The population of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Switzerland

Bashkim Iseni, Didier Ruedin, Dina Bader, Denise Efionayi-Mäder Contents

Imprint Preamble 5 1 Introduction 6 Published by: Federal Office for Migration (FOM), Quellenweg 6, CH-3003 Bern-Wabern 2 Bosnia and Herzegovina 12 www.bfm.admin.ch

2.1 History of Bosnia and Herzegovina 14 Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) 2.2 Ethnic diversity 22 Freiburgstrasse 130, 3003 Bern 2.3 Three waves of migration to Switzerland 25 www.deza.admin.ch 3 Socio-demographic characteristics of BiH This research project was carried out by the University of Neuchâtel’s nationals living in Switzerland 34 Swiss Forum for Migration and Population Studies (SFM) on behalf 3.1 Official figures and unofficial estimates 36 of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the 3.2 Demographic movements 40 Federal Office for Migration (FOM). 3.3 Geographical distribution of the BiH population 43 3.4 Demographic profile 45 The following text is an English translation from the original text 3.5 Marital status 49 in French. 3.6 Residence permits 53 3.7 Naturalisations 55 Authors: Bashkim Iseni, Didier Ruedin, Dina Bader, Denise Efionayi-Mäder. 4 Socio-cultural integration and economic participation 58 Project Management: Denise Efionayi-Mäder 4.1 Aspects of integration 60 Project Assistance: Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), 4.2 Language skills 61 Federal Office for Migration (FOM) 4.3 Teaching of the languages of the country of origin 64 4.4 Education: generational gap 66 Graphic design: Casalini Werbeagentur AG, Bern 4.5 Employment: unskilled and semi-skilled work 70 www.casalini.ch 4.6 Health: post-traumatic stress disorder 76 4.7 Religion and social life of the diasporas 80 Photo credits: © Lukas Linder 4.8 Transnationalism of BiH citizens 87

Available from: Federal Office for Buildings and Logistics FOBL, 5 Summary and outlook for the future 94 Federal Publications, CH-3003 Bern, www.bundespublikationen.admin.ch Art. no.: 420.047.e Appendix I: National Associations Appendix II: Extended Bibliography © FOM / FDJP, SDC / FDFA October 2014 Appendix III: List of Interviewees

2 3 Preamble

The initiative to this research project was put The two leading agencies for the implementa- forward within the framework of the migra- tion of the Swiss Migration Partnership strat- tion partnership between Bosnia and Herze- egy in the Western Balkans, the Swiss Agency govina (hereinafter BiH) and Switzerland. At for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and a bilateral migration dialogue in 2011, the the Federal Ministry of Migration (FoM), Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees of agreed to co-fund the research project. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina (MHRR) submitted to institutions viewed it a welcome opportunity the inter-ministerial Migration Working Group to combine the two different yet closely (WGM) of the Swiss Government a project related perspectives: migration and develop- proposal entitled “Mapping of BiH Diaspora in ment and migration and integration. The Switzerland”. The project proposed the crea- Swiss Forum for Migration and Population tion of “evidence-based policies and pro- Studies (SFM) at the University of Neuchâtel grammes, i.e. measures that would improve has been mandated to lead this two-fold contribution of Diaspora to the development research project. of BiH in accordance with the analysis recom- mendations”. The study at hand conducted in Switzerland serves as a first step in responding to the ini- The WGM welcomed the initiative and sug- tiative put forward by MHRR who strive to gested a process-oriented “step-by-step” improve the contribution of the Diaspora to approach, including a thorough study in Swit- the overall development of Bosnia and Herze- zerland of BiH’s Diaspora integration charac- govina. Also it portrays a general image of teristics, networks and potentials for cooper- the BiH population and explores their needs ation as a point of departure. Relations to and potential for their successful integration the country of origin and integration towards in Switzerland. As part of the research project, the hosting country are closely interlinked a separate study about the linkage between features of a Diaspora population. Therefore, Diaspora and development has been con- the research project looks at these two angles. ducted and published in BiH.

4 5 The presence of migrants from Bosnia and readership, from professionals in numerous Herzegovina (BiH) in Switzerland dates back sectors (administrative, social, educational, to the 1960s. These were considered Yugo- medical, police, etc.) to private individuals slavian workers at the time and up until interested in learning more about the lives of the early 1990s. However, the majority of BiH nationals living in Switzerland. migrants from BiH stem from subsequent waves, first of economic migration in the Methodology 1980s and then political exile following the This study has drawn on three main sources of war that devastated the country between information: the existing literature, statistical 1992 and 1995. Despite the size of the BiH data, and semi-structured interviews with population in Switzerland, there has been individuals and groups. The information thus relatively little discussion about them, in con- obtained in Switzerland was subsequently trast to some of the other communities from reviewed in relation to the findings of a study the Balkans. Although the war in BiH capti- carried out in BiH by Adnan Efendić of the vated Swiss public opinion, very little is known University of Sarajevo (School of Economics about the Bosnians now living in Switzerland. and Business), between November 2012 and It is, in fact, a heterogeneous population, January 2014. regarding their different migration journeys as well in socio-economic and cultural terms. Our study is primarily based on a corpus Given that so little research and studies have of research articles comprising scientific pub- been published in Switzerland on the subject lications and official reports. We then -con of BiH immigrants, the management of the sulted various statistical sources, particularly Swiss Agency for Development and Coopera- the results of the most recent federal popula- tion (SDC) and the Federal Office for Migra- tion census, the Swiss Labour Force Survey tion (FOM) commissioned the Swiss Forum (SLFS) and other theme-based statistics from for Migration and Population Studies (SFM) at the Federal Statistical Office (FSO). One of the the University of Neuchâtel to compile an difficulties encountered was the absence of overview of this population, outlining their precise statistics, due to the fact that, until migration history, their economic and demo- 1992, Swiss residents from BiH were not graphic situation, their socio-cultural integra- categorised separately in the official statistics tion in Switzerland and the transnational rela- on all citizens from the former Yugoslavia. tions they maintain between Switzerland and What’s more, even after 1992, a considerable BiH. This study seeks to portray a general number of people from BiH were counted image of the BiH population, explore their in the statistics as being Croatian or, to a needs and the potential for their successful lesser extent, Serbian; these had opted integration in Switzerland, and the socio-eco- to swap their Yugoslavian citizenship for a 1 Introduction nomic development of BiH. As with previous Croatian or Serbian passport (and not Bos- publications issued by the SFM concentrating nian) on account of their stronger affiliation on the Kosovar, Sri Lankan and Portuguese with an ethnic rather than a national identity populations, this study is intended for a wide (see 2.2).

7 Finally, we conducted around 20 interviews As each sub-chapter forms an independent report have been of enormous added value to throughout the empirical and editorial phase: with experts from various professional fields unit, certain areas of overlap have been inten- our work. We would like to thank them for in particular, Stéphanie Guha and Ursula Mes- (research, healthcare, education, social wel- tionally included, with cross-references to this, and in particular Florian Tissot for his serli Baftijaj (SDC) and Stéphanie Zbinden fare, public authorities) and with migrants other sub-chapters. Each chapter starts with a detailed proofreading of the entire text. We (FOM). We also thank the Ministry of Human from the BiH community living in Switzerland. summary of the main findings. The individual also extend our gratitude to Jasmina Opardija, Rights and Refugees of Bosnia and Herzego- These interviews proved a valuable source chapters end with a bibliography which the Elma Hadzikadunić and Nenad Stojanović of vina (Department for Diaspora), which sub- regarding various aspects of life for BiH reader may find useful for more information the advisory group and Andreas Ernst, for mitted the initial project plan to the Swiss migrants in Switzerland, given the dearth of on the subjects covered. A complete list of their revision of certain chapters and their institutions. Moreover, we are grateful to Azra information in qualitative and quantitative bibliographic references quoted in the text insightful comments, whose feedback also Šarenkapa and Joseph Guntern from the SDC terms. can be found at the end of the publication. helped to navigate through the information Cooperation Office in Sarajevo. All statements Furthermore, the various themes covered from various sources. and opinions are those of the authors Structure and contents are illustrated by way of charts, images and of this publication quotations from the interviews with experts Special thanks go to Prof. Rustem Simitović, Bashkim Iseni, Didier Ruedin, Dina Bader, The contributions are structured into three or migrants. Finally, the Annex includes a list Honorary Consul of BiH in Zurich and former Denise Efionayi-Mäder (Project Manager) chapters, each comprising a number of of the individuals consulted and a compilation Chairman of the organisation “Matica”, who sub-chapters, which are designed to be read of relevant organisations and points of con- was always very accommodating in connect- independently of each other. tact. This list is not necessarily exhaustive and, ing us with key players, whether from BiH or – Chapter 2 outlines the history of BiH. The given the transient nature of associations and experts in Switzerland. His opinions on the objective was to provide a basis for better other cultural or sports organisations, we can- BiH population were of great assistance to understanding its historical heritage as well not guarantee the validity of this information. us. Thanks also to the other members of the as its social and cultural complexity, from the advisory group: Taner Alićehić, Osman Besić, time of the Byzantine Empire up to the polit- Acknowledgments Tarik Kapić and Mario Perić. In addition, the ical developments of the 1990s. This brief The authors wish to express their gratitude views of Jean-Claude Métraux gave us clearer history also covers the different migration first and foremost to those, within and out- insight into the mindset of the BiH population phases of the BiH population to Switzerland. side the BiH community, who agreed to share after the war. His network of contacts offered – Chapter 3 looks in further detail at the their experiences, knowledge and expertise, us a better understanding of the issues faced socio-demographic characteristics of the without whose involvement this study would by the second generation, the children of the BiH population in Switzerland. Here, the not have been possible. A list of these people original migrants. objective was to present and interpret the is given in the Annex; we would like to thank various dimensions of this migrant popula- each and every one of them. Finally, we would very much like to thank the tion in Switzerland, specifically in terms of representatives of the organisations that com- their geographical distribution and resi- We would also like to thank all of those who missioned this study, who followed our work dence status. contributed to realisation of this study by – Chapter 4 addresses the issue of socio-cul- making their time or expertise available to us. tural, economic and legal integration of BiH We are particularly grateful to Ilka Steiner and nationals in Switzerland from both a quan- Yannick Rossi of the SFM for their assistance titative and qualitative perspective. It also in utilising the statistical data in the study. The seeks to propose some avenues for reflection feedback and detailed critical observations on the change in migrants’ transnational made by our colleagues at the SFM in internal relations between Switzerland and BiH. revision meetings on the various parts of the

8 9 Terminology Community: The term “community” is used ESPOP/STATPOP: In 2010 the Federal Stat- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Balkans (the): A peninsula of South-eastern in this paper synonymously with migrant istical Office (FSO) replaced its ESPOP Statistics A type of serious anxiety disorder that may Europe, surrounded by coastlines on three group or population and does not have any by STATPOP, which forms part of the statistics occur after a person undergoes extreme emo- sides: the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea to particular ethnological or sociological conno- of the new population census system. The tional trauma. the west, the Aegean Sea to the south, and tation. Neither does it entail any negative ele- permanent resident population comprises: the Marmara Sea and the Black Sea to the ment such as in the meaning of communitar- Swiss citizens having their primary place of Serbs: BiH citizens with the Serbian language east. In general usage, the word “Balkans” ianism, a term with particular connotations in residence in Switzerland; foreign nationals and culture; also referred to as Bosnian Serbs refers to the territories of the former Yugo- current political and public debate. Instead, holding a permanent or temporary residence in this paper. slavia. and to paraphrase a renowned sociological permit of at least 12 months (B or C permits or encyclopaedia, we use the term “community” FDFA permits (international public servants, Sex ratio: Statistical measure of the number This study concerns the population of Bos- to refer to a group of people having some- diplomats and their families); foreign nation- of men per 100 women. nia and Herzegovina (BiH) living in Switzer- thing in common with each other. als holding a short-term residence permit for a land, i.e. all residents from BiH. While the bulk total period of at least 12 months (L permit); Socio-cultural integration: Adoption by of the statistics here refer to BiH citizens (i.e. Croats: BiH citizens with the Croatian lan- asylum seekers whose applications are being migrants of the host country’s culture, i.e. not naturalised), the stories recounted also guage and culture; also referred to as Bosnian processed (F or N permit) residing in Switzer- learning the language, and also adoption of concern those with dual citizenship or former Croats in this paper. land for a total of at least 12 months. the lifestyles and values of the host society Yugoslavian migrants from BiH now natural- and identification with these. This also ised as Swiss citizens. Diaspora: A term derived from the Greek for Ethnic group: This term was initially used includes demographic aspects (marriage, fer- “dispersion”. We use this term according to in the social sciences to denote groups of tility rate), social contacts, inclusion in formal For ease of reading, we use the terms “Bos- the approach taken by the Global Forum on humans sharing the same identity, united by or informal social networks, etc. nian” or “Bosnian population” for the Migration and Development: A diaspora is common elements of civilisation such as his- entire BiH population in Switzerland, i.e. the composed of individuals originating from one tory, language, religion, culture or origin. The Socio-economic or structural integra- original immigrants from BiH (first gener- country, living outside this country irrespect- term has subsequently been adopted by state tion: Includes the indicators of professional ation) as well as their descendants (second ive of their citizenship or nationality, who, and national projects that justify their exist- integration but also the level of education and generation). These are referred to variously individually or collectively, are or could be ence on the basis of ethnic arguments. possibly also housing conditions. as “migrants” or “Bosnian immigrants”. Note willing to contribute to the development of that the term “Bosnian” should not be con- this country. Descendants of these individuals GDP: Gross Domestic Product. Transnationalism: Areas in which migrants fused with “Bosniak” (see below). are also included in this definition (see also create real or virtual links between their coun- a more detailed definition in chapter 4.7). Muslim / muslim: The term “Muslim” (Mus- try of origin and the host country. Bosniak: Unlike the term “Bosnian” (Bosanac), liman) with an uppercase “M” was used 1968 which applies to all inhabitants of BiH, the Džemat: Bosnian Islamic place of congrega- to 1993 in a national sense, referring to Slavic term “Bosniak” refers only to the Muslims of tion. Muslims in SFRY, irrespective of the degree of BiH (Bošnjak). See the definition of “Muslim” their adherence to the faith. The term “mus- below and further details in Chapter 2.1 (Box Endogamy/exogamy: Endogamy refers to lim” (musliman) with a lowercase “m” is used 2). marriage within the same ethnic, religious in the religious sense, referring to all followers or national group. The opposite is exogamy of Islam regardless of their nationality. (mixed marriage).

10 11 In brief while most were working in Germany (71 %) or Austria (17 %). In 1991, the Fed- – Between 1945 and 1992 Bosnia and Herze- eral Council introduced its three-circle pol- govina (BiH) was one of the six constituent icy, bringing a halt to economic migration federal units forming the Socialist Federal from countries in the third circle, which Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). BiH is charac- included Yugoslavia and the countries that terised by ethnic diversity that prevailed emerged after its break-up. until 1992, especially by way of mixed mar- – The third wave of immigration to Switzer- riages. land comprises BiH nationals fleeing the – The break-up of Yugoslavia in the early war. As asylum requests peaked at almost 1990s also marked the start of the war in 7000 in 1993, the Federal Council decided BiH, which lasted from 1992 to 1995. to grant provisional collective asylum. – During the war and the post-war period, Despite the cessation of hostilities with the Switzerland intervened in BiH by way of Dayton Agreement in 1995, national rec- a humanitarian aid programme. It sub- onciliation in BiH has remained difficult, sequently became an active player in the complicating the return of refugees and process of reconstruction and democracy- their reintegration. building. Switzerland developed a privileged • In light of the conflict and the divisions this relationship with this country, specifically has created within the BiH population, through the establishment of a bilateral quite a number of migrants now identify cooperation programme and by signing a with the concept of “Yugoslavism”, regard- migration partnership in 2009. ed as a defence against nationalist assimi- – There have been three waves of immigra- lationism on all sides. tion from BiH to Switzerland. The first two waves (in 1960 and 1980 respectively) were made up of seasonal workers, unskilled for the most part, coming in response to calls for labour in Switzerland and the lack of opportunities for social mobility in the former Yugoslavia. The majority of these migrants were males from the Serb or Croat community. According to the 1971 Yugo- slavian census, only 1.5 % of all emigrants from BiH were working in Switzerland, 2 Bosnia and Herzegovina

13 2.1 History of Bosnia long-term stability and, as a consequence, the and Herzegovina return of refugees to their region of origin, Box 1: The Ottoman millet system whether inside or outside of the country’s To understand the diaspora from Bosnia and boundaries. A millet was a legally protected religious ernment) pragmatically also allowed non- Herzegovina (BiH) in Switzerland, we need to community. The Ottoman Empire remained a Muslims to hold leading positions in certain be aware of the country’s past and the condi- Legacy of the Ottoman Empires feudal system for the best part of its exist- sectors of Ottoman society (specifically those tions under which BiH citizens migrated to This former republic of the Yugoslavian feder- ence, occupying various territories by force occupations considered impure in the Muslim Switzerland. A brief historical interlude is thus ation is historically known as “Bosnia and Her- and repression. According to the historical faith, such as finance). Also of note is the fact necessary, in terms of both the socio-political zegovina” as it comprises two regions: Bos- context, however, it was also characterised that some of the Empire’s provinces and cities changes in the country of origin as well as the nia, a predominantly mountainous region to by relative tolerance towards Christians and were governed by Christians. A considerable successive waves of BiH migrants to Switzer- the north with a continental climate, and the Jews. The latter, expelled from Spain in 1492, number of poor, dominated Christian popu- land. smaller Herzegovina to the south with a more settled in several different Ottoman prov- lations chose to convert to Sunni Islam, i.e. Mediterranean climate. The present territorial inces. In fact, to make this vast Empire work, to join the Sunni Islam millet, mainly for After the dissolution of the Socialist Federal borders of BiH and its classification as a con- the Sublime Porte (diplomatic term used for socio-economic reasons. By converting to the Republic of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, temporary political and territorial unit date the Ottoman Empire, referring to the monu- dominant religion, they were exempt from there were armed conflicts in BiH where all back to the period of foundation of Socialistic mental gate of honour of the Sultan’s gov- having to pay the tax on non-Muslims (ciziye). sides wanted to defend their own political Yugoslavia (1945) under President Tito. How- and territorial claims. Given the serious human ever, the current territory of BiH formed an repercussions of these wars, the past – both integral part of the Ottoman Empire for a distance and recent – remains a very sensitive period spanning five centuries, from the 15th th subject. This extreme politicisation of history to the 19 century. “Bosnia” was one of the European provinces socially or culturally. Architectural remains constitutes a major obstacle to the country’s of the Ottoman Empire (known as eyalets, from the Ottoman period, as well as from the subsequently vilayets) (Figure 1). The province Byzantine and Habsburg Empires, are still dot- of “Bosnia” was broken down into adminis- ted across the country’s towns and cities, AbbildungAbbildung 11:: BosnienBosnien alsals osmanischeosmanische ProvinzProvinz trative divisions (sanjaks), each of which was mainly in the form of mosques and churches, EyaletFigureEyalet 1: imim The JahrJahr Ottoman 1609:1609: province of Bosnia VilayetVilayet imim JahrJahr 1880:1880: divided into cantons or districts (kazas). Most whether Orthodox or Catholic. However, the Eyalet in 1609: Vilayet in 1880: Ottoman provinces were governed by local Ottoman legacy is strongest in the towns, inhabitants who had converted to the domin- with many old bazaars and public steam baths ant religion, Sunni Islam. Control of the local or hammams still remaining. The food and populations under the Ottoman administra- lifestyle as well as social and cultural traditions tion was governed by the millet system. and practices stemming from the Ottoman past are still omnipresent among the different Although BiH was part of the Byzantine and faiths, whether Muslim, Orthodox or Catholic. Ottoman Empires for a lengthy period of its existence, it was also under Austro-Hungarian administration for three decades (1878– 1918). The influence of this rich and varied past, not only Byzantine and Ottoman but also Roman Catholic, still marks the urban and rural landscape of BiH, whether visually,

«Bosnien»«Bosnien» warwar zurzur ZeitZeit desdes osmanischenosmanischen ReichesReiches eineeine seinerseiner europäischeneuropäischen ProvinzenProvinzen (Eyalet,14(Eyalet, späterspäter Vilayet)Vilayet) ((AbbildungAbbildung 11).). DieDie GrossprovinzGrossprovinz «Bosnien»«Bosnien» warwar inin mehreremehrere 15 VerwaltungseinheitenVerwaltungseinheiten ((SandschakSandschak)) gegliedert,gegliedert, diedie wiederumwiederum inin KantoneKantone oderoder GerichtsdistrikteGerichtsdistrikte ((kazakaza)) unterteiltunterteilt waren.waren. DieDie osmanischenosmanischen ProvinzenProvinzen standenstanden mehrheitlichmehrheitlich unterunter derder VVerwaltungerwaltung derder lokalenlokalen Bewohner,Bewohner, diedie zurzur dominantendominanten Religion,Religion, demdem sunnitischensunnitischen Islam,Islam, konvertiertkonvertiert waren.waren. DieDie KontrolleKontrolle derder lokalenlokalen BevölkerungenBevölkerungen oblagoblag unterunter derder osmanischenosmanischen VerwaltungVerwaltung demdem MilletMillet--SystemSystem..

KASTENKASTEN 11:: DasDas osmanischeosmanische MMilletillet--SystemSystem AlsAls milletmillet werdenwerden rechtlichrechtlich geschütztegeschützte ReligionsgemeinschaftenReligionsgemeinschaften bezeichnet.bezeichnet. WährendWährend seinerseiner HerrschaftHerrschaft bliebblieb dasdas OsmanischeOsmanische ReichReich langelange ZeitZeit einemeinem FeudalsystemFeudalsystem verhaftetverhaftet undund herrschteherrschte überüber seineseine verschiedenenverschiedenen GebieteGebiete mitmit denden MittelnMitteln desdes ZwangsZwangs undund derder Repression.Repression. ImIm historischenhistorischen KontextKontext warwar diesesdieses GebildeGebilde aberaber auchauch vonvon einereiner verhältnismässigverhältnismässig grossengrossen ToleranzToleranz gegenübergegenüber ChristenChristen undund JudenJuden geprägt.geprägt. DieDie imim JahrJahr 14921492 ausaus SpanienSpanien vertriebenenvertriebenen JudenJuden liessenliessen sichsich inin verschiedenenverschiedenen osmanischenosmanischen ProvinzenProvinzen nnieder.ieder. UmUm dasdas riesigeriesige ReichReich funktionsfähigfunktionsfähig zuzu erhalten,erhalten, hattehatte diedie HoheHohe PfortePforte (in(in derder DiplomatenspracheDiplomatensprache diedie sinnbildlichesinnbildliche BezeichnungBezeichnung fürfür dasdas osmanischeosmanische ReichReich inin AnalogieAnalogie zurzur monumentalenmonumentalen EhrenpforteEhrenpforte desdes regierendenregierenden Sultans)Sultans) eineeine pragmatischepragmatische LösungLösung gefundgefunden:en: AuchAuch gewissegewisse nichtnicht--muslimischemuslimische UntertanenUntertanen erhieltenerhielten ZugangZugang zuzu leitendenleitenden FunktionenFunktionen inin einigeneinigen BereichenBereichen (die(die imim muslimischenmuslimischen GlaubenGlauben alsals unreinunrein galten,galten, wiewie dasdas Finanzwesen)Finanzwesen) derder osmanischenosmanischen Gesellschaft.Gesellschaft. ErwähnenswertErwähnenswert istist diedie Tatsache,Tatsache, dassdass christlichechristliche UntertanenUntertanen manchmalmanchmal alsals RegentenRegenten vonvon ProvinzenProvinzen

1010

Transition to the national era Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo. BiH was one of the main driving forces behind Until the nineteenth century, the inhabitants This attack by a local nationalist triggered the this Yugoslavian political union, because it Box 2: of the area, like most other Europeans, identi- outbreak of the First World War. After the war represented a multi-ethnic political entity. Muslims, Bosnians, Bosniaks fied themselves by social class and religious ended in 1918, the “Kingdom of Serbs, Croats More specifically, the Socialist Federal Repub- affiliation. The concepts of ethnicity or nation- and Slovenes” was proclaimed, renamed lic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) was made up of eight Note that, in the context of BiH, the term ality, as modern socio-historical and political the “Kingdom of Yugoslavia” in 1929. BiH federal entities: six republics (Slovenia, Croa- “Muslim” (Musliman) with an uppercase categories, were not as distinctive as in the remained part of this kingdom until the out- tia, BiH, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia) “M” was used in a national sense between period following the transition from the Otto- break of the Second World War. It should be and two regions, subsequently called autono- 1968 and 1993, referring to all islamised man era to a territorial and political order noted that this kingdom deliberately abol- mous provinces (Kosovo and Vojvodina). The Serbo-Croatian speaking Slavs irrespective based on the centralised nation state. As ished the historical boundaries. The conflict populations recognised as constituent peo- of the degree of their adherence to the with most other modern European states, the between Serbs and Croats on the structure of ples were the Slovenes, Croats, Muslims4, faith. The term “muslim” (musliman) with nineteenth century was a period of transition the Yugoslavian state left very little space for Montenegrins, Serbs and Macedonians. The a lowercase “m” is used in the religious for South-east Europe into the ethno-national Bosnian Muslim to forge their own identity. various “nationalities” were minorities living sense, referring to all followers of Islam era. This transition marked the introduction in the different republics or provinces of the regardless of their nationality. While the of ethnic or national phenomena into the Formation of Tito’s Yugoslavia SFRY, whose “parent nation” was outside of Muslims of BiH under Tito were initially politics of the Balkans region. By ethnic or In 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Nazi Yugoslavia, such as Albanians, Hungarians, classed as “undeclared”, they were offi- national1, we mean the socio-cultural and Germany. The region that is now BiH, through Turks, Italians, Romanians, among others. cially designated “Muslims” with a capital political categories that evolved historically its geographical configuration, became the “M” in 1968, as a separate nation of and not objective, “natural” facts. The nine- spearhead of the partisan guerrillas’ resist- Yugoslavia was a country under Communist Yugoslavia. In 1993, the term “Muslim” teenth century was a time of great social ance to Nazi occupation. The creation of influence (subsequently Socialist) with recog- in the sense of a nation was replaced change for the region, reviving memories of modern-day BiH, with its present administra- nised sovereignty on the international stage. by “Bosniak” (Bošnjak). This should not ethnic resentment that can still be perceived tive borders, was decided at a session of the It rose to the rank of a regional power and be confused with the term “Bosnian” today. In the context of the Oriental Crisis of Anti-Fascist Council for the National Libera- enjoyed international prestige as a leader (Bosanac), which refers to all inhabitants 1840, and faced with the political and territo- tion of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ).2 This historic of the non-aligned countries. The country of BiH (see also the Terminology). rial decline of the Ottoman Empire, the Great meeting was held in November 1943 at the embarked on a process of decentralisation in Powers decided at the Congress of Berlin in BiH town of Jajce. It was led by Josip Broz Tito 1974, opting for self-management. In 1981, 1878 to transfer administration of BiH to Aus- and the elite of the partisan resistance. The just one year after the death of the charis- tria-Hungary (as an Ottoman protectorate). status of BiH was thus cemented as a Yugo- matic leader Tito, the SFRY, facing a serious However, Austria-Hungary decided to annex slavian federal entity, composed of and led structural, economic and financial crisis, suf- What happened next is well known: the disin- BiH completely in 1908. This gave the country by its three main ethnic groups, which shared fered a period of major political upheaval and tegration of the Yugoslavian federation and a Western political regime, marking the start a common language3 but differed in religion; international blockades. The tension between outbreak of armed conflicts in Slovenia and of the modern Habsburg state. i.e. Muslims, Serbs (Orthodox) and Croats the federation and its constituents became Croatia, which rapidly spread to BiH. The war (Catholic). BiH attained this status from the palpable, undermining the interethnic peace in BiH broke out in 1992 and lasted until The entity of BiH is also renowned in Euro- time of the creation of the Republic of Yugo- on which the entire political union was based. 1995. pean history for one particularly fateful event: slavia, just after the Second World War. in June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of

1 Referring to the sense of nation as a cultural community. 2 The Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed at a meeting of ZAVNOBIH (Zemaljsko Antifašističko Vijeće Narodnog Oslobo Ďenja Bosne i Hercegovine, State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). 3 Serbo-Croatian is a pluricentric language with four or five mutually intelligible standard varieties: Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin (incipient) and Burgenland Croatian. 4 Prior to 1971 Muslims had to declare themselves either Croat, Serb, or “undecided” in censuses.

16 17 The War in BiH: 1992–1995 keeping duties with a Stabilisation Force istrative division of its own, just like the feder- ton Agreement is characterised by multiple In March 1992, a year after the declaration of (SFOR) and finally support measures by the ation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Serb political levels. The cost of maintaining this independence of Slovenia and Croatia, a ref- European Union’s multinational stabilisation Republic. institutional and political configuration is erendum for independence was organised in force (EUFOR). high, hindering the smooth functioning of BiH. Although it was boycotted by the vast In general, the process of consolidating the BiH as an efficient and modern state. majority of Serbs, independence was subse- The State of BiH since 1995 State of BiH and the ensuing fragile inter- quently proclaimed. The Bosnian Serbs had The Dayton Agreement, formally signed in ethnic equilibrium were supported over many Switzerland’s activities during the war were the political and later also armed support Paris in December 1995, divided BiH into two years by an international presence. The insti- by way of a humanitarian aid programme; from Serbia. A bloody interethnic conflict political-territorial entities: the Bosniak-Croat tutional architecture of BiH following the Day- since then, it has participated in the recon- erupted between Muslims, Serbs and Croats, Federation (subsequently named the Federa- who held differing political visions. Many tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina), covering civilian victims were killed by the practice of 51 % of the country, and the Serb Republic of Figure 2: Administrative map of BiH: Serb Republic and Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ethnic cleansing. Faced with the extent of BiH (Republika Srpska). The Dayton Agree- human tragedy, following the discovery of ment was a compromise between Bosniak, camps holding civilian populations of BiH and Croat and Serb leadership and established the Srebrenica massacre5, the International a new governmental set-up. The Agreement Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia largely recognised new post-war ethnic-terri- (ICTY) issued a list of indictments for crimes of torial situation, while seeking to create a com- war, crimes against humanity and genocide. mon institutional basis at multiple levels, so All of these war criminals have now been as to guarantee the peace and maintain the arrested, and most of them brought to justice country’s unity. and condemned before an international court. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Serb Republic form the State of BiH, Apart from the human loss and the scale of with Sarajevo as its capital (Figure 2). The Fed- destruction, the war in BiH triggered the dis- eration of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided placement of a large part of the population into 10 cantons which are subdivided into both within and outside of the country. The municipalities. The Serb Republic has a cen- war ended with Western military intervention tralised government in Banja Luka and is and the Dayton Agreement, heavily spon- directly divided into municipalities. Each of sored by the United States. This entailed the two entities has its own constitution, gov- a NATO-led international Implementation ernment and parliament. At the intersection Force (IFOR) of 60 000 soldiers, with a man- of these two political entities lies Brčko Dis- date to restore and maintain the peace and trict, a small administrative unit of particular security of the region. IFOR’s mission was significance for interethnic peacekeeping. then progressively scaled down to peace- Brčko, in the north of the country, is an admin-

5 In July 1995 more than 7000 Bosniak men and boys were killed by the Army of Bosnian Serbs (VRS). The massacre was classified as genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in 2001, a ruling confirmed in 2007 by the International Source: Based on a modified version of http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_location_map.svg Court of Justice (ICJ). (as at 30 October 2013)

18 19 On this matter, the European Court of Human ton Agreement. This pressure has begun to Box 3: BiH – facts & figures Rights in Strasbourg ruled that this system bear fruit, with the Sarajevo Canton Assembly was discriminatory.8 Brussels subsequently recognising on 30 January 2013 the equality Official name of the country:Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) made this decision a political requirement of representatives of the country’s “constitu- Capital city: Sarajevo for BiH to receive EU candidate status. This ent peoples” and members of the other Demonym: Bosnian-Herzegovinian, BiH citizens, or Bosnian requirement calls for a revision of the BiH groups.9 Official languages:Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Constitution and, as a consequence, the Day- Area: 51 100 km² Population: 3 829 000 (2013 estimate)

Density: 74 inhabitants/km² 8 In this matter, two BiH citizens (Sejdić and Finci) of Roma and Jewish origin respectively, and thus classified as “Others”, filed a complaint Urban population: 48.3 % against BiH with the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In its ruling of December 2009, the Court found that BiH was in violation of Article 14 (Ban on discrimination) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political system: Federal semi-presidential republic 9 André Loersch, “Les Bosniens, étrangers sur leurs propres terres”, La Cité, 22 February – 8 March 2013, p. 10. Legislature: House of Representatives and House of Peoples Currency: BiH convertible mark (BAM) Human development indicator (world HDI ranking in 2012): 81/186 GDP (2012 estimate): USD 18 billion Unemployment (2012 estimate): 28 % Inflation (2012):2.2 % Imports of goods and services (2012 estimate): USD 10.2 billion Exports of goods and services (2012 estimate): USD 5.4 billion Number of high-speed Internet subscribers (2011): 430 247 Main economic sectors: Metals, timber, foodstuffs, construction

struction and democracy-building process. As The 1995 Constitution mentions the exist- with other European countries, Switzerland ence of three constituent peoples of BiH: Bos- counts the stability of the Balkan region as niaks, Serbs and Croats.7 BiH citizens who do one of its foreign-policy objectives, a neces- not identify with any of these three peoples sary condition for guaranteeing peace. Simi- are referred to as “Others” (Ostali) and are not larly, economic development is an important considered legally equivalent to members of goal of European social and political integra- one of the three constituent ethnic groups of tion, which should eventually see BiH join the BiH. For instance, citizens who declare them- European Union. Given the number of BiH selves to be “Bosnians” or belonging to other citizens living in Switzerland, in particular, the minority groups are ineligible to stand for two countries have developed a privileged election to the country’s tripartite presidency relationship.6 or other institutions.

6 http://www.swiss-cooperation.admin.ch/bosniaandherzegovina/en/Home/Swiss_Cooperation_with_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina (as at 18 March 2013). 7 In post-Dayton BiH, there are three official languages spoken: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian.

20 21

2.2 Ethnic diversity of BiH is its ethnic-religious mix through AbbildungFigure 3: Ethnic 3: Ethnische composition Zusammensetzung in 1991 and in 1998 1991 und 1998 marriage, which prevailed until 1992. For ex- Ethnic composition before the war in BiH (1991) Ethnic composition after the war in BiH (1998) BiH is among other characterised by ethnic ample, 17 % of marriages in BiH in 1991 were diversity. The coexistence of the various ethnic mixed, predominantly in urban areas. groups is a major challenge in the process of consolidating the post-war society. In fact, The tradition of interethnic mixing and toler- destroying this ethnic diversity was one of the ance in BiH was also closely linked to the his- major consequences of the nationalist forces tory of Yugoslavia. BiH was a territory much during the war of 1992–1995. It must be coveted by its expansion-hungry neighbours, remembered that this diversity stems from the i.e. Serbia and Croatia. The population of BiH, historic identity of BiH, as a pluralistic society particularly the Muslim component, repeat- in both cultural and religious terms. edly found their identity being co-opted by 1998 1991 one of these two states (classified as “Serbs predominantly Croats Croats > 66% predominantly Bosniacs Historically, BiH has long served as a “buffer of the Islamic faith” or “Croats of the Islamic Croats 50–65% predominantly Serbs zone” between Islam, the Orthodox Church faith”). Meanwhile, the Orthodox inhabitants Croats ≤ 50% Bosniak-Croat mixed IEBL (Inter-Entity Boundary Line) and Catholicism, forming also a meeting of BiH defined themselves as Serbs, and the Bosniacs > 66% Serbs > 66% place for cultural and religious exchange. The Catholics as Croats, leaving somewhere in the Bosniacs 50–65% Serbs 50–65% existence of several religions alongside each middle those who spoke the same language Bosniacs ≤ 50% Serbs ≤ 50% other, at the crossroads of different foreign but were Muslim. This most likely explains the Hinweise: Die Karte von 1991 beruht auf der jugoslawischen Volkszählung von 1991. Diejenige von 1998 stützt sich einerseits auf Schätzungen aus einer Volkszählung des UNHCR aus dem Jahr 1996, die durch den Staat BiH nicht influences over the years, goes to explain the tendency among the Muslims of BiH to stra- anerkanntNotes: The 1991wird, map und is zumbased anderen on the 1991 auf YugoslavianZahlen der census. Statistikbüros The 1998 mapder isverschiedenen drawn from estimates Entitäten taken von from BiH. a UNHCR Darüber census hin in aus ist zu1996, beachten, which is dassnot recognised die Farben by thenicht State direkt of BiH, vergleichbar as well as from sind figures (siehe issued Erläuterung by the statistics im Text). offices of the various entities of BiH. enduring nature of this diversity; in fact, this tegically support the Yugoslav concept, as a Note also that the colours are not directly comparable (see text for an explanation). may well have been the glue that held society supra-ethnic identity. “Yugoslavism” was rela- Quelle:Source: Office Office of of the the High High Representative Representative in Bosnia (Büro and desHerzegovina Hohen Repräsentanten) für Bosnien und Herzegowina together, speaking the same languages but of tively popular in BiH, regarded as a defence different religions. Another particular feature against nationalist assimilationism on all sides. DasThe Bild, recognition das noch of heute the “Muslim” von einem nation Teil inder DiasporaThe general von image BiH ofgezeichnet BiH, which wird, continues ist eines to der1968 Verflechtung, was an attempt der Toleranz to contain und ethno- der Vermischung prevail today zwischen among some Bevölkerungsgruppen of its diaspora, is unterschiedlichen Glaubens, die eine Region mit einem reichen soziokulturellen Erbe nationalist tendencies in Yugoslavia. that of interaction, tolerance and mixing bewohnen. «Bosnien bekommt nur in der gelebten Wirklichkeit der ethnischen Durchmischung einen Sinn, ohne kann es betweensich nicht the Bosnien different nennen», populations betont and relieine- Staatsangehörige,The 1991 census die revealed sich für the die following Anliegen dergions, Migrationsbevölkerung living in a region with in ader rich Schweiz socio- engagiert.demographic structure regarding the popu- cultural heritage. “Bosnia only makes sense 10 Dieselation traditionell of BiH : outgeprägte of a Diversität total population ist aus derwith Zusammensetzun a true mix of ethnicities,”g der Bevölkerung according in derto Nachkriegszeitof 4 365 000, Muslims/Bosniaks immer noch ersichtlich. represented Allerdings one BiHpräsentiert citizen working sich diese with Diversität migrant popula eher in- der43.7 Form %, Serbs von 31.4 ethnisch %, and besetzten Croats 17.3 territorialen %. Of tions Gebieten, in Switzerland. selbst wenn This traditionales in deren diversity Mitte weiterhinthose classified Minderheiten as “Others”,gibt. 5.5 % called is still evident in the post-war population. themselves Yugoslavs, and 2.5 % were mem- However, it exists now in the form of areas bers of minority populations, mainly com- that are ethnically more homogeneous than prised of Roma, Jews and other minorities. before, even if minorities still live among them.

10 For political reasons, the most recent figures mentioned here are those of the 1991 census of Yugoslavia. The census figures were taken from: Roux Michel, “La population de la Yougoslavie en 1991. Inventaire avant le chaos”. In: Méditerranée, vol. 81, 1.2.1995. Dynamiques actuelles de la population dans les pays méditerranéens. pp. 35–46. A census was conducted in October 2013 and initial results indicate a decrease in the population: BiH lost some 600 000 inhabitants since 1991, explained by the consequences of the 1992–95 war and the massive migration of the population: http://bhinfo.fr/premiers-resultats-la-bosnie,3687/ (as at 13 November 2013). 19

22 23 Box 4: Key dates in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina

1377 Kingdom of Bosnia becomes 1945 Formation of the Republic of Bosnia independent and Herzegovina within the Socialist 1463 Start of the Ottoman era Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1878 Treaty of Berlin, and BiH under 1968 Official recognition of the “Muslim” Austro-Hungarian administration nation by Tito’s political regime 1908 Austria-Hungary formally annexes BiH 1980 Death of Josip Broz Tito (October) 1990 Political pluralism and elections in BiH 1914 Assassination of Archduke Franz and throughout Yugoslavia Ferdinand in Sarajevo (28 June) 1991 Outbreak of war in Slovenia and 1918 Incorporation of BiH into the Croatia Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and 1992 Referendum on the independence Slovenes (SCS Kingdom) of Bosnia-Herzegovina and outbreak 1929 SCS Kingdom becomes the Kingdom of conflict of Yugoslavia 1992 BiH admitted as a member state 1941 BiH is incorporated in the fascist of the United Nations Independent State of Croatia under 1994 Creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Ante Pavelić Federation 1943 Creation in BiH of the Anti-Fascist 1995 Dayton Agreement for Peace Council for the National Liberation in Bosnia-Herzegovina of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ)

CABANEL, Patrick (1997). La question 2.3 Three waves nationale au XIXe siècle. Paris: La Découverte. of migration to Switzerland Key references BANAC, Ivo (1984). The National Question CASTELLAN, Georges (1991). Histoire des ALAIN, Marie-Françoise et al. (1997). in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics. Balkans XIVe-XXe siècle. Paris: Fayard. Discussion on BiH migration within Swiss or L’Ex-Yougoslavie en Europe. De la faillite Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press. CALIC, Marie-Janine (2012). Der Krieg in BiH institutions, or in academic circles, refers des démocraties au processus de paix. BOUGAREL, Xavier (1996). Bosnie, Bosnien-Hercegovina, Ursachen – Konflikt- to a heterogeneous population that immi- Paris: L’Harmattan. anatomie d’un conflit. Paris: La Découverte. strukturen – Internationale Lösungsversuche, grated to Switzerland during several different ANDERSON, Benedict (1996). L’imaginaire BRAUDE, Benjamin and Bernard LEWIS (ed.) Frankfurt, Suhrkamp Verlag. phases in the past. Most of the experts we national. Réflexions sur l’origine et l’essor (1982), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman DELANNOI, Giles and Pierre-André TAGUIEFF consulted as part of this study agree that the du nationalisme. Paris: La Découverte. Empire. The Functioning of a Plural Society. (ed.) (1991). Théories du nationalisme: nation, bulk of the BiH population in Switzerland BABUNA, Aydin (2005). “National Identity. Vol. I & II. New York, London: Holmes & Meier nationalité, ethnicité. Paris: Kimé. arrived at the time of the war. However, the Islam and Politics in Post-Communist Publishers Inc. DUMONT, Paul and Sylvie GANGLOFF (ed). BiH demographic should not be equated with Bosnia-Hercegovina”, East European BREMER, Thomas (ed.) (1996). Religion La perception de l’héritage ottoman dans only war refugees or asylum seekers, as it also Quarterly, vol. XXXIX, N. 4, S. 405–447. und Nation im Krieg auf dem Balkan. Bonn: les Balkans. Paris: L’Harmattan. stems from previous economic migration. Justitia and Pax. MALCOLM, Noel (2002) Bosnia, A Short History, Pan.

24 25 Figure 4: Progression of the Yugoslavian population resident in Switzerland However, unemployment was not the only pared with migrants from other autonomous reason drawing Yugoslavians to work abroad: provinces and republics of Yugoslavia (Kosovo, another reason mentioned in the survey was Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia). 200 000 the prospect of earning more money in West- ern countries, especially Germany. In Switzer- Several of the BiH experts consulted for this land, the first Yugoslavian workers that came study also reminded us that, in parallel with 150 000 from BiH, like those from Kosovo, were largely this migration of unskilled labour, there was unskilled. According to the 1971 census, also an increasing number of skilled workers 64 % of them had previously worked in agri- from Yugoslavia. Yugoslavian doctors and 100 000 culture, fishing and forestry. The majority engineers came to work in Switzerland in were young men (74 % aged under 35). The response to the demand on the Swiss labour proportion of female migrants was much market for these profiles. This information is 50 000 lower, at just 19 %.11 However, based on the backed by the substantial and sudden increase official figures from the period, the number of in the number of qualified Yugoslavians BiH immigrants in Switzerland remained low. choosing to emigrate to Western countries: 0 The Swiss federal census of 1970 showed 15 400 Yugoslavians left their country in the 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 24 971 Yugoslavian citizens living in Switzer- first eight months of 1966, while the total land (21 201 according to the Yugoslavian number for the whole of 1965 was just Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) census of 1971). During the same period, 2700.13 478 000 Yugoslavian workers were registered in Germany (411 503 according to Yugo- Second wave of economic In fact, there have been several waves of period, the individuals concerned could take slavian statistics of 1971) out of a total of migration immigration from BiH to Switzerland, as is the up permanent residence in Switzerland only 671 908 Yugoslavian workers who had emi- The second wave of immigration from BiH case with other countries of the former Yugo- after the fifth year of working in succession. grated to Europe.12 (i.e. from Yugoslavia) to Switzerland dates slavia. While most of the experts and migrants This also enabled them, if they wished, to back to the 1980s. Once again, this was sea- we consulted mentioned just two, i.e. before have their family join them in Switzerland (see According to the Yugoslavian census of 1971, sonal migration of, for the most part, unskilled and after the war, we believe that a distinc- Box 6). only 1.5 % of all Yugoslavian migrants from workers leaving their country in the midst of tion should be made between three such BiH were working in Switzerland. The bulk of economic crisis and high unemployment. This waves. The first wave was thus primarily economic them left to work in Germany (71 %) and Aus- was a time of economic recovery in Switzer- in nature: Switzerland needed the foreign tria (17 %). These figures tally with the various land, and certain sectors of the economy, First wave of economic migration labour, and unemployment was high in Yugo- stories gathered as part of our study. They particularly construction, hotels and agricul- The first wave dates back to the 1960s and slavia. It should be noted that Yugoslavia confirm that the BiH citizens living in Switzer- ture, were calling for seasonal workers from was directly linked to the signing in 1965 of faced numerous structural difficulties during land in the 1960s were in a minority com- abroad. an agreement between Switzerland and this period. Given the poor prospects of an Yugoslavia to bring in contingents of labour. improvement in the job situation, the govern- This was a social security arrangement for ment recognised and facilitated opportunities seasonal immigration of migrant workers to work abroad, a decision that was not with- 11 Emigrant workers divided according to the sector they worked in prior to leaving. Figures taken from: Gokalp Catherine. “L’émigration yougoslave”, 1971 Census, In: Population, 29th year, no. 1, 1974, p. 34, (http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/ spending several months a year in Switzerland out consequences for the Communist ideol- prescript/article/pop_0032-4663_1974_hos_29_1_16154, (as at 10 May 2013). (4 or 9 months) and returning to Yugoslavia ogy of full employment at the time. 12 Immigration of Yugoslavian workers by host country, ibid, p. 42. 13 “L’émigration yougoslave”, Population, 22nd year, no. 1, 1967 p. 131 (taken from “Percée – Revues scientifiques”:http://www. for the rest of the year. During this 10-year persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/pop_0032-4663_1967_num_22_1_10878, (as at 12 May 2013).

26 27 Swiss statistics do not contain any specific See Table 1 for statistics on BiH citizens Figure 5: Number of asylum applications from the BiH population between 1986 and June 2012 details for BiH citizens as they are all classified according to the 1991 Yugoslavian census. as “Yugoslavian”. However, the 1981 Yugo- slavian census shows the following statistics According to these Yugoslavian sources, 8000 on the presence of BiH immigrants in Switzer- 234 213 BiH citizens (of which 61 % were land: 899 young children (0–7 years), 217 of male) emigrated in 1991. These figures indi- school-going age (7–14 years), 7216 males cate a growing tendency among BiH migrants 6000 aged between 15 and 64, and 3691 females to choose Switzerland as their destination aged between 15 and 64 (of which 3625 country. were aged between 15 and 49).14 In total, 4000 the number of persons from BiH exceeded This emigration trend in the 1980s is explained 12 000, i.e. 20 % of the total number of by the exacerbation of the economic situation Yugoslavian immigrants in Switzerland, which (high structural unemployment and soaring 2000 came to 60 916 in 1980 according to these inflation). As to why they chose Switzerland, sources. this was – as the experts also agree – related to the needs of Switzerland’s booming econ- 0

The Swiss statistics show demographic data omy and a slowdown in the migrant work- 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 indicating the rapid and huge increase in the force from Italy and Spain. population from Yugoslavia: while the popu- Notes: Start of the war in BiH: 1992; Dayton Agreement: 1995 Source: Federal Office for Migration (FOM) – Asylum Statistics, 1986 – June 2012 lation doubled in size in the years from 1970 Regarding the ethnic make-up, the bulk of to 1980, it almost tripled in the following ten this migration came from Croat ethnic groups years, reaching 172 777 in 1990. (from the municipalities of Odžak, Travnik, Modriča, Tomislavgrad, Gradačac, Bosanski were particularly badly hit (see 2.1), and Šamac) and Serb ethnic groups (from the around 1.2 million men, women and children Table 1: BiH citizens in Switzerland according to the 1991 Yugoslavian census municipalities of Lopare, Banja Luka, Bijeljina, fled BiH for other countries between 1992 Odžak, Zvornik, Prnjavor). Bosniaks, the and 1995. In addition an estimated 1.3 mil- Persons % Male Female demographic majority in BiH, were in third lion were internally displaced. Table 2 illus- position (mainly from the municipalities of trates the extent of this phenomenon: Muslims 7328 19 % 65 % 35 % Sanski Most, Prijedor, Bihać, Lopare, Travnik, Ključ). One point worth noting in these official The war in BiH rapidly had an impact on Swit- Serbs 12 038 32 % 62 % 38 % figures is the very low number of immigrants zerland, with so many victims coming to take Croats 14 794 39 % 56 % 44 % from Sarajevo. The 1991 Yugoslavian census refuge. Asylum requests from BiH peaked at also shows that around 40 % of this emigrant almost 7000 in 1993 (Figure 5). Applications Others 3434 9 % 51 % 49 % population from BiH was female. fell in 1994 and 1995 but remained at a high level. Total 37 594 100 % Emigration due to the war The first flow of refugees was mainly of Source: 1991 Yugoslavian population census, BiH citizens working temporarily abroad (according to the municipality of origin, destination The third wave of immigration from BiH to women and children, sent to Switzerland as country and gender), Statistical Bulletin 35 (Statisticki Bilten 235), Sarajevo, June 1994 Switzerland concerned the devastating con- part of a contingent divided among various flict the country experienced. War broke out Western countries. Many of these refugees 14 Popis stanova i domaćinstava u SFRJ, 1981. godina - Tabela br. 069, osnovne skupine stanovništva u inostranstvu prema zemljama boravka [Census of households and families in SFRY, 1981, Table no. 069, Basic data of emigrants, according to the country of the day after the country declared independ- confirm that they came to Switzerland “by residence], SFRY, SRBiH, Belgrade, 1984. Godina, str. 3 – podaci za emigrante iz BiH u Švicarskoj. ence in March 1992. The civilian populations chance”, following an initial halt in Croatia.

28 29 Table 2: Refugees from BiH to Switzerland and several European countries Most of them originated from Prijedor (North- The cessation of hostilities and the Dayton during 1992–1995 West) and Bratunac (East). Applications filed Agreement in 1995 led to a sharp drop in the during the years 1993 and 1994 were in rela- number of asylum applications. Nonetheless, Host Number Change Refugees Number tion to family members already in Switzerland despite the presence of NATO-led troops in country of refugees in reception repatriated of refugees as well as family reunifications. A number of the country, BiH experienced a difficult period 1992-1995 registered between country to BiH in host countries survivors from Srebrenica (east of BiH) were of reconciliation in the ten years following the 1992 and 1995 in 2005 then also placed in Switzerland. Agreement. The main problem for refugees remains the complex issue of reintegration Switzerland 24 500 2600 11 000 10 900 The human drama endured by this country into their towns or villages of origin, a difficult Austria 86 500 5 500 10 100 14 200 in South-east Europe soon captured public or even impossible task. At the end of the war, Germany 320 000 52 000 246 000 22 000 opinion, as well as that of Swiss political the new ethno-political configuration of BiH Croatia 170 000 52 000 56 000 62 000 authorities at a federal, cantonal and local made it extremely difficult to return to BiH in Netherlands 22 000 2 000 4 000 16 000 level. The compassion thus generated proved the short to medium term. The number of a great comfort to the Bosnian families rav- new asylum applications from BiH citizens still Serbia and 297 000 50 000 110 000 137 000 aged by war. The BiH migrants we interviewed fluctuated at around 1800 a year between Montenegro expressed their gratitude to Switzerland for 1996 and 2002, before balancing on a lower Sweden 58 700 – 1 900 56 000 the welcome they received at the height of level (between 150–500 in 2012). Source: Marko Valenta & Sabrina P. Ramet, The Bosnian Diaspora. Integration in Transnational Communities, Burlington: Ashgate, 2011, p. 4 the war in BiH.

Box 5: The story of one survivor of the war in BiH

When war broke out in BiH, I was 20 years released them and saved their lives. We often old. Our village of Kosterjevo was targeted by go back to visit him, to thank him. My brother the Bosnian Serb military and paramilitary stepped on a landmine and still to this day has forces on 31 May 1992. That day, 117 people metal shards in his body that they couldn’t from my village were shot in cold blood and remove. In January 1993, I ended up in Sre- women were raped. It was almost a miracle brenica, and then Tuzla. I was completely cut that we survived. My family was dispersed off from my family for 18 months, with no around different regions during the war: my news from them. We came to Switzerland in father was taken prisoner and held in concen- July 1994, to join my father, who had come to tration camps for 27 long months; my mother Switzerland as a refugee. He applied for fam- and my sister were also taken prisoner. Their ily reunification for all of us via the Red Cross. lives were spared thanks to the humanity of I’m now settled in Switzerland and I work as a one Bosnian Serb in a neighbouring village, community healthcare assistant. The war we who pretended to his superiors that he was lived through has left its mark on us forever. executing both of them, but then actually

30 31 Box 6: Timeline of Swiss migration policy regarding BiH and the former Yugoslavia Key references BOSKOVSKA, Nada (2000) «Jugoslawen» 1998: The three-circle policy (for hiring work- in der Schweiz. Soziale, kulturelle und War in BiH ers) was abolished in favour of a dual ethnische Herkunft, Integrationsprobleme, 1992–1995 Dayton admission system, allowing free circu- Schweizerische Ärztezeitung 81/2000, 47, Agreement lation of workers within the EU and S. 2647–2651. http://www.saez.ch/docs/ Three-circle policy quotas for the second circle (non-EU saez/archiv/de/2000/2000-47/2000-47-669. Social security 1991–1998 (and progressive Lifting of Schengen visa countries). PDF, 7. Januar 2013. obligation Dec. 2010 agreement abolition of seasonal status) 1999: Following a special programme initi- KASER, Eric and Saskia SCHENKER (2008). with Yugoslavia Termination of special asylum ated in 1996, Switzerland renewed its Rückkehrhilfe der Schweiz: Bilanz und rules and return assistance Migration partnership aid through a long-term programme Perspektiven. Schweizerisches Jahrbuch Migration Migration policy 1996–1998 BiH–CH signed in 2009 on humanitarian aid and development für Entwicklungspolitik, 27(2), 207–220. cooperation, specifically in establish- Humanitarian aid Cooperation programme based on different reconstruction cooperation strategies (currently 2013–2016) ing a market economy and democratic structures. Swiss cooper- Swiss BiH in ation 2009: Switzerland and BiH signed a memo- 1965 1990 2000 2010 randum of understanding to establish a migration partnership with BiH. 1965: Switzerland and Yugoslavia signed a experts and inspectors to assist in 2009 A cooperation programme was set up social security agreement marking the implementation of the peace accords. -12 by Switzerland to support BiH in estab- starting point of immigration for Yugo- 1996: The Federal Council decided to grad- lishing democracy, relaunching the slavian workers. ually withdraw its special rules for economy, reforming the health system 1991: The Federal Council introduced the Swiss residency applicable to BiH citi- and building basic infrastructure three-circle policy, which halted eco- zens. Thus, BiH citizens who were 2010: In light of the Schengen Agreement, nomic immigration from countries of unmarried or those who were married the Federal Council decided to abolish the third circle, including Yugoslavia but had no children were requested to the visa requirement for citizens of BiH. and the countries that emerged after leave Swiss territory by 30 April 1997. 2013 The cooperation programme between its break-up. A pilot project for assistance in return- -16 Switzerland (SECO and the SDC) was Due to the war in BiH, the Federal ing to BiH was launched. extended. Council decided to grant provisional 1996 During the post-war period, Switzer- collective asylum to those displaced by -98 land supported BiH by implementing a the war. This measure secured the pro- special programme in humanitarian tection needed for those whose lives aid and reconstruction. At the same were in serious and specific danger as time, an aid programme for individual a result of the war. returns (1997–1999) was launched 1995: Following the signing of the Dayton by the Swiss Confederation with the Agreement which brought an end to cantons. the war in BiH, Switzerland seconded

32 33 In brief from BiH having their permanent residence in Switzerland, as economic migration and – It is difficult to make a precise estimate of asylum alternated in bringing more men the number of people from BiH in Switzer- and then women. Likewise, the average land. According to the official statistics for age of men and women of Bosnian na- 2010, there are some 35 000 BiH nationals, tionality is very similar, fluctuating around taking all residence statuses together, 35 years. although other sources claim almost twice – Like the Swiss, the BiH population is now as many, around 60 000, including those aging. Apart from a declining fertility rate who have obtained naturalisation. BiH citi- and thus fewer young people, many of the zens thus represent around 2 % of the for- latter have chosen to obtain naturalisation eign population in Switzerland. and thus no longer appear in the statistics – Regarding natural flows, the BiH popula- for the BiH population. tion in Switzerland experienced a sharp – While mixed (interethnic) marriages were increase in fertility rates between 1993 and common in BiH, the war brought about a 2000 before falling off in one generation to change in marriage practices, with a higher the low rates otherwise observed in Swit- rate now of endogamy. This trend towards zerland. endogamy is also confirmed in Switzerland. – Regarding migration flows, the number of Bosnians remain open to the possibility of BiH citizens in Switzerland has fluctuated in mixed marriages, although this is more eas- line with the various waves of migration. ily accepted if the prospective partner is not Their number increased sharply when the from another BiH community. Since 2000, war broke out, however, peaking in 1994. there has been a steady increase in the When the war ended in 1995, the Federal number of marriages between Bosnian Council decided to terminate the provi- nationals and Swiss. sional collective asylum status for refugees – Regarding residence permits (see Box 7), from BiH; since then, most newcomers to most BiH citizens currently hold a B or C Switzerland belong to the family reunifica- permit. Very few have an N, F or L permit tion category or cases of extreme personal with a period of stay of less than 12 months. hardship. In contrast, there were far more asylum- – As to geographical distribution, more than related permits in the 1990s at the time of 65 % of the BiH population is concentrated the war in BiH. In fact, the topic of resi- in just seven cantons. St. Gallen is the can- dence permits of BiH citizens, as well as ton having the highest concentration, with those of other citizens of the former Yugo- 4802 Bosnian and Herzegovinians, fol- slavia, is a recurrent and sensitive one, for lowed by Aargau (4267), Zurich (4039), two reasons. First, following the introduc- 3 Socio-demographic Vaud (3342), Lucerne (2279), Bern (2065) tion of the three-circle policy in 1991, cer- and Ticino (1938). tain citizens from countries of the former characteristics of BiH nationals – 2011 figures show very little difference Yugoslavia, including BiH, were unable to living in Switzerland between the number of males and females convert their seasonal permit into a more

35 permanent residence permit. Secondly, 3.1 Official figures Figure 6: Progression of the Bosnian population with permanent residence in Switzerland, those displaced by the war were given tem- and unofficial estimates 1993–2011 porary collective asylum, which, when the war ended, was converted for some of Making a precise estimate of the number of them into a humanitarian permit, while people from BiH in Switzerland is not easy, for 50 000 others were requested to leave Switzer- a variety of reasons. First, the official data do 40 000 land. not include figures on naturalised persons, – Between 1998 and 2006, the number of despite the fact that such individuals may still 30 000 naturalisations of BiH citizens increased lin- be classified as members of the BiH diaspora. early as these gradually met the require- Secondly, the break-up of Yugoslavia and the 20 000 ments for obtaining a Swiss passport. From emergence of various successor countries 2006 on, however, the number of naturali- complicate the matter for determining the 10 000 sations decreased each year, with no appar- size of the BiH population in Switzerland. 0 ent reason to explain this. Quite frequently, a BiH citizen may hold offi- 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 cial documents from two states, e.g. BiH and Croatia. As a result, many people from BiH are actually counted as Croatians. Finally, Notes: 1995 end of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1999 change in registration. changes have recently been made in the way Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) – STAT-TAB: ESPOP 1993–2009 / STATPOP 2010–2011 the numbers of foreigners are included in Switzerland’s official statistics, to facilitate their compatibility with European statistics. underestimated, as a significant number of based on ESPOP (statistics of the annual Taken together, these factors may distort the individual from Bosnia are actually included in population status) for the period from 1993 accuracy of any official estimate of the num- the statistics as Croatians or Serbians. These to 2010, and STATPOP (statistics of the ber of BiH citizens in Switzerland. people have chosen to convert their Yugo- population and households) from December slavian citizenship into Croatian or Serbian 2010 on. Data concerning BiH are available only from rather than Bosnian. Some of them have done 1993 on, after the country declared its inde- so for practical reasons, as Croatian and Ser- According to ESPOP, there were 34 688 per- pendence in 1992.15 Until then, migrants bian nationals can now travel freely within the manent residents from BiH living in Switzer- from BiH were counted as foreign citizens of EU and enter Switzerland. Others maintain land in 2010. This figure refers only to those Yugoslavian nationality. While their Bosnian that this is part of a trend. It should be noted, holding a B or C permit (see Box 7). Taking the nationality has become official since then, this however, that citizens of BiH could easily STATPOP definition, the Bosnian population change does not fully clarify a complex situa- obtain a Serbian or Croatian passport based on living as permanent residents comes to tion. As mentioned above, Bosnian nationals their belonging to one of these ethnic groups. 35 513. This figure also includes migrants with are distinguished by the ethnic group to N and F permits as well as those holding an L which they belong: Bosniaks, Serbs and Cro- To estimate the number of BiH citizens in permit and who have lived in the country for ats. The leaders of various Bosnian associa- Switzerland, we need to follow the new defin- more than 12 months. It is clear, therefore, tions claim that their number in Switzerland is itions for estimates used by the Federal Stat- that the permanent resident BiH population is istical Office. The analyses shown in this bigger under the STATPOP definition than 15 BiH was admitted as a Member of the General Assembly of the United Nations on 22 May 1992 (the same date as Croatia and Slovenia chapter, following the definition of the per- with ESPOP. were admitted). Member States of the United Nations Organisation (UNO), http://www.un.org/en/members/http://www.un.org/en/ members/ (as at 20 August 2012). manent resident population, are primarily

36 37 Figure 7: Proportion of the populations from countries of the former Yugoslavia Box 7: Types of residence permits in Switzerland with respect to the total foreign population, 2011

Residence permits are granted by the cantonal departments for foreign nationals 6 % and/or the Federal Office for Migration.

B permit: resident foreign nationals in whose cases the enforcement of this order “Resident foreign nationals are foreign has proved inadmissible (violation of interna- 4 % nationals who reside in Switzerland for a tional law), unreasonable (concrete endan- longer period of time for a certain purpose, germent of the foreign national) or impossible with or without gainful employment” (per- (for technical reasons of enforcement).” This manent employment contract, minimum one permit allows the holder to work after obtain- year, spouses of Swiss nationals or settled ing authorisation from the canton. 2 % foreign nationals, students, pensioners, etc.). This permit must be renewed yearly for L permit: non-Europeans and every five years for EU/ short-term residents (up to 364 days) EFTA nationals. This permit enables the holder to exercise 0 % Bosnia and Croatia Kosovo Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia temporary gainful employment, generally for Herzegovina C permit: settled foreign nationals less than one year, or to reside in Switzerland Note: The total foreign population (permanent and temporary residents) came to 1 837 112 in 2010. A C permit may be obtained after a period of without gainful employment. Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) – STAT-TAB: STATPOP 2011 five or ten years living Switzerland. The resi- dence permit is for an indefinite period; there N permit: asylum seekers are no conditions applicable to it, but the per- Asylum seekers are persons who have applied The progression of the Bosnian population 2002. While this portion of the population mit must be renewed every five years. for asylum in Switzerland and whose applica- with permanent residence in Switzerland accounted for almost 3.5 % of foreigners in tion is being processed. Pursuant to Art. 43 shows a sudden increase in the workforce in Switzerland in 2000, it now accounts for only F permit: AsylA, asylum seekers are authorised, in certain 1999. In fact, a large number of Bosnians 2 % (Figure 7). This lower percentage is also provisionally admitted foreigners circumstances, to exercise gainful employ- acquired Bosnian nationality that year, thereby due to the increase in the number of immi- “Provisionally admitted foreign nationals are ment from the fourth month after lodging increasing their number in the statistics for grants of other nationalities in Switzerland. persons who have been ordered to return their asylum application. permanent residents. Nonetheless, most of from Switzerland to their native countries but these already had a B or C permit, so their The total flow of Bosnian migrants should overall number did not actually change. This be viewed in relation to the total number of is a statistical artefact as, up until the end migrants from the former Yugoslavia. The According to the experts asked and grey liter- an estimate of 52 078 persons from BiH16 in of the 1990s, all nationalities of the former total number of citizens from countries of the ature, some 60 000 persons from BiH live in Switzerland. This estimate is similar to that Yugoslavia were classified together under former Yugoslavia represents 4 % of the total Switzerland, including the first and second obtained with the Swiss Labour Force Survey “Yugoslavia”. population living in Switzerland, or around generations as well as naturalisations. This fig- (SLFS), taking account of all BiH citizens, 320 000, which makes up more than 17 % of ure is extremely difficult or even impossible including the young and old, as well as natur- A combination of naturalisations together the total foreign population: Serbians 6 %, to prove. For 2010, the World Bank furnished alisations. with migrants returning to their country of Kosovars 4 %, Macedonians 3 %, Bosnian citi- origin has decreased the workforce of the BiH zens 2 %, Croatians 2 %, and Slovenians and 16 The WB figures are based on different sources and the most recent statistics from the destination countries of migrants. http://go.worldbank.org/JITC7NYTT0 (as at 21 March 2013) population with permanent residence since Montenegrins accounting for less than 1 %

38 39 (Figure 7). These figures should be viewed 3.2 Demographic movements Figure 8: Natural flows of the Bosnian population in Switzerland, 1993–2010 with a certain degree of caution, as they are not always an objective reflection of national- To understand the demographic movements 900 ity. For example, going by these figures, the of the BiH population in Switzerland, we need total number of Kosovars should be higher to examine both natural and migration flows. than that of Serbians. However, because of Natural flows concern births and deaths 700 Kosovo’s status until recently, as well as among the population, while migration flows the various problems associated with official result from the movement of those entering travel documents, a considerable number of the country (immigrants) and those leaving 500 Kosovars are still counted in the statistics as (emigrants). The difference between these Serbian citizens. They thus preferred to regis- two flows gives the net migration of the BiH ter as Serbians in Switzerland, for practical population in Switzerland. 300 reasons, and especially so as to be exempt from visas. A similar problem exists for the citi- Natural flows zens of BiH who chose to register as Croatian The Bosnian population in Switzerland saw a 100 or Serbian nationals. sharp rise in its fertility rate between 1993 and 2000, before falling back to the low fertility 17 rates observed in both Switzerland and BiH. –100 The total fertility rate (TFR) for female Bos- 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 nians was 2.0 children in 2011 per woman, which is still higher than the TFR for Switzer- Births Death Natural flow land as a whole (1.5) but closer to the TFR for the total foreign population in Switzerland Source: ESPOP 1981–2010. Database: FSO – STAT-TAB Federal Statistical Office (1.8) (Figure 8).

In 2000, there were around 45 000 Bosnians Migration flows A large contingent came during the war, i.e. in Switzerland; by 2011, the number was just There have been several phases of migration the early 1990s, peaking in 1994. Between over 35 000. Meanwhile, the number of those flows of Bosnians to Switzerland in recent 1994 and 1998, many of them, mainly asylum of reproductive age (15–49 years) is higher decades. As already mentioned, the bulk of seekers, left again, probably for Bosnia. From now than 10 years ago. However, despite the this population arrived in three successive 1996 on, the Federal Council decided to ter- increase in the population of childbearing waves (see 2.3). The first two waves, from the minate its provisional collective asylum for BiH age, the number of births has halved (Figure 1960s until the end of the 1980s, were com- refugees and set deadlines for their progres- 8); there has therefore been a distinct decrease prised of men and women coming from BiH sive return. in the fertility rate of Bosnians in Switzerland to work in Switzerland, including those who in the space of one generation. came as part of family reunification pro- Those who returned on the basis of the Fed- grammes. The third wave of migration, from eral Council’s decision received support under 1992 to 1994, consisted mainly of war refu- the return assistance programme. The use gees and asylum seekers. Most of the new- of forceful measures was envisaged once comers since 1995 belong to the family reuni- the given deadlines had expired. In its reply 17 The fertility rate in BiH was 1.2 in 2009. Source: http://www.ined.fr/fr/pop_chiffres/pays_developpes/indicateurs_fecondite/ (as at 14 May 2013) fication category. of 1 July 1998 to an urgent parliamentary

40 41 Figure 9: Migration flows of the Bosnian population in Switzerland, 1993–2010 Figure 10: Reasons for immigration of the Bosnian population, 2002–2011

4000 100 % 1500

75 % 1000 2000 immigration newcomers for

of 50 %

reason 500 0 25 % their Percentage by Number newcomers of Bosnian of origin 0 % 0 –2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Family reunification Employment Education Recognised refugees Immigration Emigration Net migration Personal hardship Others Number of newcomers

Note: Statistics on the status and structure of the permanent resident population as at 31 December (between 1993 and 2010) and Source: Statistics of the population and households (STATPOP). Database: FSO – STAT-TAB. Federal Statistical Office movements of the permanent resident population registered during the calendar year. Source: ESPOP 1993–2010. Database: FSO – STAT-TAB Federal Statistical Office question on this subject, the Federal Council have been two main reasons for immigrants 3.3 Geographical distribution of the first two waves of BiH migrants was disclosed that, of the some 18 000 Bosnians coming to Switzerland: family reunifications of the BiH population determined by certain factors inherent to all admitted to Switzerland on account of the and cases of extreme personal hardship. migration but also because Bosnian workers war, 5242 had returned voluntarily under the Hardship cases include those who had previ- Migrant populations, particularly those who already in Switzerland tended to hire staff assistance programme since the end of 1997. ously been admitted on a provisional basis arrive in a country in a series of successive from their own regions of origin. However, Moreover, 6816 people were scheduled to under the asylum programme and who waves, tend to flock together by way of the distribution of refugees and those given participate in the programme during 1998.18 obtained a residence permit in Switzerland. migration chains for the sake of mutual sup- provisional asylum was determined by asylum Since the 2000s, family reunification has port but also to preserve ties with their com- policy which, since 1990, has distributed asy- Since 2002 (and even before that according become the single most important source of munity and country of origin. Migrants also lum seekers according to the cantons’ accept- to Figure 9), there has been a decline in the Bosnian immigration to Switzerland. tend to be concentrated in urban centres, ance quotas. number of newcomers from BiH (see the which not only are more attractive econom- black curve in Figure 10). Since then, there ically but also allow easier socio-economic As shown in Figure 11, more than 65 % of integration and therefore easier access to the Bosnian and Herzegovinian population in 18 http://www.parlament.ch/f/suche/pages/geschaefte.aspx?gesch_id=19981091 (as at 10 May 2013). employment. The geographical distribution Switzerland is located in just seven cantons,

42 43 Figure 11: Size of the Bosnian population in the cantons, 2011 3.4 Demographic profile Age and gender The analysis of the age pyramid for the BiH To understand the dynamic of the BiH popula- population is based on its shape, its profile Maximum: 4802 (SG) tion, we need to study the various compo- and any irregularities as well as the sex ratio.19 nents of its demographics. Age and depend- Figure 13 shows that there is very little differ- Minimum: 78 (JU) ency ratios show us whether the population is ence between the number of males and young or aging and what proportion of the females from BiH having their permanent resi- population is dependent on the working po- dence in Switzerland in 2011. Nonetheless, pulation. Gender relationships and marriage certain variations can be noted. characteristics indicate any imbalances that may exist between males and females as well In the age group from 15 to 34, there is a as the population’s fertility potential. 10 % excess of males, with a sex ratio of 120, as opposed to 108 for the total foreign popu- lation. This surplus of males can probably be

19 The sex ratio is a demographic indicator that measures the number of men to each 100 women in a population. The sex ratio generally fluctuates around 105 men for every 100 women and tends to remain balanced before falling below 100 at the higher ages on account km of women’s longer life expectancy. 0 25 50

Figure 12: Percentage of the Bosnian population within the permanent resident Note: Created with Philcarto: http://philcarto.free.fr foreign population, 2011 Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO), STATPOP 2011

1 16.0% i.e. (in the order of their number) St. Gallen The concentration of migrants in urban areas 2 4.5%–4.6% 7 3.1%–4.0% (4802), Aargau (4267), Zurich (4039), Vaud is also important for their community life. The 6 2.0%–2.8% (3342), Lucerne (2279), Bern (2065) and cantons of Valais and Fribourg, for example, 7 1.2%–1.7% 3 0.6%–0.9% Ticino (1938). All of these cantons have large have practically no Bosnian associations, due Number towns, such as Zurich or Lausanne. There is to the low number of Bosnians living there of cantons also a possibility of family and friends playing and their dispersion across different localities. a significant role in a migrant’s choice of Finally, according to one expert, the fact that town. This is the case for St. Gallen, for ex- Bosnians from the same parts of BiH are con- ample, which now has a tradition of Bosnian centrated in the same Swiss towns is also, to Serb immigration and a number of active a certain extent, a result of the contingents associations (see Figure 12). of refugees admitted during the war. For ex- ample, refugees who fled peripheral regions

of BiH such as Konjević Polje and Srebrenica km (eastern Bosnia) were sent to Yverdon- 0 25 50 les-Bains, while those from Prijedor and Kozarac (northern BiH) tend to be concen- trated in Lausanne. Note: Created with Philcarto: http://philcarto.free.fr Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO), STATPOP 2011

44 45 Figure 13: Age pyramid of the Bosnian population with permanent residence in Switzerland, 2011

100+ 95–99 90–94 85–89 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Male Female

Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) – STAT-TAB: STATPOP 2011 explained by the over-representation of young The average age of men and women from Is the population aging? on the remaining 32 % making up the labour men among the recipients of humanitarian Bosnia is relatively balanced. There is none- To understand a population, it is necessary to force (as opposed to 63 % in 1995). While the permits for hardship cases. Meanwhile, in the theless half a year between them (35.5 years analyse the dependency ratios20 between the dependency ratio for the Bosnian population age group from 35 to 49 years, a sex ratio of for women, 34.9 years for men), undoubtedly different population categories to determine in Switzerland was only 39 % (as opposed to 90 indicates a lower proportion of men. This is due to the fact that women have a longer life whether the population is young or aging. 68 % in 1995), this has been declining for 16 likely due to the war in the 1990s, when Swit- expectancy. The shape of the age pyramid The BiH population has certain discrepancies years (Table 3). The second difference con- zerland admitted many refugees from eastern overall shows a strong presence of Bosnians but also some points in common with Swiss cerns young people under 20 years old. More Bosnia (particularly the region of Srebrenica), between the ages of 25 and 60, i.e. of work- residents.21 specifically, the number of young Bosnians in where many women had lost their husbands ing age. This concentration is quite noticeable Switzerland has been falling sharply since and sons. Most of those who immigrated when compared with the shape of the age The first difference we can see between citi- 1995, with the dependency ratio of the before the war, mainly for economic reasons, pyramid for the Swiss population, where the zens of BiH and the Swiss concerns the change under-20s down from 64 % to 33 % in 2011. were male, which explains the slight domi- labour force shrinks progressively for each age in the dependency ratio. In 2011, 68 % of This means that there are fewer children per nance of males in the age group from 50 to group over 30. Among the Bosnian popula- economically inactive Swiss were dependent adult (normally working). There are two rea- 64. The proportion of women increases in tion, this decrease does not appear until after the higher age groups, corresponding to their the age of retirement. Moreover, the shape of 20 The dependency ratio measures the proportion of the population of non-working age (children up to the age of 19 and adults of 65 years and older) to those of working age (20–64 year-olds). The dependency ratio is equal to the total number of people under 19 longer life expectancy, with a steady decline in the Bosnians’ pyramid shows a falling fertility added to the total number of people who are 65 and over, divided by the total number of people who are aged between 20 and 64, the sex ratio from age 60 on. rate, with the number of children under 15 in multiplied by 100. 21 Table 3 calculates a separate dependency ratio for the young and for the elderly. A dependency ratio above 50 means that more than half steady decline. of the population depends on the rest, while a dependency ratio below 50 means that less than half of the population depends on the rest.

46 47 Table 3: Progression of the dependency ratios of the total Swiss and Bosnian 3.5 Marital status groups is similar, with 11 out of 1000 married populations in Switzerland, 1995–2011 Bosnians divorcing in 2010, compared with As shown in Figure 14, almost 60 % of the 12 for the Swiss population. While Bosnian 1995 2000 2005 2011 Tendance Bosnian population with permanent residence women display a lower tendency to divorce Total Switzer- are married, compared with around 33 % (10/1000), their male counterparts divorce 63 64 63 68 dependency ratio land unmarried. This strong over-representation of at the same rate as Swiss men and women BiH 68 64 52 39 married couples among Bosnians contrasts (12/1000). with the situation for the Swiss population, Dependency ratio Switzer- which comprises an equal proportion of Given the high proportion of married people of the young 37 37 35 35 land unmarried (43 %) and married (43 %). The among the Bosnian population, it is worth- (< 20 years) high number of married people among the while taking a closer look at these marriages. BiH 64 61 48 33 Bosnian population may be explained by the As mentioned in the previous chapter (see 2.2 Dependency ratio Switzer- age structure and probably also by the fact above), BiH was a country of ethnic mixing of the elderly 26 28 28 34 land that, for many migrants, marriage is a means and exchange, particularly in the towns but (> 65 years) of stabilising their status in Switzerland; this also in certain peripheral regions. In the for- BiH 4 2 3 6 contrasts with the Swiss population, who may mer Yugoslavia, mixed marriages between

Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) – STAT-TAB: ESPOP 1981–2009 / STATPOP 2011 instead opt for cohabitation and therefore are people of different religious and ethnic still classified as unmarried. The number of groups, known as exogamy, were quite com- divorced people is lower among Bosnians monplace. This changed substantially with sons for this sudden reduction in the depend- but also as a result of the drastic fall in the (6 %) than the Swiss population (8 %). None- the war, however, and mixed marriages have ency ratio for the young. First, a certain num- fertility rate in recent decades. This phenom- theless, the rate of divorce among both become a sensitive issue in the context of the ber of those under 20 joined the labour force enon can also be seen among the Bosnian when they turned 20. Secondly, the number population in Switzerland, with the propor- of naturalisations rose sharply between 2000 tion of elderly people increasing almost two- Figure 14: Marital status of the permanent resident population by nationality, in 2012 and 2006. Consequently, many of the young fold since 2000. Compared with the total people were no longer counted as Bosnians in foreign population, the proportion of elderly the figures once they obtained naturalisation. has increased from only 7 % in 2000 to 10 % BiH Swiss There are therefore fewer young people of today. 3 % Bosnian nationality and a larger labour force 6 % Single 6 % to support them. In Switzerland, the depend- At present, these facts translate into a lower Married ency ratio of the under-20s has also fallen, total dependency ratio for BiH nationals, for 8 % Divorced though less sharply (35 % in 2011). two reasons. First, many young people have 32 % 43 % Widowed been naturalised or have moved into the What these two populations have in common 20–64 age bracket. Secondly, there has been is the fact that they are both aging. This is evi- an increase in the total dependency ratio for 59 % 43 % dent in that the dependency ratio of the Switzerland as the dependency ratio of the young is falling while that of the elderly is ris- elderly rises faster than that of the under-20s. ing (since 2000 for BiH nationals). In fact, Switzerland is known to have an aging popu- lation on account of its higher life expectancy Source: STATPOP

48 49 interethnic conflict in BiH since the war broke The general consensus among those we Figure 15: Marriage trends among BiH nationals in Switzerland, by the couple’s nationality out. In fact, mixed couples in BiH came under spoke to was that the decision to marry out- increased pressure as interethnic divisions side of or within one’s community (i.e. exog- came to the fore, particularly in small towns amy or endogamy respectively) in BiH is 80 % and villages. They faced the dilemma of decid- largely determined by the socio-cultural pro- ing whether to resist exclusion on ethnic file of the couple’s parents. There is a far 60 % grounds, separate, or leave the country to greater tendency towards exogamy among escape the stigmatising gaze of their commu- the children of mixed parents or those from nity and/or family. Also, as revealed in 2006 in urban regions. Nonetheless, the general trend 40 % a report by the Swiss Refugee Council, “in in BiH is less oriented towards mixed mar- Bosnia-Herzegovina, ethnically mixed couples riages, and more marriages now occur within and their children may still find themselves in the same ethnic community. The same trend 20 % difficult situations. In regions that experienced can be seen within the Bosnian population in much ethnic cleansing and combats (e.g. Switzerland, even if they have more freedom 0 % Pale), ethnically mixed families more fre- of marital choice than those living in BiH (less 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 quently face discrimination” (Walser 2006: family and community pressure). According to 15). Certain mixed couples decided to leave the experts we asked, the tendency towards BiH-BiH BiH-Swiss BiH-(SE, CR, MA) the country, and most Western nations were endogamy among Bosnians living in Switzer- sensitive to their plight, particularly Canada. land is stronger among those in refugee fam- Note: Percentage of BiH marriages by the husband’s nationality: BiH, Switzerland; Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia (combined) Source: BEVNAT, FSO

ilies from areas that suffered the most during One expert stated that Bosnian families in the war, notably Srebrenica. However, one Switzerland have no particular requirements observer also noted that endogamy is more concerning an exogamous marriage, even if common among the newcomers (2009– “it is harder to gain acceptance for a marriage 2011), who are younger and tend to be more with a Muslim/Serb or Croat than with an Ital- religious. One expert explained that “trad- ian or Swiss national”. The marriage situation itional folk evenings often serve as a meeting of Bosnians can be compared with that of place for young Bosnians, thus perpetuating Kosovars, who, for their own socio-historical their identity of origin.” Apparently, the trend reasons, have been less inclined to accept towards endogamy is also fostered by online interethnic marriages. This attitude is primarily transnational meetings between young Bos- explained by their minority political situation, nians in BiH and in Switzerland, particularly on their Albanian culture (i.e. not Slav), and the social networks such as MSN and Facebook. fact that, in socio-cultural terms, they were Of course, annual holidays in the country of less integrated in the former Yugoslavia. origin also play a role in this respect. Finally, These factors clearly favoured intra-Albanian some young Bosnians in BiH also see marriage marriages in Kosovo, unofficially regarded as to an immigrant compatriot in Switzerland as a means of resistance against the political a means of leaving their country with greater regime in Belgrade. Only the elite Communist hope of social mobility. Albanian-Kosovars married outside of the

50 51 Albanian community of Yugoslavia. Moreover, The statistics show a steady increase in recent Figure 16: Trends in the Bosnian resident population in Switzerland by residence permit, nationalists often targeted this elite as the years in the number of marriages between 1995–2011 ones responsible for jeopardising the national Bosnians and Swiss citizens (Figure 15). These rights of Albanians in Kosovo and Macedonia. data may be interpreted in one of two ways: 60 000 Provisionally admitted Such rhetoric still exists to a certain extent either these are exogamous marriages with foreigners (F permit) today within some of the Bosnian population, indigenous Swiss citizens or de facto endog- who see exogamous marriage (with Bosniaks, amous marriage with Bosnians who have 50 000 Asylum seekers Serbs and Croats) as a threat to their own obtained Swiss naturalisation. The latter (N permit) ethno-religious situation. Nonetheless, for the would appear to be the most frequent case. 40 000 Short-term residents socio-historical reasons explained above, the Alongside a growing trend towards Bos- (≤ 12 months) Bosnian population remains relatively tolerant nian-Swiss marriages, it must also be said that (L permit) in this respect. For example, a second-gener- young Bosnians have a higher propensity for 30 000 Resident foreign ation Bosnian woman born into a mixed mar- naturalisation (see 3.7 below). One fact that nationals (B permit) riage told us that, throughout her entire child- corroborates this presumption is that the 20 000 hood, her father, who was Muslim, took her straight-line increase in marriages with Swiss Settled foreign nationals to a Catholic church every Sunday because citizens resembles that of naturalisations dur- (C permit) she had chosen to follow her mother’s faith. ing the same period, i.e. 2002 to 2006 or 10 000 even 2007. This means that, in reality, the trend towards cultural endogamy remains 0 strong among this population in Switzerland. 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

Source: Federal Statistical Office (FSO) – STAT-TAB: ESPOP 1981–2009 / STATPOP 2010–2011

3.6 Residence permits number of immigrants from BiH but merely a change of passport, from Yugoslavian to that In 1995 and 1996, almost a quarter of Bos- of BiH. There was in fact very little change in nians living in Switzerland were in the asylum the number of permanent residents in Swit- programme, i.e. N or F permit. Subsequent zerland. years saw an increase in the proportion of people holding a long-term residence permit The Bosnian population in Switzerland has (C), while the number of residence permits largely stabilised (Figure 17): the 2011 figures overall remained stable (Figure 16). The steep show a limited number of newcomers, with rise in the number of holders of C permits in quite a high proportion of those born in Swit- 1999 was probably due to the fact that many zerland (23 % as opposed to 20 % for all for- citizens of the former Yugoslavia who were eigners). At the same time, the number of BiH from BiH then obtained Bosnian nationality. citizens holding an N, F or L permit with a Those who had come to work in the 1980s period of stay of less than 12 months was very already held a long-term residence permit. low in 2011. Finally, the majority of Bosnians Therefore, this was not an increase in the now hold a B or C residence permit.

52 53 Figure 17: Duration of stay of the total Bosnian population in Switzerland, 2011 3.7 Naturalisations However, the number of naturalisations of Bosnian citizens has decreased since 2006, a The Bosnian population in Switzerland has trend observed for all naturalisations.22 This is decreased substantially in number, mainly due not readily explained, as naturalisations would 20 000 to the high propensity since 1998 among Bos- have been expected to continue increasing. nians (and citizens of the other countries of After all, most Bosnians living in Switzerland the former Yugoslavia) to acquire Swiss citi- meet the time requirements if they have been zenship. The increase in the number of Bos- born in Switzerland or are living there long nian migrants obtaining naturalisation rose enough (Figure 18). A study by Wanner and 10 000 linearly between 1998 and 2006, as they pro- Steiner (2012) reached the same conclusion gressively met the requirements for obtaining regarding all candidates who met the condi- a Swiss passport (Figure 18). tions for naturalisation but did not file a request.

0 22 FSO, STATPOP 2011, http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/07/blank/key/03.html (as at 29 october 2012). Since birth 0–1 year 2–5 years 6–10 years 10 years and more Figure 18: Progression in the number of naturalisations of the Bosnian population by gender, Source: Statistics of the population and households (STATPOP). Database: FSO – STAT-TAB. Federal Statistical Office 1993–2010

1800 The question of residence permits of Bosnian while others were able to obtain a B resi- citizens, as well as those of other citizens of dence permit (hardship cases). Meanwhile, the former Yugoslavia, is a recurrent and sen- some stayed for many years with an F permit sitive issue, for two reasons. First, following (provisional admission) and were thus at a the introduction of the three-circle policy in disadvantage with regard to integration until 1200 1991, certain citizens from the former Yugo- 2007–2008, e.g. limited access to the labour slavia, including Bosnians, were unable to market and a lack of integration measures). convert their seasonal permit into a long-term residence permit. After the war, Switzerland Finally, it should be noted that most of BiH pursued a policy of curtailing migration from nationals obtain today Swiss residency by 600 BiH. According to a former community leader, family reunification and marriage. such a precarious status after a long period of waiting for stabilisation undermined the inte- gration process of first-generation migrants, 0 who remained in the country for many years 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 without a long-term residence permit. Sec- ondly, BiH citizens had been granted tem- porary collective asylum (F permit under the Male Female previous legislation). After the war, some of Source: ESPOP 1981–2009, database: FSO – STAT-TAB, Federal Statistical Office, 2010 Neuchâtel / Switzerland and Statistics these returned to their country of origin, of the population and households (STATPOP) 2010. Database: FSO – STAT-TAB, Federal Statistical Office

54 55 Key references KASER, Eric and Saskia SCHENKER (2008). GROSS, Dominique (2006). “Immigration to «Rückkehrhilfe der Schweiz: Bilanz und Switzerland. The Case of the Former Republic Perspektiven. Migration und Entwicklung: of Yugoslavia”, World Bank Policy Research, eine Zweckallianz.» Schweizerisches Jahrbuch Working Paper 3880. für Entwicklungspolitik, 27(2): S. 199–212. HALILOVICH, Hariz (2013). Places of Pain. PIGUET, Etienne (2005). L’immigration Forced displacement, popular memory and en Suisse depuis 1948. Une analyse des flux translocal identities in Bosnian War-torn migratoires. Zürich: Seismo. communities. New York: Berghahn. PIGUET, Etienne (2013, dritte, vollständig HERŠAK, Emil and Milan MESI (1990). aktualisierte Auflage). L’immigration «L’espace migratoire de Yougoslavie: en Suisse. Soixante ans d’entrouverture. historique des migrations Yougoslaves.» Lausanne: PPUR – Le savoir Suisse. Revue européenne de migrations inter­ VALENTA, Marko and Sabrina Petra RAMET nationales, 6(2): 27–64. (2011). The Bosnian Diaspora: Integration INTERDEPARTEMENTALE LEITUNGS- in Transnational Communities. Farnham GRUPPE RÜCKKEHRHILFE (ILR) (2007). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Beitrag der ILR zu den Migrationspartner- WALSER, Katja (2006). Bosnien-Herzego­ schaften Schweiz–Westbalkan: Strategie wina. Aktuelle Situation, insbesondere die 2007–2009, Kosovo, Bosnien und Herzego- Situation verletzlicher Gruppen. Berne: SFH. wina, Serbien. Bern: Bundesamt für WANNER, Philippe and Ilka STEINER (2012). Migration (BFM); Direktion für Entwicklung Einbürgerungslandschaft Schweiz. Entwick- und Zusammenarbeit (DEZA). lungen 1992–2010. Bern: Eidgenössische KADIĆ, Asmir (2011). Les cinq piliers de la Kommission für Migrationsfragen. Yougonostalgie en Bosnie et Herzégovine. Une étude de la Yougoslavie communiste de 1945 à 1990. Quel héritage pour la Bosnie et Herzégovine? Seminararbeit am Institut für Politische Studien in Grenoble (unveröf- According to our interviews, there are three expert, it would appear that having Swiss citi- fentlicht, auf Internet online abrufbar unter: main reasons for Bosnians to apply for Swiss zenship fills a void felt by Bosnians after the http://www.dzana.net/content/down- citizenship. First, given the socio-cultural inte- break-up of Yugoslavia. Swiss citizenship rep- load/759/3587/file/cinq-piliers-yougonostal- gration of both generations, acquiring Swiss resents a new start for these populations rav- gie-Asmir-Kadic.pdf; Stand am 3. September citizenship would naturally be the next step aged by war in their country of origin. This 2012) for many. Secondly, having a Swiss passport aspect is more likely to concern women, who provides a sense of security for those whose identify more strongly with Switzerland and status has been uncertain over the years. tend to be less interested in returning to live in Also, it has enabled them to travel in Europe BiH than men. Indeed, more women than and further afield, as BiH citizens required a men acquire Swiss citizenship, a phenomenon visa to enter EU countries up until mid- also observed among other immigrant December 2010. Thirdly, according to one groups.

56 57 In brief undeniable. The unemployment rate among Bosnians stood at 7.1 % in 2010 (as opposed – The Bosnian population in Switzerland is to 8.3 % for foreigners in general and 3.4 % divided into two groups, practically identi- for Swiss). cal in terms of size: on the one hand, those – Many BiH nationals face a variety of health communicating primarily in a Swiss national problems. Refugees tend to suffer from language and, on the other hand, those mental disturbances, brought on by trau- using a language from the Balkan region in matic experiences during the war and a dif- their daily lives. The first generation of ficult migration path. Migrants from the migrants is more likely to use a language first wave suffer from chronic ailments and from their country of origin, while the sec- somatic disorders, often as a result of their ond generation, already integrated, can physically demanding work. Moreover, very generally express themselves better in one few Bosnian women have preventative of the host country’s languages. Moreover, health checks. each ethnic group from BiH teaches their – Given the numerous differences between children their own culture and language of the three ethnic groups from BiH, it is more origin (Bosnian, Serbian or Croatian) in sep- appropriate to refer to the Bosnian diaspo- arate structures. ras, in the plural, in Switzerland. The vast – The level of education among Bosnians majority of associations are organised along varies. Around half of the Bosnians in intra-ethnic lines. However, some Bosnian Switzerland have had no further training national organisations not restricted to after completing their compulsory educa- a certain ethnic or religious group are tion, often as a result of their exile or emi- attempting to bridge the gaps. Religion gration as young seasonal workers. A little continues to play an increasing role in the more than a third have had some form of lives of Bosnian nationals. Religious institu- vocational training after their compulsory tions have progressively become the main education. The remaining decile obtained formal and informal relations between the their maturité (Swiss matriculation certifi- Bosnian diasporas and their origins. cate) or a third-level qualification. There has – The first generation of migrants maintain been a significant and progressive increase an exclusive relationship with their country since 2002 in the number of Bosnian citi- of origin, while the second generation feel zens who have graduated with a Bachelor’s a greater sense of belonging in Switzerland. degree. Most migrants financially support their – Given the lack of qualifications of some and family members still living in BiH. However, the professional downgrading that others in light of the political and economic insta- suffered after migrating, most Bosnians – bility in BiH, very few migrants of working 4 Socio-cultural integration particularly those of the first generation – age are planning to return in the short or are employed in the hospitality sector, medium term, except possibly when they and economic participation industry and construction. The contribution retire. made by Bosnian labour in these areas is

59 4.1 Aspects of integration However, it must be stressed that a sense of belonging to a national community is the fruit In order to gauge the level of integration of of a long and complex process and cannot be BiH immigrants in Switzerland, and their role generated mechanically by the cultural, ethnic in the development of their country of origin, or religious origins of the individuals making we must first introduce certain concepts used up this community. This ongoing process of in our analysis of this population. This will internalising common values and standards then allow us to analyse the socio-cultural allows, at a national level, citizens belonging integration processes and identify specific to different geographical entities, social aspects related to migration. classes, cultures or religions to be included in society. Integration also involves an individ- The concept of integration has different ual’s relationship with the state, which grants meanings and uses, depending on the con- the individual certain rights (residence, citi- text and timing. In the past, it has variously zenship, civil or political rights) and imposes been used as a synonym for acculturation, duties. However, this process of integration incorporation, adaptation, accommodation, primarily entails a mutual exchange between assimilation, or as the opposite of marginali- migrants and the host society. It generally sation, exclusion, cultural isolationism and comprises several stages (accommodation, ghettoisation. It is therefore important to adaptation and even conflicts), though not address the different possible meanings of necessarily in any particular order.24 this term and also the associated issues. Until In this chapter, we look at different aspects of the 1960s and 1970s, the term “assimilation” the socio-cultural integration of Bosnians in was largely used to describe the multifaceted Switzerland, i.e. knowledge of the languages process of immersion and social and cultural of the host country and the country of origin, interactions of migrants in a host country “to education, work, health, social and religious generate a feeling of identifying with a society matters, as well as Bosnians’ relationship with and its values, thereby maintaining social their country of origin and the host country. cohesion”.23 Integration is today defined in This analysis is based on the information 4.2 Language skills the foreign nationals legislation as the social obtained through interviews and focus groups there are clearly two groups, practically iden- and individual process of insertion and accept- as well as the scientific literature and the stati- More than half of the citizens of BiH have as tical in terms of size: on the one hand, those ance based on reciprocity, thereby requiring stics available. their main language one of the languages of communicating primarily in a Swiss national the participation of the migrants themselves their country of origin, i.e. Bosnian, Serbian or language and, on the other hand, those using as well as the host society and its members Croatian. “Main language” here refers to the a language from the Balkans in their daily lives (Art. 4). language they most fluently use on a daily (Figure 19). It should be noted that this dis- basis.25 This situation is similar to that of other tinction includes slight variations according to populations from this region who emigrated the country of origin (the gap between the to Switzerland. More specifically, however, languages varies by only between 2 and 10

23 Fred Constant, Le Multiculturalisme, Paris, Flammarion (“Dominos”), 2000, p. 104, quoted in: Patrick Weil, La République et sa diversité. Immigration, intégration, discriminations, Seuil, 2005, pp. 47–48. 24 “Intégration”, in: Guido Bolafi, Raffaele Bracalenti, Peter Braham and Sandro Gindro, Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity & Culture, London, 25 The first question on the 2010 census asked: What is your main language, i.e. the language in which you think and which you know the Sage Publications, 2003, pp. 151–153, quoted in: Patrick Weil, op. cit. p. 48. best? This question also allowed for other languages to be given.

60 61 percentage points). However, this is not suffi- Unfortunately, no statistics are available con- Figure 19: Main language used by foreign nationals from several Balkan countries in 2010 ciently marked to generalise the use of one cerning the degree of language proficiency language (a Swiss or Balkan language) among of BiH migrants. However, according to the all members of an immigrant population. experts, the first generation tends to use the Note that these data, broken down by nation- language of the country of origin more fre- 50 % ality and not by ethnic group, do not take quently, while the second is more at ease in a account of the language skills of those who language of the host country. Consequently, have obtained naturalisation in Switzerland first-generation immigrants from BiH are more (see 3.7 above). reliant on their children or other people in their community for communicating with the 25 % host society. This situation particularly applies to those with a precarious legal status.

0 % BiH Serbia Macedonia Kosovo Croatia

Swiss national language Language of origin or other

Notes: In most cases, the “language of origin or other” refers to one of the Balkan languages; for Macedonia, 7 % said that they spoke another language better than the language of their country of origin. The dashed line (regarding a Swiss national language) shows the situation for BiH nationals, for the sake of comparison. Source: 2010 Structural Survey, FSO

For many individuals from the first generation, a sufficiently early stage. One expert noted learning the language of the host country was that the problem of poor language skills also never a priority, for several reasons, particu- concerned children from BiH who came to larly their migration journey. For one thing, Switzerland as teenagers. unskilled migrants tended not to make an effort to learn a language of the host country, While socio-linguistic integration seems to as they did not plan to stay in Switzerland. have been difficult for the first generation, What’s more, their work did not require any those of the second generation, who were particular language proficiency. Secondly, born or raised in Switzerland, speak and flu- many refugees did not have language lessons ently use the language of their place of resi- from the start on account of the migration dence at home and at work in their day- context and their legal status in Switzerland, to-day lives. A variety of factors go to explain despite the fact that many of them had uni- this. The main reason is the integration of versity degrees or other qualifications. As a children from BiH from an early age. Accord- result, they were unable to immerse them- ing to one psychiatrist from BiH, “Children selves into the language of the host country at from BiH have been successfully integrated.

62 63 4.3 Teaching currently 27 džemats operating in Switzer- Regarding the children of the Bosnian Croat Box 8: Language skills: of the languages of land, most of which are in the German-speak- population, it should be noted that it is practi- experience of one community expert the country of origin ing part of the country. The majority of these cally impossible to give an accurate estimate offer weekly lessons in the Bosnian language, of this population within the Croat communi- A second-generation migrant working as The language of the country of origin is less alongside other activities such as teaching of ties of Switzerland.27 Most of the Croats from a psychologist, in daily contact with BiH well known among the second generation the Islam, social support or traditional folk BiH attend complementary classes in the Cro- nationals and particularly refugees, under- of Bosnians in Switzerland and is generally activities. atian language. Until 1990, courses in the lined the difficulties encountered by the limited to basic conversational skills. Code- Croatian language and culture were organ- first-generation migrants in terms of lan- switching, i.e. the inclusion of certain words The children of the Bosnian Serb population ised by Croatian cultural associations and guage comprehension: “Patients of mine or phrases from another language into a attend Serbian language schools (largely Catholic churches. Since 1993, however, they who are first-generation migrants fre- conversation may be quite common among financed by the Ministry of Education of have been funded by the Republic of Croatia’s quently contact me regarding communica- young people with limited knowledge of a the Republic of Serbia) in St. Gallen, Zurich, Ministry of Science, Education and Sports. tion problems in the language of the host Bosnian language, who may use a word in a Winterthur, Solothurn, Bern, Lausanne and There are 20 teachers teaching Croatian to a country (particularly written correspond- Swiss language. This is partly explained by the Geneva. The number of children attending total of 1750 students, in 94 localities around ence). They come to a consultation and absence of appropriate structures for teach- these schools is probably less than 10 % of Switzerland.28 The cantons with the highest ask me to read and explain various letters, ing the Bosnian languages in Switzerland. The all the children from families of Serb origin numbers of Croat populations are Zurich and including remainders for unpaid bills ... existence of such institutions, which do not in Switzerland, of which there are around Aargau, followed by St. Gallen, Bern, Ticino, things that have nothing to do with my receive any state support from BiH, is purely 2000.26 Meanwhile, three “autonomous Lucerne, Solothurn, Basel, Schaffhausen and professional consultations. They bring a on the migrants’ own initiative. What’s more, schools” for teaching the Serbian language Valais. However, according to the leader of a different problem each time they come.” according to one of the leaders of a džemat were founded in the early 2000s, in the can- Croat association, the number of Croat stu- in Switzerland (Bosniak Islamic place of con- tons of Lucerne, Vaud and Zug. According dents attending courses in the Croatian lan- gregation), the organisation of teaching the to one community expert, these are distin- guage and culture is falling rapidly, on account They have been rapidly included in the school Bosnian languages in Switzerland suffers on guished by their independence from the Ser- of their widespread cultural immersion in the system and received intensive lessons in account of the ethnic division of BiH: “The bian Ministry and are self-financed by the par- host country. According to one Serb religious French”. Fluency in at least one of the lan- organisation of language teaching by the BiH ents. Unlike in the officially funded schools, leader, this loss of interest in learning the lan- guages of the host country is also explained government is undermined by BiH politicians the language is taught in these schools with a guage of origin is also quite common among by the immersion of children, as early as pos- who want to stymie any efforts in favour of a view to integration in the host country and the Serb population in Switzerland. sible, in the culture of the host country and a joint school of BiH populations. This could not solely for the purpose of maintaining links willingness to identify with it. This feeling of help to reunite a Bosnian national community with the country of origin. The school in Vaud identifying with Switzerland is reinforced by in Switzerland.” As a result, the teaching of is the only one of these still in operation today. the tendency to “block out” the child’s sense BiH languages in Switzerland, for the children It has some 70 students of different ages, of belonging to BiH. The country of origin of immigrant families, is separated by ethnic based in different localities. Around half of its thus loses its attraction with the second gen- group, in accordance with the three groups students are Serbs from BiH. eration. This statement was corroborated by making up this country (see 2.1 above). the organisation “Matica” (see Box 11), which had to translate its website as an increasing As regards the Bosniak population, courses number of young people did not understand in the Bosnian language and culture are given 26 2007 figure: http://www.srpskadijaspora.info/vest.asp?id=4833 (as at 18 May 2013); the figure of 2000 students following Serbian language classes was also given by the community experts. the Bosnian languages. in most džemats of BiH in Switzerland. The 27 Based on the opinion of Marija Ćulap Imhof, who works at “Drustvene obavijesti”, the media organisation of the Croat cultural lessons are self-financed, mainly by contribu- association in Switzerland, two-thirds of Croats in Switzerland are from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bilten Udruge “fra Grga Vilić”, Year III (Spring 2013), no. 8, p. 2. tions from the students’ parents. There are 28 http://www.mvep.hr/hr/hmiu/iseljenistvo/svicarska/ (as at 22 May 2013).

64 65 Figure 20: Comparison of educational levels by nationality, 2010 Box 9: Bosnian language school in Emmenbrücke

Some associations organised by Bosniaks others, such as in Basel or Solothurn, have 50 % claim to be pan-Bosnian, such as the “Heima- closed down. The teaching of Bosnian lan- tliche Sprachen und Kultur HSK” in Emmen- guages within the framework of such struc- 40 % brücke (Lucerne). This school strives to tures is increasingly threatened by a loss of “improve Bosnian language skills, represent interest of students and their parents in such 30 % Swiss the culture, literature and art of BiH, and courses. This has largely to do with the cost Non- 20 % strengthen relations between BiH children of such courses for the parents. According to Europeans through education and games”.29 Unlike the the managers of the school in Emmenbrücke, schools of the džemats, this school brings they are increasingly in urgent need of the 10 % BiH together children from the different ethnic local authorities’ support, in terms of both groups and religions and teaches them the finance and logistics. 0 % Bosnian languages in both the Roman and Compulsory Vocational Maturité Third-level Cyrillic alphabets. This school still exists, but education or less training education

Notes: Situation in 2010; adults aged between 18 and 64. Less than seven years of compulsory education; compulsory education (including supplementary year); initial vocational training; high-school or professional maturité; third-level degree or diploma from a university or technical college (EPF). Source: Structural Survey.

4.4 Education: However, these figures show only part of the nationals, he claims that Bosnian children Secondly, these figures do not distinguish generational gap story regarding the educational level of Bos- often have a better level of education.32 The between the levels of education in the differ- nian migrants in Switzerland, for two reasons. socio-professional profile of the parents and ent generations. And yet, many children of As regards education and training,30 Figure 20 First, the data do not distinguish between the the family environment in which children Bosnian migrants are now pursuing post-com- shows that Bosnians are mainly concentrated level of training of different migratory waves. grow up often play a key role in this respect. pulsory and even third-level education. With in manual work, even more so than all other The consensus among those we interviewed These findings must be seen in context, given regard to third-level education, the statistics non-European nationals. Slightly more than was that economic migrants from the first the divergence in the profiles of first-genera- show low numbers of Bosnian students. half of BiH nationals have left formal educa- migration wave generally had a lower level of tion Bosnians who fled the conflict in BiH, However, these figures conceal the actual tion upon completion of compulsory school- education than those who came after the ranging from poorly educated people from presence of many naturalised students in ing. Another third have pursued vocational war. Their schooling was interrupted as a isolated villages east of the Drina to university higher education. Nonetheless, there has training, and less than 10 % have completed result of them coming to Switzerland as graduates living in large urban centres. Finally, been a significant and progressive increase their education with a maturité diploma or a young seasonal workers. One expert pointed the majority of qualified refugees from BiH since 2002, with almost 60 Bosnian students third-level qualification. out that the children of refugees have a “good faced a downgrading of their professional obtaining a Bachelor’s degree in 2010. There basic education” and are often advanced qualifications after migration, with their has been no such increase in the number of in mathematics.31 Compared with Kosovar degrees or diplomas not being recognised in Master’s degrees, which has remained stable Switzerland (see 4.5). at 20 since 2008. Likewise, the number of 29 Interview with a member of the directing board of Language and culture of origin (LCO) of Emmenbrücke, 4 October 2012. 30 Glossary of educational levels: “Compulsory education” includes primary school and Level I secondary school; “Vocational training”, Level II secondary (post-compulsory), comprises a pre-apprenticeship, an apprenticeship of 2 to 4 years, full-time vocational college, commercial diploma, apprenticeship workshops and similar training; “Third-level education” includes universities and technical colleges, 32 Regarding the level of education of Kosovars in Switzerland, see Burri-Sharani, B., et al., 2010; it should be noted that the specialised and professional higher education with a federal diploma, studies in a technical or graduate school, etc. The figures quoted Albanian-speaking population, the majority in Kosovo, faced an educational embargo in the 1990s on account of the military-police in this paragraph are taken from the Structural Survey. domination in Kosovo by the regime of Slobodan Milošević. Regarding the situation of schools in Kosovo during the 1990s, see: Ibrahim 31 Op. cit. Bernard Courvoisier, p. 110. Rugova, La question du Kosovo, interviews with Marie-Françoise Allain and Xavier Galmiche, Paris, Fayard, 1994.

66 67 Figure 21: Percentage of women among all students between 1995 and 2010

80 %

60 % BiH Swiss 40 %

20 %

0 % 2010 1997 1995 1998 1996 1999 2001 2002 2007 2003 2005 2009 2008 2006 2000 2004

Notes: Percentage of women among all students. The figures for Swiss students refer to all female students in Switzerland, regardless of their nationality. Source: SIUS

Bosnians completing a doctoral thesis has majority in third-level education (59 %). This (approx. 25 %). Note that this trend has A further two aspects concerning the educa- remained at between 5 and 10 a year since contrast can also be seen among non-EU reversed since 1992 (when they were approx. tion of BiH nationals cropped up again and 2002. The general trend of an increasing nationals (around 20 percentage points). Fur- 10 % and 35 % respectively). Nonetheless, again in the interviews with experts and number of students – with the exception of thermore, Figure 21 shows that, in third-level both of these fields have increased in popular- migrants. First of all, the parents’ cultural rela- doctoral studies – is similar to that observed education, the proportion of Bosnian female ity among Bosnian students since then. The tionship with education has tended to affect among Swiss students. students is much higher (approx. 60 % in turnaround in favour of the humanities and their children’s decisions in this respect. As it 2010) than the overall proportion of female social sciences may be interpreted as a conse- happens, BiH parents often regard a university Comparing the situation of Swiss nationals students in Switzerland, taking account of all quence of the difficult situation in BiH since degree as the epitome of socio-professional with that of Bosnians, within the same level of nationalities (approx. 50 %). This high and 1992 but also, primarily, the human suffering success, reflecting their lack of understanding education, there is a much greater gender increasing level of Bosnian women in univer- caused by the ravages of war. In more con- of the opportunities also offered by non-uni- gap among the Swiss. The distribution is rela- sities and third-level colleges (HES) may be crete terms, the emotional trauma endured or versity professional qualifications or in the tively even among Bosnians (with a gap of less interpreted as a positive sign of emancipation passed on by parents to the next generation technical colleges in Switzerland. Secondly, than 10 percentage points; see also 4.5). At inherited from Yugoslavian Socialism but also, may have played a role in this choice. In 2010, parents from BiH have tended not to fully the time of the survey, the gender gap among for those from a more traditional milieu, as a law and natural sciences each accounted for understand the Swiss educational system in Swiss students varied considerably according sign of their successful integration. around 10 % of Bosnian students. The field of time, due to their difficulty in accessing infor- to the highest level of education reached. The natural sciences has become less attractive, mation and the language barrier. According over-representation of females among those In terms of university courses (Figure 22), Bos- compared with 1995 when it accounted to one expert, the first wave of BiH children who completed only their compulsory educa- nian students tend to opt more for the for up to 30 % of students from BiH. Finally, was effectively “sacrificed”, as the parents tion (68 %) gradually decreases as the level humanities and social sciences (approx. 40 % medicine and technical sciences were the least took some years to understand their central of education increases, with males in the in 2010), followed by business and economics popular options in 2010. role in their children’s schooling; the Swiss

68 69 Figure 22: Fields of university study pursued by Bosnian students between 1992 and 2010 Yugoslavia are clearly over-represented among may be explained by a number of factors. the recipients of disability pensions (Guggis- First, a lower level of education increases the berg 2010). risk of having to rely on social welfare, and a 100 % Interdisciplinary and large number of the Bosnians in Switzerland others As to the working population, 6.6 % of Bos- are unskilled (see 4.4). Secondly, this low level 75 % Technical sciences nians are unemployed, compared with 2.2 % of education, together with the downgrading Medicine and pharmacy of Swiss and 11 % of non-Europeans. In 2010, of qualifications after migration, means that a 50 % Natural and exact scienses the rate of unemployment among the Bos- significant number of foreigners in Switzer- Law nian population in Switzerland (8.1 %) was land are working in low-skilled and insecure much higher than that of Swiss citizens jobs (see below). Finally, given the high num- 25 % Business and economics (3.4 %). While the first proportion should be ber of couples with children in this popula- Humanities and viewed with caution for reasons of method- tion, many people have to supplement a low social sciences 0 % ology, the gap between the nationalities in income with social welfare to meet the needs terms of insertion in the labour market is of their family (see 3.5). Nonetheless, the rate 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 significant. This difference is also visible in of social welfare recipients among BiH immi- Source: SIUS the breakdown of recipients of social welfare. grants has been decreasing since 2006. In 2011, there were 2968 BiH nationals in system requires active participation on their 4.5 Employment: receipt of social welfare payments. They rep- While the situation differs by nationality, there part. Then, they understood all too late that, unskilled and semi-skilled resent 2.8 % of all foreigners receiving social is also a gender gap with regard to employ- unlike the Yugoslavian system (or more specif- work welfare and between 6 and 10 % of the Bos- ment. Figure 24 shows that, in general, the ically, Bosnian), the children’s socio-profes- nian population in Switzerland. In compari- proportion of the population not in the labour sional paths are decided at a very early age in In 2010, 65 % of Bosnians in Switzerland son, the rate of Swiss citizens receiving social force is higher for women, irrespective of Switzerland, i.e. in year 5 or 6 of compulsory formed part of the labour force, a similar rate welfare has remained stable at 2.1 %, which the nationality. This over-representation of education (at 11–12 years old). This has had to that of non-European nationals but higher serious consequences for children arriving in than that of Swiss nationals (61.5 %) (see Fig- Switzerland at a critical age in their education. ure 23). More than one-third of Swiss (36 %) Figure 23: Professional situation by nationality, in 2010 Moreover, the stories we have heard confirm are not in gainful employment, undoubtedly that children have received more support because of the higher number of pensioners 100 % from their parents when they themselves had and students among the Swiss population. In a university education, as they also most likely the Bosnian population, 27.8 % are not in the 75 % had parental guidance at home. labour force, some of which are recipients of Economically disability pensions. As mentioned in the fol- inactives 50 % lowing sub-chapter on health (see 4.6), many Unemployed of the economic migrants from the first and second waves of immigration suffer from 25 % In employment chronic illnesses, particularly because of the tough physical activities in their work and 0 % also, in some cases, because of traumatisms BiH Swiss Non-Europeans suffered during the war. Studies confirm that the citizens of countries from the former Source: Structural Survey

70 71 women is explained by the fact that women that is exactly in the middle of the pay scale; in make up a higher number of homemakers other words, half of the individuals in the popu- and also of pensioners, given their longer life lation observed earn less than that amount expectancy (see 3.4). However, the gender and the other half earn more. We can thus see gap is much narrower among the Bosnian that half of the Bosnian men (aged between population, with a difference of only four per- 18 and 65) in full-time employment earn less centage points in the labour force. This rela- than CHF 66 600, while only a quarter of their tive balance in the professional situation Swiss counterparts are in this situation. The between men and women – reflecting our median annual income for Swiss males is comments with regard to the level of educa- CHF 87 100. Similarly, half of Bosnian women tion (see 4.4) – is not found among either (18–65 years) earn less than CHF 52 300, the Swiss (with a gap of 12 percentage points) while only a quarter of Swiss women earn less or non-European migrants (21 percentage than that amount (their median annual points). income being CHF 68 900). In general, we can see that the annual income of women, of all We use the median annual income to com- nationalities, is lower than that of the men of pare the pay situation of the Swiss and Bos- the same nationality; for the same number of nian populations, as this represents the value working hours, they earn around 80 % of the

Figure 24: Professional situation by nationality and gender, in 2011

100 %

80 %

60 %

40 %

20 %

0 % M F M F M F Swiss BiH Non-Europeans

Economically inactive Unemployed In employment

Note: Extrapolation based on fewer than 90 observations (BiH). Source: ESPA

72 73 change their chosen profession. Indeed, the war, in particular, but also on account of Box 10: Qualified in BiH, cleaner in Switzerland based on our findings, it would appear that certain obstacles faced in the host country the Bosnian population has made little use (poor language skills, lack of professional net- One second-generation migrant in Switzer- dence situation, so as to get out of the provi- of the possibilities on offer in Switzerland to work, lack of information on having qualifica- land told us: “Before coming to Switzerland sional asylum system and obtain a B permit. acquire new professional skills (continuing tions recognised in Switzerland). As shown by because of the war, both of my parents held [...] But they never really managed to inte- education). Moreover, they have made little the breakdown of educational levels among qualified jobs: my father was an engineer and grate, despite trying to learn French. They effort to obtain a good level of proficiency of Bosnian migrants (see 4.4), emigration from my mother was a chemist. They started work- faced so many personal, family-related and the languages of the host country, as a result BiH to Western countries also included an ele- ing in Switzerland in unskilled cleaning jobs professional challenges in Switzerland. It was of their migration history in the context of ment of skilled people. According to the because they needed to work to become easier for me.” war. Some of the first-generation migrants World Bank, the “brain drain” from BiH was financially independent and sort out their resi- who had highly qualified professions in their 24.5 % and, in 2007, the International Organ- country of origin (legal experts, engineers, ization for Migration claimed that 12.7 % of doctors) were unable to pursue their profes- doctors had emigrated from BiH. This loss sion in Switzerland. This professional down- of graduates and white-collar workers was male salary. In reality, the discrepancies in sectors. Women are often employed in retail grading resulted from their conditions of emi- largely due to the war and its repercussions. salary between nationalities and – to a lesser sales, hairdressing or as administrative staff – gration, combined with the consequences of extent – genders can be explained in part by jobs that, they believe, are more easily acces- the type of profession (see Figure 25). sible to BiH migrants. Their mothers, first-gen- eration migrants, often work in cleaning or Figure 25: Type of profession by nationality, in 2010 As shown in Figure 25, most Bosnians work in housekeeping jobs, where they can work part the hospitality sector, industry and construc- time and business networks have developed tion, accounting for almost a third of those in within their community. 20 % employment. These figures also confirm the trend among citizens of the Western Balkan While some Bosnians have set up their own 15 % countries to work in these countries, also business in cleaning and building services and observed among Kosovars, Serbs and Mace- hired fellow Bosnians, one expert pointed out donians. The strong presence of labour from that, in general, immigrants from BiH are less 10 % BiH, or countries of the former Yugoslavia likely than Kosovars to start up their own busi- in general, thus constitutes an undeniable ness. This difference is partly explained by the 5 % contribution to these sectors in Switzerland. fact that Kosovars have generally been inde- Meanwhile, in the sectors of healthcare, sci- pendent in the past and were less likely to ence, management and the legal professions, have been hired in Yugoslavian state compa- 0 % Bosnians are under-represented with respect nies, while Bosnians were more attached to IT to the Swiss population. While the statistics the Yugoslavian socialist production model, and Industry and banks Agriculture Technology Hospitality Healthcaresciences do not differentiate between the first and sec- which had once given them stability and full Construction ond generations of migrants, the stories we employment. Administration, and Commercialtransportation have heard confirm that many second-gener- management, ation Bosnians work in manual trades such as Therefore, most Bosnians in Switzerland are BiH Swiss Non-Europeans building or electricity. In fact, many of these employed in low-skilled jobs and, according have also set up their own business in these to the sources we asked, are reluctant to Source: FSO, Structural survey

74 75 flict. For many years, these traumatic experi- expert told us that most of those who wit- ences were punctuated by phases of collec- nessed the ravages of war never received tive mourning and depression, having negative appropriate treatment for the traumatic repercussions on their integration process in events they experienced. The mental scars Switzerland. can be very deep, however, particularly for women who were victims of rape during the A study has shown that, apart from the trau- war.35 A negative connotation associated matic events witnessed during the war, other with psychological and psychiatric consulta- possible causes for health problems among tions may explain the scepticism surrounding Bosnians include their migration journey, with seeking help. There is a general feeling within the associated structural problems – such as the community that these specialist services their legal status, working and living condi- are really only there for those with mental tions, financial constraints, the lack of support disabilities. Bosnians are not alone in having networks in daily life, or emotional stress – as this attitude, however, as the reluctance to well as the fear of being sent back, an uncer- seek psychological help is just as widespread tain future, social isolation, xenophobia, a among other immigrants and indeed the sense of powerlessness and loneliness. More- Swiss in socially disadvantaged groups. The over, refugees emigrated in different circum- second health-monitoring report points out stances (under stressful conditions and fre- that migrants are more frequently treated quently on the move) than those who left BiH for depression or migraine than the Swiss for economic, social or educational reasons. population.36 This observation applies for Clinical research comparing the BiH popula- migrants from Turkey, Portugal, Somalia and tions who emigrated before and after the Tamil-speaking migrants. war found that Bosnians who came as refu- gees tend to be plagued by many health According to one expert, this mental suffering problems. More specifically, 78 % of the 36 that had such a dramatic effect on BiH refu- 4.6 Health: post-traumatic Bosnians surveyed identified the trauma they gees in Switzerland has also left its mark to a stress disorder These health problems mainly affect the experienced as the cause of their illness, in certain extent on their children. For many adults who came to Switzerland as part of the addition to a series of psychological or bio- years the children grew up in an atmosphere According to several Swiss and BiH experts, a wave of refugees. These are people who were medical factors.34 of “family depression”, undermining their significant proportion of this immigrant popu- directly or indirectly faced with the conflict in self-confidence. In search of role models, lation faces serious health problems. The main BiH. Quite a number of Bosnians spent part of According to a Bosnian in Switzerland for- these children were faced with exiled parents, mental illnesses encountered are depression the war in concentration camps or witnessed merly involved in an association, the problem overwhelmed by their traumatic experiences and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)33, scenes of extreme violence. Many Bosnians of PTSD mainly affects those in his community following a failed attempt at socio-profes- while the main somatic disorders concern living in Switzerland lost a member of their whose symptoms were initially ignored, only sional transition in Switzerland. According to chronic pain. immediate or extended family during the con- for them to reappear several years later. One another expert, however, the children of the

34 D. Gilgen et al., “Impact of migration on illness experience and help-seeking strategies of patients from Turkey and Bosnia in primary 33 PTSD is an anxiety disorder that may develop after a person is exposed to one or more traumatic events. The SDC and the cantons health care in Basel”, Health & Place 11, 2005, pp. 261–273. of Bern, Fribourg, Geneva and Jura have joined forces to improve the mental health system in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 35 In this respect, see the website of the Swiss-based Trial association: http://www.trial-ch.org/en/home.html. http://www.ddc.admin.ch/en/Home/Projects/Selected_projects/Modern_psychiatric_treatment_for_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina 36 Santé des migrantes et des migrants en Suisse. Principaux résultats du deuxième monitoring de l’état de santé de la population migrante (as at 17 June 2013). en Suisse, Federal Office of Public Health, 2010.

76 77 second generation from BiH are more aware exercise). According to this study, the popula- There are also differences between the able for language interpreting also helped to of this problem than their parents and are tions from the Balkans are far more likely to nationalities with regard to women’s health, improve communication between migrants more likely to consult a psychologist. More- be overweight (64 % as opposed to 36 % for particularly in the testing for cervical cancer or who were victims of the war in BiH and the over, the general opinion within the commu- the Swiss population). In fact, 30 % of the in breast cancer screening. One expert socio-medical structures in Switzerland. nity regarding psychiatry is gradually improving citizens of the former Yugoslavia and living in claimed that the women from BiH in Switzer- as its role increasingly gains social acceptance. the canton of Vaud live a sedentary lifestyle, land are quite indifferent about prevention, A doctor pointed out that the chronic illnesses as confirmed by the most recent monitoring adding that the refugee population do not endured by some in the Bosnian population There is a lack of significant statistical data on of the general health of migrants. Regarding have sufficient access to information about are also a consequence of the depression suf- the general health of the BiH population in food choices and physical activity, migrants’ health and prevention because they have a fered by this population. Many first-genera- Switzerland. However, a study conducted in habits tend to be less healthy than those of different attitude than women from urban tion migrants from BiH suffer from chronic 2011 in the canton of Vaud on the population the Swiss. According to those surveyed, BiH areas in their home country. This is confirmed somatic illnesses. This situation is similar to of the former Yugoslavia corroborates most of nationals eat their traditional food, which is by the results of the latest monitoring of the state of health of other migrant popula- the opinions found regarding the attitude to rich and high in fat, do less physical exercise migrants’ health in Switzerland, which high- tions, particularly because of the harsh physi- prevention and a healthy lifestyle (particularly and smoke more. light the lack of understanding in health mat- cal conditions they had been enduring in their regarding eating habits, smoking and physical ters among the asylum population. These jobs for many years. As shown in the study on populations also have much difficulty not only Kosovars in Switzerland,37 the symptoms of in explaining things to their doctors but also in problems with the back, joints and connec- understanding what they say. In conclusion, tive tissues in men tend to appear with age, this study shows that the higher the level of though very often long before they can retire. education and language skills of migrants, the Moreover, the risk of an accident is particu- better their general state of health. larly high in many of the manual jobs done by BiH nationals. Finally, poor dental hygiene Nonetheless, one expert noted that Bosnians, among the population is also a problem. and particularly Bosniak refugees, were given According to one expert, limited access as a “alternative medical support by specialists result of their residence status (in the case of sensitive to the situation of BiH refugees, vic- asylum seekers) has played a role in their tims of war in their country of origin”. Such choice of minimum, low-cost dental care. structures came in the form of associations like “Mosaïque” or “Appartenance”, based in Lausanne and Geneva. Similar structures for migrants in Bern and Zurich have been used for several years now (and indeed still are used) by Bosnian citizens. Such institutions offer a social framework for migrants to express and share their experiences and sto- ries with other migrants who have been forced into exile. According to a healthcare worker, the substantial resources made avail-

37 Burri-Sharani, B., et al. (2010). La population kosovare en Suisse, Bern-Wabern: Federal Office for Migration (FOM).

78 79 a) Bosnian national organisations Generally speaking, the BiH diasporas are not Box 11: Matica BiH well structured at a national level; there are many BiH associations and organisations in Created in Zurich in 1993, at the height of existence, but most of these are restricted to a the war, Matica BiH is an association that specific ethnic group. Certain associations not came to the fore around the end of the affiliated with any particular ethnic group, period of conflict. This charitable structure claiming to be pan-Bosnian national organisa- regards itself as being neutral from a reli- tions (called the “4th Bosnia” by one expert), gious and political point of view. With its have attempted to get off the ground. How- name meaning “Source of BiH”, the asso- ever, most organisations are still structured ciation seeks to gather information but on the basis of their ethnic-religious affiliation also carry out surveys and studies to utilise as Bosniak, Croat or Serb. BiH nationals not the potential of Bosnia’s heritage. Matica belonging to one of these groups are those has been involved in providing humanitar- who are classified as “Others” or from mixed ian aid as well as assistance to refugees families. Their social life is quite separate or from BiH. It has also campaigned in favour restricted to a circle of Bosnian friends sharing of granting scholarships to students in BiH. this vision of a unified Bosnian identity. It must Matica has been operating for several be said, however, that they have not managed years, during the crisis and the period of to set up appropriate structures promoting reconstruction of BiH. Professor Rustem their visions and values, in favour of a com- Simitović of ETHZ was its coordinator for mon trans-ethnic national identity. This vision several years and made his private, profes- 4.7 Religion and social life Croat and Serb – in Switzerland. What’s more, of the “4th Bosnia” identity in Switzerland sional and political networks of contacts of the diasporas it is difficult to reach a consensus among (and also in BiH) is most strongly reflected in available for the association’s projects. In experts’ opinions on the BiH population in cultural events, especially concerts. Despite its recent years, Matica BiH has organised In general political language, “diaspora” refers Switzerland, given the differences between real potential, the movement remains informal various events to bring together different to all of the individuals belonging to a given those who came at the time of the former and confined to certain individuals dispersed stakeholders from BiH and the Bosnian ethnic or national group who have emigrated Yugoslavia (economic migrants) or during the around certain regions of Switzerland. Estab- diasporas in Switzerland with a view to to live in another country. It is thus used to war (refugees) as well as between the gener- lishing this vision in the form of lasting institu- fostering investment in the country. mean a migrant population sharing the same ations. Migrants from BiH also differ greatly tions and associations is a challenge for BiH origin or nationality. In its narrower meaning, according to their urban/rural origin, regional nationals in Switzerland and elsewhere. The the term refers to the sharing between its identity, socio-economic level and even their difficulty in rallying together around a shared members of certain customs and values, and family history. For all of these reasons, it is feeling of belonging to one and the same often a desire to return one day to their coun- more appropriate to refer to the Bosnian dias- country of origin can be explained by the It should be noted that there are not many try of origin.38 Taking this narrower sense, it is poras in the plural. This approach also applies direct consequences of the war, with the Bosnian “national” organisations at present, clear with regard to the Bosnian population for their social life, organised on an ethno- diverging interests of the political elite in BiH even if some of them were once quite popu- that there is not one Bosnian diaspora but at religious basis. leading to increased ethnic fragmentation. In lar. The tendency for the BiH associative land- least three separate diasporas – Bosniak, summary, the organisation of the BiH diaspora scape in Switzerland to degrade quickly is post-Dayton follows the ethnic divisions found remarkable, especially concerning “national” 38 Brubaker, R. (2005). The ‘diaspora’ diaspora. Ethnic and racial studies, 28(1), 1–19. in the country of origin (see 2.1). organisations. These structures were created

80 81 by BiH nationals in Switzerland who shared a b) Religious community Figure 26: Distribution of džemats and Bosniak associations in Switzerland vision of a united Bosnian society, with hopes organisations of creating a unified, functional state. These The about-turn in favour of endogamy, as organisations bring together migrants from mentioned above (see 3.5), is accompanied Basel Bischofszell the first generation as well as their children by the return of religion to daily life in BiH. The Wettingen St. Gallen Wallisellen Oberentfelden Wolfhalden with a view to preserving the plural heritage growing importance of religion further crys- Wetzikon Appenzell Schlieren Rüti of the Bosnian and former Yugoslavian iden- tallises the ethno-cultural affiliation of the dif- Zug Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon Buchs tity. According to one community leader inter- ferent components of Bosnian society. Like- Küssnacht Emmenbrücke viewed, the people who frequent these asso- wise, it brings a halt to the tradition of mixed Cernier Goldau ciations are often also involved in their own marriages and cultural exchange. One expert Bern Chur ethnic-religious community. These structures, recalled that, during the Yugoslavian period, Yverdon not defined by their ethnic affiliation, are people in BiH had quite a relaxed approach to meeting places for all language and religious religion: “It was more culture than cult,” he groups to come together. They represent an said. Since then, religion and politics have opportunity to cultivate and maintain the become more closely linked, first during and Châtelaine km values of pre-war BiH, i.e. a vision of citizen- then after the war, for Bosniaks, Serbs and 0 25 50 ship, proximity, tolerance and intercommunity Croats alike.39 Even though most people, mixing. whatever their religion, are still not particu-

Key: Religious associations Cultural associations

Box 12: Kultur Shock larly devout, the closer ties have inevitably Religious institutions have become the main The association Kultur Shock was created in rest of the Balkans as well as Switzerland. The had repercussions on the nature of the rela- informal links between the Bosnian diasporas Bern in 2006 by Mario Perić, a Bosnian immi- association is supported by Swiss foundations tionships between people of the different eth- and their country of origin. The džemats40 as grant involved in various Yugoslavian cultural to promote the culture of BiH and the Balkans nic groups. well as Catholic and Orthodox churches bring events for several years since his arrival in in Switzerland and regularly organises con- together their respective migrants in Switzer- Switzerland in 1984. Kultur Shock is a cultural certs on its premises. The groups are carefully Religion is thus playing an increasing role in land as they “offer a basis for values and (reli- venue hosting, in particular, singers from BiH screened so as to avoid any that promote a the lives of the BiH diasporas in Switzerland. gious) identities that the other associations or but also from the rest of the Balkan region particular ethnic or religious identity. The Its growing influence during the past 10 years the BiH state cannot provide”. Nonetheless, and the diasporas. For Mario Perić, born to a founder sees the association’s steady growth not only reflects the search for identity but some experts point out that this rise in reli- mixed Bosnian couple, this initiative was the as a sign of its success, bringing together is also the result of an increased presence of gious fervour should be viewed in context. fruit of a need to overcome the ethnic barriers migrants from BiH who previously only ever religious circles in public and private life in They believe that a return to religious institu- dividing the communities in Switzerland. The socialised with those from their own ethnic the country of origin. This has an undeniable tions does not necessarily reflect stronger association claims to be neutral and com- group. influence within the BiH diasporas in Switzer- beliefs but rather a desire to socialise with prises around 300 members from BiH and the land. those of the same ethnic group.

39 See, for example, “Bosnia’s Dangerous Tango: Islam and Nationalism”, Policy Briefing, Europe Briefing No. 70, International Crisis Group: Sarajevo/Brussels, 26 February 2013 (http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/balkans/bosnia-herzegovina/b070-bosnias-dan- gerous-tango-islam-and-nationalism, as at 15 July 2013). 40 Reminder: the džemats are Bosniak Islamic places of congregation (see also 4.3).

82 83 Figure 27: Distribution of Orthodox churches and Serb associations in Switzerland the culture and the country of origin. Their and in teaching language classes. Catholicism number in Switzerland bears witness to their is a distinctive part of the Croatian national importance to the diaspora. To assume this identity both in Croatia and BiH, forming the Basel role as a bridge with the country and culture basis for its role as a bridge between the dias- Münchwilen St. Gallen Zürich of origin, the Serbian Orthodox Church grad- pora and the country of origin. During the Wil Altstätten ually distanced itself from the Russian Ortho- war (1990–1995) and the humanitarian crisis dox Church in Switzerland. In its early days in Croatia, the Croatian Church in Switzerland in Switzerland, the Serbs held religious cere- was very much involved in coming to their

Bern monies in Russian churches. aid. This Church is attended more by Croats Altdorf from BiH than those from Croatia. However, Regarding the Croat community, religious as mentioned above, it is very difficult to make leaders also play an important role in the a clear distinction between Bosnian Croats Lausanne Vevey organisation of diaspora life in Switzerland. and Croatians, as both populations see them- Bellinzona The Croatian Catholic Church is very active, selves as belonging to the same ethnic com- Cantone km not only in religious matters (Catechism, munity. According to one leader, the Croat Lugano 0 25 50 Communions) but also in organising cultural population’s relationship with its Church in events (traditional holidays and folk groups) recent years has become increasingly spo-

Key: Religious associations; Cultural associations

According to one expert, the BiH diasporas’ language classes (see 4.3), sports (football Serb and Croat churches were better organ- clubs), cultural activities (traditional folk ised than the džemats before the war. The groups) and humanitarian aid (campaigns in latter became more structured during and favour of BiH). after the war. Since then, the importance of these institutions in the social life of Bosniaks While their work is concentrated on their own has grown progressively. This reflects a return ethnic group, these institutions also play a sig- to a more religious and ethnic representation nificant role in the lives of Bosnian diaspora of the community of origin, with implications life in Switzerland and in the relations – on the organisation of daily life in the host humanitarian, cultural and developmental – country. The džemats now play a key role in between Switzerland and BiH. the lives of the Bosniak diaspora in Switzer- land. They benefit from the infrastructures Regarding Bosnian Serbs, most of whom are and funding of their community. Their influ- Orthodox, religion and religious institutions ence, while undeniable, is not limited to the also play an important role, given their attach- BILD strictly religious dimension, i.e. prayers and ment to their ethnic identity. One Serb reli- religious celebrations (such as the Eid festival, gious leader confirmed their presence in the engagements, circumcisions, funeral rites). In religious life of Orthodox Serbs in Switzerland. fact, their activities are quite varied, covering The Serbian Church acts as a bridge between

84 85 Figure 28: Distribution of Croatian Catholic churches and associations in Switzerland

Basel Frauenfeld

Spreitenbach St. Gallen

Aarau Zürich

Solothurn Baar

Luzern

Bern Trimmis

Lausanne

Camorino

km 0 25 50

Key: Religious associations Cultural associations

radic, e.g. when migrants first arrive in Swit- To conclude, it should be noted that these 4.8 Transnationalism by the World Bank: for 2010, remittances sent zerland, as they are more vulnerable and in religious institutions, whether Islamic, Ortho- of BiH citizens by emigrants came to 2.2 billion US dollars, or search of direction, or for First Communions dox or Catholic, are not structured around the around 13 % of GDP.41 These funds are sent and Confirmations. After that, families tend to countries of the region but bring together the BiH has a very high number of emigrants in via specialist money transfer agencies, by have less and less contact with the Church. followers of the same ethnic group. Thus, for relation to the country’s population. Accord- bank transfer, or are brought in person by Croatian Catholic priests in Switzerland are example, there is no Orthodox church in Swit- ing to the demographic data from the last friends or acquaintances who visit the country sent from Mostar (a town in BiH). The Cro- zerland specifically for the Serbs of Serbia. On census of 1991 (see 2.2), the proportion of on a regular basis. The BiH population in Swit- atian Catholic Church in Switzerland forms the contrary, they welcome members of the emigrants was 38.9 % of the total population, zerland continues to send money, with around part of this diocese (the equivalent in Germany Serb community in general, whether from or 1.5 million people. According to the central USD 73.4 million sent from Switzerland in belongs to the diocese of Split, in Croatia). Serbia, BiH or elsewhere. The same applies bank of BiH, revenues from remittances total 2012.42 It should be noted that the recon- Finally, we should point out that the Croatian regarding the Catholic Church for the Croat between 1 and 1.5 billion euros a year, or struction of the country after the war was also Church aids poor families in Croatia and in community and regarding the džemats, for even up to 1.8 billion if the pensions paid funded by migrants’ remittances. This transfer BiH. the Bosniak communities of BiH and the from abroad to retired Bosnians are included. of funds has positive economic effects, con- region of Sandžak. This is a territorial and cul- These figures match the estimates published tributing to maintaining domestic demand, tural area predominantly inhabited by Bos- 41 The estimates of the World Bank are based on various sources including national censuses, labour market statistics and national niaks (Muslim) located partly in Serbia and population registers. For further information on this topic see the World Bank’s Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011 party in Montenegro (bordering BiH territory). (second edition), available in various languages on www.worldbank.org. 42 Bilateral Remittance Estimates for 2012 using Migrant Stocks, Host Country Incomes, and Origin Country Incomes (millions of US$), World Bank – May 2013 version.

86 87 nian-speaking community, who initially main- not mean that they accept every initiative Box 13: Annual get-togethers of the “Behar” club and the natives of Ključ tained a strong link with their country of ori- put forward by migrants. Migrants may not gin before gradually taking a greater interest always be familiar with the true situation and As it does every year, the “Behar” club organ- ticipants and organisers. He also presented in their host country.45 The transnational activ- tend to want to impose certain procedures ised in February 2013 a gala evening in a hall them with a certificate of participation in the ities of BiH citizens are more on an individual acquired abroad. It is important, therefore, to in Lausen (Basel-Landschaft) with a show of social fund. than collective basis. At the individual level, be aware of the different expectations on BiH traditional folk music. Around 1000 peo- most of these migrants in Switzerland remain both sides and to promote dialogue, seek ple from different ethnic groups came from all The Bosnian transnational spirit in Switzerland closely attached to BiH by way of their family solutions and ultimately bridge this gap. The over Switzerland as well as from neighbouring is also evident in the annual meetings of BiH and their region, town or village of origin or scope of transnational initiatives of Bosnians Baden-Württemberg in Germany. Funded by immigrants. For example, BiH nationals from their respective ethnic community (see 4.7 b). in Switzerland is determined by the existence a group of Bosnian businessmen, the event the region of Kljuć meet up once a year with Their lack of community-based involvement is and the development of networks, particu- also received sponsorship from companies the local authorities. These annual events are particularly due to the difficult political and larly at the local level, between the diaspora invited to present their business activity. This almost always held in the country of origin socio-economic situation that still exists in and the country of origin. Interpersonal (i.e. annual festival is organised on a charitable but sometimes also in Switzerland; this was BiH. The population remains attached to its direct) relationships between local represen- basis to aid the Bosnian municipality of Cazin. the case in 2012, when several hundred Bos- origins, whether by way of holidays in BiH or tatives and members of the diaspora appear For 2013, the event raised a net sum of over nians came together at a single venue in the their participation in cultural events (music to play an important role in transnational links, CHF 20 000 for the beneficiary town’s social town of Emmenbrücke to celebrate Bosnian and folklore). These emotional ties with their which, incidentally, are formed differently by fund. In keeping with tradition, the mayor of independence in a spirit of friendship. regions of origin are an important element to the different generations of migrants. Cazin was there to greet and to thank the par- be taken into account with regard to public policies. Today, still, Bosnian citizens occasion- First-generation migrants have maintained ally get together to support charitable causes, close ties with their country of origin (see 2.3). such as the “Behar” associations and people The stories we gathered confirm that these particularly in the real estate sector. The dias- According to a community leader close to the from the region of Ključ (north-west of BiH). actively participated in their country’s recon- poras of BiH are also involved in trading activ- Bosnian diasporas in Switzerland, what is struction after the devastation of the war. The ities from and to BiH and their various host needed is not so much the presence of In the collective imagination in BiH, whether first generation thus continues to represent a countries. For instance, it is thanks to migrant BiH nationals in transnational activities44 but among the general population or its institu- valuable, indeed an indispensable, financial entrepreneurs that BiH now exports construc- rather their actual involvement in the man- tions, those who have emigrated from BiH are resource for families in BiH. Members of the tion materials to Switzerland. However, the agement and completion of projects in favour still considered part of the Bosnian national second generation also send money to their sending of funds can also generate inequali- of the development of BiH. In fact, unlike dur- community. They are not considered foreign- families, sometimes indirectly, as recounted ties and have other negative side effects on ing the period of reconstruction following the ers; at least that is the image that emerged by one young Bosnian Swiss: “I support my the country’s sustainable development, with war, as BiH nationals began to take up perma- from our studies in BiH. The feeling expressed mother financially in Switzerland, but I know the wealthier and better educated people nent residence in Switzerland, they progres- by some of our interviewees that they were that she uses this money to help out her tending to emigrate more. Money sent by sively turned more of their attention to their treated like “fugitives” or even rejected in their brother and sister in BiH.” migrants is thus also being used to leave the day-to-day activities in the host country (see own country could stem from a misunder- The first generation often remains within fam- country.43 3.7). This situation is similar to that of other standing in the expectations and attitudes. ily and community circles and has very little immigrant populations, particularly the Alba- Many people we spoke to in the country of interaction with the host society, except in a origin claimed to be open and grateful to working capacity. Their migration context has

43 Dimova, Ralitza et François-Charles Wolff (2009), Remittances and Chain Migration: Longitudinal Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, members of the diaspora. However, this does influenced the intensity of the ties between IZA, Discussion Paper N. 4083, März 2009, S. 24. 44 “Transnational activities” refers to spaces in which migrants develop real or imaginary rela-tions between their host country 45 Bashkim Iseni, Albanian-speaking transnational populations in Switzerland: continuities and shifts. Southeast European and Black Sea and the country of origin. Studies, vol. 13, no. 2, 2013, 227–243.

88 89 in their village or town of origin, without ne- in Switzerland and their emotional ties to their cessarily having any long-term plans. While culture of origin form an important resource some may choose to stay there or intend to that could be harnessed in favour of develop- return to enjoy their retirement, the latent ment projects in BiH. The young could con- interethnic conflict may also lie behind such tribute by way of knowledge transfer or the building decisions. The changes in population creation of transnational socio-professional distribution after the war did not end the sym- networks. Apart from their family ties, the bolic struggles that still exist between the dif- second generation has had very little involve- ferent populations on the ground. It is quite ment to date in social, socio-cultural or pro- common, therefore, to build a house simply fessional activities with their country of origin. to mark the presence of one’s ethnic group Even though they have an emotional connec- in a certain place. This indicates the need for tion to their parents’ region of origin, they inter-community dialogue, with the wounds have lost or never had the opportunity to of war still running deep. develop personal networks, which are neces- sary if they are to make an effort in favour of The socio-professional and cultural integra- BiH. They should therefore form networks tion of the second generation in Switzerland with local stakeholders in the country or is increasingly successful and diversified. In region of origin. terms of identity, some young people tend to conceal their BiH identity to others. They To encourage these young people to act as agree they identify less with their country agents of development, it is important to sup- than with their specific ethnic group or village port networking events or other occasions of origin. In our interviews, one young woman serving to create contacts and also to attach born to a mixed Bosnian couple (Bosniak and greater value to the contribution they make in Croat) said: “I envy my boyfriend, who is terms of knowledge transfer or the develop- Spanish and proud of his flag, which you see ment of innovative activities. Studies have all over the place, even on a sandwich packet. shown that migrants are not always aware of I tend to hide the fact that I’m from BiH and the resources and skills they could contribute, place more emphasis on my Croatian roots.” especially when they are not highly skilled or This poor image of the Bosnian national iden- qualified specialists, as is the case for most BiH tity has a direct impact on the lack of interest nationals in Switzerland. For example, given in learning the languages of origin and in the lack of qualified tourism personnel in BiH, getting involved in the development of socio- migrants with a good apprenticeship in hospi- their country of origin and the host country. although this cannot be ruled out in the professional projects or investments in the tality could act as instructors, hiring local The collective humanitarian commitment that longer term. Such a return remains compli- country of origin. trainees on site, or as intermediaries between prevailed during the conflict has gradually cated for several reasons. One is the profound Apart from this, the second generation still hotel schools in Switzerland and in BiH. In this eroded, as the country’s political-economic metamorphosis of the country’s socio-cultural take an interest in the country or at least in respect, the public policies for development situation stagnated. In this context, it is make-up, with the war placing certain ethnic their region of origin, even if this interest is and migration could help by creating the unlikely that many BiH emigrants of working groups in the minority. As a result, it is quite not directly translated into concrete acts. The framework conditions for making contact in a age will return in the short to medium term, common to see migrants building new houses second generation’s “successful” integration climate of (relative) confidence and provide

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92 93 In studying the population from BiH, today could they envisage obtaining a more perma- numbering some 60 000 people in Switzer- nent status and finally bring their family mem- land, we are confronted by a multitude of dif- bers to Switzerland and begin the process of ferences: between those migrants who came socio-cultural integration in the host country. before and after the war, and between the separate main ethnic communities making up Seasonal workers from BiH and other parts BiH. Each of these groups has had their own and republics of Yugoslavia were directly migration journey and a different experience affected by the enactment of the “three- of integrating into the host country, making it circle” model in 1991, which excluded them difficult to draw general conclusions on BiH from continuing to work in Switzerland. migrants, even if they all come from the same What’s more, this policy was introduced in a country. In this final chapter, we will nonethe- context of instability, with wars breaking out less attempt to summarise the main features in Slovenia, Croatia and then also BiH, leading of migration from BiH. to a massive displacement of civilian popula- tions. Refugees fleeing the war in BiH between A multifaceted community ... 1992 and 1995 faced difficult conditions. The Economic migrants from the first and second war also had direct repercussions on Switzer- waves (in the 1960s and 1980s respectively) land with an exponential rise in the number came to Switzerland to work, following a of asylum requests from BiH. In 1991, 41 000 series of agreements between the host coun- applications for asylum were filed in Switzer- try, with a high demand for labour, and the land, a situation that gave rise to heated polit- former Yugoslavia, a country in the throes of ical debate. However, with Swiss public opin- structural economic crisis with bleak job pros- ion shaken by the images of war and the pects for its citizens. Many unskilled workers human drama unfolding in BiH, the Federal answered Switzerland’s call, as did quite a Council authorised temporary collective asy- few skilled workers, hired to fill the shortage lum (F permits) for refugees from BiH. Some on the Swiss labour market. of these came to Switzerland based on an organised distribution of refugee quotas The workforce from BiH and other countries among Western countries, while others of the former Yugoslavia clearly made an headed to Switzerland to reunite with their important contribution to the Swiss economy, family or fellow Bosnians already living there. whether in construction, services or the hos- pitality sector. The labour force in Switzerland The war experienced by BiH citizens in Swit- also had a significant impact on the economy zerland has left its mark on their mental health of the less developed regions of BiH. On and in some cases also their physical wellbe- account of their status as seasonal labour, ing. Some experts believe that the onset of 5 Summary and outlook unskilled workers from BiH were allowed to depression or post-traumatic stress disorder remain in Switzerland for only several months appeared in some migrants only years after for the future a year before returning home. Only after five coming to Switzerland. Most of them ignored consecutive years of working in Switzerland initial symptoms, and many cases slipped

95 through the net. Practically all of those was not a priority. The first wave of BiH culty speaking the language of their parents. stick to one based on their ethnic origin. As who came as refugees to Switzerland were migrants in Switzerland, most of whom While naturalisation is often seen by the sec- one of our experts put it, BiH nationals have touched by the consequences of the war, worked in the primary sector, did not make an ond generation as recognition of their socio- a “survivor identity”. The stories gathered in whether directly or indirectly, e.g. they or their effort to learn to speak, let alone write, a cultural integration in Switzerland, their par- the course of this study revealed the rifts in family witnessed scenes of extreme violence, Swiss language. Their work did not require ents see Swiss citizenship as assurance of a the population: there is not one BiH diaspora such as abrupt removal from their homes, any language proficiency and, as seasonal long-term right to remain in the host country in Switzerland, but three diasporas, Bosniak, detention in a concentration camp, or the dis- workers, the plan was to return home. Their and also the reawakening of a sense of Croat and Serb (see 4.7). Each of these differs appearance or assassination of family mem- focus remained on their village or region of national pride, something that was lost with from the other two, whether in terms of reli- bers. The repercussions of such traumatic origin and they stayed within their own immi- the dissolution of Yugoslavia. gion (Muslim, Catholic or Orthodox), lan- events during the war are also felt in the grant community. Meanwhile, those who guage (Bosnian, Croatian or Serbian) or their occurrence of chronic somatic pain among came to Switzerland as war refugees were Both the first and second generation of BiH places of congregation (džemats, Catholic or many BiH citizens. It goes without saying that more focused on meeting their immediate migrants are attached to their country or Orthodox churches). This intra-ethnic organi- such events also had an impact on the inte- and medium-term needs, i.e. rebuilding their region of origin. However, the sense of iden- sation has been accentuated in recent years gration process of the first and second gener- lives and stabilising their socio-economic and tity felt by BiH migrants is fragmented as a by a trend towards endogamy. While mixed ations. legal situation, sometimes to the detriment of result of the conflict in their country. Some still marriages were common in pre-war BiH, the learning a language of the host country and dream of a reunified country, while others find fratricidal conflict and breakdown of inter- The population from BiH is grateful to Swit- continuing their education. it hard to accept a national identity and rather community relations crushed the spirit of zerland for welcoming refugees and for its involvement in the reconstruction of BiH. Migrants’ hopes for a better life are often ful- Most refugees returned to BiH at the end of filled by their children; this can be observed in the conflict, within the framework of the many migrant groups, and the BiH population Swiss Confederation’s programmes for their is no exception in this respect. In fact, it is in return and reintegration in BiH. Others the second generation that social mobility obtained the status of refugee or were (or re-establishing the parents’ pre-migration granted temporary admission. Some remained status) rapidly becomes a reality: learning in Switzerland with an insecure status, which the language, socio-professional integration, limited their access to the labour market, for a good education and even a university many years in some cases. This placed certain degree in some cases, and acquisition of Swiss BiH migrants in an increasingly vulnerable citizenship. Unlike the integration problems situation. faced by their parents, the children born to immigrant families from BiH feel at home in ... with different journeys the host country. According to our experts, As with other migrant groups, the reasons for this is partly explained by the Swiss school and circumstances of migration have a con- system and the early and efficient integration siderable influence on the context of arriving of children from BiH immigrant or refugee in the host country. The situation is more families. complex than that, however, and cannot be summarised under these factors alone. For It should be noted that the younger genera- many of those who came as the first genera- tions sometimes have bitter memories of their tion, learning a language of the host country country of origin. Many of them have diffi-

96 97 ations that will reflect this unifying spirit over zerland and relationship with their country of an extended period. Some of these trans- origin. It appears that the willingness to invest ethnic community efforts have produced in the development of BiH has lost some of its model initiatives, particularly in the cultural momentum, even though the culture of the and humanitarian sphere. country of origin and particularly the music is bringing together more and more people, of What is the potential all ages and backgrounds. The fragile nature for development? of the ethno-political scenario in BiH, the insti- Based on the relations originally formed by tutional paralysis caused by so many different economic migration, BiH – like the other institutional levels of the state, together with states of the western Balkans – has from the socio-economic insecurity, corruption and the outset been a priority country for Switzer- predominance of nationalist political parties land’s foreign policy following the dissolution have fuelled a somewhat fatalistic attitude of the former Yugoslavia. A pilot programme within the immigrant communities, who see was launched in 1996 to assist BiH citizens their future in Switzerland. Moreover, with who fled the conflict to return to their coun- the dissolution of Yugoslavia, BiH has diffi- try, leading to a coordinated strategy between culty in convincing its citizens of its potential migration policy, humanitarian aid and even- as a new state. The complex history and iden- tually development cooperation. The migra- tity of BiH has a huge impact on immigrants’ tion partnership signed between Switzerland attitude to their country of origin, particularly and BiH in 2009 resulted from this search for with regard to investment but also the possi- greater coherency between politics and the bility of returning one day. In the present con- various stakeholders (integration, migration, text, which stems from the consequences of development cooperation, etc.), initially as a the Dayton Agreement, some BiH nationals bilateral partnership and subsequently multi- find it hard to envisage a national collective lateral. Following on from this is a growing conscience working towards the prosperity of aspiration to encourage, in Switzerland and a stable and multicultural state, whether in worldwide (with the Global Forum on Migra- social or economic terms. First-generation tion and Development), active involvement of migrants continue to send part of their the migrant population and civil society in the income back to their family still in the country openness: now, in fact, exogamy is more BiH or Behar) or through music from the Bal- reconstruction of BiH. This new outlook has or to participate in projects for the reconstruc- socially acceptable if the chosen partner kans (Kultur Shock). Such pan-Bosnian struc- generated a need to assess the potential of tion of the family home or their village of ori- belongs to neither of the other two ethnic tures strive – with some difficulty at times – to the BiH diasporas and their interest in partici- gin. However, such acts of solidarity tend to communities of BiH. promote the sense of Bosnian citizenship that pating in the socio-economic development of remain within the family or even at a regional has remained and indeed grown progressively their country of origin. level, and are rarely national. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, there are those who try to break in Switzerland in recent years, i.e. the “4th Bos- with such local support given across the coun- down the barriers and rally their compatriots nia”. This movement positions itself between In conjunction with a study carried out in BiH, try, the financial aid sent by migrants to BiH around a common cause, whether through the three ethno-religious groups and their the present publication has sought to present contributes directly or indirectly to the devel- the reconstruction of BiH and the restoration associated structures. The difficulty facing this a portrait of the migrant population from BiH, opment of the entire country. of its heritage (associations such as Matica “4th Bosnia” is in establishing dynamic associ- while also exploring their integration in Swit-

98 99 The first generation of BiH migrants is thus est in their roots. Based on their parents’ Switzerland, or by using their network of pro- tity, and the difficulties they face in coming clearly involved in supporting their country of nostalgia of a happy childhood in BiH and fessional contacts for the benefit of BiH. Such together under a joint association. Nonethe- origin. However, it remains to be seen what subsequent construction of a Swiss identity, initiatives would require the involvement of less, BiH nationals also have certain points in sort of relationship the children or grandchil- the second or even third generation may institutions in both, the country of origin and common with the other migrant populations dren of these migrants, i.e. the second and revive an interest in transnationalism and pos- the host country, so as to create the necessary from the Balkans, in terms of socio-cultural third generations, will develop with their sibly use their Swiss know-how for the benefit structures and the framework conditions. As and professional integration in the host coun- country of origin. Of course, many of these of development in BiH. In other words, the far as Switzerland is concerned, the country try (education, employment, language, health, children are growing up with a Swiss passport contribution made by the children and grand- has a long presence in BiH and a tradition of religion, residence permits) as well as main- and thus no longer appear in the statistics children of BiH migrants could also be non- hiring migrants, which has allowed it to define taining links with their culture and country of published on BiH citizens. But this new citi- financial, i.e. in the form of a transfer or shar- migration and development issues. Such pro- origin (remittances, reconstruction, prospects zenship does not have to mean a loss of inter- ing of know-how and experience acquired in jects may also result in investments and real for return, etc.). Finally, we should mention economic cooperation between the two that, despite the trauma of the war and a dif- countries in the medium or long term. ficult migration context, the migrants from BiH have retained their traditional spirit of Finally, it should be noted that the immigrant openness and tolerance. populations from BiH also have their own spe- cific characteristics that set them apart from the other migrant populations from the Bal- kans, whether Kosovars, Serbians or Macedo- nians. Among these specific features are their heterogeneous associative nature, their gruel- ling migratory journey, a fragile national iden-

100 101 For specific information about the Bosnian Bosanski klub Jedinstvo and Herzegovinian population in Switzerland Walzenhausenstrasse 9 a list of useful addresses is included below. As 9430 St. Margrethen the landscape of associations is in permanent Bosansko-hercegovacki kulturni centar mutation, it is possible that some of the infor- Lausanne mation is no longer valid by the time readers http://bhkc-lausanne.ch consult it. The list is based on information available at the time of writing and approved Club Kultur Shock by those responsible. It does not claim to be c/o Mario Perić exhaustive and contains two principal catego- Lerchenweg 33 ries: on the one hand national associations 3012 Berne and organisations, on the other hand associa- http://www.kulturshock.ch/ tions and clubs organised on the basis of eth- Kjlućka Diaspora nicity, religion and language. Postfach 103 4852 Rothrist http://kljuckadijaspora.ch/ National Associations Nationale Vereinigungen KUD Bosanski Ljiljani Emmenweidstrasse 4 Basel St. Margrethen 6020 Emmenbrücke Sissach

Zürich Rothrist Matica Bosne i Hercegovine Baar Pfäffikon Emmenbrücke Bleicherweg 64a Bern 8002 Zurich http://matica-bih.org/ Lausanne Mak Dizdar km Mezzovico 0 25 50 Basel http://www.bosanskaskola.ch

Associazione culturale bosniaca Bosona Meša Selimović Via Cantonale Primarschule Felsenburgmatte 6805 Mezzovico 8808 Pfäffikon SZ

Club Behar Sissach

Bosnische4450 Vereinigungen Sissach Kroatische Vereinigungen

Basel Appendix I: Bischofszell Basel Frauenfeld Wettingen St. Gallen Wallisellen Spreitenbach St. Gallen Oberentfelden Wolfhalden Wetzikon Appenzell Schlieren Rüti Aarau Zug Zürich Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon List of Associations Buchs Solothurn Küssnacht Baar Emmenbrücke Cernier Goldau Luzern

Bern Bern Chur Trimmis and Cultural Clubs Yverdon

Lausanne 103 Camorino Châtelaine km 0 25 50

Serbische Vereinigungen

Basel

Münchwilen St. Gallen Zürich Wil Altstätten

Bern Altdorf

Lausanne Vevey

Bellinzona

Cantone km Lugano 0 25 50 Nationale Vereinigungen

Basel Religious, Ethnic and LanguageSt. Margrethen Bosniaken Verein, Sandzak Bosnien Islamska Zajednica u Kantonu Zugu Kulturni Centar Bošnjaka Sissach Associations Zürich Gewerbezone Aeschi Sumpfstrasse 1 Crêt Débely 13 Rothrist

Baar Pfäffikon We have identifiedEmmenbrücke the following religious 6410 Goldau 6300 Zug 2053 Cernier Nationale Vereinigungen (black circle)Bern and ethnic associations (white http://dzematzug.ch/ Nationalehttp://www.dzematne.ch/ Vereinigungen Bosniakisches Kultur Zentrum Sandzak circle). In some places, there are multiple Hofstrasse 98 Basel Islamske zajednice Bošnjaka (IZBA) Kulturno udruženje Bošnjaka Ženeva Lausanne Basel associations. Where there are both religious St. Margrethen St. Margrethen 8620 Wetzikon Sissachkantona Aargau (IZBA) Rue Jean Simonet 14-16 Sissach institutions and ethnic clubs, this is indicated Zürich km Rothrist Zürich Rothrist Mezzovico 0 25 50 Aarauerstrasse 57 1219 Châtelaine Baar Pfäffikon by a diagonal division (black and white). Bosnischer Kultur Verein Baar Pfäffikon Emmenbrücke 5036 Oberentfelden Emmenbrücke Bern Shown are institutions and clubs with a Seegartenstrasse 4 Osmanovic IzetBern known link to BiH – there are many other 8716 Schmerikon Islamische Gemeinschaft Bischofszell Trümmlenweg 1

Lausanne Croat and Serbian associations which may Oberdorf 13 8630Lausanne Rüti Bosnischer Verein serve individuals from BiH. 9220 Bischofszell km Klublokal Bukvar Ahmet Sljivar Sabahudin km Mezzovico 0 25 50 Unterer Gansbach 2 Islamska zajednica Bošnjaka u Švajcarsko Sternstrasse 5 Mezzovico 0 25 50 9050 Appenzell Postfach 924 9470 Buchs Bosnische Vereinigungen 4800 Zofingen Bosniak Associations BosnischerKroatische Frauenverein Vereinigungen SVK BiH Kula WaySearch Islamska zajednica Heiden Fannringstrasse 4

Basel Bischofszell J.-J.-Ryffel-Strasse 6 Basel Frauenfeld Hinterergeten 110 6403 Küssnacht am Rigi Wettingen St. Gallen Wallisellen Spreitenbach St. Gallen Oberentfelden Wolfhalden Wetzikon 5430 Wettingen 9427 Wolfhalden Appenzell Schlieren Rüti Aarau Zug Zürich Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon Buchs Solothurn Küssnacht Baar Bosnische Vereinigungen Emmenbrücke Džemat islamske zajednice Bošnjaka Islamska asocijacija Yverdon Bosnische Vereinigungen Cernier Goldau Luzern KroatischeCroat Vereinigungen Associations Kroatische Vereinigungen Bern Schlieren Bern Rue Uttines 36 Chur Trimmis Yverdon Grabenstrasse 7 1400 Yverdon-les-Bains

Basel Basel Frauenfeld Lausanne Bischofszell Basel Bischofszell Basel Frauenfeld 8952 Schlieren Wettingen St. Gallen Wallisellen WettingenSpreitenbach St. Gallen Wolfhalden St. Gallen St. Gallen OberentfeldenIslamska zajednica Zug Wallisellen Wolfhalden Spreitenbach Camorino Wetzikon Oberentfelden Appenzell Wetzikon Schlieren Rüti Aarau Appenzell Châtelaine Zug SchlierenZürich Rüti Aarau km Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon Zug Zürich Džemat islamske zajednice Lucern Sumpfstrasse 1 Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon 0 25 50 Buchs Solothurn Küssnacht Baar Buchs Solothurn Emmenbrücke Küssnacht Baar Emmenweidstrasse 4 Cernier 6300 ZugGoldau EmmenbrückeLuzern Cernier Goldau Luzern Bern Bern Bern Chur Trimmis Bern 6020 Emmenbrücke Chur Trimmis Yverdon Islamsko bosanski kulturni Yverdon http://www.dzematluzern.ch/ centar dzemat Chur Lausanne Association des survivants Lausanne

Camorino de la Drina-Srebrenica ASDS Džemat «SABUR» Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft Camorino Châtelaine km Châtelaine km 0 25 50 p.a. Permanence Srebrenica Steigerhubelstr. 94 und Bosnischer Kulturverein 0 25 50 Rue des Savoises 15 3008 Berne Kasernenstrasse 77 1205 Geneva Postfach 284 Džemat Kosovskih Bosnjaka Wallisellen 7007 Chur Bosnisce Verein Bosnjak Biel Industriestrasse 28 Note: Croatian language courses are available Florastrasse 30 a Postfach Islamska zajednica Bazel in 94 locations in Switzerland, financed by the 2502 Biel 8304 Wallisellen Kleinhüningerstrasse 55 Croatian government. These locations are not 4057 Basel listed here, although they may be attended by Bošnjačka islamska zajednica St. Gallen GAM – Džemat SG Serbische Vereinigungen Bosnian and Herzegovinan citizens. Compare: Geisenwaldstrasse 16 Werkstrasse 5a http://www.mvep.hr/hr/hmiu/iseljenistvo/ 9015 St. Gallen Basel 9000 St. Gallen Münchwilen St. Gallen svicarska/ Zürich Wil Altstätten

Bern Serbische Vereinigungen 104 Altdorf Serbische Vereinigungen105

Vevey Basel Lausanne Basel Münchwilen St. Gallen Münchwilen St. Gallen Zürich Bellinzona Wil Altstätten Zürich Wil Altstätten Cantone km Lugano 0 25 50

Bern Bern Altdorf Altdorf

Lausanne Vevey Lausanne Vevey

Bellinzona Bellinzona

Cantone km Cantone km Lugano 0 25 50 Lugano 0 25 50 Nationale Vereinigungen

Basel

St. Margrethen

Sissach

Zürich Rothrist

Baar Pfäffikon Emmenbrücke

Bern

Lausanne

km Mezzovico 0 25 50

Bosnische Vereinigungen Kroatische Vereinigungen

Basel Bischofszell Basel Frauenfeld Wettingen St. Gallen Wallisellen Spreitenbach St. Gallen Oberentfelden Wolfhalden Wetzikon Appenzell Schlieren Rüti Aarau Zug Zürich Biel/Bienne Zofingen Schmerikon Buchs Solothurn Küssnacht Baar Emmenbrücke Cernier Goldau Luzern

Bern Bern Chur Trimmis Yverdon

Lausanne

Camorino Châtelaine km Hrvatska katolička misija Hrvatska0 katolička25 50 misija Solothurn Humanitarno udruženje Sveti Sava Serbisch-Orthodoxe Kirchgemeide Zähringerstasse 40 Unterer Winkel 7 Via del Moro 9 in St. Gallen 3012 Berne 4500 Solothurn 6500 Bellinzona Langgasse 161 9008 St. Gallen Hrvatska katolička misija Zurich Hrvatski klub Plehan Regionalna zajednica srpskih klubova Schlossgasse 32 Postfach 731 Gallusstrasse 44 Serbisch-Orthodoxe Kirchgemeinde in Luzern Postfach 9057 8957 Spreitenbach 9500 Wil Hauptstrasse 8036 Zurich 6033 Buchrein Udruzenje Hercegovaca Orthodox Church Lugano spc.portal.ch Hrvatska katolička misija Basel Altstetterstrasse 130 Chiesa San Roco Kleinriehenstrasse 53 8040 Zurich Piazza San Roco Srpski kulturni centar Sveti Sava 4058 Basel 6900 Lugano Tiefenackerstrasse 49 9450 Altstätten Hrvatska katolička misija St. Gallen Orthodox Church Bellinzona Serb Associations Paradiesstrasse 38 Serbische Vereinigungen Chiesa Madona della neve Srpska Pravoslavna Crkvena Opstina U 9000 St. Gallen Via Sasso Corbaro Lugano

Basel

Münchwilen St. Gallen 6500 Bellinzona Via Ciossaccio Hrvatska katolička misija Luzern Zürich Wil Altstätten 6594 Contone Matthofring 2/4 Srpski kulturni savez u Švajcarskoj 6005 Lucerne Postfach 1960 Club de Football «Slavija» Bern Altdorf 8021 Zurich http://www.fcslavia.ch/ Hrvatska katolička misija Grubunder/Gonzen

Gartaweg 15 Lausanne Vevey Srpski Demokratski Klub Srpski Klub «Trebava», Postfach 95 Bellinzona Postfach 181 Case postale 1616 Cantone km 7203 Trimmis Lugano 0 25 50 9542 Münchwilen Avenue du Général-Guisan 58 1800 Vevey Hrvatska katolička misija Frauenfeld Serbisch-Orthodoxe Kirchgemeinde in Zürich Zürcherstrasse 179 Pfarramt Maria Himmelfahrt Udruzenje prnjavorcana Diocèse orthodoxe for central Europe central 8500 Frauenfeld Glattstegweg 91 Alfred-Escher-Strasse 26 Av. Charies-Secretan 2 8051 Zurich 8002 Zurich Hrvatska katolička misija Aarau 1005 Lausanne http://www.pravoslavnacrkva.ch Laurenzenvorstadt 71 Udruzenje majevicana Ecole serbe en Suisse romande www.pravoslavlje.ch 5000 Aarau Landstrasse 36 Association des parents d’élèves Ecole serbe Serbisch-Orthodoxe Kirchgemeinde in Basel 5430 Wettingen Hrvatska katolička misija Lausanne-Wallis en Suisse romande Gellertstrasse 45 Rue de la Borde 25 www.skss.ch / www.svetionik.ch 4052 Basel 1018 Lausanne Folklore Musikverein Quelle Izvor Serbisch-Orthodoxe Kirchgemeinde Bern Hrvatska misija Zug Postfach 11 Postfach 7846 Mühlegasse 35b Haggenstrasse 44 Seidenweg 19 6340 Baar 9014 Saint-Gall 3001 Berne Hrvatska katolička misija Ticino Hram Sv.Trojice U Zürich http://www.spcobern.ch Al Mai 18 Zollikerstrasse 76 6528 Camorino 8008 Zurich

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116 117 Walser, Katja (2006). Bosnien-Herzegowina: aktuelle Situation, insbesondere die Situation verletzlicher Gruppen. Bern: Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe. Wanner, Philippe and Ilka Steiner (2012). Ein- bürgerungslandschaft Schweiz: Entwicklungen 1992–2010. Bern: Eidgenössische Kommission für Migrationsfragen (EKM). Wicker, Hans-Rudolf, Catherine Moser and Thomas Gass (1998). Evaluation des Rückkehr- hilfe- und Wiedereingliederungsprogrammes für bosnische Staatsangehörige. Bern: Institut für Ethnologie der Universität Bern. Wicki, Maja (1993). Wie wirken sich Krieg, Flucht und Aufenthalt in der Schweiz auf die Kinder und Frauen aus Bosnien aus? Zürich: Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe (SFH). World Bank, (2011). Harnessing the Diaspora for Development in Europe and Central Asia, Migration and Remitttances Peer Assisted Learning. Washington: World Bank.

118 119 Taner Alicehić, funder Re Investment Omer Micijevic, former president solutions, Zug & Sarajevo of „Matica“, Zurich

Osman Besić, head of department of health, Mirsad Mujadzić, president of Swiss Swiss Red Cross, Berne Dzemaats, Lucerne

Mirsada B., refugee from BiH Slavisa Obrenović, association «Majevićani», (from Srebrenica), Fribourg Yverdon-les-Bains

Violeta Brakuš, Serb parents’ association, Jasmina Opardija, project coordinator Lausanne RRPPWB, University of Fribourg

Bernard Courvoisier, Association Envol, Vlata Pavlinović, Croatian Catholic church, former dean, Vaud Lausanne

Edin Dacic, Daccomet AG, Zurich Mario Perić, „Kultur Shock“, Berne

Emina Erdić, psychiatrist, Lausanne Ivica Petrušić, Second@s-Plus, Aarau

Elma Hadzikadunić, project leader, Sabina Rondić, rector, Université «Age et Migration», EPER, Lausanne de Lausanne

Elvis Jakupović, Bosnian language school, Bogoljub Popović, Orthodox priest, Lucerne Lausanne

Tarik Kapić, NGO Terra Nostra, patent expert, Pavle S., immigrant from BiH, Vevey Solothurn Rustem Simitović, Honorary Consula of BiH, Hamdija Kocić, Association « Matica BiH », Zurich Zürich Nenad Stojanović, Universities of Zurich Haris Lokvanćić, refugee from BiH, returned and Lausanne to Sarajevo, SDC, Sarajevo

Dajana Mahinić, psychiatrist, Lausanne

Jean-Claude Metraux, psychiatrist and founder of „Nous autres“, Lausanne

Appendix III: List of Interviewees

121 122 123