe siècle’, Annales économies sociétés civilisations, 39:1 (Jan–Feb, 1984), pp. 355–82, which provides a very detailed picture of poverty and its relief from 1808 to 1814. 21. On the ‘administrative revolution’ enacted by Napoleonic prefects in Bologna, see S. C. Hughes, Crime, Disorder and the Risorgimento: The Politics of Policing in Bologna (Cambridge, 1994), p. 19; and see J. A. Davis, Conflict and Control, pp. 22–3 on the ‘profound and irreversible’ impact of Napoleonic administrative reforms on Italy. 22. D. Maldini, ‘Il Dépôt de Mendicité del Dipartimento del Po: Analisi di una struttura assistenziale nel Piemonte napoleonico’ Timore e carità, pp. 331–45. 23. S. C. Hughes, Crime, Disorder and the Risorgimento, intro. and ch. 1. 24. Literally translated as ‘pious works’, opere pie were all those institutions of ‘piety, religion, and public utility’ which had been founded through Christian charity and private benefaction. Over the course of centuries, thousands of these charities arose. 25. G. Farrell-Vinay, Povertà e politica nell’ottocento: Le opere pie nello stato liberale (Turin, 1997), pp. 96–7. 26. M. Piccialuti Caprioli, ‘Il “sistema della beneficienza pubblica” nel Piemonte pre- unitario’, in Timore e carità, pp. 477–87, 477. 27. See S. Wolf, ‘Problems in the history of pauperism in Italy, 1800–15’ in Timore e carità, pp. 317–29 and in The Poor in Western Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, pp. 128–45, esp. 134–36; see also ‘The Treatment of the Poor in Napoleonic Tuscany, 1808–14’ in ibid., pp. 76–117. Notes and References 305 28. G. Da Molin, ‘Les enfants abandonnés dans les villes italiennes aux xviiie et xixe siècles’, Annales de démographie historique (Paris, 1983), pp. 103–23, 103. 29. V. Hunecke, I trovatelli di Milano: Bambini esposti e famiglie espositrici dal xvii al xix secolo (Bologna, 1989), pp. 36, 38. 30. G. Da Molin, ‘Les enfants abandonnés’, p. 114; and see her L’Infanzia abbando- nata in Italia in età moderna: Aspetti demografici di un problema sociale (Bari, 1981), pp. 115–218. 31. L. Dodi Osnaghi, ‘Ruote e infanzia abbandonata a Milano nella prima metà dell’ottocento’, in Timore e carità, pp. 426–35, 429. 32. M. Livi Bacci and M. Breschi, ‘Italian Fertility: An Historical Account’, Journal of Family History, 15:4 (1990), pp. 385–408, 394; see also, M. Aymard and G. Delille, ‘La démographie historique en Italie: Une discipline en mutation’, Annales de démographie historique (Paris, 1977), pp. 447–61, esp. 458–61. 33. L. Dodi Osnaghi, ‘Ruote e infanzia abbandonata’, p. 429. 34. M. Barbagli, ‘Marriage and the Family in the Early Nineteenth Century’, in Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of Denis Mack Smith, ed. J. A. Davis and P. Ginsborg (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 92–127, 123. 35. M. Piccialuti Caprioli, ‘Il “sistema della beneficienza pubblica”’, p. 482. 36. D. Laven, ‘Austria’s Italian Policy Reconsidered: Revolution and Reform in Restoration Italy’, Modern Italy, 1:3 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 3–33, 18. At the time of writing, Napoleon’s Legacy: Problems of Government in Restoration Europe, ed. L. Riall and D. Laven has not yet been published. 37. G. Farrell-Vinay, Povertà e politica nell’ottocento, pp. 98–100. 38. F. Della Peruta, ‘Per la storia della società lombarda nell’età della restau- razione’, Studi storici, 2 (1975), pp. 305–39, 337–8; S. J. Woolf, The Italian Risorgimento (London, 1969), pp. 29–30. 39. S. Woolf, ‘The Poor and How to Relieve Them: The Restoration Debate on Poverty in Italy and Europe’, Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento, pp. 49–91, 65. 40. M. Piccialuti Caprioli, ‘Il “sistema della beneficienza pubblica”’, pp. 483–4. 41. P. Ungari, Storia del diritto di famiglia in Italia (Bologna, 1974), p. 136. 42. G. Farrell-Vinay, Povertà e politica nell’ottocento, pp. 37–8. 43. M. Piccialuti Caprioli, 478–9. 44. J. P. Trevelyan, A Short History of the Italian People, pp. 334–5. 45. From an article in Nuova antologia that appeared in January 1890; cited in F. Della Peruta, ‘Le opere pie dall’unità alla legge Crispi’, Il Risorgimento, 2–3 (1991), pp. 173–213, 183. 46. In his L’assistenza pubblica (p. 14), Nitti used the term ‘shadowy forest that no one wants to enter’; see also F. S. Nitti, ‘Poor Relief in Italy’, Economic Review, 2:1 (January, 1892), pp. 1–24. 1 Reform and the Risorgimento 1. The details are from W. R. Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour, vol.
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