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Culture, Language and Politics. the Catalan Cultural Resistance During the Franco Regime (1939-1977)

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Culture, Language and Politics. the Catalan Cultural Resistance During the Franco Regime (1939-1977) CATALAN HISTORICAL REVIEW, 13: 69-84 (2020) Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Barcelona DOI: 10.2436/20.1000.01.167 · ISSN (print): 2013-407X · e-ISSN: 2013-4088 http://revistes.iec.cat/index.php/CHR Culture, language and politics. The Catalan cultural resistance during the Franco regime (1939-1977) Enric Pujol Casademont* Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Received 12 February 2019 · Accepted 30 September 2019 Abstract The Franco regime attempted to commit cultural and identity genocide against Catalonia, but only the combined action of resistance inside the country and in exile prevented it. The 1940s were a decade of pure resistance, but by the 1950s there was a revival inside the country which paved the way for the cultural and political blossoming of the 1960s. In the ensuing decade, self-governance was at- tained in the Catalan Lands after the final crisis of the Franco regime, but there was no compensation for the repression it had under- gone, nor was a sufficiently steadfast policy adopted to guarantee the future of Catalan language and culture. Keywords: Catalan language and culture, anti-Franco resistance, Franco regime, exile, political transition Introduction jurisdiction, of other national realities like those of Cata- lonia, the Basque Country and Galicia (and obviously Catalan culture, which dates back to the Middle Ages, has their cultural expressions). gone through particularly difficult times in its history, Catalan culture at that time was mainly anti-Franco when it has suffered from adverse restrictions and its very (either explicitly or implicitly). The intensity of the re- continuity as a distinct culture has been seriously threat- pression and the reaction to this offensive varied over the ened by two very powerful cultures: Spain and France. course of a regime that lasted almost 40 years. The 1940s Therefore, political factors have weighed heavily in its de- marked a period of resistance to the repressive onslaught velopment. The dictatorship of General Francisco Franco on two fronts: from inside the country (with few resourc- (1939-1977), especially in its early days, set out to under- es at the time, but with a clear desire to survive) and from take what several scholars have described as a veritable exile (where the first Catalan cultural revival actually took cultural genocide. The Franco regime sought to put an place). The 1950s were characterised by the start of a clear end to Catalan language and culture, since they were the revival inside the country, which allowed for a true cul- clearest feature of its status as a specific culture and a key tural blossoming in the ensuing decade. The degree of part of Catalan national identity. Therefore, during that maturity attained in the 1960s made it possible to prepare era, the cultural resistance particularly emphasised de- a veritable attack on the institutions in the first half of the fending the local language in all the cultural and social 1970s, when the Franco regime was showing clear signs of spheres, with the distant goal (then and still today) of crisis. This challenge took programmatic shape in the reaching full normality. Thus, in this article we have par- Congrés de Cultura Catalana (1975-1977). ticularly focused on the connection between culture, lan- Indeed, this famous congress, which started with a very guage and politics at the time. Naturally, the fight over broad (almost anthropological) conception of the term language and culture was associated with the struggle for “culture”, determined what “Catalan culture” meant and freedom of expression and other civil liberties; however, what its scope was, while it also claimed that “as we un- they were subjected to iron-fisted political censure that derstand it, Catalan culture has never been a minority imposed the values of an authoritarian, anti-democratic culture”.1 Thus, it stated that “Catalan culture is the cul- dictatorial regime which upheld a Spanish nationalism ture of all of the Catalan Lands”, that is, of the Principality with a Castilian core that denied the existence, within its of Catalonia (the current provinces of Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona), the País Valencià or Region of Va- lencia (Valencia, Castelló de la Plana and Alicante), the * Contact address: Department of Modern and Contemporary History, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici B, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdan- Balearic Islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza and Formen- yola del Vallès). E-mail: [email protected] tera), Andorra, Catalunya del Nord or Northern Catalo- Catalan Historical Review-13.indb 69 07/10/2020 16:23:03 70 Cat. Hist. Rev. 13, 2020 Enric Pujol Casademont nia (the department of the Pyréneés-Orientales in sole fact that he had written several articles against the France), and Alguer or Alghero (a Catalan-speaking town bombardments in Girona, betrayed the danger that the on the island of Sardinia). It was also claimed that the intellectuals who had supported the Generalitat were in. Catalan language was “the Catalan Lands’ own language Likewise, many professors and teachers also left, since and culture”, and this is why it demanded that it be the the modernisation and Catalanisation of education had “language of normal use and the official language of these been one of the main accomplishments during the Re- lands”. public. But most importantly, the Generalitat de Catalunya it- self went into exile, which enabled different cultural ini- Franco’s victory and exile tiatives to be launched, from magazines and publications to helping create institutions like the Fundació Ramon Not only did the military victory of the forces command- Llull. This was a foundation with government participa- ed by General Franco in 1939 unleash extraordinarily tion created in Paris in 1939 on the initiative of Antoni harsh repression against those who supported the repub- M. Sbert (former Minister of Culture of the Generalitat), lican side (executions, exile, mass imprisonment, etc.), which not only designed an action programme but was this repression was also particularly traumatic in the cul- also able to help economically sustain the leading writers tural realm. The new regime simply sought to make Cata- and intellectuals. However, the outbreak of World War II lan disappear from all spheres of public life (public ad- and the Nazi occupation of France quashed its develop- ministration, schools, universities, religion, radio, ment and forced its promoter to move to Mexico. Like- entertainment, books and magazines, etc.) in an attempt wise, the Nazi invasion led to the deportation of the pres- to undo the great strides made by Catalan culture in the ident of the Generalitat, Lluís Companys, who was first third of the 20th century, first with the Mancomuni- executed in Barcelona in 1940 without any kind of fair tat de Catalunya (1914-1923) and then with the republi- hearing. He was replaced by Josep Irla, who presided can Generalitat (1931-1939). The goal was to implement a over the Catalan government until 1954, during the dif- final solution, a definitive one, to what the leaders of the ficult years of the global conflict and the start of the Cold Spanish state had viewed as the “Catalan problem” for War. many years (since the 17th century, with the Catalan Re- The great cultural institution sustained in exile – great volt, also called the War of the Reapers). This was a long- because of its sheer duration and the rigour of its tenets – term embroilment grounded upon failure to recognise was the Jocs Florals de la Llengua Catalana, a Catalan-lan- the Catalan nation and culture, which is why scholars like guage poetry contest. Between 1941 and 1977, gatherings Josep Benet, Josep M. Solé Sabaté, Joan Villarroya, Josep were held in different cities around the world which Massot i Muntaner and Santi Cortés have considered it an helped bring together the intellectual diaspora and make attempt at cultural genocide.2 The impact was particular- contact with the intellectuals inside the country. The first ly harsh in the Principality of Catalonia, which was re- one was held in Buenos Aires and the last one in Munich. garded as its core, but it was felt all over the Catalan They all were extremely stringent in their criteria with the Lands. Because of the revolutionary repression unleashed goal of showcasing the level Catalan culture had reached against them, this goal of extermination even stunned despite all the adversity it had faced.5 Josep Carner articu- some civil and religious sectors that prior to the conflict lated this mission explicitly in his speech at the Jocs Flo- had been on the side of conservative Catalanism and at rals de la Llengua Catalana in Paris in 1948: “Allow me the start of the war had lent their support to Franco’s side. (…) to address the crème de la crème of both the exiles Albert Manent asserts that “Catalonia lost the civil war” and those who are impotent in Catalonia today (…) I because of the intensity of the repression and the goal of want to tell them that they must attain the discerning level putting an end to Catalan identity.3 of the great literatures and sciences. I ask that the criti- In the early years of the Franco regime, the exiles were cism be harsher, I call for the extinction of the last possi- able to assure incontrovertible continuity and undertake ble traces of provincial benevolence, which is almost as an initial cultural revival, given the almost complete an- dangerous an affront as persecution itself (…) Each of us nihilation suffered by the Catalan lands under the thumb must grow, and can grow.” of the dictatorship. The crème de la crème of Catalan in- Many magazines were published in exile, and they tellectuals, led by Pompeu Fabra (who became a living played a key role, since for many years they were the only symbol of the persecuted language and culture), went local means of expression in Catalan and the only place into exile, aware of what Franco’s victory would mean.
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