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24 System Voltage Regulation and Improving Power Quality 24/881 System voltage regulation and improving power 24 quality Contents 24.11.8 Security to a SCADA system 24/927 Relevant Standards 24/930 24.1 Capacitors for improving system voltage regulation 24/883 List of formulae used 24/930 24.2 Series capacitors 24/883 Further Reading 24/931 24.3 Rating of series capacitors 24/883 24.4 Advantages of series compensation 24/884 24.5 Analysis of a system for series compensation 24/886 24.6 Reactive power management 24/887 24.6.1 Objectives 24/888 24.6.2 Analysis of an uncompensated transmission line 24/889 24.6.3 Power transfer 24/890 24.7 Influence of line length (Ferranti effect) 24/893 24.8 Optimizing power transfer through reactive control 24/896 24.8.1 Line length effect (sin q): 24/898 24.8.2 Influence of load angle (sin d) 24/898 24.9 Dynamic and transient stability of overhead lines (Applications of reactive controls) 24/906 24.9.1 Auto-reclosure schemes 24/907 24.10 Switching of large reactive banks 24/908 24.10.1 Thyristor-switched capacitor banks (TSCs) 24/909 24.10.2 Thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) 24/910 24.10.3 Transient-free switching 24/910 24.10.4 Response of SVC on a fault or line disturbance of a transient nature 24/911 24.10.5 Combined TSC, TCR and fixed capacitor banks 24/911 24.11 Automation of power network through Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System 24/912 24.11.1 Application of a SCADA system 24/914 24.11.2 SCADA implementation 24/915 24.11.3 Implementation of load shedding and restoration 24/920 24.11.4 EMS-SCADA: (Energy management solutions) 24/922 24.11.5 Serial data transmission to a control and automation system via communication interfaces 24/922 24.11.6 Introduction to general protocols 24/924 24.11.7 The OSI (Open System Inter-connection) seven layers models 24/926 System voltage regulation and improving power quality 24/883 24.1 Capacitors for improving 1To neutralize and reduce substantially the content of inductive reactance of the line. Refer to a simple system voltage regulation transmission network with series compensation, shown in Figure 24.1. Another important application of capacitors is to improve 2To alter the circuit parameters L and C, to reduce the the voltage regulation of a power supply system. The line impedance and hence the voltage drop, and also regulation of a power system at the receiving end is enhance utilization, i.e. the power transfer capability defined by of the line. 3To improve the far end or the load-side voltage, in % Regulation other words, the voltage regulation and the stability Voltage at no load – Voltage at full load level of the system. = 100 Voltage at no load ¥ (24.1) Notes 1 Unlike the above, a shunt capacitor alters the load current by Higher regulation will mean a higher voltage fluctuation offsetting the reactive component of the current (Figure 23.2) at the receiving end, resulting in poor stability of the by improving the load p.f. and altering the characteristics of the load. system. Regulation up to 3–5% may be considered 2A series capacitor has little application in an LV system due to satisfactory. To improve the regulation of a system, power the high content of line resistance and very little of inductance. capacitors can be used in series at the receiving end of Any amount of reactive compensation will scarcely influence the system. the performance of the line, as a result of the high content of IR, compared to IXL. Series and shunt capacitors both provide the same 24.2 Series capacitors degree of compensation. But it is the correct reactive support that provides a more stable system less prone to The basic purpose of series capacitance is to offset the load and voltage fluctuations. Thus a judicious choice content of excessive line inductance, reduce the line between the shunt and the series capacitors is required. voltage drop, improve its voltage regulation and enhance In the following our main thrust is to arrive at the most the power transfer capability and hence the stability level appropriate type and extent of reactive support to achieve of the system. It can accordingly find application at all a higher level of utilization of a power transmission or high-current and high-impedance loads such as distribution system, on the one hand, and more stability, on the other. • An electric arc furnace, where heating is caused by arc plasma between the two electrodes. The arcing makes the circuit highly inductive, besides generating 24.3 Rating of series capacitors unbalanced currents (third harmonics), due to different touchdown arc distances in the three electrodes which make it a non-linear impedance load. Referring to Figure 24.2, this can be expressed by • An induction furnace, where the heating is due to 2 kVAr = 3 ◊◊ IX1 C (24.2) eddy current losses induced by the magnetic field. • Electric arc and resistance welding transformers as G for spot, seam and butt welding. • Large scale electrolysis of aluminium, copper or zinc. •A long transmission line, say, 400 km and more, for a radial line and 800 km and more for a symmetrical GT line, as discussed later. Transmitting-side • It can also be applied to an HV distribution network voltage Es that has a high series inductive reactance to improve its receiving-end voltage. Primary transmission In all these applications a shunt capacitance is of little (Generator side) relevance, as it will not be able to offset the line inductive reactance, XL, with XC, and hence will be unable to contain the switching voltage dips at the load end in furnaces Series capacitors and also voltage drops during a change of load in a Receiving-end transmission or HV distribution network. A shunt capacitor voltage Er offsets the reactive component of the current (Figure 23.2) while the line voltage drop, for the same line current, Secondary remains unaltered. Series capacitors are therefore more transmission appropriate where voltage regulation is the main criterion, (Load side) rather than line loss reduction. Summarizing the above, the main functions of a series capacitance can be stated Figure 24.1 A simple transmission network with series as follows: compensation 24/884 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook where platforms for each phase, which are adequately insulated Iᐉ = line current. The value of line current to be from the ground. Figure 24.3 shows such an installation. considered for calculating the size of capacitor banks must take account of the likely maximum load variation during normal operation or the over- 24.4 Advantages of series load protection scheme provided for the capacitors, compensation whichever is higher. X = capacitive reactance of the series capacitors per phase. C (i) Automatic voltage regulation: Since the VAr of a And voltage rating = Iᐉ · XC. 2 series capacitor µ IC , the voltage regulation is This rating will be much less than the nominal voltage automatic, as the VAr of the series capacitors will of the system. But since the series capacitors operate at vary with a change in the load current. When the the line voltage, they are insulated from the ground and voltage drops, the line current will rise, to cope with from each phase according to the system voltage. For the same load demand and so will rise the VAr of the this purpose, they are generally mounted on individual capacitors also providing an automatic higher VAr GT X RXL C G Load side I Series Es Line Er parameters capacitors Figure 24.2 The single-line diagram for Figure 24.1 Figure 24.3 The installation of HV capacitor banks (Courtesy: Khatau Junker Ltd) System voltage regulation and improving power quality 24/885 compensation. When the voltage rises, the current 1 fh = will fall and so will fall the VAr compensation. No 2LC (Section 17.6.3) switching sequence, as necessary in shunt capacitors, p ◊ is therefore required for series capacitors. The above can also be expressed by (ii) They may be connected permanently on the system, as they compensate the line reactance, which is fixed, XC ffh = ◊ (Equation (23.11) though the load reactance may be variable, unlike XL shunt capacitors, which are to be monitored for their addition or deletion during peak and off-peak load where periods respectively. The costs of switching fh = natural frequency of the series circuit equipment and operational difficulties are therefore f = nominal frequency of the system low in series capacitors. L = natural reactance of the line per phase, (iii) They also provide the same degree of p.f. improvement including that of generator and load as the shunt capacitors and do so by the leading voltage XL =2p · f · L phasor rather than the current phasor. C = series capacitance per phase 1 Xc = Limitations 2p ◊◊ fC (a) It is not advisable to use them on circuits that have The frequency, fh, will occur for only a few cycles fluctuating loads or frequent inrush currents, such as during an abrupt change in the line parameters, such switching of motor loads. During a start the latter as during a switching operation or occurrence of a will cause an excessive current, Ist, and proportionately fault etc. (Section 17.6.3). To ensure that the circuit raise the potential difference across the capacitor units remains inductive under all conditions of load (Ist · XC) and over-load them in addition to causing variations and fault, to avoid a capacitive mode of higher dielectric stresses.
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