The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities (JIABU)
Vol. 10 No.1 (January – June 2017)
Aims and Scope The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities is an academic journal published twice a year (1st issue January-June, 2nd issue July-December). It aims to promote research and disseminate academic and research articles for researchers, academicians, lecturers and graduate students. The Journal focuses on Buddhism, Sociology, Liberal Arts and Multidisciplinary of Humanities and Social Sciences. All the articles published are peer-reviewed by at least two experts. The articles, submitted for The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, should not be previously published or under consideration of any other journals. The author should carefully follow the submission instructions of The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities including the reference style and format. Views and opinions expressed in the articles published by The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, are of responsibility by such authors but not the editors and do not necessarily refl ect those of the editors.
Advisors The Most Venerable Prof. Dr. Phra Brahmapundit Rector, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand The Most Venerable Xue Chen Vice President, Buddhist Association of China & Buddhist Academy of China The Most Venerable Dr. Ashin Nyanissara Chancellor, Sitagu International Buddhist Academy, Myanmar
Executive Editor Ven. Prof. Dr. Phra Rajapariyatkavi Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand ii JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Chief Editor Seth Evans Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand
Editorial Team Ven. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand Prof. Dr. D. Philips Stanley Naropa University, USA Prof. Ven. Dr. Khammai Dhammasami University of Oxford,UK Prof. Dr. Tamas Agocs Dharma Gate Buddhist College, Hungary The Most Venerable Dr. Ching Hsing Ching Cheuh Buddhist Sangha University, Chinese-Taipei
Ven. Prof. Chisho Namai Koyasan University, Japan Ven. Prof. Jinwol Lee Dongguk University, Korea Ven. Prof. Dr. Yuanci Buddhist Academy of China, China Prof. Dr. Takahide Takahashi Rissho University, Japan Prof. Dr. Le Mahn That Vietnam Buddhist University, Vietnam
Senior Prof. Sumanapala Galmangoda University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somboon Vutthikaro Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand
Dr. Rabindra Panth Nalanda Deemed University (Nalanda Mahavihar), India JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) iii
Assistant Editors Ven. Phra Weerasak Jayadhammo (Suwannawong) International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand
Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
Ven. Dr. Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
H.E. Janos Jelen Dharma Gate Buddhist College, Hungary
Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
Dr. Soontaraporn Techapalokul International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
Staff Phramaha Wutthimet Vudhimedho Phramaha Manothai Nepakkhavedhi Ms. Orawan Topathomwong Ms. Ubonwanna Klinjuy
Owner International Association of Buddhist Universities
Offi ce International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC) Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University IABU Offi ce, IBSC Building, MCU, 79 Moo1, Lamsai, Wang-noi, Phra Nakorn Si Ayutthaya 13170, Thailand Tel: (6635)248-000 ext.8501, 8505 Email: [email protected] Editorial Message
At the International Association of Buddhist Universities, we have several principles that we take as our guidelines in moving forward in our engagements. Here is a reminder of how we progress:
IABU Vision: • Motivate future generations to gain and apply profound understanding of the Buddhadhamma in every aspect of life • Raise the quality of scholarly work within Buddhist Studies and across other academic endeavors • Contribute to meeting the challenges that face human society worldwide
IABU Mission: • Support and collaborate with members to ensure humanity can benefi t from the richness and variety of the multi-dimensional Buddhist traditions • Provide a framework towards better understanding diverse policies and activities • Collaborate in administration, teaching, research and outreach • Recognize each other’s qualifi cations
IABU Goals: • Propagate the Buddhadhamma through collaborative academic channels • Eliminate Buddhist sectarian, national, and institutional barriers • Raise the academic standards throughout the Buddhist world • Maximize academic potentials and abilities
Volume X Number 1: Buddhism and the Brain JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) v
Contributors : Bhikkhuni Tran Thi Binh, Ph.D. Candidate, IBSC Dr.Thunnawat Wattanaseth, MD, Faculty of Humanities, MCU Ven. Hui Chen, Ph.D. Candidate, IBSC Dr. Samart Sukhuprakarn, Faculty of Buddhism, MCU Asst. Prof. Dr.Siriwat Srikhruedong, Faculty of Buddhism, MCU Dr. Sompoch Srivichitvorakul, Faculty of Buddhism, MCU Nadnapang Phophichit, Ph.D. Candidate, IBSC Dinh Thi Bich Luy, M.A. student, IBSC Seth Evans, Assumption University Ph.D. Candidate Kar Lok, Ng, Ph.D. Candidate, IBSC Bhikkhunī Do Thi Thao, Ph.D. Candidate, IBSC
Editorial Team vi JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Table of Contents
Editorial Message iv
Where the Mind Exists: a Study of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra 1 Bhikkhuni Tran Thi Binh
A Study of Meditation Effect on the Brain and Emotional Happiness by MRI Scan 14 Dr.ThunnawatWattanaseth, MD, Asst. Prof. Dr. Siriwat Srikhruedong Dr. Sompoch Srivichitvorakul
The Relationship between the Brain and the Base of the Mind from 35 the Perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism Ven. Hui Chen
Mind Wave: How the Mind Builds Life 46 Dr. Samart Sukhuprakarn
Brain and Resilience: A Buddhist Perspective 60 Nadnapang Phophichit
The Concept of Brain: An Overview 77 Dinh Thi Bich Luy
Buddhism and the Mind-Body Probelm 88 Seth Evans
Theoretical Study on Buddhism as a Means to Treatment to Murderers 99 with Frontal Lobe Damage Kar Lok, Ng
Book Review 115 Bhikkhunī Do Thi Thao Where the Mind Exists: A Study of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
Bhikkhuni Tran Thi Binh
Abstract
The essential point of understanding the mind is that liberation from suffering cannot be found of outside the mind. This is demonstrated in seven places of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, a famous Mahāyāna Sūtra. In neuroscience, the brain is the primary concern of cognition which functions as an information conduit receiving data from the sense organs and transmitting commands to all part of the body. Buddhist Philosophy deals with the mind while neuroscience deals with the brain. The permanent liberation can be found only by purifying the mind. Therefore, if we want to become free from problems and attain lasting peace and happiness we need to increase our knowledge and understanding of the mind.
Keywords: Mind, Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Existence, Brain. 2 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Introduction
A contrast between Buddhism and Science can be investigated in their respective interpretations of the mind and its functions. Some people think that the mind is the brain or some other part or function of the body. The brain is a physical object that can be seen with the eyes and that can be photographed or operated on in surgery. The mind, on the other hand, is not a physical object. It cannot be seen with the eyes, nor can it be photographed or repaired by surgery. The brain, therefore, is not the mind but simply part of the body. There is nothing within the body that can be identified as being our mind because our body and mind are different entities. For example, our body is relaxed and immobile when our mind can be very busy, darting from one object to another or going far way traveling. This indicates that our body and mind are not the same entity. In the Buddhist viewpoint, our body is compared to a guest house and our mind to a guest dwelling within it. When we die, our mind leaves our body and goes to the next life, just like a guest leaving a guest house and going somewhere else. Assuming the mind is neither the brain nor any other part of the body, the question of where the mind exists naturally follows.
The Existence of the Mind
The question of where the mind exists may be found in investigating the seven mind locations, that being a viewpoint of the mind as explained in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 3
The first series of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra1 appears as a discourse between the Buddha and Ananda about the “seven places of the mind”2.
First Existence
Ananda pointed out the mind is located inside the body:
Knowing mind is in the body, I look at the Lotus-blue eyes on the Buddha, I see that they are on his face. My understanding that my eyes are on my face whereas my knowing mind is in my body.3
Through the use of analogy, the Buddha showed that mind is not in body. The Buddha’s example follows: Ananda and the Buddha are sitting in a hall in Jetavana Park. Since he is inside the hall, he firstly sees the Tathāgata, the inside of the hall, the assembly and then sees the park outside. The reason Ananda can see outside is because the doors and windows are open. It is impossible to see what is outside without seeing inside.
1 The Śūraṅgama Sūtra (Chinese: 大佛頂首楞嚴經) is the Mahayana Buddhist sutra . The Sūtra gives the most detailed explanation of the Buddha’s teachings concerning the mind. It includes an analysis of where the mind is located, an explanation of the origin of the cosmos, a discussion of the specific workings of karma, a description of all the realms of existence, and an exposition on the fifty kinds of deviant samadhi-concentrations, which can delude us in our search for awakening. 2 The setting of Ananda story: When Ananda was begging for food, lady Mātaṅgī used Kapila magic to entice Ananda into bed with her. The Buddha sent Manjusri Bodhisattva to save him. Know- ing the power of samadhi, Ananda requested the Buddha taught. Before answering Ananda’s request, the Buddha laid the groundwork by first posing a series of questions to Ananda. The Buddha informed Ananda that rebirth is caused by lack of knowledge of the pure, bright substance which is the nature of the eternally dwelling true mind and that enlightenment comes through the exclusive use of the straight- forward mind. He then asked Ananda what he used to love and enjoy the Buddha’s physical appearance. Ananda used his mind and eyes, the Buddha then informed Ananda can understand any type of cultivation which leading to enlightenment, he must first be able to distinguish the false thinking of his discriminating consciousness from his true mind. What follows are synopses of Ananda’s seven successive attempts to find a plausible location for his mind. 3 Upasaka Lu K’uan Yu (tr.), The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, (Taiwan: Buddha Dharma Education As- sociation, 2006), p. 29. 4 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The Buddha’s explanation pointed out that Ananda is akin to the mind; the hall is akin to the body, the doors and windows to the perceptual faculties (the eyes contact), and the park to the external environment. Ananda has already admitted that it is impossible to see the park without first seeing the inside of the hall; it follows that if the mind were actually located inside the body, it would be necessary to see the inside of the body before seeing the external environment.
Second Existence
The mind is located outside the body, Ananda explained:
A lamp should light up everything in a room before the courtyard outside through the open door. If I do not see what is in my body but see things outside it, this is like a lamp placed outside a room which cannot light what is in it.4
The Buddha responded by asking Ananda whether the assembly can all be filled when a single person eats. Two people, one eating and the other not, can be compared to the mind being outside and therefore separate from the body. Employing the analogy both ways, it follows that if when one person eats the other is not, then when the mind knows the body should not receive its knowledge. When the body perceives, the mind should not know about its perceptions. The Buddha then demonstrated that such a model does not fit the actual situation by showing his hand and asked him whether his mind discriminates the perception of the hand when his eyes (part of his body) see the hand. The discerning mind is outside the body and groundless.
Third Existence
The mind must be hidden in the perceptual faculty as “it is hidden in my sense organ. If one covers one’s eyes with a crystal bowl.”5 Ananda has replaced himself inside the lecture hall by the eye-faculty and replaced the doors and windows with the eye. He has taken care of the problem of seeing inside the hall by implying that there are obstructions blocking all views except those leading outside, and second, he has put glass in the doors
4 ibid., p. 31. 5 ibid. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 5
and windows.
In the Ananda’s viewpoint, he is seeing inside the hall by implying that there are obstructions blocking all views except those leading outside. Secondly, he put glass in the doors and windows. “If the mind is the crystal bowl when seeing the mountain and river, why do you not see your own eyes?”6 He admitted to the Buddha that eyeglasses are seen by the person who wears them, the Buddha wanted to know why the mind does not see the eyes. So, the knowing mind is hidden in the sense organ and is groundless.
Fourth Existence
Next, Ananda attempted to bolster his case by redefining inside and outside, the mind is located inside the body. “As I am before the Buddha, I open my eyes and see clearly and this is called outward seeing, and when I close them, I see darkness and this called inward seeing.”7 Since the face is part of the body, the eyes and mind would then have to float in empty space, external to the body. The Buddha continues to explain to Ananda that if his eyes and mind are not part of his body, then his body is just one in a class of external objects which are all seen in the same way. If one still considers them part of one’s body, then other minds and eyes external to one’s body should be considered in the same way. In the second part of his refutation, the Buddha shifts his focus from what is seen to the one who sees. He points out that if the eyes and mind are separate from the body, and then if one locates awareness in the eyes and mind, the body is left without awareness. If one insists that both have their own separate awareness and accordingly two different stores of knowledge. Since two different sets of consciousness are involved, there should be two different people as the Buddha concludes, “in your one body you should become two Buddhas”8. So, the seeing darkness is inward seeing that is groundless.
6 ibid., p. 32. 7 ibid. 8 ibid., p. 33. 6 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Fifth Existence
Next, Ananda concluds the mind has no definite location but comes into existence by uniting with the necessary and sufficient causes for its existence regardless of their location when he applied his knowledge of the Buddha’s teaching, “the nature of mind arising when it units with externals and which is neither within or without nor in between.”9 The Buddha discussed the substance and location of the mind. Firstly, (1) If the mind is without substance, it either lacks location (a) or has a location (b). (2) If the mind has substance, then (a) to be in accord with conditions it must have a definite focus as it moves from one set of conditions to the next, and (b) it must be comprised either of a single substance which pervades the body or of multiple substances. Secondly, if the mind has no substance of its own, it makes no sense to talk about it uniting with something else. Were it to have a location without substance, it would be outside of the eighteen elements (dhatus), which is doctrinally impossible. According to Ananda’s point, the mind cannot exist until the proper conditions arise. Since a pinch is located on the boundary between internal and external, then previous to the arising of the proper conditions for the mind to exist at that location, the substance of the mind must be located either inside or outside the body, positions which have already been refuted. The Buddha then turns to exploring the possible characteristics of the substance of the mind which Ananda has proposed. Returning to the example of the pinch, he asserted that if the mind is composed of a single substance which pervades the body, then the pinch should be discriminated not only at its actual location, but wherever the mind extends. If on the other hand the mind is composed of more than one substance, then, as already has been established above, there cannot be a single person. The mind a single substance and not totally pervasive, then when you touch your head and foot at the same time, it should be impossible to be aware of both at the same time. Thus his concluding the mind has no definite location as the fifth location is exhausted.
9 ibid. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 7
Sixth Existence
The mind is located in the middle “the mind is neither within nor without…between the two (the inside and outside).”10 The Buddha then demonstrated that the location of anything which has an appearance is merely relative, so that the middle cannot be considered any definite, specific location. Existence without “representation”, he said, is the same as non-existence. However, Ananda then clarifies his statement that by “middle” he means in between the perceptual faculty and its perceptual object (visaya). He claimed that since the Buddha taught that consciousness arises between the two, that consciousness must constitute the location of the mind. The Buddha destroyed Ananda’s viewpoint by considering whether the mind’s substance includes those of the faculty and its perceptual object.
Seventh Existence
In his final attempt, Ananda said that the location of the mind is non-attachment to everything, “the nature of the knowing and discriminating mind is neither within nor without nor between the two, exists nowhere and clings to nothings”11. His view showed that the mind should not be considered as having any definite location. However, the Buddha showed Ananda that non-attachment implied something which existed and had characteristics and therefore location. Having a definite location is a form of attachment because “in this world, including those that fly and walk, make the existing whole. By that which does not cling to anything, do you mean that exists or not?”12 Throughout the argument of seven minds located, it is an important to keep in mind what Ananda was referring to by “mind” is neither the fleshly heart nor his true mind; he was referring to discriminating consciousness. Different terms, such as “the divine efficacy of the mind” or “the mind which totally comprehends and is able to know”, are used, but the meaning is the same. In the Pali Abhidhamma13 tradition, a similar position “viññāṇa as citta” or “cittas as viññāṇa” is also seen as the Abhidhamma authors group the 89 or 121
10 ibid., p. 35. 11 ibid., p. 36. 12 ibid. 13 Nārada Mahā Thera, A Manual of Abhiddhama, (Malaysia: The Buddhist Missionary Society Publication, 1979). Retrieved on 19th April 2017. http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/abhidhamma.pdf 8 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
kinds of citta (mind), which is one of the four ultimate realities (catudhā paramattha) under the category of consciousness-personality factors (viññāṇa-khandha). Thus, the mind becomes the most important role in the world of activities and becoming, “Well, monks, the world is led by mind, and drawn away by the mind. The world comes under the power of the mind.”14 The Mind (Citta) in the Buddhist view, is thus a series of events in an incessant process of discrimination. Mind as a unitary term is nothing more than a convenient collective noun to comprehend a wide and complex nexus of mental states influx. The natural mind of the worldly individual is, psychologically speaking, constantly throbbing, trembling and wavering.
Overview of Human Brain
The central nervous system of the human brain is divided into seven main parts: the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, and the cerebral hemispheres: The brainstem is the rostral continuation of the spinal cord. The foramen magnum, the hole at the base of the skull, marks the junction of the spinal cord and the brainstem. The brainstem consists of three subdivisions: the medulla, the pons, and the midbrain.15 Kelly Bulkeley explains the function of the brain:
The nature and functioning of the brain are the primary concern of cognitive neuroscience (CN), which functions as an information conduit receiving data from the sense organs and transmitting commands to all part of the body.16
Understanding experiences of extraordinary consciousness help to have a good grounding in the workings of ordinary consciousness and where CN can be of greatest service. “CN investigation of everyday conscious awareness and a cluster of brain-mind process directly involved in its function: perception, association, volition, subjectivity, and
14 A. II. 171; F. L. Woodward (tr.), The Book of the Gruadual Sayings (Anguttara Nikāya), (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1995), p. 178. 15 David L. Clark, Nash N. Boutros and Mario F. Mendez (ed.), The Brain and Behavior: an Introduction to Behavioral Neuroanatomy, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P. 4. 16 Kelly Bulkeley, The Wondering Brain, (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 17. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 9 neural self-integration.”17 This point showing the mind is an important function of the human and that the function exists in the brain.
James H. Austin, who wrote Zen-Brain Reflections,18 answered some questions which related Zen-Brain:
1. Isn’t ordinary consciousness itself something of a mystery? Do you believe that consciousness is a physical phenomenon of the brain, one that science is increasingly demystifying? Yes, “ordinary” consciousness has always been a source of mystery. Yet consciousness slips through any net one might cast with words. It remains a vital emergent property; a result of the brain’s seemingly countless interactive functions. 2. Do you believe that a meaningful distinction exists between the mind and brain? Brain and Mind are difference topics. A human brain can feel its weight. As a neurobiologist, our human brain is the organ of our mind. Indeed, before brains came to exist on this planet, there were no minds either.
The brain is a concern of cognitive neuroscience and brain and mind process is directly involved in body actions.
Buddhist Philosophy and Neuroscience: a viewpoint of Mind and Brain
In deeply answering the mind and brain in the viewpoint of Buddhism and Science, the question arising that we need to address has to do with whether mental states or the mind are identical to brain states. Are mental states, states of the physical brain, or are they something that can exist independently from the brain? When in remember something, is that a state of my brain, organized and processing in a particular way? In perceiving something, the question of whether it is a state of the physical brain or the state of something else should be asked.
17 ibid., p. 149. 18 James H. Austin, Zen- Brain Reflections, (London: The MIT Press, 2006), p. xxiv. 10 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Finding out answers to these questions may be based in the conversations with the Dalai Lama on Brain Science and Buddhism. Patricia Churchland answered that “Descartes was a classic Dualist, the mental states and the brain are two very different kinds of things, brain like the body, physical thing. The mind does not.”19 Dalai Lama asked in this view, is there an assertion of a self? Is the self-equated with the mind that is so distinguished from the brain? Are they one and the same? Do the philosophers make the assumption with this Dualistic theory that the mind is a soul after all? The answer: Yes, the soul, the spirit, and the mind are rather interchangeable according to the Cartesian concept. That consciousness is held by Dualists to be able to exist apart from and in some degree independent from the brain.20 The answer related the Brain’s representation of body awareness is that there are areas of the brain that control the processing of body awareness. Furthermore, consciousness is contingent on our embodiment. When you look for consciousness, it never shows up apart from some context of the body. At the same time, the body always shows up in our field of awareness. This paper tries to work with that reciprocity or circularity as a way of resisting two tendencies. One is straightforward reductionism: Consciousness is just a process of the brain. The other is that consciousness is transcendent in some spiritualist sense apart from the body. If you critically examine the evidence people put forward for the transcendence of consciousness, the evidence is lacking. But consciousness is something is experinced; it has a primacy so that it doesn’t just show up in a way that we identify with neuronal firings. Buddhism recognized the two kinds of suffering, physical and mental, that existence gives rise to. This immediately raises the issue of the mind/body relationship. In the changing of human behavior, the brain-mind processes is involved in more complex forms: “a vast array of mental activities, both conscious and unconscious, intervene between the input of sensory information and output of behavioral response.”21 Kandel said: “Consciousness
19 Geshe Thubten Jinpa and B. Alan Wallace (tr.) Zara Houshmand, Robert B. Livingston, and B. Alan Wallace (ed.), Consciousness at the Crossroads: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Brain Science and Buddhism, (New York: Snow Loin Publications, 1999), p. 23. 20 ibid., pp. 23-24. 21 Kelly Bulkeley, The Wondering Brain, (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 150. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 11
is one of the great mysteries of cognitive neural science, in fact of all science.”22 Our experiences of objective, physical phenomena are quite unlike our experience of subjective, mental phenomena. The fact that Buddhist contemplatives have observed that the mind has no theory of the brain implies that introspective knowledge of the mind does not necessarily shed any light on the brain. So, physical and mental phenomena experientially seem to be different, this appears to be accepted by Buddhism as well as many scientists. The Buddha explained that consciousness (viññāṇa), mind (citta), thought or mentation (mano), mental factors (cetasika) along with matter (rūpa) are merely functional. If the function of matter (rūpa) is “resisting” (ruppatīti rūpaṁ),23 the paradigm function of consciousness and mind is “being conscious” (vijānātiti viññāṇaṁ).24 They are neither altogether nor separately considered as substantial entities but only a series of conscious experiences. Their being functional is described in dynamic terms as a flow (sota), a continuum (satāna), a running (javana) or a process (vīthi). The Buddha pointed out the various ways of the independent origination of the mind and has also stated that there is no arising of the mind except through the collocation of causal factors.25 “Citta is included under the generic term dhamma and all dhammas which consist of the five Aggregates of Grasping (pañcupādānakkhandhā) arises invariably as a result of the collocation of a wide variety of causal factors”26 Non-attachment implies something which existed and had characteristics and therefore location. Neuroscience suggests that the brain controls the processing body awareness. This implies that physical awareness and mental awareness cannot exist independently. It may be best to describe consciousness as a processes directly involved in its function: perception, association, volition, subjectivity, and neural self-integration.
22 ibid. 23 S. III. 86; F. L. Woodward (tr.), The Book of the Kindred Saying (Saṅyutta-Nikāya), (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1995), p. 72. 24 S. III. 87; ibid., p. 74. 25 M. I. 19; I. B. Horner, The Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya), (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1995), p. 25. 26 M. I. 191; ibid., p. 273. 12 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Conclusion
The Buddha’s teachings observed that introspective knowledge of the mind does not necessarily shed any light on the brain. As a series of mental process, the mind is in a constant flow of flux. The mind could not be seen as attachment, this implied something which exists and has characteristics and therefore, location. Science implies that the brain is a concern of cognitive neuroscience and that brain and mind are process directly involved in body actions. However, mind (citta) is the only center responsible for performing the human ethical behaviour (kamma), whether good (kusala), evil (akusala) and neutral (āneñjā). The mind is a formless continuum that functions to perceive and understand objects. This is possible only because the mind is formless, non-physical, and it is not obstructed by physical objects. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 13
References
Arnold, Dan. Brains, Buddha, and Believing. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012. Austin, James H., Zen- Brain Refl ections. London: The MIT Press, 2006. Battro M., Antonio. Half a Brain is enough: the Story of Nico. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Bulkeley, Kelly. The Wondering Brain. New York: Routledge, 2005. Clark, David L., Boutros, Nash N. and Mendez, Mario F. (ed.). The Brain and Behavior: an Introduction to Behavioral Neuroanatomy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Horner, I. B. The Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya). Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1995. Jinpa, Geshe Thubten and Wallace, B. Alan (tr.) Houshmand, Zara. Livingston, Robert B., and Wallace, B. Alan (ed.). Consciousness at the Crossroads: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Brain Science and Buddhism. New York: Snow Loin Publications, 1999. Ron, Epstein. Ananda’s Search for the Mind in Seven Locations. A Monthly Journal of Orthodox Buddhism, March 1975. Swinburne, Richard. The Evolution of the Soul. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Varela, Francisco J. (ed.). Sleeping, Dreaming, and Dying: an Exploration of Consciousness with the Dalai Lama, Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1997. Woodward, F. L. (tr.). The Book of the Kindred Saying (Saṅyutta-Nikāya). Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1994. Nārada Mahā Thera. A Manual of Abhiddhama. Malaysia: The Buddhist Missionary Society Publication, 1979. Retrieved on 19th April 2017. http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_fi le/ abhidhamma.pdf A Study of Meditation Effect on the Brain and Emotional Happiness by MRI Scan
Dr. Thunnawat Wattanaseth, MD1 Asst. Prof. Dr. Siriwat Srikhruedong, B.A., M.A.,Ph.D2 Dr. Sompoch Srivichitvorakul, B.A., M.A., Ph.D3
Abstract
The objectives of this study are as follows: 1) to measure and compare the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long- term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners; 2) to measure and compare physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)”; and 3) to measure and compare the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups. The study was an experimental research in nature. Population of the study comprised 256 healthcare providers in Kasemrad International Hospital by randomized interview for those eligable of the study from October to December 2015. The samples of the study included 30 eligible cases divided to three groups, namely, 10 cases of Long-term meditation practitioners (LTM), 10 cases of Short-term meditation practitioners (STM), and 10 cases of Non-meditation practitioners (NM). Tools of data collection were MRI and questionnaire. Statistics used for analyzing data composted of Percentage, Mean, Standard Deviation and Pearson correlation.
Keywords: Meditation Effect on the Brain and Emotional Happiness, MRI SCAN
1 Graduated Student in Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Psychology), Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University . 2 Staff of Department of Buddhist Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University . 3 Staff of Department of Buddhist Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 15
Results of the Study
1. With respect to the measurement and comparison of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners, it was found that there existed no significant changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) within the each group and across the three groups. While comparing the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe among three eligible groups with standard value of cerebral cortical thickness there was no change with a statistical significance. 2. In respect of the measurement and comparison of physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)” it revealed that there were no significant changes of fractional anisotropy (FA) within the group and across the three groups. When comparing the standard values of FA there were no statistically significant changes. 3. Regarding the measurement and comparison of the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups it revealed that there was a high mean happiness score (HS) in the group of Long-term meditation practitioners. While comparing the mean happiness score (HS) of Long-term meditation practitioners with Short-term meditation practitioners and Non-meditation practitioners it was found that the mean happiness score of the latter two groups statistical similar.
Background and Significance of the Problem
Many years ago, meditation was a well-known cognitive therapy incorporating enhanced mindfulness. Many researches emphasized meditation as an important process as curative & palliative therapy. They suggested that improvement of complex emotional control and attention regulation increases in meditators. Recently, the therapeutic use of meditation, including mindfulness-based techniques, has become increasingly important in the treatment of physiological and psychological conditions4. Furthermore, the neuroscientific evidence suggests that meditation alters the structure and function of the brain including
4 D.S. Ludwig, J. Kabat-Zinn, Mindfulness in Medicine.. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 2008, Vol.300 No.11, Pp.1350-1352. 16 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) neural processes, underlying attention, and emotion5. One of many researches, Goto et al,6 shows altered synaptic structure of the brain circuits associated with attention and emotion might be the one of the essential pathophysiological conditions underlying some major psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. In the details of the research of Goto, the Prefrontal cortex (PFC) mediates an assortment of cognitive functions including working memory, behavioral flexibility, attention, and future planning. Unlike the hippocampus, where induction of synaptic plasticity in the network is well-documented in relation to long-term memory, cognitive functions mediated by the PFC have been thought to be independent of long-lasting neuronal adaptation of the network. Nonetheless, accumulating evidence suggests that prefrontal cortical neurons possess the cellular machinery of synaptic plasticity and exhibit lasting changes of neural activity associated with various cognitive processes. Moreover, deficits in the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity induction in the PFC may be involved in the pathophysiology of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, drug addiction, mood disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease. In Thailand, there are many meditation practitioners of the Thai style Theravada tradition, such as “breathing training” with Brikornrnam “pút-toh” There does not seem to be any research of brain structures using MRI of practitioners of Thai meditation by Diagnostic Radiologist (specialist doctor). This is an important and interesting issue in the field of medical evidence based experimental study in Thailand, when we compare data of international meditation research with MRI scans. However, there are many researches about meditation in Thailand but most of these are not related with medical equipment. This study wants to utilize evidence-based medical science applied to Theravada meditation in Thailand. This will be attempted by identifying anatomical and physiological brain changes in meditation practitioners under detection and measurement by MRI scan.
5 J.A. Brefczynski-Lewis, A. Lutz, S. Schaefer, D.B. Levinson, R.J. Davidson, Neural Correlates of Attentional Expertise in Long-Term Meditation Practitioners. Madison: The Wisconsin Press, 2007, Pp.11483-11488. 6 Y. Goto, C.R. Yang, S. Otani, Functional and Dysfunctional Synaptic Plasticity in Prefrontal Cortex: Roles in Psychiatric Disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 2010, Vol.67 No.3, Pp. 199-207. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 17
Objectives of Research
(1) To measure and compare the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups; a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short- term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners. (2) To measure and compare physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)”. (3) To measure and compare the Happiness score (HS) between groups.
Hypothesis in Research
(1) Increased cerebral cortical thickness (CT) in meditation group (2) Increased value of fractional anisotropy (FA) in meditation group (3) High happiness score (HS) in a long term meditation group.
Definition of the Term used in the Research
A long-term meditation is an at least 3 years meditation experience that has a routine meditation of at least 20 minutes a day at least five days per week. A short-term mediation is a short duration of meditation experience of less than 3 months. A control is a case of no experience in meditation in recent 3 years. MRI7 is a medical machine with magnetic generation. MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and field gradients to generate images of the inside of the body. The cerebral cortex 8 is the outer covering of gray matter over the hemispheres. This is typically 2- 3 mm thick, covering the gyri and sulci. Certain cortical regions have
7 American Society of Neuroradiology. “A CR-ASNR Practice Guideline for the Performance and Interpretation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Brain. 2013, Boston: Pp. 26 -28 8 Swenson Rand, Chapter 11-Cerebral Cortex. Review of Clinical and Functional Neuroscience. E-book, Boston: 2006. 18 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) somewhat simpler functions, termed the primary cortices. These include areas directly receiving sensory input (vision, hearing, somatic sensation) or directly involved in production of limb or eye movements. The association cortices subserve more complex functions. Regions of association cortex are adjacent to the primary cortices and include much of the rostral part of the frontal lobes also regions encompassing areas of the posterior parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the anterior part of the occipital lobes. These areas are important in more complex cortical functions including memory, language, abstraction, creativity, judgment, emotion and attention. They are also involved in the synthesis of movements. Cerebral cortical thickness (CT) 9 is a thickness of gray matter, typically 2-3 mm. This study measured CT at “straight gyrus” of the frontal lobes. For mammals, species with larger brains (in absolute terms, not just in relation to body size) tend to have thicker cortices. The range, however, is not very great; only a factor of 7 differentiates between the thickest and thinnest cortices. The smallest mammals, such as shrews, have a neocortical thickness of about 0.5 mm; the ones with the largest brains, such as humans and fin whales, have thicknesses of 2.3–2.8 mm. There is an approximately logarithmic relationship between brain weight and cortical thickness. Fractional anisotropy (FA)10 is a value of anisotropy of a diffusion process. A value of zero means that diffusion is isotropic, i.e. it is unrestricted (or equally restricted) in all directions. A value of one means that diffusion occurs only along one axis and is fully restricted along all other directions. FA is a measure often used in diffusion imaging where it is thought to reflect fiber density, axonal diameter, and myelination in white matter. The FA is an extension of the concept of eccentricity of conic sections in 3 dimensions, normalized to the unit range Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being defined by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy11. Happy mental states may also reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being. A variety of biological, psychological, economic, religious and philosophical approaches have striven to define
9 R. Nieuwenhuys, H.J. Donkelaar, C. Nicholson, The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Volume 1, New York: Rockefeller University Press, Pp. 2011–2012. 10 P.J. Basser & C. Pierpaoli, Microstructural and Physiological Features of Tissues Elucidated by Quantitative-Diffusion-Tensor MRI. Journal of Magnetic Resonance, 1996, Boston: Pp. 209-219. 11 Darrin M. McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness”, Daedalus, 2004, California: Pp. 5–17. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 19 happiness and identify its sources. Various research groups, including positive psychology and happiness economics are employing the scientific method to research questions about what “happiness” is, and how it might be attained. Meditation12 is a practice where an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness, either to realize some benefit or for the mind to simply acknowledge its content without becoming identified with that content, or as an end in itself. The term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices that includes techniques designed to promote relaxation, build internal energy or life force (qi, ki, prana, etc.) and develop compassion, love, patience, generosity, and forgiveness. A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly sustained single-pointed concentration meant to enable its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of well-being while engaging in any life activity.
Expected Benefits (Outcomes)
1. To explored scientific evidence of MRI study in the human brain with meditation 2. To know relationship between anatomical brain changes and meditation 3. To know relationship between emotional happiness and meditation.
Research Methodology
The discourse of this study is about social experimental design and scientific measurement to evaluate the result of meditation of three groups of population by the method of cross sectional study. Statistical analysis of variables with Pearson correlation was performed for study effect of meditation on the brain and emotional happiness. The population of this study is healthcare providers: 256 persons, in the Kasemrad International Hospital. The research was done from June 1, 2014 to Jan 31, 2015. There is a wide range of age: 24 to 64 years.
12 Daniel Goleman , The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience. 2008, New York: Tarcher, Pp 86-88 20 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Population and Samples
We selected 30 persons from 256 persons to interview about their history of meditation. Samples are divided to three groups as follows: 1) Ten cases of Long-term meditation practitioners, 2) Ten cases of Short-term meditation practitioners, and 3) Ten cases of Non-meditation practitioners. We employed cortical thickness (CT) analysis and fractional anisotropy (FA) based on advanced MRI technique to quantify white matter integrity and structural change in the brains. All cases of our study would receive psychological questionnaires of happiness score (HS) assessment.
Research Tools
All data were acquired using a 1.5-Tesla Essenza MRI scanner (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). T1-weighted structural images covering the whole brain using a 3D magnetization- prepared rapid gradient echo sequence were acquired with the following parameters: TR/ TE=1160/4.76ms, field of view=23cm, flip angle=15egrees, voxel size=0.45x0.45x0.90mm3, slice thickness=0.9mm. Diffusion-weighted images (DWIs) were acquired with diffusion gradients (b-factor 1000s/mm2) along 12 non-collinear directions. Ten images were acquired with no diffusion gradient (B0 images) to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Other parameters were as follows: TR/TE=9200/83ms, 75 slices, field of view=256mm, voxel size=2x2x2mm3. All scans were judged by a diagnostic radiologist (T.W.) to be visually excellent without obvious artifacts, signal loss or gross pathology.
Scope of Contents
To study for the changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT), Fractional anisotrpy (FA), and Happiness score (HS).
Data collection and Steps of Research
A total of 30 cases (10 long-term meditators, 10 short-term meditation practitioners and 10 controls) with Age-Sex matching participated in the study. The mean duration of long term meditators was calculated and noted. Control subjects had no previous experience with meditation or similar practices. The non-patient version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV was used to assess psychiatric disorders in all participants. All subjects were JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 21 right-handed (Annett, 1970). Exclusion criteria included a life-time history of psychosis, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, substance abuse or dependence, significant head injury, seizure disorder or mental retardation. The present study was approved by the Research Institutional Review Board of Bangkok Chain Hospital (BCH) and informed consent was obtained from all subjects following the explanation of the procedures. The questionnaires for assessment of happiness score was used in all participants after MRI scan. (See diagram 1)
Statistics and Data analysis
The statistical analysis was corrected for multiple comparisons using a Pearson correlation (2-tails). The correlation coefficient (r) was calculated between factors of 1) mediation duration, 2) cortical thickness (CT), 3) fractional anisotroy (FA) and 4) happiness score (HS). (See diagram 2)
Diagram 1: Steps in research and data collection 22 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Diagram 2: Statistical correlation between three eligible meditation groups and three dependent variables (CT, FA, and HS)
Note ( ) is the direction of correlation coefficient (r) between factors
Results
Thirty participants were eligible in the study. There are divide to three groups as 1) Long term meditation (LTM), average 4.4 years for duration of mediation, 2) Short term meditation (STM), average 1.6 months for duration of meditation and 3) Non meditation (NM). The mean age of LTM group = 31years, STM group = 34years, and NM group = 33.3years. Twenty-two cases had graduated Bachelor degree. The mean duration of meditation in LTM group = 4.4 years, and STM group = 1.8 months.
Measurement of Cortical Thickness (CT) and Fractional Anisotropy (FA)
The measurement of cerebral cortex, this study selected on the axial T1W view at skull base, used direct measurement at mid part of lateral cortex of the straight gyrus under work station of PACS. The reason for using lateral cortex of the straight gyrus was due to: 1) The medial cortex usually has wavy contour in contrast to lateral cortex which is straight and smooth contour, 2) The straight gyrus is easily identified on MRI scan without confusion rather than other temporal gyri and frontal gyri. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 23
The measurement of Fractional anisotropy, the study used FA map with b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, axial view of whole brain, and also select at basal ganglia level. The hand-free regional of interest (ROI) was put on the right & left putamen. The measurement value in each side was recorded. The MRI’s image & measurement of CT and FA of LTM case, STM case and NM case are shown in Figure 1 (a,b), Figure 2(a,b) and Figure 13(a,b).
Figure 1a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of LTM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.16mm) and left straight gyrus (1.02mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.09mm) was recorded.
Figure 1b: Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of LTM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.24, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.20 24 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Figure 2a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of STM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.31mm) and left straight gyrus (1.32mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.31mm) was recorded.
Figure 2b: Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of STM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.21, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.26 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 25
Figure 3a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of NM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.16mm) and left straight gyrus (1.00mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.08mm) was recorded.
Figure 3b: Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of NM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.24, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.24 26 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The means of value’s measurement of cortical thickness (CT), fractional anisotropy (FA) of the right putamen (FAR) and the left putamen (FAL) are summarized on Table 1, below
Table 1: Summarization of the means of CT, FAR, and FAL in each group.
Mean CT Mean FAR Mean FAL
Long Term Meditation (LTM) 1.205mm 0.2418 0.2268
Short Term Meditation (STM) 1.143mm 0.2417 0.2266
Non-Meditation (NM) 1.221mm 0.2413 0.2264
Total 30 cases 1.1897mm 0.2426 0.2266
From this table, there is no significant difference of the mean value of CT and FA between LTM, STM and NM groups. No difference in neuronal density and white matter arrangement, which reflects from FA, of the right and left putamen are seen between groups. The standard reference value of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT)13is about 2mm in overall average. Various values of cerebral cortical thickness depend on age, region of the brain, race, underlying disease, etc. However, Cortical thickness values reported in the literature mostly range from a mean thickness over the whole brain of around 2.5 mm up to 3 mm.14 The cortical thickness of straight gyrus is thinner than the average value of whole brain. For the standard reference of Fractional Ansiotropy (FA), the study of Cheng Luo and colleague15 shows normal range of FA in putamen of the control group about 0.21 to 0.31.
13 Chloe Hutton, Voxel based cortical measurements in MRI. Neuroimage. Bethesda MD: 2008, Vol. 40, Pp 1701–1710. 14 J.P. Lerch, A.C. Evans, Cortical thickness analysis examined through power analysis and a population simulation. Neuroimage. Bethesda MD: 2005, Vol. 24, Pp 163–173. 15 Cheng Luo, et al., Diffusion and volumetry abnormalities in subcortical nuclei of patients with absence seizures. Epilepsia, 2011, Vol 52, Pp 1092-1099. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 27
For this study, the mean FA of right and left putamen in LTM group is 0.2418 and 0.2268, respectively. The mean FA of right and left putamen in STM group is 0.2417 and 0.2266, respectively. The mean FA of right and left putamen in NM group is 0.2413 and 0.2264, respectively. The overall mean FA of total thirty cases at the right putamen is 0.2416, and also the left putamen is 0.2266.
Measurement of Happiness Score (HS)
All cases of three groups were had to examine happiness score by answers of questionnaires, after received MRI scan. The mean of HS of LTM group = 5.188, STM group = 3.630, NM group = 3.480. The meaning of mean happiness score = 5.188 is “Very happy”. Being happy has more benefits than just feeling good. It’s correlated with benefits like health, better marriages, and attaining goals. The meaning of mean score = 3.630 and 3.480 is “Not particularly happy or unhappy”. This score would be an exact numerical average of happy and unhappy responses. Some of the exercises mentioned just above have been tested in scientific studies and have been shown to make people happier longer.16
Conclusion
After collecting data, MRI scans, examining questionnaires and statistical analysis, the conclusion of the study with respect to the three objectives of research and hypothesis of research was summarized as follows; (1) With respect to the measurement and comparison of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners it found that there existed no any significant changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) within the group and among three groups, while comparing the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe among three eligible groups with standard value of cerebral cortical thickness there were no changes with a statistical significance.
16 P. Hills and M. Argyle, The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, Oxford: 2002, Vol.33, Pp.1073–1082. 28 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
(2) In respect of the measurement and comparison of physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)” it revealed that there were no any significant changes of fractional anisotropy (FA) within the group and among three groups, when comparing with standard value of FA there were no statistically significant changes. (3) Regarding the measurement and comparison of the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups it revealed that there was a high mean happiness score (HS) in the group of Long-term meditation practitioners. While comparing the mean happiness score (HS) of Long-term meditation practitioners with Short-term meditation practitioners and Non-meditation practitioners it was found that the mean happiness score of the latter two groups were not significantly different.
Discussion
Unless this study shows no significant change of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) and Fractional anisotropy (FA) of LTM, STM and NM group, at point of time (cross-sectional study), the study give a new body of knowledge as follow; 1) Long-term meditation effects emotional happiness significantly. 2) Meditation in the study does not improve cerebral cortical thickness, that means no effect on the natural progression of senile aging or degeneration of the human brain, corresponding with “The three marks of existence” (Trilaksana – Anicca, Dukka, Anatta), and the research of Sergio Elías Hernández 17 , which shows increased Gray Matter (neuronal density) in the Long-Term Sahaja Yoga Meditation, using by a Voxel-Based Morphometry MRI Study. This study is one of several researches which discloses the differentiation between neural density and volumetric thickness of cerebral cortex. The results of the study show the direct effect of meditation to neurons (increased neural density and neuroplasticity). Some cases of the study showed no change of the cortical thickness (CT), but all cases of Long-term Meditation have an abundance of neuronal density of gray matter.
17 Sergio Elías Hernández, and et al, Increased Grey Matter Associated with Long-Term Sahaja Yoga Meditation: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study. Plos Journal, 2016, Plos organization, E-book. (Search on Apr 1, 2016) JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 29
Suggestions for research methodology
1) Prospective longitudinal studies may give more information between three mediation groups. 2) Increased number of case studies may be helpful to the study. 3) Choosing more regional cerebral areas for measurement in further studies may give more information and more extended discussion.
Suggestions for meditation practitioner and beginner
1) Long-term meditation with regular self-training of at least 20 minutes per day for an average 4.4 years seems to improve emotional happiness.
Suggestion for proposed policy
1) The government, public organizations, or private organizations should promote meditation of at least 15 to 20 minutes per day as a daily routine for all age groups, especially adult or working person, for the benefit of happiness and decreased stress in the workplace, home, and social relationships. 2) Schools, colleges, and university should have the activity of meditation and emphasize the important relationship between meditation and happiness. 30 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
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Function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2001. Halzel, B.K., U. Ott and T. Gard, et. al. Investigation of Mindfulness Meditation Practitioners with Voxel-based Morphometry. Boston: Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2008. Jung, Y.H., D.H. Kang, J.H. Jang. et al.. The Effects of Mind-body Training on Stress Reduction, Positive Affect, and Plasma Catecholamines. MA: Neuroscience Letters, 2010. Lazar, Sara. Mindfulness Meditation Training Changes Brain Structure in 8 Weeks. NewYork, Psychology & Sociology, Published, Friday, January 21, 2011. Lazar, S.W., G. Bush, R.L. Gollub, G.L. Fricchione, G. Khalsa and H. Benson. Functional Brain Mapping of the Relaxation Response and Meditation. Boston: Neuroreport, 2000. Lehrer, P., Y. Sasaki and Y. Sauti. Zazen and Cardiac Variability. NewYork: Psychosom Med, 1999. Luders, E., O.R. Phillips, K. Clark. et al. Bridging the Hemispheres in Meditation: Thicker Callosal Regions and Enhanced Fractional Anisotropy (FA) in Long- term Practitioners. NewYork: Neuroimage, 2012. Luders, E, K. Clark, K.L. Narr and A.W. Toga. Enhanced Train Connectivity in Long- Term Meditation Practitioners. NewYork: Neuron Image, 2011. Ludwig, D.S. and J. Kabat-Zinn. Mindfulness in Medicine. NewYork: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 2008. Lutz, A., L.L. Greischar, N.B. Rawlings, M. Ricard and R.J. Davidson. Long-term Meditators Self-Induce High-amplitude Gamma Synchrony During Mental Practice. NewYork: Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA, 2004. Merzenich, M.M. and R.C. DeCharms. Neural Representations, Experience and Change. Boston: MIT Press, 1996. Pagnoni,, G. and M. Cekic. Age Effects on Gray Matter Volume and Attentional Performance in Zen Meditation. Boston: Neurobiol Aging, 2007. Pagnoni, G., M. Cekic and Y. Guo. “Thinking about Not-thinking”: Neural Correlates of Conceptual Processing During Zen Meditation. Boston: PLoS ONE, 2008. Posner M.I. and S.E. Peterson. The Attention System of the Human Brain. NewYork: Annu Rev, Neurosci, 1990. 34 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Quirk, G.J. and J.S. Beer. Prefrontal Involvement in the Regulation of Emotion: Convergence of Rat and Human Studies. Boston: Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2006. Recanzone, G.H., M.M. Merzenich, W.M. Jenkins, K.A. Grajski and H.R. Dinse. Topographic Reorganization of the Hand Representation in Cortical area Bowl Monkeys Trained in a Frequency-discriminationTask. California: J Neurophys, 1992. Rosas, H.D., A.K. Liu, S. Hersch, M. Glessner, R.J. Ferrante and D.H. Salat. et al. Regional and Progressive Thinning of the Cortical Ribbon in Huntington’s Disease. Boston: Neurology, 2002. Salat, D.H., R.L. Buckner, A.Z. Snyder, D.N. Greve, R.S.R. Desikan and E. Busa. et al. Thinning of the Cerebral Cortex in Aging. Cereb Cortex, MA: 2004. Segal, Z.V., J.M.G. Williams and J.D. Teasdale. Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: a New Approach to Preventing Relapse. New York: Guilford Press, 2002. Sergio Elías Hernández, and et al, Increased Grey Matter Associated with Long-Term Sahaja Yoga Meditation: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study. Plos Journal, 2016, Plos organization, E-book. (Search on Apr 1, 2016) Taylor, D.G. and M.C. Bushell. “The Spatial Mapping of Translational Diffusion Coefficients by the NMR Imaging Technique”. Boston: Physics in Medicine and Biology,1985. Vestergaard, Poulsen P., M. Van Beek, J. Skewes. et al.. Long-term Meditation is Associated with Increased Gray Matter Density in the Brain Stem. Wisconsin: Neuroreport, 2009. Wallace, R.K., H. Benson, A.F. Wilson. A Wakeful Hypometabolic Physiological State. NewYork: Am J Physiol, 1971. Westin, C.F., S. Peled, H. Gudbjartsson, R. Kikinis and F.A. Jolesz. Geometrical Diffusion Measures for MRI From Tensor Basis Analysis.Vancouver: Canada, 1997. Westin, C.F., S.E. Maier, H. Mamata, A. Nabavi, F.A. Jolesz and R. Kikinis. Processing and Visualization of Diffusion Tensor MRI. Boston: Medical Image Analysis, 2002. Zeidan, F, S.K. Johnson, B.J. Diamond, Z. David and P. Goolkasian. Mindfulness Meditation Improves Cognition: Evidence of Brief mental Training. Boston: Consciousness and Cognition, 2010. The Relationship between the Brain and the Base of the Mind from the Perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism
Ven. Hui Chen
Abstract
Yogācāra philosophy seems to be in contradiction with modern science in terms of the base of the mind. The former says the base of the Six Consciousness (mano vijñāna) is the Seventh Consciousness (mana vijñāna), while the latter seems to indicate that the mind has a lot to do with the brain. In order to give a proper explanation on this contradiction, this research tries to study the relationship between the brain and the base of the mind from both the early Buddhist texts and the discoveries of modern science. The fi ndings of this study show that the brain is actually not mentioned in early Buddhist texts as the base of the mind, and modern science cannot offer suffi cient proof to show that the brain is essential to the function of the mind. Finally, the explanation on the proposed contraction is given from the perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism claiming that the brain is not the base of mind rather a kind of tool assisting in the function of the mind.
Keywords: Brain, Base of the Mind, Early Buddhism, Modern Science, Yogācāra 36 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Introduction
Buddhism has generally been considered to be a religion consistent with science. However, there are certain areas that Buddhism and science seem to be unable to go hand in hand. One of these is the base of the Sixth Consciousness (Skr. mana-indriya), or the essential base of the arising of the human mind. According to modern science, the human mind is the result of functions in brain. Based on many experiments and observations concerning the correlation between stimulation or damage of different parts of the human brain and corresponding behaviors, scientists have made the conclusion that certain regions of the brain are actually responsible for certain types of mental activities. This seems to be contradictory to what Yogācāra Buddhism says. Yogācāra thinks the base of the mind, or the Six Consciousness, is the Seventh Consciousness which is immaterial. This means a material brain is absolutely not the base of the Six Consciousness according to Yogācāra. From this, it can also be inferred that according to Yogācāra, the brain is not the most important condition of the arising of the mind. This discrepancy leads to concerns from modern Buddhist Scholars. Yogācāra Buddhist specialist Lin says:
The scientific conclusion can be undoubted that the brain plays an important role in the thinking process. ... it’s quite difficult to accept (according to Yogācāra) that the brain is even not the most important condition for the arising of the thinking consciousness. ... Therefore, is the base of the Sixth Consciousness the brain or the Seventh Consciousness? Or what is the proper way to ask the question? These should be seriously answered by Yogācāra.1
From above, it is obvious that this traditional Buddhist theory is facing a serious challenge from modern science. There must be a plausible explanation for this contraction, Otherwise, “Yogācāra will be in great danger”2.
1 Master Xuanzhuang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Dis- course on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition), Lin Guoliang, (tr.), (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), p. 31 2 Ibid.,p.31 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 37
In order to give such an explanation, it’s necessary to answer these questions: 1) Is the brain the base of the mind according to early Buddhist texts? 2) Is the brain the base of the mind according to modern science? 3) What does Yogācāra say about the function of the brain?
By answering these questions, one will have a deeper and more complete understanding on the nature and cause of the contradiction between Yogācāra and modern science concerning whether the brain is the base of the mind or the Sixth Consciousness, thus a better explanation can be given.
The Base of the Mind in the Early Buddhist Texts
In Buddhism, the English word “brain” is translated from the Pali word “Matthaluṅga”3 which can be found in many suttas4 in the Tipitaka:
1) ... grease, spit, mucus, synovial fluid, urine; and the brain in the head... (Kp 3 : The Thirty Two Fold Nature) 2) ...fat, bile, phlegm, suppuration, blood, skull, brain, full of manifold impurities he reflects with right... (Arv 12 : The Four Cultivations Of Meditation) 3) ... oil that lubricates the joints, the urine, or the brain, or any or all of these, that is Nāgasena?... (Mil 3.1 1 : Individuality And Name; The Chariot Simile) 4) ... fat, bile, phlegm, suppuration, blood, skull, brain, excrement, urine full of manifold impurities...(Arv 19 : The Noble Eightfold Path) 5) ... And then within its hollow head bundled brains are stuffed— the fool thinks all is beautiful ... (Snp 1.11 : Victory Over Fascination With Bodies) 6) ... uttered this stanza— Your mangled corpse, your brains mashed into clay, Prove how you’ve shone forth... (Ja 143 : Virocana Jātaka)
3 Buddhadatta Mahathera, A.P., Concise P-E Dict, 2003. 4 Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/search?query=brain 38 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
From verses above, it is clear that the Buddha mentioned the brain mostly in the context of the human body without showing any specific relationship between the brain and the mind. Concerning the base of the mind, there are different opinions from different Buddhist Schools. Generally these opinions can fall into two categories: form (Pali: rupa) and non-form (Pali: nama). For those who support the base of the mind as form, they often cite this verse:
Bhikkhus, though someone might say: ‘Apart from form, apart from feeling, apart from perception, apart from volitional formations, I will make known the coming and going of consciousness, its passing away and rebirth, its growth, increase, and expansion’—that is impossible.(SN22.54)5
Here the Buddha seemed to indicate that the understanding of the functions of consciousness should be based on form, feeling, perception. It doesn’t directly say that the base of the mind is something specifically physical. However, belief on a physical base for the mind is seen from later commentaries, typically composed by Buddhaghosa in The Path of Purification:
This is the heart flesh ... In those who possess understanding it is a little expanded; in those without understanding it is still only a bud. Inside it there is a hollow the size of a punnága seed’s bed where half a pasata measure of blood is kept, with which as their support the mind element and mind-consciousness element occur.6
This cardiac theory, which has long been used to explain the base of the mind in some Theravada traditions has been challenged by modern Buddhist scholars. They believe that it is due to the popular contemporary belief in India as well as ignorance of the modern scientific knowledge of the brain that these early commentators created this “heart fallacy”.
5 Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/en/sn22.54 6 Bhikkhu Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification,(English version of Visuddhimagga)(4th Ed.), Bhikkhu Ñáóamoli Buddhaghosa, (tr.), (Kandy, Sri Lanka: 2010), p. 25. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 39
Gunasekara says:
Thus in Aung’s view the original discourses of the Buddha do not take any stand on the question of which human organ acts as the seat of the mind (manoindriya) and that the association of this organ with the heart (hadayavattu) is a later innovation in the Abhidhamma and the Commentaries. We then proceed from this position that the tenor of the Buddhist analysis in conjunction with the modem scientific view lead us to the conclusion that the organ involved is the brain.7
According to Gunasekara, not only Aung, but also Narada, Nyanaponika and other modern Buddhist scholars are also against the concept of the heart as the base of the mind, rather it should be the brain according to the modern science. There are also ideas that the base of the mind is not something physical, but mental. The primary source is Saṃyuktāgama in Chinese Tripitaka:
The mental inner entering place, just like the heart, the mind, and the consciousness, is not form, invisible and forms no barrier. This is called the mental inner entering place.8
Except Tamra-satiyah, which considered the base of mind to be the heart flesh, all other early Buddhist schools believed that the mind is actually based on a stream of continuously rising and perishing thoughts, each thought considered to be the condition of the next one. So the base of the mind is the preceding thought that triggers the following thought. However, different schools seem to hold different opinion towards what the preceding thought is: Kośa thinks it is the thought in the past; Sarvastivada thinks it is the Six Consciousnesses in the past; Mahāsāṃghika said it is the consciousness at present.9 From the analysis above, it can be concluded that, in Buddhism, there is not strong support from Canonical or commentary record concerning whether the brain is the base of the mind or not. The Tipitaka does mention the brain, which indicates that the Buddha
7 Gunasekara, V. A., “The Heart and the Brain in Buddhism”, BSQ Newsletter, Nov-Dec, 1995. 8 《雜阿含經》卷13：「意內入處者，若心、意、識非色，不可見，無對，是名意內入處」 (CBETA, T02), no. 99, p. 91, c8-10. 9 Yinshun, Source Exploration of Yogācāra (Weishi Xue Tan Yuan, Chinese Edition), Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), p. 84 40 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
and His followers knew there was a brain organ in the body. As the Buddha was the fully awakened one, He must have known well the structure and the function of the brain as well as the heart in the same way He pointed out knowledge of microorganism and the process of fertilization, which was discovered by science thousands of years later. While He taught the physical base for each of the five sense of consciousness, eye faculty for the Eye Consciousness, ear faculty for the Ear Consciousness, and so on, He seldom directly mentioned the base for the Six Consciousness. This may lead to the conclusion that the brain nor the heart is the base of the mind. It is no wonder that most early Buddhist schools chose to propose that the base of the mind is not something physical.
The Base of the Mind in Scientific Discovery
Arguments concerning the base of the mind in the modern era are largely due to the development of cognitive psychology. Indeed, there is countless evidence that show certain parts of the brain are closely related to certain behaviors. It is obvious that certain damage to the brain will result in certain dysfunctions of the mind. Yhese significant discoveries of the brain seems to have led to many Buddhist scholars rethinking the authenticity of what is recorded in the Canonical scriptures as well as the commentary. Some may have hastily made the conclusion that the brain is actually the physical base of the mind. However, what some scholars seem to have not noticed is that even some of the scientists themselves dare not claim that the brain is the source of the mind, because so little is known about the relationship between the brain and the mind. Moreover, recent research reports from neurologists have shifted people’s attention from the brain to the heart, as more and more evidence has revealed that the heart seems to have a more significant role to play in the mental activities, which seems to have been ignored in the modern time. According to Dr. Dominique Surel, in the mental activities, the heart and the brain are working cooperatively, with the heart taking the leading role:
The heart is in a constant two-way dialogue with the brain. But, McCraty explains, the heart and cardiovascular system are sending far more signals to the brain than the brain is sending to the heart. ... Cardiovascular afferents have numerous connections to such brain centers as the thalamus, hypothalamus, and amygdala, and they play a direct and JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 41
important role in determining our perceptions, thought processes, and emotional experiences. Recent work in the relatively new field of neurocardiology has firmly established that the heart is a sensory organ and an information encoding and processing center, with an extensive intrinsic nervous system that’s sufficiently sophisticated to qualify as a heart brain. Its circuitry enables it to learn, remember, and make functional decisions independent of the cranial brain. To everyone’s surprise, the findings have demonstrated that the heart’s intrinsic nervous system is a complex, self-organized system; its neuroplasticity, or ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections over both the short and long term, has been well demonstrated.10
From this, it can be inferred that the concept of the heart in many ancient cultures was not a ridiculous fallacy, thus Buddhaghosa wasn’t completely wrong in The Path of Purification. The heart plays a larger role than the brain in the process of man’s thinking and other mental activities. That is to say, if one really insists there is a physical base of the mind, then it seems to be safe, according to modern science, to say that the base is the heart together with the brain. However, before making such a conclusion please read this:
On an average a brain has nearly 100 billion neurons and is the seat of all our thinking. The gut (digestive system of the body) has close to 500 million nerve cells and 100 million neurons and is almost the size of a cat’s brain. Not only does the gut “talk” with the brain chemically (by releasing chemicals which are then taken to the brain by blood) but also by sending electrical signals via the vagus nerve. Vagus nerve is one of the longest nerves inside the body whose central purpose is to relay the information and status of internal organs like gut and heart to the brain...Nevertheless recent researches have revealed that there is a tremendous amount of information flow from the gut to the brain via the vagus nerve and this flow is mostly one sided – almost all of it is from the gut to the brain and not the other way around. This is how it should be since gut works continuously whether
10 Surel, D. “Thinking from the Heart - Heart Brain Science”, Noetic Systems International, 2014: http://noeticsi.com/thinking-from-the-heart-heart-brain-science/ 42 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
we are aware of it or not. ...Recent scientific evidence also suggests that a big part of our emotions are probably influenced by the chemicals and nerves in the gut. For example 95% of body’s Serotonin is found in the gut. Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter which is a well known contributor towards feelings of well being. Sometimes it is also called a “happiness hormone”. 11
Now here again comes the point. It seems that as long as one tries to label a physical base for the human mind there seems to be more than one. No one can be sure that science will not find new evidence of other physical bases that correlate with mental activities. Therefore, it is not advisable that data and knowledge from modern science should be taken as something definite to judge the reliability of the Buddhist records.
Base of the Mind in Yogācāra
Holding the same opinions with most of the early Buddhist schools, Yogācāra says the base of the Sixth Consciousness (Skrt: Mano Vijñāna) is immaterial (Pali: non-rupa). What makes Yogācāra different from other schools is that this base is another consciousness, the Seventh Consciousness (Skrt: Manas Vijñāna). This assures that the continuity of the awareness of “I” will not be interrupted when the Sixth Consciousness stops functioning at certain occasions such as deep sleep, shock, or non-conceptual concentration (Pali:asamjni- samapatti). Seventh Consciousness is the consciousness that clings to the fundamental consciousness the Eighth Consciousness (Skrt: Ālaya Vijñāna) and considers it as “I” due to delusion. Since the awareness of “I” is such a basic condition for the Sixth Consciousness to function, it seems to be the base of it. Besides the Seventh Consciousness, there are four other indispensable conditions for the Sixth Consciousness to arise: 1) the objects of thought; 2) seeds from the Eighth Consciousness; 3) the phenomenon of paying attention; 4) the Eighth Consciousness as the fundamental support. These conditions, though indispensable, are not the only conditions for the Sixth Consciousness. There can be conditions that can assist or strengthen the arising of the Sixth Consciousness, these conditions, theoretically, can include physical parts of the body not
11 Rajvanshi, A. K., “The Three Minds of the Body - Brain, Heart and Gut”, Speaking Tree (Times of India), May 2011.:http://www.speakingtree.in/blog/how-brain-heart-and-gut-minds-work-together- to-produce-happiness/ JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 43
limited to the brain and the heart.. Altogether, these parts of the body then serve as tools in assisting the function of the mind. The function of the mind can also be reflected by these parts in the form of certain kinds of acting phenomena. Any damage of these parts, of course, will affect the function of the mind in the sense that the tool is not working properly, and, accordingly, the function of the mind cannot be reflected properly. So it is damage to the tools of the mind not the mind itself. There are cases where significant damage to the brain doesn’t result in significant loss of mental activities according to scientific researches. A French man with 90% brain loss lived a relatively normal life.12 There several mental activities that cannot be explained by physical organs of the human body. Walshe says:
The human brain is a very remarkable organ, which has still been only very superficially explored, owing to obvious practical difficulties in addition to its own quite extraordinary complexity. But quite certainly not all mental activities can be related to it. The various forms of ESP (extra-sensory-perception) phenomena are facts, and nothing in the physical brain has been found to account for them, even by officially materialist Soviet-bloc scientists who have a vested interest in establishing such a connection. Telepathy, for instance, is not (except metaphorically) a form of “mental radio”: as the late G.N.M. Tyrrell, who was both a distinguished psychic researcher and a radio expert, long ago pointed out, it does not obey the law governing all forms of physical radiation, the inverse square law connecting intensity with distance.13
Therefore, the brain or any other physical parts of the body should not be exalted to a status where it plays an essential role in mental activities.
12 Macdonald, F. “Meet the Man Who Lives Normally With Damage to 90% of His Brain”, Science Alert, 13 July 2016, http://www.sciencealert.com/a-man-who-lives-without-90-of-his-brain-is- challenging-our-understanding-of-consciousness/ 13 Walshe, M. O’C. “Buddhism and Death”, Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/walshe/wheel261.html. 44 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Conclusion
Although some modern Buddhist scholars advocate that the brain should be considered as the base of the human mind, the early Buddhist texts do not give such information. There are two popular opinions regarding early Buddhist texts: the base of the mind as something material such as the heart organ; the other as something immaterial. The prevalent scientific view holds that the brain is the main organ responsible for mental function but it is being challenged by many. Yogācāra doesn’t put the brain on the list of essential conditions for mental function, however, it doesn’t deny that as part of the human body it can serve as a strengthening condition for the mind to arise and function. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 45
References
I. Primary Sources
Tipitaka, Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/. Tripitaka, CBETA: http://www.cbeta.org/ Buddhaghosa,B., The Path of Purifi cation (English version of Visuddhimagga)(4th Ed.), tr. from the Pali by Bhikkhu Ñáóamoli Buddhaghosa, (Kandy, Sri Lanka: 2010), p. 25. Master Xuanzhuang, tr. Lin Guoliang. Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition), (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007).
II. Secondary Sources
Buddhadatta Mahathera, A.P., Concise P-E Dict, 2003. Gunasekara, V. A., “The Heart and the Brain in Buddhism”, BSQ Newsletter, Nov-Dec, 1995. Macdonald, F. “Meet the Man Who Lives Normally With Damage to 90% of His Brain”, Science Alert, 13 July 2016:http://www.sciencealert.com/a-man-who-lives-without- 90-of-his-brain-is-challenging-our-understanding-of-consciousness. Rajvanshi, A. K., “The Three Minds of the Body - Brain, Heart and Gut”, Speaking Tree (Times of India), May 2011:http://www.speakingtree.in/blog/how-brain-heart-and- gut-minds-work-together-to-produce-happiness Surel, D. .“Thinking from the Heart - Heart Brain Science”. Noetic Systems International, 2014: http://noeticsi.com/thinking-from-the-heart-heart-brain-science/. Walshe, M. O’C. “Buddhism and Death”. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/walshe/wheel261.html. Yinshun. Source Exploration of Yogācāra (Weishi Xue Tan Yuan, Chinese Edition). (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011). Mind Wave: How the Mind Builds Life
Dr. Samart Sukhuprakarn
Abstract
Einstein’s general theory of relativity, theoretically and experimentally, stated that empty is really substance. This substance is called fabric of space and supports all material and energy in the universe. As we know the universe started from the Big Bang and many waves occurred in the fabric space. Then the waves changed to energy, energy changed to mass. The mind behaves similar to a wave frequency, meaning that the occurring and the disappearing of the mind would be as fast as 4 trillion times per second. This could mean that the mind is able to communicate with the mass of space, which is like the waves. We know the mind keeps all of karma for the data base for the next life. The mind may not keep all this karma in itself. The mind may keep it somewhere in the fabric of space. The of fabric space could be like storage, collecting Karmatic information, which the mind could build relationships with. When there is a new life in this world, each one would then take responsibility for what they have ever done.
Keywords: Mind Wave, Gravitational Wave, Time and Space, Karma JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 47
Introduction
In accordance with the space-time theory of Einstein, space itself is something. Any phenomenon in the cosmos would be a result of space. This was a very challenging idea to the theory of Newton (classical mechanics). Besides that, Einstein revealed that the speed of light was constant in every place of the universe, but the space-time, the mass, and the distance could be changed in both size and quantity. Einstein said that in a total solar eclipse, the solar prominence and the solar corona would be shown despite the evidence that it should be totally dark. As per Einstein, this solar phenomenon is from the fact that the light is bending, making the travelling of the light bend space around the objects before it would reach an observation area. Einstein compares space to a large piece of canvas; many stars are rolling on such a canvas and the light also travels upon this canvas; when the light moves and touches objects like stars, the light would also bend around the objects. This space canvas has never stopped vibrating since the occurrence of the Big Bang 14,000 million years ago. Although the space-time theory affirms that the mass of space exists, Einstein was never able to experimentally prove the existence of the space substance, he could only provide noticeable natural phenomenon. It wasn’t until the concrete discovery of the Gravitational Wave by the scientists in LIGO (The Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory) project that this wave’s existence in the space was accepted, as well as the confirmation of the mass of space which moves and incurs such a gravitational wave. String Theory presents that in each universe, there is a Space Fabric which is 200,000 times smaller than electrons. The Big Bang creating the universe caused the space to be pressed until it became inflated like sponge in boiling water. Upon that explosion, the space fabric crossed each other chaotically creating knots. After that, when the high-temperature of space fabric cooled to zero-degree Kelvin (-273.15 degree centigrade) those knots became Quarks and developed in to larger particles, including neutrons, electrons, and protons. In consequence, these particles would turn into the substance in the universe. Given that there is the mass of space and such masses are expending infinitely, the existing mass of the space would be ready for any incoming data. The researcher thinks this characteristic deems further study. Space may be storing some data including Karma or results of people’s actions. 48 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The Buddha teaches:
“… I am the owner of my (Karma), heir to my (Karma), born of my (Karma), related to my (Karma), abide supported by my (Karma), whatever I shall do, for good or for ill, of that I will be the heir.1”
In both cases, we could not escape from our Karma or space. In other words, no creature can hide from the Karma database wherever or in whichever universes they were born. The Buddha taught:
… This spirit travelling so far (absorbing that far emotions), travelling individually (once at a time, one spirit is gone; the same spirit would then be born, not at the same time), no appearance (no physical; no color), living in a cave (living in the four primary elements based on the heart shaped substance) ...2
This teaching supports the papers proposition in two ways. Firstly, The mind shall be soulless, non-self, with no physical appearance. The mind then can be considered as anatta. If the karma database is with the mind, the mind would then be large enough to store huge files since Karma data must be gigantic. In reference with this part of consideration, it is impossible for a mind to record the data itself. Second reason: The mind consumes no space or is non-physical matter staying beyond any control of the time space. People could usually notice the spirit when it appears through a body because the mind needs a residence like the body. For this part of consideration, the writer thinks that the non-self status of the spirit does not consume any area in the space. The mind then cannot record any Karma data; its duty is only being part of the body forming in relating to each source of Karma database at a time. In according to the above mentioned grounds, the writer is then interested to study where and how the mind record Karma data. If the mind is non-self, it shall not be able to store Karma data. It is necessary for the mind to have storage and the mind shall have processes that connect to this storage which could be anywhere in the universe. The writer also believes that it is very difficult to explain this idea, especially due to the fact that many
1 M. I 581. 2 Kh II 234. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 49
centuries ago, there wasn’t high-technology equipment that could test these ideas. During this current era, science has verified many of the theries this paper bases its propositions on. The Gravitational Wave was officially discovered on 17 February 2016 supports the theory that space does contain mass. The space covering the whole universe could promote a belief in the Big Bang theory which focuses on the inflation of the mass of space. All of the above explanations have pointed to a possible relationship between the mass of space, non-self-status of the spirit, and the re-birth of creatures. A body forming is factored by the first sub consciousness and based on the beings Karma database. It is vital for the spirit to have its database sources since it cannot carry the data as per its non-self- status. Relating to the mind not being able to handle gigantic data, the relationship of the mind of the mass of space should then be material. But how both of them communicate and are linked would need to be later studied.
Universe Originated From a Unit of Space
The Big Bang theory mentions the existence of the mass of space which accumulated enormous energy at one tiny point and then exploded and inflated within less than 1×10-43 seconds or within less than a trillion-trillionth of a second. After the Big Bang, the expansion of a gigantic amount of waves and energy had continued, but humans could not have hear the sound of such an explosion because it was at a very low frequency. When the wave and heat energy bumped against the surrounding space having low temperature of 0ºK, the Wave and Energy transformed to mass. During the beginning stage of such an explosion, the universe was full of 4 types of waves. 50 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The Inflation of the mass of space is similar to an air bubble. When such mass of the space is exposed to cold temperature crystallization would be shaped around the air bubble.3
Such waves would be transformed to particles after they attacked the cold temperature. In this research, the writer mainly discusses the processes related to the four waves only such as the electromagnetic radiation developed to be Photon or the light particle, the weak Nuclear Force changed to Electrons, the strong Nuclear Force built to be Protons, and the Gravitational Wave developed to be the gravity particle. The reason why the Gravitational Wave is stated above for its development is because scientists previously were not sure how to discover the Gravitational Wave; the only thing scientists had for reference is Newton’s theory of gravitation. Given that scientist founded such ve, people have been waiting for its further descoveries. Einstein’s idea of the Gravitational Wave was only a theory that could not be verified by the instruments of his time. The recent discovery of the Gravitational Wave has verified this theory. The origin of Multiverses in this huge unit of space is the inflation of a lot of air bubbles that originated a new universe, as per the Big Bang theory. Each air bubble might be compared with our universe as per the picture below.
3 http://designtaxi.com/news/381485/Watch-A-Soap-Bubble-Freezing- Almost-Instantly-On-A- Cold-Winter-Day/ JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 51
The space is like boiling foams connecting to each other with a Black Hole.4
Air bubbles could be continuously inflated depending on the amount of pressure. A number of universes consequently would be initiated and become Multiverses.
Parallel Universe
Within our universe, the Parallel Universe could exist due to the little-known particle called Antimatter, which is a particle having opposite charges but comprising of the same atomic structure. Few samples of the Antimatter include Hydrogen, containing the same mineral mass but opposite charges called Anti-hydrogen, and Carbon consisting of Anti- carbon. In reference to this condition, some scientists provide an opinion that there is really a Parallel Universe. What is seen is merely half of reality similar to a mountain being partly shown above the ice. Moreover, our universe would be expected to have some unrevealed substance and some disclosed energy which we cannot directly see or which does not react with the electromagnetic force. The light providing us the visibility for seeing things is considered the electromagnetic force. The seeing ability of any substance including darken substance is the effect of light refraction when passing the substance. This is similar to the Gravitational Wave which scientists have just officially found in February 2016; and this was more than a hundred year after Einstein had introduced his theory to the world.
4 http://u2.lege.net/cetinbal/Kipthorne.htm 52 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Nevertheless, many scientists have verified and agreed that the space contains some mass or some substance..
Wave – Energy – Substance
Formerly, scientists had treated and studied Energy and Substance separately; heat energy and other kinds of energy did not relate to any other substance. However, when Einstein had distributed his study that substance and energy were identical in accordance with his model E = Mc2, scientists then could completely explain the formation of the universe. Additionally, the explanation could cover a question why a newly born universe having only wave and energy was able to generate substance. Einstein did fulfill this knowledge that the energy, which was the fruits of such explosion, attacked the cold surrounding atmosphere for some time and then the energy had been transformed to be a substance as per the following steps stated in the theory: Energy - > Particle - > Atom - > Molecule - > Element - > Substance. However, what is still a mystery is the process by which a wave is converted to energy as the universe initially contained only the wave. Later, Max Planck revealed that energy actually stayed together since an atom internally vibrated and a substance would then release a chunk of energy. This led to the introduction of Quantum Physics which elaborated a phenomenon of smaller-than-atom particles. His model E = nhf was consequently written. Quantum Physics theory is different from Newtonian mechanics for several reasons. Quantum Physics is adopted for explaining phenomenon of tiny particles and energy while \ Newtonian mechanics cannot explain such particles and energy; the Newtonian mechanics usually correlates with a direction of an object when the Quantum Physics does not relate to the direction as it highlights only appearance. This technology allows us to be able to determine qualifications of objects by using an impulse making the objects discharge energy. This energy is generally known as a Spectrum which could be used to measure the length of a wave related to an object. In Astronomy, this technology is utilized for determining types of minerals available in each star. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 53
The above picture shows that in each object, there are many different minerals which are in a Spectrum.5
From the above elaboration, the discovery of Wave-Particle theory happened. Particle and Energy could inter-change with each other. The light from the sun travels to the earth through as electromagnetic wave stage; when the light reaches the earth impacting an object, the electron of the object would then be released from the object. We can explain why a color of an object would be pale after it has been exposed to the sun for some long time. It is difficult to determine when the particle would be changed to a wave or a particle. However, it would be quite amazing if the Mind could influence the wave particle. During the Double Slit Experiment, a particle is reinforced passing through the two slits; normally, after the reinforcement though the slit, the particle would turn into wave immediately. However, if we observe the process, the particle does not transform into a wave; it would still maintain its particle status and then pass one of the two slits like a marble. So, one could say that the wave, the energy, and the substance correspond to each other. The mind may interfere with this natural process. We could state that the wave is the cause of the substance, called Wave-Matter. If the object will be controlled by the mind, the mind behavior may behave similar to the wave.
5 https://thornburghchemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/FG04_003_PCT.gif/ 130362033/FG04_ 003_PCT.gif, April 20, 2016. 54 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The Mind Behaves Similar to Waves
The mind normally follows this process: being arising stage-existing stage- disappearing stage. This process continues forever. However, the behavior of the mind wave could not be proven using empirical testing. Though this idea has not been verified by science, many scientists do not deny its validity. According to the commentary, Atthakatha, one passage says that during the period it takes to snap a finger, the mind appears and disappears for 1012 times, which equals 4 x1012 (4 THz), or that there are 4 million mental moments within one second. This could be compared with the analogue electromagnetic and digital electromagnetic as per the following picture.
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
The 3 Stages of Mind versus electromagnetic waves.
The Double Slit experiment has led to a possible summary that the Consciousness Mind could communicate with an object at the particle level, given that the particle is one component of such an object. Some scientists mentions that an object is Wave-Matter; the mind could influence an object due to the wave characteristics of the mind.
The Mind Uses Space as Karma Database
It is widely accepting in Buddhism that people were born and will die, and this process has continued for innumerable years. Each birth would be based on previous Karma. From the concept that a mind is non-self, a body of the mind could not physically exist because its Karma data (from previous uncountable births) is enormous and impossible to be physically stored. The writer thinks that the mind can only communicate with the Karma storage since each creature has its own Karma. This means each mind would have different characteristics due to different Karma from their past; otherwise, one mind might take the results of what another mind had done. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 55
The Wave-Matter- Mind Identifies Creatures’ Characteristics
People have different minds; the mind of one person is different from a mind of another person. There are 52 Mental Factors, which are like a barcode of the mind, is also unique to each mind. In addition, a human contains the six types of characteristic behaviors, meaning humans would act or behave differently and the acts fall into one of those six types. One twin brother does not have the same characteristic behaviors as the other twin brother. Despite them being groomed in the same environments; their abilities and habits could be totally different. This supports the concept that each mind (of each person) has an individual Karma database. The 52 Mental Factors would lead the mind as per its familiarity or its past Karma. The writer thinks that a Wave-Matter Mind shall be based on different characteristic behaviors and shall possess different characteristics. When the mind would transmit its wave, such a wave could not be intervened by another mind; as a result, the Karma effect responsible by each person cannot be wrong. Other questions arise: what does the mind communicate with, what does the mind communicate with, and how does the mind communicate? There is a study explaining that a mind could transmit a wave and then touch an object. 1. Electroencephalography (EGG) is a method or equipment used for checking electrical wave patterns of the brain. This equipment could scan the brain and present a wave-alike graph. This implies that communication of the mind would be similar to a wave pass though the brain. 56 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
2. In the experiment of Dr. Masaru Emoto, he studied forms of water crystal which had been changed in accordance with changing mental environments. The result of his study shows that crystals of water are different when water depending on if it was placed in a good environment or a bad environments. The changing form of crystals may imply that the structure of molecules in water changes by a wave, similar to a microwave. In reference with the picture below, praying could be like releasing energy.
Besides the previously mentioned experiment, there are other experiments related to this idea. An experiment in Project PEAR (The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research) tested the deviation of an object which received energy from the mind. Another experiment by Lynne McTaggart managed to send out energy from a mind to heal a patient at a remote place. In the opinion of the writer, since the mass of space lays layer by layer it could then store data. A mind possesses Wave-Matter characteristics which could communicate with the space and the data transmitted from the space is individual and unique. The non- self mind would have qualifications in accordance with Karma data stored in the space. In summary, the writer would like to conclude the relationships between mind and scientific phenomenon as follows: JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 57
Characteristics of Mind Regarding Integration of Modern Science
Characteristics of Mind The Integration of Wave and Energy No physical body Being similar to the wave Consume no space Energy takes no space. Moving fast Speed of the birth and the disappearance is fast similar to the wave Be able to move far Wave can travel any far especially electromagnetic which can travel 300,000 kilometers per second Pure and Innocent Purely white which actually combines all of the colors. Emotional absorption Communicate with various objects; same as the wave Accumulate Karma data Need a storage; Mind is just a communicator Keep continuing Wave also continues to create some signals. (appear and disappear) Create amazes Upon characters of the wave, it could be interfered anytime, and would intervene with other things.
Conclusion
With reference to all of the aforementioned explanations, the summarized key points include: the mind is just like wave, and that each creature has its own and unique characteristics upon the characters of the Mental Factors; the mind could not record its own karma data by itself since it has the non-self-status (anatta) making it impossible for the mind to store such Karma data with it; the mind itself could only act as a communicator with a source of Karma data contained in the fabric of the space; this mass of the space shall possess an activation qualification which consequently would lead to the formation of the universe in which the wave could be transformed to be energy and then changed to substance. Since the fabric of space would cover the whole universe, any creatures reborn could not escape from it. This corresponds with the Buddha’s teaching on Karma. Beings have their own Karma and take responsibility for that Karma. Karma is the cause of one’s birth; whatever one has done, good or bad, they are the heir of such Karma. A possible explanation for this is that for each body forming, the mind would interact with or pull data from the mass of the space impacting such formation. 58 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
References
Tripitaka issue Mahachulalongkornrajadyalaya. Bangkok: Mahachulalong -kornrajadyalaya publishing, 2539. Pra Kanthasarapiwong. Abhidarmmattasankhaha and Paramatthatepanee. Print 3rd . Bangkok: Prayoonsarnthai, 2552. Joe H. Slate. Aura Energy for Health, Healing and Balance. Translate by Seekhrin. Bangkok: Liangchaing Publishing, 2547. C. W. Leadbeate. Man Visible and Invisible. Translate by Siri Budhsuk. Print 2nd.. Bangkok: Vinyan Publishing, 2539. Chaiwat Kupratakul. From Atom to Universe. Print 2nd. Bangkok: Sarakadee, 2546. Bancha Thabunsombat. Einstein’s fan. Bangkok: Seed ucation, 2548. Bill Bryson. A Short of Nearly Everything. Translated by Tomorn Sukprecha, Wilawan Ruedeesant. Bangkok: Thai Union Graphic, 2551. Bussakorn Methanggurn. Who’s let you born?. Bangkok: Liangchaing Publishing, 2548. Brian Greene. The Fabric of the Cosmos. /Translated by Atthakid Chatphutti. Bangkok: Matichon, 2550. Michio Kaku. Parallel Worlds. Translated by Swang Pongsiripattana, Bangkok: Matichon, 2552. Ravee Pavilai. The comparative world outlook, view of the life between Science and Buddhism. Bangkok: Sahadharmmic, 2543. Robert Matthews. 25 Big ideas. Translated by Chaiwat Kupratakul. Bangkok: Veevich Publishing, 2551 Vachara Ngamchitcharoen. The Equation of Emptiness. Bangkok: Greenpanyayan, 2554. Viphoo Ruropakarn. The Univers. Print 3rd. Bangkok: Nanmee Book Publishing, 2548. Stephen Hawking. The Universe in a Nutshell. Translated by Rohim Pramath. Bangkok: Borisuthikarnpim, 2551 Somparn Promtha. It is emptiness. Bangkok: Buddhacharti, 2539. Samart Sukhuprakarn. An Analytical Study of the Concepts of the Big Bang Phenomenon in Buddhist View. The Thesis of Master Degree of Art (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkorntajavidyalaya University Bangkok, Thailand. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 59
Samart Sukhuprakarn. The Influence of Mind over Matter in Theravada Buddhism, The Thesis of Doctoral Degree of Art (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkorntajavidyalaya University Bangkok, Thailand.
(I) Book
Brenda J. Dunne and Robert G. Jahn, Consciousness and Anomalous Phenomena, Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, 1995. Lynne McTaggart. The Field: The Quest for the Secret Force of the Universe. USA:Harper paperback, 2008. . The Intention Experiment: Using your thoughts to change your life and the world”. New York: Free Press, 2007. Michio Kaku. Hyperspace. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. . The future of the mind: the scientific quest to understand, enhance, and empower the mind, City University of New York, 2014. Arnold Mindell. The Quantum Mind and Healing, USA: Hampton Roads Plublising Company, 2004. Penrose, Roger. Road to Reality. London: Jonathan Cape, 2004
(II) Articles
Brenda J. Dunne, Roger D. Nelson, and robert G. Jahn, “Operator-Related Anomalies in a Random Mechanical Cascade”, Journal of Sciencific Exploration, Vol.2, No.2:155-179. Brenda J. Dunne and Robert G. Jahn, “Experiments in Remote Human / Machine Interaction”, Journal of Sciencific Exploration, Vol.6, No.4:311-332. Brain and Resilience: A Buddhist Perspective
Nadnapang Phophichit
Abstract
This article aims to understand how Buddhism views the brain; how Buddhism understands the modern psychological method of developing resilience; and how important the knowledge of the brain as an organ of the body is to the development of the mind as taught by the Buddha in regards to reinforcing resilience. Buddhism can understand the modern psychological method of developing resilience by understanding that the mind interacts with the brain. In the Buddhist perspective, the brain is one of the thirty-two parts of the body acting as an object of contemplation in Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, However, our whole body function involves a number of different organs and systems in the body which are driven from the brain. All of these infl uence our thoughts and behavior. Knowledge of the brain as an organ of the body can be important to the development of the mind as taught by the Buddha in regards to reinforcing resilience. Physical health and mental health encompasses more than the absence of disorders. Researchers have considered a number of dimensions of positive mental health, one of which is “resilience.” Resilience is, therefore, a skill worth learning. The concept of Pañcabala and Resilience share the same meaning as “Power”, “Strength” and “Force”. These internal values are one of the factors that promotes resilience among individuals.
Keywords: Brain, Buddhist Perspective, Resilience JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 61
The Importance of the Brain
Inside our heads, weighing about 1.5 kg, is an astonishing living organ consisting of billions of tiny cells. It enables us to sense the world around us, to think and to talk. The human brain is the most complex organ of the body, and arguably the most complex thing on earth.1 The human brain is a communication system which is composed of neurons-cells which are interconnected to communicate messages from one point to another in the body. Most of these messages are generated from external stimuli we experience. Include our sensory data based in terms of vision, olfactory, tactile and taste.2 As to the importance of the human brain, precisely the functions of the brain, it regulates internal processes which are most often involuntary such as heart beat, dilation of pupil, involuntary contraction of muscles. It is an important part of the body system that enables cognitive processes like remembering, thinking etc. How the brain works is an important thing to understand because we are humans in possession of a brain. It facilitates a balance between actual physiological responses and anticipated physiological responses. For example, although voluntary you do not take two steps at a time while walking. The action is a step by step forward sequence. Even if you are not currently thinking about walking, you still have a part of your brain that coordinates the body in space (parietal cortex, cerebellum).
Understanding the Brain from a Buddhist Perspective
The Buddha doesn’t seem to say much about the brain. Even in places where he divides the body up into its anatomical parts, such as the 31 parts of the body mentioned in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the Buddha does in fact not mention the brain. Only in later literature, such as the Visuddhimagga, is the brain is mentioned as the 32nd part of the body. In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, this practice involves mentally identifying 31 parts of the body. Contemplation in this meditation involves meditating on these body parts:3
1 British Neuroscience Association European Dana Alliance For The Brain, Science Of The Brain An Introduction For Young Students. 2 https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-importance-of-the-human-brain, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. 3 Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya, (Wisdom Publications, 1995), p. 594. 62 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
head hairs (Pali: kesā), body hairs (lomā), nails (nakhā), teeth (dantā), skin (taco), flesh (maṃsaṃ), tendons (nahāru), bones (aṭṭhi), bone marrow (aṭṭhimiñjaṃ), kidneys (vakkaṃ), heart (hadayaṃ), liver (yakanaṃ), pleura (kilomakaṃ), spleen (pihakaṃ), lungs (papphāsaṃ), large intestines (antaṃ), small intestines (antaguṇaṃ), undigested food (udariyaṃ), feces (karīsaṃ), bile (pittaṃ), phlegm (semhaṃ), pus (pubbo), blood (lohitaṃ), sweat (sedo), fat (medo), tears (assu), skin-oil (vasā), saliva (kheḷo), mucus (siṅghānikā), fluid in the joints (lasikā), urine (muttaṃ).
In a few discourses, these 31 body parts are contextualized within the framework of the mahābhūta (the elements) so that the earth element is exemplified by the body parts from head hair to feces, and the water element is exemplified by bile to urine. A few other discourses preface contemplation of these 31 body parts in the following manner: “Herein ... a monk contemplates this body upward from the soles of the feet, downward from the top of the hair, enclosed in skin, as being full of many impurities.” The 31 identified body parts in pātikūlamanasikāra contemplation are the same as the first 31 body parts identified in the “Dvattimsakara” (32 Parts of the Body) verse regularly recited by monks. The thirty-second body part identified in the latter verse is the brain (matthaluṅga). The Visuddhimagga suggests the enumeration of the 31 body parts implicitly includes the brain in aṭṭhimiñjaṃ, which is traditionally translated as “bone marrow”. The Buddha once asked:
How does one view the Body only as a Form? Herein, Bhikkhus & Friends, the Bhikkhu contemplates the body from the soles of the feet upward, and from the top of the hair downward like this: This filthy frame with skin stretched over it, which is filled with many kinds of impurities consists of hair of the head, hair of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bone, marrow, kidneys, Heart, liver, membranes, spleen, lungs, Bowels, intestines, gorge, dung, brain, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, snot, spittle, oil of the joints, urine4
4 Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (tr.), Vissuddhimagga, (Taipei: The Corporate of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2003).p 256. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 63
The methodical practice of the Thirty-two Parts of the Body Meditation can help one penetrate and understand the true nature of the body. It can help one to see impermanence and comprehend that the body is made of four primary elements: earth (solidity), air (motion), fire (temperature), and water (liquidity). Practicing the Thirty-two Parts of the Body Meditation, can help one build immense levels of concentration, increase the potential for self-healing, and allow one to experience the taste of deep freedom and peace. This meditation was introduced to the west by the late Taungpulu Kaba-Aye Sayadaw of Burma who said:
“This meditation is one of the most eminent among all Satipatthanas. The meditation on the Body is unlike any other kind of meditation. It is brought to light and taught only in the times when the Buddhas arise.” 5
In concluding the Satipattthana Sutta, the Buddha assured that all those who would properly practice the fourfold awareness would definitely find lasting contentment and peace. He consistently maintained that the problem of human happiness was his primary concern and a mere intellectual account of the world held little interest for him. In his own words, what he taught was a miniscule fraction of what he really knew:
Which is more: the few leaves that I have picked up in my hand or the leaves on the trees in the wood?... The things that I have known by direct knowledge are more: the things that I have told you are only a few. Why have I not told them? Because they are of no benefit in eradication of suffering, in attaining happiness…6
If the brain was so important in the eradication of suffering and attaining happiness the Buddha would have explained more about it. We can conclude that in Buddhist perspectives, the brain is one of the thirty-two parts of the body acting as an object of contemplation in Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, like any other object, being full of many impurities. However, our whole body function involves a number of different organs and system in the body, including the
5 http://32parts.com/, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. 6 Samyutta Nikaya (3.5.1101,1998b) https://books.google.co.th/books?id=nzPMLm9B1xkC&pg= PA247&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. 64 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
heart, autonomic nervous system, hormonal system and sensory organs which are driven from the brain. All of these influence our thoughts and behavior and, therefore, the brain is an important organ of the body that must be taken care of.
The Link between Buddhism and the Brain
Much as the microscope revolutionized biology, new research tools such as MRIs have led to a dramatic increase in scientific knowledge about the mind and the brain. New discoveries are made at the intersection between the three disciplines of psychology, neurology, and contemplative practice as seen in figure 1.
Figure 1: The Intersection of Three Disciplines
Figure 1 shows that scientists, clinicians, and contemplatives have already learned a great deal about the brain states that underlie wholesome mental states and how to activate those brain states. Two earlier studies have already yielded suggestive results. One, led by Richard J. Davidson of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, showed that long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma wave synchrony. Participants—monks and novices—were asked to practice “compassion” meditation, a complete focus on loving-kindness. In the monks, activity in the left prefrontal cortex (the seat of positive emotions such as happiness) JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 65
overwhelmed activity in the right prefrontal cortex (the site of negative emotions and anxiety) to an extent never before seen from purely mental activity. The conclusion, according to Dr. Davidson, is that happiness, compassion, loving-kindness, and clarity of attention can all be regarded as the product of skills that can be enhanced through mental training and this training induces plastic changes in the brain and in the body. In another study, Harvard University’s Sara Lazar showed that meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness (in the prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula). More studies need to—and surely will be—performed, but the path of inquiry may have positive public health ramifications. It seems as though meditation is capable of helping an individual truly achieve well-being. Studies have shown that the ways we intentionally shape our internal focus of attention in mindfulness practice induces a state of brain activation during the practice. With repetition, an intentionally created state can become an enduring trait of the individual as reflected in long-term changes in brain function and structure. This is a fundamental property of neuroplasticity—how the brain changes in response to experience.7
The Concept of Resilience in Western Psychology Paradigm
Resilience in the face of adversity has been studied extensively by developmental psychopathologists for the past 50 years. The definition of resilience has been generally defined as the ability to weather adversity or to bounce back from negative experience. Much of resilience research has examined the interaction of protective factors and risk in high-risk populations. As developmental research, most of this work focused on children, sometimes in longitudinal studies of factors in the lives of youth that predicted positive outcomes in adulthood.8 Masten9 describes resilience as a common adaptive human process, rather than a magical process applicable to a select few. Tugade and Fredrickson10 similarly describe the
7 http://32parts.com/brain.html#content, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. 8 Sandra Prince-Embury and Donald H Saklofske, Resilience in Children, Adolescents, and Adults: Translating Research into Practice, (New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2013), p. 3. 9 A.S. Masten, “Ordinary Magic: Resilience Process in Development,” American Psychologist, vol 56, no. 3 (March 2001): pp. 227-239. 10 M.M. Tugade and B.L. Fredrickson, “Resilient Individuals Use Positive Emotions to Bounce Back from Negative Emotional Experiences,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol 86, no. 2 (February 2004): pp. 320-333. 66 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
process of resilience as being characterized by the ability to bounce back from negative emotional experiences, and by flexible adaption to the changing demands of stressful experiences. This understanding seems to be closely related to the concept of hardiness, described by the researcher Kobasa.11 Resilience also enables us to ‘bounce back’ after experiencing stressful life events such as significant change, stress, adversity, and hardship.12 Most importantly, it incorporates the concept of emerging from adversity stronger and more resourceful.13 For Grotberg, it consists of inner personal strengths (I am), social and interpersonal skills (I can), and external supports and resources (I have), all of them contributing to essential blocks that build personal resilience.14 Ginsburg and Jablow15 descried resilience as the capacity to rise above difficult circumstances. Resilient people are more successful because they push their limits and learn from their mistakes. Resilience may be a core factor in determining not only who will adapt, but who will thrive. The concept of being stretched and challenged while being able to bounce back is intriguing. It is attractive to individuals who would like to cope with life’s daily problems and the bigger knocks that we all inevitably have to endure. Resilience is the term commonly used for this desirable trait. Resilience is important because it is the human capacity to face, overcome and be strengthened by the adversities of life. Everyone faces adversities; no one is exempt.
11 S.C. Kobasa, “Stressful Life Events, Personality and Health: An Inquiry into Hardiness,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol 37, no. 1 (January1979): pp. 1-11. 12 S.R. Maddi and D.M. Khoshaba, Resilience at Work: How to Succeed No Matter What Life Throws at You, (New York: Amacom, 2005), p. 2. 13 G.E. Richardson, “The Metatheory of Resilience and Resiliency,” Journal of Clinical Psychol- ogy, vol 58, no 3 (March 2002): 307-321. 14 Edith Grotberg, A guide to Promoting Resilience in Children: Strengthening the Human spirit, (The Hague: The Bernard van Leer Foundation, 1995), p.10. 15 Ginsburg and Jablow, Building Resilience in children and teen, 3rd ed., (USA: American Academy of Pediatricts, 2015), p. 4. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 67
The Concept of Resilience in Buddhist Perspectives The Five Bala (Or Balāni)
Bala is described as follows: Paṭipakkha dhamme baliyantīti balāni.16 (Suppresses opposition. Hence called bala). The Pāli Canon says: Akampanaṭṭhena balāni. (Whenever opposition is encountered, there is fearless firmness. Hence called bala). Bala means strength or power.17They are five generals or five commanders for the purpose of destroying the kingdom of sakkayaditthi (personality-belief). They are the five strengths that serve as reliance for bhikkhus and lay folk in the Buddha Sasana.18 The Five Spiritual Powers are19: 1. Saddhā bala (faith; confidence) 2. Viriya bala (effort; energy) 3. Sati bala (mindfulness) 4. Samādhi bala (concentration), and 5. Paññā bala (wisdom; understanding) The meaning of the bala is to be directly known as unshakeability. The meaning of saddhā bala is to be directly known as unshakeability with regard to the lack of faith, the meaning of viriya bala as unshakeability with regard to idleness, the meaning of sati bala as unshakeability with regard to heedlessness, the meaning of samādhi bala as unshakeability with regard to excitement, the meaning of paññā bala as unshakeability with regard to ignorance.20
16 Ledi Sayadaw, Paramattha Dīpanī (Manual of Ultimate Truths), Sangaha Maha Tīkā, (Rangoon: Kawimyethman Press, 1897), p. 299. 17 D.III.239; A.III.10; Vbh.342. 18 Mahā thera Ledi Sayadaw, Aggamahā Pandita, The Manuals of Buddhism, (Myanmar: Mother Ayeyarwaddy Publishing House, 2004), p. 348. 19 Piya Tan, Bodhi Pakkhiyā Dhammā: The 37 Limbs of Awakening, (Singapore: The Minding Center, 2013), p. 11. 20 Piya Tan, Pañcabala: The Five Spiritual Powers, (Singapore: The Minding Center, 2004), p. 42. 68 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
From the study the concept of Pañcabala and Resilience can be analyzed as follow:
Table 1 Synthesis of the concept of Pañcabala and Resilience: between Tipiṭaka and Western Psychology
Analysis Tipiṭaka Western Psychology Analyzing the Concepts
Pañcabala Resilience Difference Similarity
Meaning The Five Powers The ability to become Components “Power” strong, healthy, or of Qualities “Strength” successful again conducive to “Force” after something bad enlightenment & happens Positive Psychology
Type • Faith/Confident • External supports Ordinary & Both are (saddhā bala) and resources Extraordinary the tools • Energy/Effort/ (I have) Knowledge/ for personal (viriya bala) • Inner personal Wisdom development • Mindfulness (sati bala) strengths (I am) • Concentration • Social and (samādhi bala) interpersonal skills • Wisdom/Under-standing (I can) (paññā bala)
From the above chart, the concept of Pañcabala and Resilience can be analyzed in two following ways: difference and similarity. The meaning differs in different context. The key term that best describes both is“Wisdom”. The similarity is that they both share the same meaning of “Power”, “Strength” and “Force”. Both are the tools for personal development in term of type. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 69
Resilience and Pañcabala
Table 2 Comparison of components of Resilience and Pañcabala
Resilience Pañcabala
I have External supports and resources are connected to socio-cultural and environmental factors and are linked to direct and indirect interpersonal Faith/Confident (saddhā bala) relations of individuals within the family and within the wider community (peer relationship, Energy/Effort/ (viriya bala) household rules, shared values, school, access to services, health and recreation resources, Mindfulness (sati bala) church, etc.). Concentration (samādhi bala) I am Inner personal strengths are determined by bio- psycho-social characteristics and conditions of Wisdom/Understanding (paññā bala) the individual, when he/she is seeking to find an answer on “Who I am”. They enable the development of personal strengths and build the self-confidence, self-image, responsibility, independence.
I can Social and interpersonal skills represent one’s skills and knowledge capital that prepare him/her for active participation, effective communication, understanding and expressing feelings, good problem solving, setting realistic and optimistic future goals. These “I can” features build initiative and effectiveness.
The Buddhist concept of Pañcabala deals only with the realm of the mind which is an internal aspect. While the concept of resilience based on the Gotberg theory deals with both internal and external aspects. Therefore, the researcher analyzed that the only sharing area between pañcabala and the theory is the T-shape in the chart which is what inside individuals. 70 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Importance of Brain in Development of Mental Resilience
There has been research that has investigated the connection between positive emotion and physical health and survival. For example:a study of 180 nuns, aged 75-95, was conducted through analysis of their handwritten autobiographies, which were created six decades earlier in the 1930s and 1940s (at the average age of 22). The stories were coded by researchers and graded as emotionally positive, negative or neutral. Researchers found a very strong link between positive emotion expressed through the nun’s stories and their lower risk of morality. In other words, the nuns who lived the longest had expressed positive emotion through their stories and this direct link was found to hold for up to six decades of life. Sixty per cent of the least happy nuns died before the age of 80; the more positive nuns lived a decade longer than their more negative peers. Follow-ups to the study included an analysis of the brains of the nuns who died, with over 500 brains donated for research on Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers found that the positive nuns had no evidence of dementia symptoms, whereas the negative nuns showed evidence of dementia whilst still alive and in their brains after death. This provides evidence that negative emotion suppresses the immune system and leads to illness and disease. In the context of mental health, resilience can be viewed as the ability to handle stress positively. The latest neuro-scientific studies show that we have the ability to change and grow our brain even as an adult. This has fascinating implications for our wellbeing and other areas of Positive Psychology. For a long time it was believed that once our brain is fully developed during infancy, it is no longer able to change. This meant that as adults, we are stuck not only with the talents we possess but also with a certain level of subjective well-being, the so-called happiness set point. However, recent neuro-scientific research provides us with promising findings that implies the idea of limited brain development may be wrong. In an early experiment with rats, American neuroanatomist Dr. Marian Diamond found that an enriched environment produced anatomical changes in the rats’ cerebral cortex; their brains became heavier than the brains of those in a boring environment. Later studies confirmed the concept of Neuroplasticity, the ability of synapses, neurons and whole brain areas to change depending on the activities we perform. Research showed that when neural pathways in the brain are lit up during the experience of a disgusting event, these are exactly the same pathways that are lit up when an experience of something disgusting is recalled. In other words, the memory of an actual experience generates an identical set of neuron pathways in the brain as the actual experience. We hold the memory of events as if JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 71
they are still happening, even when the actual experience occurred a long time ago. The act of our mood comes from doing what we intend to do, the things that are important to us. Various studies examined the impact of positive emotions on physical and mental functioning. This is a key reason why the skill of resilience is vital. As it turns out, the brain is not a rigid machine, but malleable as a lump of clay thast can change even later in life. Resilience is, therefore, a skill worth learning.
Buddhism, Brain and Resilience
The Four Noble Truths acknowledge the truth of suffering in every life, the recognition that the cessation of suffering can also occur, that there is a way to end suffering, and the eight-fold path for relieving suffering.21 Pardini22 reviewed research on religiousness and resilience. One of the factors which was investigated relative to resilience was a person’s religious or spiritual attitude. D.A. Pardini23 examined the potential value of religious faith and spirituality in the lives of individuals suffering from a variety of acute and chronic illnesses. The results indicated that among recovering individuals, higher levels of religious faith and spirituality were associated with a more optimistic life orientation, greater perceived social support, higher resilience to stress, and lower levels of anxiety. In 1992, the neuroscientist Richard Davidson and his colleagues ran a simple experiment on eight long-term Buddhist practitioners who had spent an average of 34,000 hours in mental training. They asked the subjects to alternate between a meditative state and a neutral state in order to observe how the brain changed. One subject described his meditation as generating a state in which love and compassion permeate the whole mind, with no other consideration, reasoning, or discursive thoughts.
21 Julia Aegerter, Resilience: What’s Buddhism Got to Do with It? (USA: Upaya Zen Center, 2012), p. 21. 22 F. P. Julio Peres et al, “Spirituality and Resilience in Truma Victims,” Journal of Religion and Health, vol 46, no. 3 (September 2007), pp. 343-350. 23 D.A. Pardini et al, “Religious faith and spirituality in substance abuse recovery: determining the mental health benefits,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, vol 19, no. 4 (December 2000): 347-354. 72 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Davidson remarks:
“When we did this, we noticed something remarkable…What we see are these high-amplitude gamma-oscillations in the brain, which are indicative of plasticity”—meaning that those brains were more capable of change, for example, in theory, of becoming more resilient. Davidson’s research suggests, he said, that “we can all take responsibility for our brains.”24
The internal aspects of Pañcabala can be considered as faith/ confident (saddhā bala), energy/ effort (viriya bala), mindfulness (sati bala), concentration (samādhi bala) and wisdom/ understanding (paññā bala). These internal values promote resilience among individuals. People who are resilient are better able to avoid risky behaviors. The ones who are resilient also find ways to reduce the negative effects of stress on their lives. Therefore, the results from this study of Pañcabala, or the five spiritual powers or strengths in Buddhism, can be applied to promote and improve resilience among individuals.
Conclusion
Buddhism can understand the modern psychological method of developing resilience by understanding that the mind interacts with the brain being an organ of the body. The brain is an organ that enables us to sense the world around us, to think and to talk. In Buddhist perspectives, the brain is one of the thirty-two parts of the body acting as an object of contemplation in Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, like any other objects, being full of many impurities. However, our whole body function involves a number of different organs and system in the body, including the heart, autonomic nervous system, hormonal system and sensory organs which are driven from the brain. All of these influence our thoughts and behavior and, therefore, the brain is an important organ of the body that must be taken care of. Knowledge of the brain as an organ of the body can be important to the development of the mind as taught by the Buddha in regards to reinforcing resilience. As the mind develops resilience, the organ of the brain will have predictable empirically observable reactions that correlate with that development. In studying the correlations in the brain via the scientific
24 https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/07/dalai-lama-neuroscience- compassion/397706/, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 73
method, one can better understand how the development of resilience can be observed by the physical manifestations of the brain that occur alongside the development. The mind and the brain interact with each other so profoundly. Physical health and mental health encompasses more than the absence of disorders. Researchers have considered a number of dimensions of positive mental health, one of which is “resilience.” Resilience is, therefore, a skill worth learning. The concept of Pañcabala and Resilience share the same meaning as “Power”, “Strength” and “Force”. These internal values are one of the factors that promotes resilience among individuals. 74 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
References
Primary Source:
English Translation Commentaries and Sub-Commentaries Ledi Sayadaw, Mahā thera Aggamahā Pandita. The Manuals of Buddhism. Myanmar: Mother Ayeyarwaddy Publishing House, 2004. Ledi Sayadaw, Mahā thera Aggamahā Pandita. Paramattha Dīpanī (Manual of Ultimate Truths), Sangaha Maha Tīkā. Rangoon: Kawimyethman Press, 1897.
Secondary Source:
(I) Books Aegerter, Julia. Resilience: What’s Buddhism Got to Do with It? USA: Upaya Zen Center, 2012. Ball, Charlotte et al. Promotion and Prevention in Mental health: Strengthening Parenting and Enhancing Child Resilience. Rockville: DHHS Publication, 2007. Bhikkhu, Buddhadasa. Handbook for Mankind. tr. by Ariyananda Bhikkhu (Roderick S. Bucknell). Surat Thani: Dhammadana Foundation, 1996. Conze, Edward. The way of Wisdom: The Five Spiritual Faculties. Sri Lanka: The Buddhist Publication Society, 2013. Everly, Strouse, and McCormack. Stronger: Develop the Resilience You Need to Success. New York: Amacom, 2015. Ginsburg and Jablow. Building Resilience in Children and teen. 3rd ed. USA: American Academy of Pediatricts, 2015. Grotberg, Edith. A guide to Promoting Resilience in Children: Strengthening the Human spirit. The Hague: The Bernard van Leer Foundation, 1995. Hendin, Herbert. Suiside and Suicide Prevention in Asia. Geneva: World Health Organization Document Production Services. 2002. Maddi, S.R. and Khoshaba D.M. Resilience at Work: How to Succeed No Matter What Life Throws at You. New York: Amacom, 2005. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 75
Neenan, Michael. Developing Resilience: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach. USA and Canada: Routledge, 2009. Tan, Piya. Bodhi Pakkhiyā Dhammā: The 37 Limbs of Awakening. Singapore: The Minding Center, 2013. Tan, Piya. Pañcabala: The Five Spiritual Powers. Singapore: The Minding Center, 2004. Thero, Venerable Weragoda Sarada Thero. Treasury of Truth. Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 1993.
(II) Journals
Arias, Elizabeth et al. “Deaths: Final Data for 2001.” National Vital Statistics Reports. vol 52. no. 3 (September 2003): 1-86. Compas, Bruce et al. “Perceived control and coping with stress: A developmental perspective.” Journal of Social Issues. vol 47. no. 4 (January1991): 23-34. Julio, F. P. Peres et al. “Spirituality and Resilience in Truma Victims.” Journal of Religion and Health. vol 46. no. 3 (September 2007): 343-350. Kobasa, S.C. “Stressful Life Events. Personality and Health: An Inquiry into Hardiness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. vol 37. no. 1 (January1979): pp. 1-11. Lotrakul, Manote. “Suicide in Thailand during the period 1998-2003.” Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. vol 60. no. 1 (February 2006): 90-95. Masten, A.S. “Ordinary Magic: Resilience Process in Development.” American Psychologist. vol 56. no. 3 (March 2001): pp. 227-239. Masten, A.S. et al. “The Development of Competence in Favorable and Unfavorable Environments: Lessons from Research on Successful Children.” American Psychologist. vol 53. no. 2 (February 1998): 205-220. Murphey, David et al. “Adolescent Health Highlight. Positive Mental Health: Resilience.” Journal of Child Trends. vol 3. no. 1 (January 2013): 1. Pardini, D.A. et al. “Religious faith and spirituality in substance abuse recovery: determining the mental health benefits.” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. vol. 19. no. 4 (December 2000): 347-354. Resnick, Michael et al. “Protective Factors. Resiliency. and Healthy Youth Development.” Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews. vol 11. no. 1 (February 2000): 157-164. 76 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Richardson, G.E. “The Metatheory of Resilience and Resiliency.” Journal of Clinical Psychology. vol 58. no 3 (March 2002): 307-321. Seybold, K.S. et al. “The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health.” Current Directions in Psychological Science. vol 10. no. 1 (February 2001): 21- 24. Tugade, M.M. Tugade and Fredrickson B.L. “Resilient Individuals Use Positive Emotions to Bounce Back from Negative Emotional Experiences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. vol 86. no. 2 (February 2004): pp. 320-333. Werner, Emmy. “Resilience in development.” Current Directions in Psychological Science. vol 4. no. 3 (June 1995): 81-85.
(III) Online Sources
Awareness and Relaxation Training. “Thirty Two Parts of The Body.” viewed 26 April 2017. http://32parts.com/brain.html#content, Retrieved: April, 26 2017. Bukunmi Adewumi. “The Importanct of Human Brain” viewed 26 April 2017. https://www. quora.com/What-is-the-importance-of-the-human-brain Sulaiman, Punnada. M.D. “Understanding. Diagnosing. and Preventing.” viewed 26 October 2016.
Dinh Thi Bich Luy
Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to discuss and better understand the concept of the human brain. An adult human brain has more than 100 billion neurons. They are specifi cally and intricately connected with one another in ways that make memory, vision, learning, thought, consciousness and other properties of the mind possible. Beyond these considerations are philosophical questions revolving around the mind-brain relationship which challenges traditional Buddhist thought. This paper will examine how Buddhist meditation affects brain activities in a healthful manner.
Keywords: Human Brain, Buddhist Meditation, Affect, Activities 78 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Introduction
In recent years scientists and neuropsychologists have turned up more startling discoveries of the brain as the seat that influences the body’s response to sicknesses and diseases. the mind is understood as the sum total of all a person’s conscious state which includes our thoughts, memories, feelings, and emotions. It is human mind that distinguishes the responsibility and uniqueness of the human person. Humanness demands creativity, the ability to think and act in totally new ways, to imagine new solutions and see things in novel forms. Hence, the mind distinguishes one person from another in the way the world is viewed, and analyzed. The brain is a wonderful organ that directs the human functions, it should in no way be viewed as a mere machine, the brain allows a variety in how each person synthesizes ideas, argues an issue, or expresses a mood. However, when the brain is off, the mind is off! The brain directs the millions of neurons that send different messages to various parts of the body. However, it is the human mind that nonmaterial part, that takes these sensations and messages and expresses them in unique ways different for each individual. The concept of human brain: An overview we will study human brain from philosophy, psychology perspective and the influence of Buddhist meditation on the change of human brain structure. And brain is perpectly capable of changing healing and rewiring itself to an unexpected degree. It turns out that the age of your brain may be a lesser influence on its structure than that you do with it.
Human Brain from Philosophy Perspective
The mind and its relationship to the brain have been investigated extensively in neuroscience and philosophy1. Philosophers and scientists have debated this question for centuries. One of those who troubled by this problem was Rene Descartes.Three centuries ago he proposed a dualistic view in which he described the brain and mind as distinct substances. The mind took up no space but acted on the body through the brain’s pineal gland. Descartes is often call the father of modern philosophy. One reason for this nomenclature is that he set many of the epistemological proplems which subsequent philosophers have since been rying to solve. One such problem which he fathered, or at least crystallized as no one else
1 Georg Northoff, Philosophy of the Brain: The Brain Problem, (USA:John Benjamins Publish- ing Company, 2004), p. 1. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 79
had done, is that of the nature of the human mind and its relation to the body.2 He knows his consciousness, his sense of self, his perception of thoughts, his emotion and objects in the world, all the material things. We can see hear, touch, taste and smell physical things but can not perceive thoughts in these ways. In philosophy jargon this phenomenon is call mind and body dualism.3 Descartes’s idea influential in Philosophy and theology did not advance the scientific understanding of consciousness. Instead of proposing an explanation of consciousness, he attributed consciousness to a magic fluid, “The magic fluid inside the brain does it” (Which is probably false), this modern theory stipulates that. The oscillations in the brain do it.4 He allow that the mind may be losely associated with body and brain, but insist that mind and brain are not the same because they have different properties. Hippocrates was nonetheless an acute medical observer and noticed that people with brain damage tended to lose their mantal abilities. He realized that mind is something created by the brain and that it dies piece by piece as the brain dies.5 Hippocrates and Descartes represent only prominent accounts of the mind from the history of science. They point to a magician but do not explain the magic. And call the claim that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain the indentity theory. Mind and brain indentification follows a long line of theoretical indentifications that have marked scientific progress. Mind are brains is part of rich theory that provides explanations for many mental phenomena, inclding perception, memory, learning, inference and emotion.6 The brain is the structure that truly sets us apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. Together with the spinal cord, the brain forms the central nervous system that regulates our sensory, cognitive, emotional, physical, and motor abilities. The human nervous system is made up of networks of nerve cells that connect every distant bit of tissue with the
2 J.H. Ornstein, The Mind and the Brain: A Multi-Aspect Interpretation, (Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1972), p. 3. 3 John J. McGraw, Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul, (USA: Aegis Press, 2004), p. 5. 4 Michael S. A. Graziano, Consciousness and the Social Brain, (USA: Oxford University Press, 20130, p. 6. 5 Michael S. A. Graziano, Consciousness and the Social Brain, (USA: Oxford University Press, 20130, p. 4. 6 Paul Thagard, The Brain and the Meaning of Life, (United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 2012), p. 43. 80 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
ten billion nerve cells of the governing brain. Electric neural impulses travel along these pathways at speeds ranging, leaping across narrow gaps between cells, relaying messages to and from the brain. This marvelous network system prompted Hippocrates in the 6th century. to commit himself in no uncertain terms to the supremacy of the brain as the source of our intellectual powers. Hippocrates wrote:
Man ought to know that from the brain and the brain only arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests as well as our sorrows, pains, grief and tears. It is the same thing that makes us mad or delirious, inspires us with dread and fear, whether by night or be day, brings sleeplessness, inopportune mistakes, aimless anxieties, absent mindedness, and acts that are contrary to habit.7
The brain does two things that are of particular importance to the present theory:
First, the brain used a method that most neuroscientists call attention. Lacking the resources to processes everything at the same time. Second, the brain used internal data to construct simplified, schematic models of objects and events in the world.8
Crick and Koch, in their study of visual awareness, admit that the structural variety of neurons in the brain indicates a marvelous organ with the capacity to store, retrieve, use and express information, as well as to experience emotion and control movement.9
Human Brain from Psychology Perspective
The human brain is an amazing organ, capable of surprising feats of memory, susceptible to damage, and yet remarkably adaptable to change. The outermost part of the brain is known as the cerebral cortex. This portion of the brain is responsible for functioning in cognition, sensation, motor skills, and emotions. The brain is one of the largest and most
7 Gareth D. Jones, Our Fragile Brains, (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1981), p. 15. 8 Michael S. A. Graziano, Consciousness and the Social Brain, (USA: Oxford University Press, 20130, p. 8. 9 Francis, Crick, & Christof. Koch, Christof. The Problems of Consciousness, Scientific Ameri- can, 267:110-117, September 1992. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 81
complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together:
The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex. The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here. The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas.
The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance. The brain is comprised of four lobes:
1. Frontal Lobe: Also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in motor skills, higher lever cognition and expressive language. 2. Occipital Lobe: Also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in interpreting visual stimuli and information. 3. Parietal Lobe: Also known as the somatosensory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the processing of other tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch and pain. 4. Temporal Lobe: Also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the interpretation of the sounds and language we hear.10
In recent years, neurobiologists have produced research that enhances our understanding of the human mind. Fischbach in an article published in the 1990 Scientific American, identifies the brain as “the organ of the mind”. According to Fischbach,11 the brain, with its many specialized functions, is the central organ of the body. From the collective activity of all the brain regions emerges the most fascinating neurological phenomenon of all the mind.
10 Kendra Cherry, What Is Biopsychology? (Brain and Behavior), viewed 27 April 2017,
In agreement with Fischbach is Carla Shatz, professor of neurobiology at the University of California, Berkeley. She clearly asserts the fact that: the brain is the central organ that directs the intricate functions that make possible memory, vision, learning, thought, consciousness and other properties of the mind. In fact, during fetal development, the foundations of the mind are laid.12 The influenced of the mind on the body has been reiterated. Ellen G. White said that’s:
The influence of the mind on the body, as well as of the body on the mind, should be emphasized. The electric power of the brain, promoted by mental activity, vitalizes the whole system, and is thus an invaluable aid in resisting disease. This should be made plain. The power of the will and the importance of self-control, both in the preservation and in the recovery of health, the depressing and even ruinous effect of anger, discontent, selfishness, or impurity, and on the other hand, the marvelous life-giving power to be found in cheerfulness, unselfishness, gratitude, should also be shown.13
Another magnificent function of the brain is the ability to create new ideas and solutions. According to cognitive psychologists, the higher part of the brain around the cerebral cortex seems to display some traces of creative ability. Delgado, professor of neurobiology at Yale, together with his associates found in a 1968 study that emotions are decisively affected by activity in the thalamus, in the very center of the brain; in the hypothalamus, just below it; in the limbic system, a series of structures rooted around them, and in the reticular formation, a cluster of nerve cells in the brain stem.14 An explosion of recent findings in brain science reveals a new model of the brain as being more powerful and wonderful than a machine. According to Altman:
12 Carla J. Shatz, Developing Brain, Scientific America, 267:34-41, September 1992, viewed 27 April 2017,
Scientists are now coming to regard the brain as far from some kind of orderly, computer like machine that methodically plods through calculations step by step. Instead, the new image of our engine of thought is more like a beehive or a busy marketplace; a seething swarm of densely interconnected nerve cells that are continually sending electrochemical signals back and forth to each other and altering their lines of communication with every new experience.15
Whether the brain encodes its neural activity indeed in an intrinsically neurosocial way remains however unclear at this point. What is clear though is that the exact characterization of the brain’s neural activity will be essential to develop a truly neurophilosophical (rather than philosophical or neurocientific) and thus brain-based (rather than brain-reductive) and neurosocial (rather than merely neuronal). The resting state activity constitutes a statistically based virtual structure extending and linking the different discrete points in time and space within the brain. That in turn may serve as template, schemata, or grid for all subsequent neural processing during stimulus induced activity. The brain itself may show an intrinsic neural structure independent of the kind of extrinsic information, stimuli associated with particular events or objects, processed in the brain’s various regions and their respective functions. This shifts the focus to the intrinsic activity of the brain, what is often called resting state activity, and the kind of neural structure it constitutes.16 Buddhist Meditation Affect Brain Activities Scientists in recent years have discovered a number of surprising ways that the brain influences our overall health, as well as how our behavior influences the health of our brain. Neuroplasticity means you have some control over your cranial fitness. While brain function naturally deteriorates somewhat as you age; though not nearly as much as you might think, various strategic approaches can create new neural pathways and strengthen existing ones as long as we live. These efforts to build a better brain can beliver lasting rewards for your overall health.
15 William F. Altman, How the Brain Really Works Its Wonder, (Psychology: Annual Edition, 1990), pp. 21-24. 16 Psychoanalysis and the Brain – Why Did Freud Abandon Neuroscience? viewed 26 April 2017
Practice meditation depend on brain, but who can do it. Buddha and Arahanta, they do not talk about brain but how can we do researcher on it? Perhaps they have their own answer but didn’t share it. Because technical people can do research of course not correct 100% but can see the related on it. Test techniques, by meditated yogi begin and later have change, its according to cause and effect. That purpose to do program. Other side to practice meditation should use modern technical to take care and test it in order to do research. Researcher should do themselves or makes in their hand that they can realize and investigate it refer to use textbook only. Use both practice and modern science. Meditation mindfulness not only change your immediate state of mind such as correspondingly, your biochemical stress level and gene expression, but also they can alter the very structure of your brain. Meditation develops the circuitry in the left prefrontal cortex, where the unruffled showed so much activity. That is an aea that dampens negative emotion, so you don’t get so rattled by anger or fear, shame or sorrow. Hanson says that:
Deciding to be mindful can alter your brain so that being mindful is easier and more natural. In other words, you can use your mind to change your brain to affect your mind.17
Researcher at Massachusetts General Hospital studied Mindfulness meditation training changes brain structure in 8 weeks. Magnetic resonance images were taken of the participants’ brain structures two weeks before and two weeks after their mindfulness meditation training program. The same type of brain images was taken of a control group of people who did not engage in meditation over a similar period of time. The meditators spent an average 27 minutes a day in their mindfulness sessions, which they were required to document using questionnaires. Sara Lazar who worked on the study says that:
This study demonstrates that changes in brain structure may underlie some of these reported improvements and that people are not just feeling better because they are spending time relaxing.18
17 Jon Spayde, Surprising Things That Affect Your Brain, viewed 25 April 2017,
While the study was focused on possible brain function and elasticity, there was some indication from one of the lead researchers that their meditation might be useful in the context of improving health condition. It is fascinating to see the brain’s plasticity and that, by practicing meditation, we can play an active role in changing the brain and can increase our well-being and quality of life. Other studies in different patient populations have shown that meditation can make significant improvements in a variety of symptoms, and we are now investigating the underlying mechanisms in the brain that facilitate this change.19 Various researches have established that the meditation brings noteworthy changes not only in the human behavior pattern and mode of thinking but also structural changes in the brain’s mechanism. A similar research indicates that long-term meditation practice is not only associated with altered resting electroencephalogram patterns, suggestive of long lasting changes in brain activities but also might be associated with changes in the brain’s physical structure. We hypothesized that meditation practice might also be associated with changes in the brain’s physical structure. Magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess cortical thickness in 20 participants with extensive Insight meditation experience, which involves focused attention to internal experiences. Brain regions associated with attention, interception and sensory processing were thicker in meditation participants than matched controls, including the prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula. Between-group differences in prefrontal cortical thickness were most pronounced in older participants, suggesting that meditation might offset age-related cortical thinning. Finally, the thickness of two regions correlated with meditation experience. These data provide the first structural evidence for experience-dependent cortical plasticity associated with meditation practice.20 Our initial results suggest that meditation may be associated with structural changes in areas of the brain that are important for sensory, cognitive and emotional processing. The data further suggest that meditation may impact age-related declines in cortical structure.
19 Sue McGreevey, Mindfulness meditation training changes brain structure in 8 weeks, viewed 25 April 2017,
Conclusion
As study delve into the research of the structures and functions of the brain, it is inevitable that they are confronted with an array of critical issues the consequences for individuals of damage to their brains, the implications for human freedom and dignity of brain and behavior control, and the responsibility of providing a conductive environment for people to develop adequately. Its potential is still to be realized. The fragility of the human brain is a manifestation of human finiteness. Wonderful as the brain is, it is part and parcel of our finiteness, as demonstrated in our vulnerable dependence on its integrity. There is much of which we are capable, but also much of which we are not capable. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 87
References
Gerald D. Fischbach, Mind and Brain, Scientifi c American, 267:24-33, September 1992. Graziano, Michael S. A. Consciousness and the Social Brain. USA: Oxford University Press, 2013. Jones, Gareth D. Our Fragile Brains. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1981. McGraw, John J. Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul. USA: Aegis Press, 2004. Ornstein, J.H. The Mind and the Brain: A Multi-Aspect Interpretation. Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1972. Thagard, Paul. The Brain and the Meaning of Life. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 2012. White, Ellen G. Education. California: Pacifi c Press Publishing Association, 1903. Wilson, John Rowan. The Mind. New York: Time Life Books, 1970.
Internet Spayde, Jon. Surprising Things That Affect Your Brain. Viewed 25 April 2017,
Seth Evans
Abstract
This current paper deals with the question of the Mind-Body Problem and its possible presence within the Theravada tradition. It is suggested that Theravada Buddhism proposes a solution to this problem, the pasāda rūpa which suggests that the tradition does indeed have the problem of how a material body and an immaterial mind interact. If Theravada Buddhism presupposes the Mind-Body Problem by offering a solution, then it appears that the substance of the mind is immaterial within the tradition. If this is the case, the mind should not be considered a part of the material body within the context of Theravada Buddhism.
Keywords: Mind-Body Problem, Brain, Materialism, Pasāda Rūpa JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 89
Introduction
The Mind-Body Problem is one of the most perplexing issues in modern metaphysics. The issue lies with the relation of the mind and the body which necessarily leads to the question of their substance. There are three main positions regarding the substance of the mind and the body: two being monistic one dualistic. The two monistic positions resolve the problem by positing that the mind and body are of one substance and thus, can interact without any metaphysical issues that arise when dealing with two separate substances: material and non-material. The tow monistic positions are materialism, which holds that both the mind and body are material, and idealism, which holds that the mind and body are non-material. Both of these explanations elucidate the interaction of mind and body as relations between entities of the same substance. The third position, dualism, proposes that the mind and body are two separate substances: the body being material and the mind non-material. Here lies the a most confounding metaphysical issue: how is it that the material and non-material interact with each other? There have been a wide varity of answers to this question. This article will focus on Descartes’s solution and the Theravada Buddhist solution in hopes to show similarities which seem to suggest that Theravada tradition holds that the mind and body are indeed constructs of different substances.
Descartes
Descartes thought that the important questions of philosophy were issues that only rationalism could sufficiently answer. Rationalism is an epistemological method where knowledge is gained through deductive reasoning derived from foundational axioms. In order to gain an axiom that is true Descartes applied his method of foundationalism, which is a process of methodological doubt in order to gain epistemic knowledge of a self-evident axiom all other knowledge could be dependent upon. 90 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Frederick Copleston explains the method of Descartes in History of Philosophy:
As we have seen, Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth. And whoever knows anything at all about his philosophy knows that he found this truth in the affirmation Cogito, ergo sum, ‘I think, therefore I am.’ However much I doubt, I must exist: otherwise I could not doubt. In the very act of doubting my existence is manifest. 1
Descartes was concerned with a foundational truth that required no presuppositions support its epistemic value, he wanted a truth that was dependent upon nothing but that truth itself. In the search for this foundational knowledge, Descartes abandoned all assumptions one naturally holds in perception. These assumptions include things normally not articulated and simply accepted as basic truths: such as, the existence of an outside world or whether or not the objects of perception really exist. In abandoning these basic presuppositions Descartes even accepted the possibility that all perception is a delusion that does not represent reality in any accurate way what so ever. He went so far as to imagine an “evil genius” that not only deluded his ideas of a physical reality, but also the propositions of math. Doubting the propositions of math was especially difficult for Descartes, though he still doubted their authenticity to keep the methodical doubt consistent. Frederick Copleston goes on to explain how Descartes deals with the possibility of all objects, whether physical or mental, of perception being delusions that deceive the observer:
I may be deceived when I judge that material things exist which correspond to my ideas of them. And if I employ the metaphysical hypothesis of an ‘evil genius’ who has so made me that I am deceived all along the line, I can conceive, though admittedly with difficulty, the possibility that I am deceived in thinking that the propositions of mathematics are certainly true. But however far I extend the application of doubt, I cannot extend it to my own existence. For in the very act of doubting my existence is revealed. Here we have a privileged truth which is immune from the corroding influence not only of the natural doubt which I may
1 Frederick Coepeston, A History of Philosophy, Vol 4, (New York: Doubleday, 1960), p. 90. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 91
feel concerning judgments about material things but also of the ‘hyperbolical’ doubt which is rendered possible by the fictitious hypothesis of the malin genie. If I am deceived, I must exist to be deceived: if I am dreaming, I must exist to dream. This point had been made already centuries before.2
Descartes found his foundational truth in the famous proposition, “I think, therefore I am”. It was the state of his mental volition that he is consciously active that was the proof of his existence. This investigation of the qualities of consciousness in relation to its own activity was a very important development of modern philosophy and started the modern Mind-Body Problem. Descartes posited that his awareness was immaterial while the body, including the brain, was material. The problem lies in how the immaterial mind makes contact, or is conditioned in anyway, with the body.
Descartes’ Solution
Descartes attempted to resolve the problem by connecting the immaterial consciousness and the body through the pituitary gland of the brain. Trough a process of the body the material object, the body, and the immaterial object, the mind, where able to interact. Descartes explains this process in Key Philosophical Writings:
The machine of the body is so formed that from the simple fact that this glad [pituitary gland] is diversely moved by the soul [mind], or by such other cause, whatever it is, it thrusts the spirits which surround it towards the pores of the brain, which conduct the by the nerves into the muscles, by which means it cause them to move the limbs.3
This solution proved to be unsatisfactory to many other philosophers, sometimes inducing “either ridicule or disgust,” in the words of Spinoza.4
2 Ibid p. 90. 3 Descartes, Key Philsophical Writtings, p. 374. 4 Spinoza, Scholium to Proposition. 1677, p 35. 92 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Though the solution has not been accepted by the majority of scholars, it was an attempt to resolve the mind-body problem. This is an important attempt, even if it is misguided, because it operates in an ontological system where the mind and body are different substances. If the mind is in fact immaterial, how it interact with tha material world is an important question. Descartes recognized this problem, and though his conclusion was unsatisfactory, he recognized the importance of the question itself.
Drawing from René Descartes’ (1596-1650) in “Treatise of Man” explaining the function of the pineal gland.5
Problem of reducing Mind to Brain in Buddhism
One possible solution to the Mind-Body problem is to forego the problem all together by making the mind and body material. It this way both the mind and body are the same substance and can interact with each other without the need for a bridge that connects the material with the immaterial. Some neurologists have taken this approach to solving the problem within the Buddhist tradition.
5 Drawing from René Descartes’ (1596-1650) in “Treatise of Man” explaining the function of the pineal gland. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 93
Rick Hanson describes the mind and brain as one entity in The Buddha’s Brain:
Meanwhile, there’s been a growing interest in the contemplative traditions [Buddhism], which have been investigating the mind- and thus the brain- for thousands of years, quieting the mind/brain enough the catch its softest murmurs and developing sophisticated ways to transform it. 6
By reducing the mind to the same physical substance as the body there is no duality of substance which makes the Mind-Bpody Problem a moot subject. Rick Hanson goes on to add that the mind may be simply what the brain does:
But meanwhile, a reasonable working hypothesis is that the mind is what the brain does. Therefore, an awakening mind means an awakening brain… remarkable mental sates by generating remarkable brain states.7
There are several issues that arise when trying to reduce the mind to the brain in the context of Buddhist doctrine. This article will focus on two problems: that the bodily seat of the mind in in the Buddhist tradition is not in the brain rather in the heart; and that the mind is clearly described as an immaterial substance and the brain of the body an object of rupa that we would call physical substance. In Buddhist Doctrine, the mind resides in the heart not the brain. While reducing the mind to the brain may make sense in modern scientific applications, it just doesn’t make sense within the context of the Buddhist Tradition. Buddhagosa explains the heart as the bodily seat of the mind in the Vissudhimagga:
The heart-basis has the characteristic of being the (material) support for the mind-element and for the mind-consciousness-element. Its function is to observe them. It is manifested as the carrying of them. It is to be found in dependence on the blood, of the kind described in the treatise on mindfulness of the body inside the heart.8
6 Rick Hanson, Buddha’s Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom, (Oakland: New Harbinger Publications, 2009), p. 5. 7 Ibid. p. 9. 8 Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (tr.), Vissuddhimagga, (Taipei: The Corporate of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2003), p. 445. 94 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The next section discusses the second issue of attempting to reduce the mind to the brain: that they are fundamentally different substances. The dualism of mind and body are one of the most important characteristics of Theravāda Buddhist Ontology.
Citta
Citta (consciousness) is best understood as consciousness, that being an immaterial mind. All cittas have in common that they “think” of an object, but we have to take thinking here in a very general sense, meaning, being conscious of an object, or cognizing an object. It is a being’s interpretation of the world in which he or she lives. Citta is not only the mode of experience but the source of experience as well. Without it there would be perception of reality itself. This foundation of existence that is understood as a stream of individual moments of consciousness, these moments are singular cittas that serve to grasp and interpret objects of perception. These momentary cittas are made up of cetasikas, which are best understood as qualities of consciousness. These qualities are mental factors that facilitate how an object is grasped, the initial perception of the object and the reaction to that object. It is within these qualities that kamma is manifested through action.
Citta Vīthi
Citta vīth is the process of consciousness expounded in the Theravāda Abhidhamma tradition. It explains the stream of consciousness, immaterial awareness, as it makes initial contact with an object, interprets the object, shapes the object into a mental concept, and the kammic reactions to that object. This stream of consciousness is what drives a living being through experience from one object of perception to the next. Narada Maha Thera explains the citta vīthi in his rendition of the Abhidahmmattha- saṅgaha:
There is no moment when we do not experience a particular kind of consciousness, hanging on to some object- whether physical or mental. The time- limit of such a consciousness is termed one thought moment… Immediately after the cessation stage of a thought-moment there results the genesis stage of the subsequent thought-moment. Thus each unit of consciousness perishes conditioning another, transmitting at the same time all its potentialities to its successor. There JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 95
is, therefore, a continuous flow of consciousness like a stream without interruption When a material object is presented to the mind through one of the five sense-doors, a thought-process occurs, consisting of a series of seepage thought-moments leading one to the other in a particular, uniform order.9
This flow of existence that is always in a state of flux, always arising and falling, always in and out of interpretation of objects is a stream known as the citta vīthi. The citta vīthi is the cognitive process all conscious beings exist through in a series of individual mind moments known as cittas.
Rūpa
Rūpa is an important concept in the Buddha’s teachings, it is also one that may be clouded in confusion. As rūpa is a description of the objects of consciousness, it is many times referred to an entity in-itself, a description that implies it exists outside of experience. This implication carries a heavy assumption that rūpa should be understood as objects in and of themselves, that are in fact, not dependent on experience. If we define rūpa as an entity in-itself separate from perception then its existence should be separate from consciousness, and hence, separate from nāma. That rūpa exists outside of the description of experience known as nāma-rūpa would be a foundational quality of it, and would define it as something that is in the world alone and without need of being perceived. It may be incorrect to define this concept with an assumption that a world exists in itself that does not require perception and that this in-itself world would be a collection of entities in-themselves known as rūpa. Separate from our bodies, but just as important to us, is consciousness. If our body is what we are in the physical world, our consciousness is that which defines what the physical world is to us. Consciousness is how we are, in a sense how we exist, through our interpretations and our reactions to those interpretations our very being is defined; through consciousness we become. A clear explanation of consciousness is impossible without discussing what consciousness is conscious of. The object of consciousness is as important to experience as consciousness itself. Without rūpa consciousness would not be possible, as there would be nothing to interpret
9 Narada Maha Thera, A Manual of Abhidhamma, (Colombo: Buddhist Missonary Society, 1979), p. 240. 96 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
and react to. Rūpa and consciousness are intertwined in a dance of happening that we call experience. Rūpa is characterized, in part, as being the results of good and bad states, in other words, vipāka of past kamma. This description also says that rūpa is an object that is not included with consciousness itself but still linked to experience. It goes on to describe rūpa as objects that are experienced while making contact with consciousness, which includes feeling, perception, syntheses and intellect. This explanation says that rūpa is something separate from consciousness, something outside, though still associated with it. The table below shows the function of consciousness when an object of sight is experienced. It is a complete momentary experience compromising of both the experience of an object and the reaction to that object. Rūpa would be the object of sight and is first perceived in the fifth citta, the eye- consciousness. This rūpa is shown to be experienced in three vipāka cittas: the eye- consciousness, the receiving and the investigating.10
Table 1: Rūpa - Complete Eye-Door Process
Source: Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, p. 155.
This table maps the function of consciousness when an object of sight is experienced. It is a complete momentary experience compromising of both the experience of an object and the reaction to that object. This object of sight is what we would call physical and is first perceived in the fifth citta, the eye- consciousness, which is immaterial.
10 ibid. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 97
Buddhist Resolution of Problem
The solution to the Mind-Body Problem is found in tiny entities of rūpa that constitute the 5 empirical senses of sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. These entities are not included in the immaterial consciousness itself, rather they are elements of what we would call physical. Buddhagosa explains the pasāda rūpa in the Vissuddhimagga:
Herein, the eye’s characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements that is ready for the impact of visible data; or its characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from desire to see.14 Its function is to pick up [an object]15 among visible data. It is manifested as the footing of eye consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to see.11
This solution is not unlike Descartes’ in that it is an entity we would consider physical that connects the immaterial mind with the body. These pasāda rūpas are in fact parts of the body itself. In this way Buddhist doctrine is similar to Descartes in the context of the Mind-Body Problem in that they both resolve the problem with the connection of the mind and body happening through a fundamental part of the body: the pituitary gland for Descartes and the pasāda rūpas within Buddhist doctrine.
Conclusion
That Theravada Buddhism attempts to resolve the mind-body problem, i.e. the pasāda rūpa, seems to show that Buddhist doctrine presupposes a problem, the Mind-Body problem. A presupposition of this problem suggests that the Theravada teachings consider the mind, as an immaterial substance separate from the material world, consisting of rūpa. The article has attempted to show that the Theravada solution to the problem of how the material body and the immaterial mind was facilitated by the pasāda rūpa. The article acknowledges that this solution may not satisfy current metaphysical issues with the problem. Nevertheless, that there is a solution seems to suggest that Theravada Doctrine proposes that the mind is of a separate substance than the body, and should not be considered a part of the body.
11 Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (tr.), Vissuddhimagga, (Taipei: The Corporate of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2003), p. 440. 98 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
References
Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2012). Coepeston, Frederick. A History of Philosophy, Vol 4, (New York: Doubleday, 1960). Curley, Edwin (ed.), The Collected Works of Spinoza, ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016). Descartes, Key Philsophical Writtings, (Knoxville: Wordsworth Classics, 1997). Flynn, Thomas R. Routlledge History of Philosophy, Vol 8, (New York: Routlledge, 1994). Hanson, Rick, Buddha’s Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom, (Oakland: New Harbinger Publications, 2009). Narada Thera, The Buddha and His Teachings, (Colombo: Karunaratne and Sons, 1973). Narada Maha Thera, A Manual of Abhidhamma, (Colombo: Buddhist Missonary Society, 1979). Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (tr.), Vissuddhimagga, (Taipei: The Corporate of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2003). Theoretical Study on Buddhism as a Means of Treatment to Murderers with Frontal Lobe Damages
Kar Lok, Ng (Ding Quan 定泉)
Abstract
Recent years, scientists discovered that murderers including serial-killers and cannibals all sharing one common physically point, a damaged brain’s frontal lobe which avoided them from acting humanly. Besides, two more studies found two other shared characteristics: the hereditary factor of the existence of violence MAO-A gene, and the psychological factor of abused childhood. All these three factors affected their behavior to become the criminal kinds. From the inspiration of Buddha’s salvation of Aṅgulimāla and King Ajātasattu, the writer sees the possibility of using Buddhist theories and practicing methods to help. With careful data extracting and analyzing from the results of contemporary scientists, Buddhist concepts and methods are studied and evaluated theoretically as the means of treatment against the brain damage and its related factors. If this could be put forward to practical experiments and testing in clinical trials, it might help the society in understanding the issue, educating the public as well as preventing the future existence of such kind of murderer.
Keywords: Murderers, Serial-killers, Cannibals, Frontal lobe, MAO-A gene, Childhood abuse 100 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Introduction
Are murderers criminals or just sick people? This is the question that have been asked in the past twenty years or more as scientists discovered the similarity of the murderers’ brains and concluded they all have signs of various level damages in their frontal lobe, or orbitofrontal cortex which it is also named. Particularly in several criminal cases, suspects were defended with brain damage as a reason of their criminal behaviors. This arises the interest of the society in debating whether it is guilty for the actions these murderers had done, or they should instead be treated compassionately as same as ordinary patients. Buddhism favors in forgiveness. Even very cruel murderers like Aṅgulimāla, the serial-killer, were forgiven by the Buddha with unlimited loving-kindness and salvation1; and King Ajātasattu, who killed his own father, were also pardoned by the Buddha and was given great help to re-develop his bright side.2 This shows that even killers that seem to have no human-nature at all could be possibly regain their humanity after receiving strong enough and appropriate guidance under Buddhist theory. Although from contemporary law and justice points of views, those who committed crimes in such scale might have to be punished in some suitable ways, is there theoretically any possibility that these murderers could be improved or even cured by treatments in the Buddhist way if they were really just sick people that had problems in their brains? Or for prevention objective, how can Buddhist methods help? This paper would like to discuss these issues by first knowing what has scientists discovered regarding the differences in the brains of murderers.
Murderers’ Brains Damages and Related Studies
Many scientists now-a-days are putting their efforts to study the differences of the brains of murderers, serial-killers and even cannibals who had committed their crimes in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Up till now, their achievements are vast which will be explained as follows:
1 I. B. Horner (tr.), The Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya), Vol 2, (Bristol: The Pali Text Society, 1997) , pp. 284 to 292. 2 T.W. Rhys Davids (tr.), Sāmañña-phala sutta, Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I, (Bristol: The Pali Text Society, 1997) , pp. 65 to 95. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 101
Brains Damages in Frontal Lobe and Murderers
According to The American Heritage Science Dictionary, frontal lobe:
is the largest and forward-most lobe of each cerebral hemisphere, responsible for the control of skilled motor activity, including speech. Mood and the ability to think are also controlled by the frontal lobe.3
However, scientists would have more to say on this. Psychiatrist Dorothy Lewis of Bellevue Hospital and professor of New York University together with neurologist Jonathan Pincus of Georgetown University have been studying this topic since the decade of 1970’s. With their examination with 150 to 200 murderers, included Arthur Shawcross, Joel Rifkin, Mark David Chapman, and Ted Bundy, they found that the frontal lobe damages really affect criminal behavior because:
3 Steven Kleinedler (ed.), The American Heritage Science Dictionary, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2005), p.247. 102 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
The cortex and the frontal lobes are supposed to provide judgement, to organize behavior and decision-making, to learn and adhere to rules of everyday life. In other words, they are responsible for making us human.4
Base on their discovery, Lewis and Pincus have testified in many criminal cases defending for the suspects about their brain damages. Serial-killers and cannibal Arthur Shawcross, who was convicted to eleven murders, was one of them whom they stated he was suffered ‘from a multiple-personality disorder, brain damage and post-traumatic stress syndrome.’5 Although Shawcross was finally sent to death by the court, the study of the relationship of frontal lobe damage with murdering has become more popular and aware by scientists as well as other interested parties.
Katharine English, the producer and director of the documentary program Cannibal: The Real Hannibal Lecters, interviewed with two killers and cannibals who were still alive at the time of her investigation, one in jail was Arthur Shawcross and the other who is free was Japanese Issei Sagawa who murdered and ate his Dutch female friend Renee Hartevelt in 1981 when he was studying Ph.D program in France. English reported that ‘both Shawcross and Sagawa sustained damage to the frontal lobes of the brain before they became murderers.’6 However, English also questioned that ‘many thousands of people suffer such brain damage without becoming monsters.’7 And the reason why this was happened to these murderers might be found from the clues related to their childhood which were actually also mentioned by Lewis and Pincus in the case of Shawcross.8 This will be further discussed next.
4 Malcolm Gladwell (rp.), DAMAGED, The New Yorker, February 24, 1997, p. 132. 5 Lisa W. Foderaro (rp.), A Serial-Murder Trial, On TV, Grips Rochester, The New York Times, Published: December 2, 1990. 6 Katharine English, Hannibals in the Flesh, the Guardian, Tuesday 20 February 2001 03.03 GMT, Guardian News and Media Limited, London, UK, address: https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2001/feb/20/features11.g23, retrieved on 17 April, 2017 at 19:11 Bangkok time. 7 Ibid. 8 ‘Lewis examines criminals for any signs of childhood abuse, because abuse appears to change the anatomy of the brain. The cortical and subcortical areas don’t develop properly in abused children. Abuse also disrupts the brain’s stress-response system, often resulting in post-traumatic-stress-disorder, as well as causing memory loss and disrupting the relationship between the brain’s right and left hemispheres. These changes correlate with the dissociative identity disorder (D.I.D.) often associated with child abuse.’ Malcolm Gladwell (rp.), DAMAGED, The New Yorker, February 24, 1997, Condé Nast , New York, USA, p. 132. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 103
Evidences supporting the fact about frontal lobe damages related to criminal behavior kept being revealed. Website Live Science reported in 2011 about this with data from two studies. One of them were a report from Mayo Clinic, a nonprofit medical practice and medical research group, with details as follow:
Brain scans of the antisocial people, compared with a control group of individuals without any mental disorders, showed on average an 18-percent reduction in the volume of the brain’s middle frontal gyrus, and a 9 percent reduction in the volume of the orbital frontal gyrus – two sections in the brain’s frontal lobe. 9
This result shows the size of frontal lobes of antisocial people is quite smaller than normal and these people “typically have no regard for right and wrong. They may often violate the law and the rights of others.”10 The second study which had been published in the September 2009 Archives of General Psychiatry, were implemented by Adrian Raine, chair of the Department of Criminology at the University of Pennsylvania. The detail is as follow:
(the study) compared 27 psychopaths — people with severe antisocial personality disorder — to 32 non-psychopaths. In the psychopaths, the researchers observed deformations in another part of the brain called the amygdala, with the psychopaths showing a thinning of the outer layer of that region called the cortex and, on average, an 18-percent volume reduction in this part of brain……The amygdala is the seat of emotion. Psychopaths lack emotion. They lack empathy, remorse, guilt.11
9 Clara Moskowitz, Criminal Minds Are Different From Yours, Brain Scans Reveal, March 4, 2011 12:24pm ET, Live Science, Purch Group, Inc., New York, USA, address: http://www.livescience. com/13083-criminals-brain-neuroscience-ethics.html, retrieved on 17 April, 2017 at 22:01 Bangkok time. 10 Ibid. 11 Clara Moskowitz, Criminal Minds Are Different From Yours, Brain Scans Reveal, March 4, 2011 12:24pm ET, Live Science, Purch Group, Inc., New York, USA, address: http://www.livescience. com/13083-criminals-brain-neuroscience-ethics.html, retrieved on 17 April, 2017 at 22:01 Bangkok time. 104 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Amygdala is the part of the brain locates a bit deeper behind the frontal lobe and is believed to have close relation in emotion control. This study just shows nearly the same conclusion that psychopaths have a comparatively weaker physical hardware on both frontal lobe and amygdala which are the emotion controlling brain structures.
Two Significant Sub-Causes
As was mentioned, producer Katharine English queried about why not every person with the brain damage would turn out to be a murderer. For this reason, are there other factors that might have caused the result? When Lewis and Pincus studied the case of Shawcross, they had actually found one of the clues, abuses were received by the murderer at his childhood as Shawcross had claimed that he was physically and sexually abused by his mother at his very young age.12 This idea was supported by the study of Bruce Perry, a psychiatrist at Baylor College of Medicine, who has done brain scans of children having severely neglected and found that their cortex structures ‘never properly developed; as a result, these cortical regions
12 ‘The defense’s expert witness, Dr. Dorothy Otnow Lewis, purportedly hypnotized Mr. Shawcross while being videotaped, inspiring what was said to be a re-enactment of a sexual abuse scene from his childhood in which his mother sodomized him with a broom handle.’ Lisa W. Foderaro (rp.), A Serial- Murder Trial, On TV, Grips Rochester, The New York Times, Published: December 2, 1990, New York, USA. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 105
were something like 20 or 30 per cent smaller than normal.’13 It is quite easy to know that physical abuses on a child would definitely have a possibility in hurting his or her front head and accidentally damaging the frontal lobe. Moreover, childhood abuse would affect aspects of brain’s stress response system and also imbalance in the brain’s left and right hemisphere that might be resulted in creating ‘a vulnerability to certain kinds of anger or to social situations that might end in violence.’14 Besides abuses received at childhood, another cause was discovered by neuroscientist James H. Fallon who suddenly one day realized himself actually has a family lineage of psychopathic killers and carries the same characteristics of them, not only in the structural situation of his brain’s frontal lobe, but also in another aspect, the MAO-A gene, which he called the major violence genes.15 Fallon explained that this sex-linked gene is on the X chromosome which a boy can only get from his mother but not his dad. And if any person carries this gene, his brain would be bathed in serotonin when he was in the womb of the mother. Originally, serotonin is supposed to make a person calm and relax. However, this kind of bathing would in reverse making one’s brain insensitive to serotonin, so it’s ability of promoting calmness and relaxing doesn’t work later on in life which would make the person easier to be in violence. And the most important is, after being born, in order to activate this gene to become violence, one vital condition is the involvement of extreme hurtful incident happened in the childhood of a person, may be it was a hash abuse from parents, a sex abuse from a stranger, or even a scenario that deeply engraved in mind.16 In such case, the child would be in a high danger to become a criminal in the later stage of life. So now there are three causes related to the brain that would turn a person into a murderer: a damaged brain’s frontal lobe (either is innate or acquired) which is a physical one, an abused childhood which is relatively psychological, and the existence of MAO-A gene which is comparatively hereditary. Both of the last two factors would affect the
13 Malcolm Gladwell, The Criminal Brain, Friday 2 May 1997 23:02 BST, Independent, Independent Digital News & Media, London, UK, address: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the- criminal-brain-1259436.html, retrieved on 17 April 217 at 23:44 Bangkok time. 14 Ibid. 15 James H. Fallon, Exploring the mind of a killer, TED, TED Conferences, LLC, New York, USA, address: https://www.ted.com/talks/jim_fallon_exploring_the_mind_of_a_killer/transcript?language=en, retrieved on 18 April, 2017 at 00:24 Bangkok time. 16 Ibid. 106 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
development of the brain physically. Childhood abusing would also take a key role in activating the MAO-A gene and turn a person to become violence. If a person has all these three factors, he would have more possibilities of turning bad. This is what contemporary scientists updated us. However, within these three, Fallon also proved by himself that a good and happy childhood would prevent a bad result from happening since he is the one who carries a somewhat damaged brain and the MAO-A gene altogether but still did not turn to be a murderer since his childhood provided him the atmosphere of maintaining normal. By diagram, the relationship between these three causes is as follow:
Buddhism as a Means of Treatment to Murderers
In this part, Buddhism theories and practicing methods will be theoretically examined regarding their possibility in helping those who already committed a crime. And of course, very important is, this would also be excellent for prevention purposes where related parties like parents, school teachers and the most vital, children and teenagers might be benefited from this. As that can be seen from the preceding diagram, criminal behavior arises from a combination of three contributions, psychological, physical and hereditary. Psychological contribution mainly comes from childhood abuses which could be said as the near cause. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 107
Physical contribution comes from the damaged brain’s frontal lobe which could be seen as the existing cause. Hereditary contribution comes from the MAO-A gene and therefore is the distant cause. Moreover, both childhood abuses and MAO-A gene affect the development of the brain which is the core factor that affect the ability in judging right and wrong that resulting in criminal behavior; and, the childhood abuses solely activate the violence MAO-A gene. To give a complete answer to all these three causes and contributions, Buddhism has the comprehensive response to each of them. In order to help those suffering from criminal behavior, Buddhist theories and practicing methods could be used in a way similar to what are using in the Cognitive Behavioral Therapy now-a-days. Let starts from the distant and back to the existing causes one by one.
MAO-A Gene, the Distant Cause and Hereditary Contribution
Why a person has such violence gene inborn? That is the question someone might ask! If that is a god creation, then why is he so unfair and creates that only on me and makes me so suffering? This definitely would come to a dead-end like this. The person might get even more grumble and refuse to give in. In conceptual-wise, Buddhism does not use god creation as an answer to the questions about something inborn. In fact, lives are just a non-stop stream of birth and death that controlled by dependent origination and kamma. Why you have this in this life is because you yourself did something in your past lives that result in you having it now. But there is no need to be sad, because in the same way, if you want to get rid of it in the future, you should start acting good now in order not to create this bad result again afterward. In practice, Buddhism has a lot of methods that can lead someone towards good actions. Confession to the violence a person had done is a must, and it was what the Buddha taught King Ajātasattu regarding his father killing.17 This brings him to understand and agree by himself that the action had been done was not correct and was harmful to others
17 ‘Verily, O king, it was sin that overcame you in acting thus. But inasmuch as you look upon it as sin, and confess it according to what is right, we accept your confession as to that. For that, O king, is custom in discipline of the noble ones, that whosoever looks upon his fault as a fault, and rightfully con- fesses it, shall attain to self-restraint in future.” T.W. Rhys Davids (tr.), Sāmañña-phala sutta, Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I, (Bristol: The Pali Text Society), pp. 94 to 95. 108 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
as well as himself. Through this cognition, refusal of doing that kind of action again could hopefully be attained. Following concrete precepts like not killing, not lying, no sexual misconduct could be very important and powerful. Lusts to kill or even flesh eating is so strong in these people’s mind as their brains would have been damaged at the same time. Therefore, clear and forceful precepts might help in controlling the unwholesome actions. Offering is also another way. Since this help the growth of loving-kindness and compassion which surely will lower down the effect of the violence gene. If the person can gain joy and happiness in offering, his behavior should be improved in a positive way. Offering can be counted by the factors of time and body. For example, one can be allowed to participate in voluntary works in order for them to help the society. Even for prisoners awaiting for execution, they can participate in organs donation program before their death so as to help others. Government policy could also help to promote this in substitution to penalty to death as this would be more conforming to humanity. In brief, for the purpose in corresponding to the effect of MAO-A gene which is a distant cause of criminal behavior, the doctrines of dependent origination, kamma and saṁsāra are the best weapons for mind transformation because they could help the person in rebuilding his right view and right thought. The objective is to lower down the ill will and avoid it from growing stronger. Technical practicing methods as introduced about mainly help in reconstructing the power of compassion and loving-kindness which are the important strengths for fighting against hatred and ruthless actions.
Abused Childhood, the Near Cause and Psychological Contribution
Abused childhood is comparatively different from the genetic factor as this usually involves a clear and precise object or scenario that engraved in mind for a long time. Although the incident happened many years, the person still has a very strong memory to it and is influenced deeply by it. For this reason, the concept and technique that have to be used is a bit not the same as when facing the violence gene. Basically, the concept of dependent origination, kamma and saṁsāra could still be used to explain the causal factors between the abuser and sufferer. However, impermanence and emptiness might be even more effective and powerful. The reason is because the object or scenario the person tightly grasping with has formed a concrete notion in his mind which is relatively precisely labelled. Impermanence and emptiness are outstanding in pinpoint JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 109 targeting at a specific notion like this and transform it to the universal truth which could no longer be grasped. Practically, forgiveness is the most important thing the sufferer has to train up his own mind. Since the event has passed already, it is better for him to liberate himself from it through deeply forgiving the abuser. He might try to treat the abuser as someone who was also sick in mind and therefore should be pitied instead of hated. Just like how the Buddha forgave King Ajātasattu after he had joint with Devadatta and nearly killed the Buddha. Patience is the next technique that have to be practiced. Patience is used when forgiveness is not quite workable. As the sufferer does not willing to give in, patience is the next possible way to make him leaving from hatred.18 Empathy then, could be a method to transform. It means the sufferer understands the pain of his own event, then he should make effort to see the same pain about the violence he offered to his victims.19 This could help him in regret of what had done and to confess about it. In short, since abused childhood has a concrete notion, it should be transformed to its true nature, impermanence or emptiness, so as to get rid of it. Therefore, these two doctrines are very helpful and are the targets of transformation. However, normally the strength of the abuse is so strong that just knowing the nature is not enough. Practicing methods should be used at the same time. Forgiveness, patience and empathy are the different methods responding to different level of clinging that can benefit the sufferer by jumping out from the long-time incident.
18 ‘For not by hatred are hatreds ever quenched here, but they are quenched by non-hatred.’ K.R. Norman (tr.), The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada), (Bristol: The Pali Text Society, 2000)., p. 1. 19 ‘All tremble at violence; all fear death. Comparing (others) with oneself, one should not kill or cause to kill.’ K.R. Norman (tr.), The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada), (Bristol: The Pali Text Society, 2000), p. 20. 110 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Damaged Brain’s Frontal Lobe, the Existing Cause and Physical Contribution
According to Buddhism, a brain is not mind. It is just classified as material (rūpa) and is belong to the element of earth.20 In this sense, the existing cause of frontal lobe damage of a criminal is the damage of the material part of the body which, in Buddhist’s opinion, is the result due to the power of past kamma and dependent origination. Although, just using these to explain psychologically might be too abstract and could not repair the physically damaged frontal lobe back to a normal one, if one could believe the contents, there seems to be a hope to lead him into the next practical step which is scientifically proved to be helpful in some ways. In Theravada scriptures, very little was said about the usage of meditation as a means to cure one’s sickness. But in Mahāyāna, there are a lot of records mentioned to this.21 And by modern neuroscience, there are evidences showing even the brain might be repaired or improved in certain scale. It is Sara Lazar’s study on how meditation changes a brain. Lazer is a neuroscientist at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School who claims about the benefits of meditation and mindfulness and test them in brain scans. What she found is:
long-term meditators……had more gray matter in the frontal cortex, which is associated with working memory and executive decision making. It’s well- documented that our cortex shrinks as we get older – it’s harder to figure things out and remember things. But in this one region of the prefrontal cortex, 50-year-old meditators had the same amount of gray matter as 25-year-olds. 22
20 ‘Brain forms a separate class in the body, is non-mental, indeterminate, void (of soul), without sentience, hard, earth-element.’ Pe Maung Tin, B. Litt. (tr.), The Path of Purity, Part II, (Bristol: The Pali Text Society, 1922), p. 414. 21 For example, a scripture said: ‘It is asked: Does meditating with great effort really cure sick- ness? It is answered: If fulfilled ten aspects, it shouldn’t have no benefit. These ten aspects are: 1, belief; 2, practice; 3, put into great effort; 4, keep paying attention to the object; 5, identify the reason of the sickness; 6, practice skillfully; 7, practice continuously; 8; knowing what to pick and leave; 9, skillful in protecting the mind away from useless status; and 10, knowing how to not create obstacles. (問曰：用心坐中治病必有効 不？答曰：若具十法，無有不益。十法者，一信，二用，三勤，四恒住緣中，五別病因起，者方便， 七久行，八知取捨，九善將護，十識遮障。)’ Zhi Yi (智顗), Disclosure on the Gradual Practicing Methods of Dhyāna-Pāramitā (釋禪波羅蜜次第法門), T46, no. 1916, p. 506. 22 Brigid Schulte (rp.), Harvard Neuroscientist: Meditation Not Only Reduces Stress, Here’s How It Changes Your Brain, May 26, 2015, The Washington Post, Washington, USA. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 111
Grey matter contains most of the brain’s neuronal cell bodies and it serves to process information in the brain. Within any part of the brain, if the volume of grey matter is large, the particular function of that part of the brain is suggested to be better.23 Simply to say, more grey matters in a certain area of the brain, that area is supposed to be more active and efficient in its job. As that could be seen in Lazer’s discovery, the frontal lobe of a 50-year-old meditators can have the same amount of grey matters as a 25-year-old normal people. Theoretically, if a criminal decided to take a meditation course under the Buddhist tradition, he might have the chance to re-develop his frontal lobe! Even very interesting is, according to Lazer, a group of people who never practice meditation has been tested by having them participated in an eight-weeks meditation course. And the result was their brains had four regions out of five being found thickening.24 So, it takes just a short time to improve something. With all these scientific evidences, it is therefore believed that Buddhist meditation practices should be possible to improve the damaged brain’s frontal lobe of murderers. Although more experiences have to be done before a concrete conclusion could be drawn.
Conclusion
Murderers, serial-killers and cannibals have always been the scary characters to the people of the society. The vast majority of them were sentenced to death and killed cruelly in different ways after arrested and judged. However, only recently, they were proved by scientists as they are actually sick persons with their brain’s frontal lobe heavily damaged due to either innate or acquired reasons. The Buddha had shown His mercy and compassion to these sick people much earlier in 2500 years before. Aṅgulimāla, the serial-killer, and King Ajātasattu, the father killer, were both salvaged from the fire of hatred and ignorance by the great Lord. By this paper, this is already known that these murderers might really be suffering from damaged brain’s
23 Helen Pilcher (rp.), Grey matter matters for intellect, Published online 21 July 2004, Nature, Macmillan Publishers Limited, London, UK., address: http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040719/full/ news040719-11.html, retrieved on 19 April, 2017 at 18:41 Bangkok time. 24 Brigid Schulte (rp.), Harvard Neuroscientist: Meditation Not Only Reduces Stress, Here’s How It Changes Your Brain, May 26, 2015, The Washington Post, Washington, USA. 112 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
frontal lobe physically, violence gene hereditarily and abused childhood psychologically which are the existing cause, distant cause and near cause of their criminal behavior. And theoretically, Buddhism has doctrines and methods reasonably enough in responding and controlling all these causes, meaning these murderers could have the possibility of being cured under different Buddhist theories and practicing methods. Should the society be open- minded enough to have these tested in laboratories and even put into clinical trials? That is the question the researcher would like to ask now and await to see in the near future. But what is hoped is, Thailand as a major Buddhist country that inherited the Buddha’s insight, she should put more effort and resources into such kinds of researches and lead the world to gain a success in this aspect in order to demonstrate the wisdom of the Lord Buddha. This is not just for the benefit of those who had already committed such inhumanity acts, but also to children, their parents, school teachers, medical people, governments of different countries as well as the community so that they could know how to educate the next generation and prevent the future existence of a bloody sufferers. JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 113
References
Classic Scriptures: Davids, T.W. Rhys (tr.). Sāmañña-phala sutta, Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I. 1995. The Pali Text Society. Oxford, London. UK. Horner, I. B. (tr.). The Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya), Vol 2. 1997. The Pali Text Society., Oxford, London. UK. Norman K.R. (tr.). The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada). 2000. Pali Text Society. Oxford. UK. Tin, Pe Maung. B. Litt. (tr.). The Path of Purity, Part II. 1922. Pali Text Society. Oxford. UK. Takakusu, Junjiro and Kaigyoku Watanabe (ed.). Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō (大正新修大 藏經). Daizo Shuppansha. 1924-1935. Tokyo. Japan: Zhi Yi (智顗). Disclosure on the Gradual Practicing Methods of Dhyāna-Pāramitā (釋禪波羅蜜次第法門). T46. no. 1916.
Modern Works:
Foderaro, Lisa W. (rp.). A Serial-Murder Trial, On TV, Grips Rochester. The New York Times. Published: December 2, 1990. New York. USA. Gladwell, Malcolm (rp.). DAMAGED. The New Yorker. February 24, 1997. Condé Nast. New York. USA. Kleinedler, Steven (ed.). The American Heritage Science Dictionary. 2005. Houghton Miffl in Harcourt. Boston. USA. Schulte, Brigid (rp.). Harvard Neuroscientist: Meditation Not Only Reduces Stress, Here’s How It Changes Your Brain. May 26, 2015. The Washington Post. Washington. USA.
Network Resources:
English, Katharine. Hannibals in the Flesh. the Guardian. Tuesday 20 February 2001 03.03 GMT. Guardian News and Media Limited. London. UK. Address: https://www. theguardian.com/theguardian/2001/feb/20/features11.g23. 114 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Fallon, James H. Exploring the mind of a killer. TED. TED Conferences. LLC. New York. USA. Address: https://www.ted.com/talks/jim_fallon_exploring_the_ mind_of_a_killer/transcript?language=en. Gladwell, Malcolm. The Criminal Brain. Friday 2 May 1997 23:02 BST. Independent. Independent Digital News & Media. London. UK. Address: http://www.independent. co.uk/life-style/the-criminal-brain-1259436.html. Moskowitz, Clara. Criminal Minds Are Different From Yours, Brain Scans Reveal. March 4, 2011 12:24pm ET. Live Science. Purch Group, Inc. New York. USA. Address: http://www.livescience.com/13083-criminals-brain-neuroscience-ethics.html. Pilcher, Helen (rp.). Grey matter matters for intellect. Published online 21 July 2004. Nature. Macmillan Publishers Limited. London. UK. Address: http://www.nature. com/news/2004/040719/full/news040719-11.html. Book Review
The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy and Its Systematic Representation According to Abhidhamma Tradition
Bhikkhun� Do Thi Thao
Introduction
B y The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Lama Anagarika Govinda Philosophy and Its Systematic Representation According London: Samuel Weiser, 1974 to Abhidhamma Tradition by Lama Anagarika Govinda ISBN 10: 0877280657 is one of the prominent Buddhist philosophy and Pages: 191, Price: US$ 77.33 psychological texts for the scholars. Especially, it is the essential and fundamental need for those who want to explore the research related to Abhidhamma, or Buddhist psychology and Buddhist philosophy. In terms of that, the book provides the concept of early Buddhist ontology into systematic explanation by the different Buddhist schools. The author is originally belonging to Tibetan Buddhism, which often used as ‘Vajirayāna’ or ‘Tantric Buddhism’. Tibetan Buddhists subscribe to a voluntary code of self-censorship, whereby the uninitiated do not seek and are not provided with information about it. This self-censorship may be applied more or less strictly 116 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
depending on circumstances such as the materials involved. However, the explanation of this book can be integrated with Theravāda Buddhist Abhidhamma perspectives and differ from other esoteric texts of Tibetan Buddhism. The researcher would like to review of this book by the following subjects: the author, contents of the book, overall review, and conclusion.
The Author
Lama Anagarika Govinda was born of a German father and a Bolivian mother in Waldeim, Germany. His family name is Ernst Lothar Hoffmann. He studied philosophy, psychology and archaeology at Freiburg University. After having made a comparative study of the major religions, he became a convinced Buddhist at the age of 18. He became a Buddhist monk under the name Nyanatiloka Thera at Island Hermitage in the Theravada tradition for nine weeks, but later he changed to be a Lama named Rimpoche Govinda after he met the Tibetan teacher Tomo Geshe Rimpoche (1866–1936), who completely turned around Govinda’s opinions. Lama Govinda founded his Buddhist Order Arya Maitreya Mandala in 1933. Since then, he undertook travels through the remotest areas of Tibet, making large numbers of paintings, drawings, photographs, and teaching Buddhism. From 1935 to 1945 he was the general secretary of the International Buddhist University Association (IBUA), for which he held lectures on Buddhist philosophy, history, archeology, etc., at the Buddhist academy at Sarnath. His lectures on Buddhist psychology at the University of Patna were published in 1939 as The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy, and his lectures at Shantinekan as Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist Stupa in 1940. He wrote several books on a wide variety of Buddhist topics. His most well-known books are The Way of the White Clouds and Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, which were translated into many languages. His articles were published in many Buddhist journals such as the Maha Bodhi, and the German journal Der Kreispublished by his Buddhist Order Arya Maitreya Mandala. Govinda considered ‘The Inner Structure of the I Ching’, the book of transformation as his most important book. Other works in English books are list as follows: Art and Meditation, (an introduction and 12 abstract paintings), Allahabad 1936. The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy, Allahabad 1937; New Delhi (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers), 1992: 1998 edition: JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 117
Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist Stupa, Emeryville 1976 (Dharma Publishing): First shorter edition published as Some Aspects of Stupa Symbolism, Allahabad 1936. Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, London 1957, 1959, 1969 edition, The Way of the White Clouds, London 1966; the Fourth Reprint, 1972, 1988 edition: Tibet in Pictures: A Journey into the Past, co-authored with Li Gotami, 1979, 2004, Dharma Publishing. Drugs or Meditation? Consciousness Expansion and Disintegration versus Concentration and Spiritual Regeneration, Kandy 1973, Buddhist Publication Society, Bodhi Leaves Series No. 62. Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness, London 1976, Allen and Unwin. Pictures of India and Tibet, Haldenwang and Santa Cruz 1978. (Perhaps identical with Tibet in Pictures: A Journey into the Past?) The Inner Structure of the I Ching, the Book of Transformation, San Francisco 1981 (Wheelwright Press). Reprinted: Art Media Resources, A Living Buddhism for the West, Boston 1990, (Shambhala), translated by Maurice Walshe. Rimpoche Govinda passed away on 14, January, 1985.
Contents of the Book
This book is comprised with six parts. All parts of each chapter have main themes of the topic, and divided into sub-topics. We can see thus the first main theme is the origin of religion and the early stage of Indian thought. And then, he made up sub-divisions of topics: The age of Magic, Anthropomorphic Universe and Ploy-theism, the Problem of God, the Problem of Man, and Summary. In the second part, the main theme is Psychology and Metaphysics in the Light of Abhidhamma. He explains it with the following topics: The Two Types of Psychology, The Importance of Abhidhamma, Metaphysics and Empiricism, Truth and Method, and The Three Degrees of Knowledge. 118 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Third part has a main theme ‘The Four Noble Truths as Staring Point and Logical Frame of Buddhist Philosophy. Under this topic, the author discusses many issues regarding to the truth of suffering, the cause of suffering, the destruction of suffering, and the way of liberation. The fourth part of main theme is the fundamental principles of consciousness. The next part is about the factor of consciousness, and the final part is the function of consciousness and the process of perception.
Overall Review
Having seen the contents of this book, the researcher would like to say that this book is about to explain not only Buddhist philosophy, but also Buddhist psychology. The first part is primarily related to Buddhist philosophy and the situation of ancient religious thoughts in Indian. The author stated that if we speak of Buddhist philosophy we should be conscious that this only the theoretical side of Buddhism, not the whole of it. And it is superficial to talk about Buddhism as a religion without touching upon the philosophical aspect. In the same way, it is impossible to understand Buddhist philosophy without seeing its connection with the religious side. The philosophy is the definition of its direction, while the psychology consists the analysis of the forces and conditions that favour or hinder the progress on that way. The author, therefore, gives the historical background of eastern philosophy from the ancient Vedic period to the age of modern Indian thought. In the second part, Anagarika Govinda gives the explanation of psychology into two ways: pure science psychology and practical psychology. He draws Buddhist psychology and philosophy as the process of knowing and the formulation of knowing, which are indivisibly bound up with each other. The Abhidhamma can be decided neither in favour of the intellectual philosophies nor the purely scientific system of philosophy. In fact, the Abhidhamma is the totality of the psychological and philosophical teachings of Buddhism. Furthermore, the author exerts the concept of the three kinds of knowledge and its degrees, such as opinion, science, and illumination. In the next part, the author takes his research into the fundamental concept of Buddhist philosophy, regarding to the Four Noble Truths. A remarkable of his comment is that the Buddha was a genuine ‘free-thinker’ because he not only conceded to everybody the right to think independently, but because he kept his own mind free from theories, thus refusing to the base of his teaching on mere beliefs or on dogmas. He expressed thus, JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017) 119
without fully understanding axiomatic truth of suffering, one cannot really understand the other parts of his teaching. Therefore, the Four Noble Truths, the programmatic formulation of the Buddha’s doctrine, begins with an analysis of the symptoms of suffering, followed by an investigation into its causes. Anagarika Govinda conveyed three stages of suffering; contraction and expansion are as the fundamental tendencies of the cause of suffering. And then, he went forward to the destruction of suffering along with the truth happiness, giving discussion about the importance of joy and suffering in Buddhism. The way of liberation is the final discussion of this part, giving the explanation of the Eightfold Path or Plan. The fourth part is mainly concerned with Abhidhamma teaching, which often used as Buddhist psychology. First of all, the author states the fundamental principles of consciousness, giving the explanation of the concept of subject and object of consciousness, divided into worldly or mundane consciousness and supra-mundane consciousness, later on regarding to the realm of consciousness. He mentions more about the structure of consciousness, classification of consciousness based on three planes. Later on, the author says that the four types of higher man and the problem of suffering. In the next part, the author expresses the factors of consciousness based on Theravāda perspective in which Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha is an especial favour. The researcher notices that all of his explanations are similar to the classification in Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha. That can approve that Anagarika Govinda was basically regarded to be a Theravāda Buddhist monk before he got favour of Tibetan Buddhism. The author discussed in the last part of his book about the functions of consciousness and the process of perception. In this part, he tried to explain the dynamic nature of consciousness and the theory of vibration. In fact, every moment is the transition to a new form of life, since in every moment, something becomes past and dead while something newly appears or is born. He integrated with Schopenhauer’s sayings that we are able to perceive the transitoriness of things, as an argument for the eternity of the inner being is just as one who is aware of the movement of a boat only in relation to the non-moving shore. Furthermore, he explained the process of perception having explained with the function arise in due order for each one moment. 120 JIABU | Vol.10 No.1 (January-June 2017)
Conclusion
As a conclusion, the researcher would like to give a strong recommendation to readers of this book that Anagarika Govidna, the author gives many explanation charts and tables whereby he clearly illuminates Buddhist philosophy and psychology. It is suitable for everyone to study Buddhism, no matter what schools he or she belongs to such as, Theravāda, Mahāyāna or Vajirayāna Buddhism. Moreover, it is suitable for learners of all levels: basic, intermediate, or advance knowledge of Buddhism. Henceforth, this book can give a grand Buddhist philosophy and psychology which is believed to change our mind and our lives positively if we apply it into the daily life.