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Home , American black duck, American Bullfrog, American woodcock, Brown thrasher, Crissal thrasher, Eastern gray squirrel

Wildlife

This chapter contains information on species featured in each of the ecoregions. Species are grouped by , , , , and . Species are listed alphabetically within each group. A general description, requirements, and possible wildlife management practices are provided for each species. Wildlife management practices for a particular species may vary among ecoregions, so not all of the wildlife management practices listed for a species may be applicable for that species in all ecoregions. Refer to the WMP charts within a particular ecoregion to determine which practices are appropriate for species included in that ecoregion.

The species descriptions contain all the information needed about a particular species for the WHEP contest. However, additional reading should be encouraged for participants that want more detailed information. Field guides to North American wildlife and fish are good sources for information and pictures of the species listed. There also are many Web sites available for wildlife species identification by sight and sound.

Information from this section will be used in the Wildlife Challenge at the National Invitational. Participants should be familiar with the information presented within the species accounts for those species included within the ecoregions used at the Invitational.

It is important to understand that when assessing habitat for a particular wildlife species and considering various WMPs for recommendation, current conditions should be evaluated. That is, WMPs should be recommended based on the current habitat conditions within the year. Also, it is important to realize the benefit of a WMP may not be realized soon. For example, trees or shrubs planted for may not provide cover or bear for several years.

Index to Wildlife Species Note: Refer to this list for the correct spelling and capitalization of species for Activity I (Wildlife Challenge).

Birds (86) American bittern golden-cheeked warbler falcon American black * golden-fronted woodpecker prothonotary warbler American kestrel golden-winged warbler pyrrhuloxia American robin sparrow red-cockaded woodpecker American wigeon great horned red-eyed vireo American * greater prairie-chicken red-tailed greater roadrunner black-backed woodpecker* greater sage- ring-necked black-bellied whistling duck hairy woodpecker rock pigeon black-capped chickadee house finch ruby-throated hummingbird black-throated sparrow house sparrow * blue-winged teal house wren sage Brewer’s sparrow ladder-backed woodpecker scaled quail broad-winged hawk lark bunting sharp-tailed grouse brown thrasher* Lawrence’s goldfinch song sparrow quail loggerhead shrike sooty grouse long-billed thrasher southwest flycatcher goose spotted common nighthawk marbled murrelet spotted towhee crested caracara mountain bluebird rail crissal thrasher western bluebird dickcissel western white-tailed ptarmigan eastern bluebird * white-winged dove eastern meadowlark northern harrier wild * European starling Wilson’s Nuttall’s woodpecker Gambel’s quail ovenbird * yellow-rumped warbler

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 69 Mammals (34) American beaver desert cottontail New cottontail * eastern cottontail big brown eastern black bear black-tailed jackrabbit * black-tailed prairie * otter Rocky Mountain Brazilian free-tailed bat Indiana bat snowshoe * collared peccary mink white-tailed deer * Columbian black-tailed deer * wild pig common muskrat mountain cottontail mountain lion

Reptiles (9) eastern box turtle Gila monster horned eastern indigo gopher tortoise timber rattlesnake eastern snapping turtle plains hog-nosed snake western diamond-backed rattlesnake

Amphibians (7) American bullfrog rough-skinned newt crawfish tiger Monterey salamander * northern red-legged frog

Fish (6) bluegill * cutthroat trout channel catfish largemouth bass* Coho salmon rainbow trout

Range map keys for wildlife species

Range map key for birds: Range map key for mammals, Range map key for fish: reptiles, and amphibians:

Year Round Native Range Year Round Introduced Range Summer Winter

Winter

Migratory

70 Wildlife Habitat Education Program General information The American black duck is a large dabbling duck similar in size to , ranging from 19 to 25 inches in length. They resemble the female mallard in color, though their appears darker. The male and female black duck are similar in appearance. They have orange legs and feet and violet wing patches. The male black duck has a yellow to green bill, whereas hens have olive bills. Black interbreed regularly and extensively with mallards.

American black ducks frequent forested wetlands, Nieminen Gene tidewater areas, and coastal of the eastern . They feed in a variety of shallow wetlands and agricultural fields. Their are built of vegetation and lined with down, found most often on the ground along edges of heavy cover, and generally close to water.

Habitat requirements Diet: aquatic plants, , waste corn, and grain are primary diet items Water: obtains water through diet Cover: forested and emergent wetlands for loafing; they also will feed in flooded grain fields

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to degrade loafing or foraging cover in wetlands or nesting cover in uplands Wildlife or Fish Survey: black ducks are secretive and Leave Crop Unharvested: to provide a winter food source are often in woody emergent wetlands where accurate Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded surveys are difficult. Nonetheless, flush counts and from wetlands managed for waterfowl aerial surveys are most often used to estimate black Plant Food Plots: shallowly flooded grain plots duck populations. can provide a beneficial food source for migrating and wintering black ducks Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where nesting cover is lacking Repair Spillway/Levee: if not functioning properly Set- back Succession: Prescribed Fire to rejuvenate vegetation in nesting areas and to maintain proper water and vegetation interspersion in wetlands Tillage Management: eliminating fall tillage can provide waste grain in the winter Water Control Structure: control water level in wetlands managed for waterfowl Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow impoundments can be important for migrating and wintering waterfowl; flooding grain fields and planting food plots in winter makes food more available

72 Wildlife Habitat Education Program 76 woodcock breeding population can beused to estimate the relative sizeof the Wildlife or Fish Survey: openings plowing maintain young tree/shrub cover; chopping Succession: Trees: for foraging, nesting, courtship, roostingor cover Plant Shrubs: managed for Livestock Management: young is well several years, especially when a mosaic of openings and structure in young stands that woodcock select for clearcut and Group Selection, can provide dense Forest Management: encourage shrub and/or young tree growth openings or agricultural fields and the forest that will Edge Feathering: plant is being outcompeted necessary if habitat quality is degrading and the native Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices on moist sites for foraging, nesting and brood rearingor shrub cover and roosting; young forest 2 and scattered shrubs and/or young trees; courtship for Cover: Water: of diet) Diet: Habitat requirements openings in close proximity. of the area, interspersed with large fields and small forest (and must include some moist sites) on percent 80 habitat has a diverse arrangement of dense, young increased development. High have resulted in forest maturation, firesuppression, and the past 25 years as a result of land through winter. This gamebird has declined steadily over floor. They migrate to their southern rangein the fall in slight depressions among dead on the forest March to Junein their northern range. Nests are located shrubland. They breed, , and raise their broods from Canada that primarily inhabits moist, young forest and shorebird of the eastern United States and southeastern The American woodcock is a ground General information woodcock American WildlifeHabitat Education Program invertebrates ( represent percent 60 where there is a lack of forest cover openings with sparse herbaceous groundcover obtained through diet

, and , and

Prescribed Fire Dozer where there is a lack of interspersed shrubs

Herbicide Applications will create a soft edge between - - interspersed clearing Forest Forest Regeneration, especially surveys surveys on singing grounds exclude livestock from areas ,

Chainsawing can be used to create forest

Chainsawing - use changes that - - dwelling, migratory quality woodcock can be used to -

to to 25 may may be

, Drum Set

- year - back back , Root - Plant Plant - old, -

Richard Baetsen 78 woodpeckers during the mating season to listen for the distinctive drumming of the black Wildlifeor Fish Survey: logging post occurrence of black old Set size to provide habitat for this woodpecker. will bemany decades before these trees are of sufficient habitat the for black occurring, trees may beplanted to provide future Trees: Plant for black nonnative begin to reduce habitat quality Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices high concentrations of larvae. with little decay that have been recently burned with Cover: Water: recently burned, old Diet: Habitat requirements for 7 declines with time since fire. Habitat generally remains . Abundance of black where they eat bark beetles and other wood recently burned , specifically coniferous forests, Black General information Black WildlifeHabitat Education Program - - growth coniferous forests is necessary for the backSuccession: - - 8 years 8 post fire. bark beetles bark beetles and wood backed woodpeckers are primarily found in nest in the sapwood of relatively hard, dead trees - water is obtained from food - backed woodpecker backed woodpeckers - fire significantly decreases their occurrence. in areas forest where regeneration is not - backed woodpeckers. However, - - backed woodpecker. However, it growth coniferous forests relatively intense

point counts can be conducted

-

- backed woodpeckers boring beetles in

PrescribedFire

when

- boring

- backed in

Glen Tepke survey survey populations Wildlife or Fish Survey: to clear woods and create additional brushy cover decline; rejuvenate shrub cover when habitat quality begins to Herbicide Applications Set additional cover for nesting/foraging Plant Shrubs: and trees to regenerate riparian areas, shrublands, and forests to allow shrubs Livestock Management: stimulating understory development StandImprovement vegetation structure for nesting and foraging; Clearcut Forest Management: additional nesting and foraging cover Field Borders: fields Edge Feathering: degrade habitat brown for invasive species begin to compete with native species and Control Nonnative Invasive Species: Wildlife management practices acres of habitat to support a breeding population use areas that have only shrubs; need a minimum of 2.5 some trees are used for nesting and escape cover; will Cover: Water: diet, but soft and hard mast are also eaten Diet: Habitat requirements trees to 1 feet 10 aboveground. and debris). Nests are usually found in bushes or small available when there is substantial ground litter (leaves over leaves and debris looking for food. More food is forage primarily on the ground, using their to turn edges, and brushy riparian areas. Brown thrashers thickets, hedgerows, shelterbelts, young forests, forest U.S. They are normally found in shrub and bramble Brown thrashers occur in the eastern two General information Brown thrasher - back back Succession: invertebrates and plant are main items in

dense shrubs and brambles interspersed with water requirements are not known , Chainsawing Shelterwood in open areas of at least acres 2.5 to create of of brambles and shrubs will provide will enhance habitat around the edge of

can improve habitat by Prescribed Fire ForestRegeneration and , and, can beused to maintain and point counts can beused to

should exclude livestock from Dozer

Seedtree

- clearing

, when nonnative

will improve

Chaining

- , especially, thirds of the can beused

Timber , and

WildlifeHabitat EducationProgram 85

Dan Sudia 124 to Wildlife provide habitat for goshawks Trees: Plant management habitat Selection Forest least one largesnag peracre may be provided Create Snags: northern goshawk and their prey native vegetation and reduce habitat quality for nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with Nonnative Invasive Vegetation:Control Wildlife management practices Cover: mammals Diet Habitat requirements establishments. necessary. Goshawks do not preferto bearound human on prey. They will pursue prey for quite a distance when and . Goshawks perch while and descend predators, commonly eating large birds, , , consecutive years. As a raptor, goshawks are fierce limb of a mature tree. Nests are often used for up to five they nest 20 to feet aboveground80 on a largehorizontal the U.S. dense, They prefer mature woodlands where throughout the northern, central, and western regions of Northern goshawks are relatively large raptors found General information goshawk Northern

estimate WildlifeHabitat Education Program :

Management mature forest and woodland; nest in mature trees mostly for

) or

and Water

prey

population Fish

in large open areas to eventually

Timber when perching sites are limiting; at ;

small

snags : Survey

obtain :

-

Stand

Forest

should

trends and :

necessary observational

Improvement

Regeneration

be

medium

retained

water - sized

counts

during from can

when ( Single

enhance

birds

diet are

forest - tree

used and

Karen Laubenstein Ovenbird General information The ovenbird is a ground-dwelling warbler found in uplands of closed-canopy, mature deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous forests throughout the eastern third of the U.S. Territorial males are quite vocal with their characteristic “teacher-teacher-teacher” song. Ovenbirds are typically found in mature forests with relatively little underbrush and plenty of litter that harbors abundant and other invertebrates. They often forage in the leaf litter, but also may glean insects from leaves and tree bark. They construct a dome nest

of dead leaves, grasses, bark, and hair with an oval side entrance that usually faces downhill, all in the shape of Lavaty Greg an outdoor bread oven; hence the name. The nest is usually well hidden in herbaceous vegetation on the forest floor, often near a fallen tree or regrowth within a canopy gap. Ovenbirds are rather unique in that after the clutch (3-6 ) hatches, the female takes half the brood and parts ways with the male, who remains with the other half of the brood. Ovenbirds may produce 1-2 broods per year.

Habitat requirements: Diet: adult beetles and larvae, caterpillars, , and Water: usually obtain necessary water from diet, but may use free-standing water when available Cover: mature deciduous forest with sufficient leaf litter for nesting and foraging

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for ovenbirds; several nonnative species, such as Japanese stiltgrass, threaten to reduce habitat quality for ovenbird in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Single Tree Selection) may produce scattered small canopy gaps that enhance nesting cover Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded from forests managed for ovenbirds Plant Trees: in large open areas to produce future habitat Wildlife or Fish Survey: point counts are used to estimate population trends

Ovenbird nest

128 Wildlife Habitat Education Program Ruffed grouse

General information The ruffed grouse is a relatively large gamebird that occurs across southern Canada, the more northern latitudes of , and down the Appalachian range. Ruffed grouse are found in a variety of deciduous forest types as well as mixed deciduous- forest, but are particularly closely associated with aspen, especially young stands with relatively dense structure. Male ruffed grouse attract females during the mating season in spring by standing on downed logs, usually in dense cover, and flapping their wings to their breast, which causes a low drumming sound. This activity is called drumming. Ruffed grouse populations are

decreasing across their range where forest

management has been limited. Marchel Bill

Habitat requirements Diet: buds, hard and soft mast, insects and other invertebrates, and leaves of forbs Water: necessary water obtained from diet Cover: 6- to 20-year-old stands are required for cover provided by the dense stems; mature forest in close proximity to young stands may be used for feeding on and other hard mast; a variety of forest types and age classes are used for nesting

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative vegetation reduces habitat quality for ruffed grouse; Japanese stiltgrass can be especially problematic in many forests, and tall fescue and orchardgrass are problematic in forest openings and along woods roads Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire can be used to Create Snags: where drumming logs are limiting, large- maintain and rejuvenate dense stem cover and enhance diameter (18+ inches), non-mast producing trees may be herbaceous cover important for brooding cover, killed or felled particularly in aspen stands; Chainsawing can be used to Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, remove trees and increase stem density in the forest Shelterwood, Group Selection) within mature forest will understory stimulate regeneration that will provide optimum cover Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if populations are within 6 years; Timber Stand Improvement practices declining in areas where habitat quality is good and data can be used to stimulate desirable structure and stem suggest mortality form hunting is additive or limiting density and enable crowns of desirable trees to grow population growth and produce additional mast Wildlife or Fish Survey: drumming counts are most often Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded used to estimate population trends from areas managed for ruffed grouse Plant Shrubs: where additional soft mast is needed and to develop thickets and shrub cover in openings Plant Trees: in relatively large openings where planting is necessary and where mast-producing trees are limiting

140 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

General information Wild turkeys are large gamebirds found across the U.S. They are adapted to use a wide variety of vegetation types, from deciduous forest to desert shrub to open grassland interspersed with tree-lined riparian areas. Their distribution is largely limited only by snow depth and persistence to the north, which limits their ability to forage on the ground, and by trees or large shrubs needed for roosting at night in arid regions. Wild turkeys

fl ock together during fall and winter. Breeding occurs in

Robert Burton Burton Robert spring when males gobble to attract females. Nests are a slight depression on the ground, usually placed adjacent to a log, shrub, or some other structure to aid in concealment. Shrub cover is often used for nesting, but wild turkeys also nest in open woods and in fields. Nests are lined with leaves and other vegetation and usually contain about 12 eggs. Poults (young turkeys) are precocial, meaning they are able to walk around with the hen and forage for themselves soon after hatching. Herbaceous openings, especially those with a forb canopy and open ground structure, are preferred for brooding. Although wild turkeys spend most of their time on the ground, except when the up into trees in the evening to roost for the night, they can fly well and often take fl ight for short distances to escape predators. Field Borders: to increase usable space for nesting and Habitat requirements brooding around row crop fields Diet: extremely varied; hard mast, especially acorns and Forest Management: (in some ecoregions) Forest beechnuts in the fall and winter; soft mast, such as Regeneration (Clearcut, Shelterwood, Group Selection, blackberries, mulberries, and black cherry; insects and -tree) can enhance nesting and brooding cover and other invertebrates, including and , are stimulate increased soft mast and miscellaneous seed for especially important for young poults and hens prior to a few years after harvest; Timber Stand Improvement nesting; miscellaneous seeds; leaves from forbs and can improve the structure of the understory for nesting grasses; grain from a variety of agricultural crops Water: and brood rearing, increase production of soft mast and obtain water from diet, but may use free-standing water miscellaneous seed, and enable crowns of desired trees to grow and produce additional mast when available Leave Crop Unharvested: especially corn, soybeans, and Cover: mature forest, young regenerating forest, grain sorghum, to provide supplemental food source brushy areas, and old-fields for nesting; mature forest; during fall and winter herbaceous openings; grain fields for foraging; trees Livestock Management: should prevent livestock from or tall shrubs for roosting degrading habitat by overgrazing and damaging planted trees and shrubs and food plots Wildlife management practices Plant Food Plots: to provide supplemental foods where Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative food may be limiting; corn, soybeans, , and invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for are often used wild turkeys; common examples include sod grasses, Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where herbaceous such as tall fescue, bermudagrass, and others, such as cover is limiting and planting is necessary cogongrass, which limit mobility for turkey poults and Plant Shrubs: where additional soft mast or brushy cover food availability; kudzu and shrub honeysuckle are other is needed species that often degrade habitat in forested areas Plant Trees: where additional hard mast production, Edge Feathering: can enhance nesting and brooding especially acorns, is needed and where roosting sites are cover around fields limited

154 Wildlife Habitat Education Program Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire is recommended to maintain herbaceous openings, rejuvenate shrubland, and improve understory structure and composition for foraging, brooding, and nesting in forests, woodlands, and savannas; Disking can be used to maintain herbaceous openings and reduce thatch build-up; Herbicide Applications, Chaining, Root-plowing, and Drum-chopping can be used to reduce shrub cover and stimulate more herbaceous groundcover; Chainsawing, Dozer-clearing, and Root-plowing can be used to remove trees and create herbaceous openings, especially where brooding cover may be limiting Tillage Management: eliminate tillage in the fall to provide additional waste grain during winter, especially when adjacent to tall shrub or forest cover Water Developments for Wildlife: can be useful when there is little or no free-standing water Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if populations are declining and data suggest mortality from hunting is additive or limiting population growth Increase Harvest: where populations can sustain additional harvest pressure for hunting recreation and where populations need to be lowered Wildlife Damage Management: may be necessary in rare instances when wild turkeys are depredating crops Wildlife or Fish Survey: gobble surveys, poult surveys, and hunter success rates are used to estimate population trends

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 155 176 to estimate population trends trapper harvest data, and trail cameras may beused Wildlife or Fish Survey: if small domestic pet depredation is a problem Wildlife Damage Management: the population is desired additional trapping pressure or a reduction in Increase Harvest: fishers are desired pressure is limiting population growth and additional Decrease Harvest: canopy cover) forest cover is needed (should maintain >50 percent Plant Trees: increase down woody debris increased prey populations; forest management can also increase understory development that can lead to for several prey species; Selection Forest Management: cavities are suspected to be limiting the population Create Snags: vegetation and reducing habitat quality nonnative invasive vegetation is competing with native Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices or live trees abundant down woody debris; den in hollow logs, snags, Cover: Water: domestic pets insects, reptiles, soft mast, and carrion; and small readily consume other , rabbits, porcupines, Diet: Habitat requirements Appalachian Mountain range. south as and along the their former range. Fishers are now re reintroduction of fishers throughout many portions of damage they cause to trees has led to large to control porcupines in some areas because of the preying on porcupines than any other predator. A desire decline in many areas. Fishers are likely more adept at resource that led to over northeastern U.S. Fishers were once a valuable area and the mountains of the Pacific and Fishers are furbearers found in forests in the upperGreat General information Fisher WildlifeHabitat Education Program primarily small rodents and ; will mature mature conifer mixed or hardwood forests with necessary necessary water obtained from diet ,

Group Selection

in large open areas where additional in forested areas denningwhere

where populations can sustain

may may benecessary when trapping ForestRegeneration scent stations, track counts, TimberStand Improvement -

trapping and population ) can) improve forest structure

may may benecessary - established as far

when

(S -

scale ingle

- tree

can

USFWS Moose General information The moose is the largest member of the deer family. Adult males can reach 1,800 pounds and females may weigh 1,000 pounds. Males exhibit palmated (flattened or palm-like) , whereas most other members of the deer family have a dendritic (twig-like) configuration. Moose are herbivores and inhabit both boreal and mixed deciduous forests in temperate and subarctic climates. Moose are typically solitary and do

not group into herds. Predators include , bears,

Karen Laubenstein Laubenstein Karen and . Moose are typically found around wetlands (such as , streams, lakes) because of the abundance of browse and aquatic plants moose prefer. The moose is the only deer species that can dive underwater to reach plants on stream, , and bottoms. An adult moose can consume as much as 70 pounds of vegetation per day. In spring, moose are often drawn to roadways to satisfy their sodium requirements where they lick salt applied to road surfaces to melt snow and ice. This habit leads to moose-vehicle collisions wherever roads are salted during winter. Moose populations have rebounded over the past 30-40 years as pollution in waterways has been reduced and abandoned farms have succeeded into shrub-dominated and young forest cover. Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire and Chainsawing Habitat requirements can be used to rejuvenate and enhance low-growing woody cover and increase browse Diet: leaves and twigs of willow, maple, aspen, mountain Water Control Structures: should be installed in existing ash, and birch trees, as well as aquatic vegetation, dikes and levees if not already present to manipulate including submerged aquatic vegetation, which may water levels and maintain aquatic vegetation surrounding represent as much as half of the diet wetlands Water: water requirements are met through Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow impoundments consumption of aquatic vegetation and standing water can be created if a lack of wetlands are limiting the where they are typically found presence or abundance of moose Cover: riparian areas along streams and , edges of Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if hunter harvest marshes adjacent to thick upland cover, mature softwood has limited the population and a population increase is stands during extreme cold and/or deep snowfall desired, or if winter mortality, particularly from winter tick loads on calves and yearlings, is excessive Wildlife management practices Increase Harvest: may be implemented if the Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: may be moose population needs to be lowered necessary when native plant communities, both upland Wildlife or Fish Survey: aerial surveys may be used to and aquatic, are being threatened by nonnative invasive monitor moose populations vegetation and habitat quality for moose is declining Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, Shelterwood, Group Selection) will provide increased browse Plant Shrubs: may be necessary in large open areas where additional shrub cover is needed Plant Trees: may be necessary in large open areas where additional forest cover is needed Repair Spillway/Levee: if not functioning properly

180 Wildlife Habitat Education Program cottontail General information The (NE cottontail) is found in isolated areas of , New Hampshire, , , , and Rhode Island. The USDA-NRCS included them in its Working Lands for Wildlife Initiative. NE cottontail is often confused with the eastern cottontail, which looks very similar, and because the eastern cottontail is more of a habitat generalist, it has been displacing the NE cottontail since the eastern cottontail was introduced to the New England states in the early 1900s. Because this region has dense human

populations, habitat distribution for NE cottontail has declined by 86 percent since 1960. In addition to reduction of habitat distribution, urban sprawl also USFWS indirectly reduces habitat quality and quantity because of land-use changes (fire suppression, aesthetic mowing, afforestation, and the reduction of timber harvest). The remaining habitat is largely fragmented and isolates local populations, making them more vulnerable to overall population decline. Early successional cover in at least 25- acre blocks is desirable. Habitat may be provided in old- fields, cleared areas (such as utility and railroad right-of- ways), young regenerating forest, shrubby fringes around swamps and beaver , managed early successional openings, and coastal shrublands. Nests are constructed of fur, grass, and leaves on the ground in a 4-inch depression.

Habitat requirements herbaceous vegetation for nesting, cover, and forage Diet: forbs, grasses and soft mast in late spring and Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where herbaceous summer; grasses, leaves, soft mast, and buds in fall; bark, vegetation is limiting and planting is necessary to twigs, buds, and grasses in winter establish desirable cover Water: obtained through diet Plant Shrubs: where there is a lack of shrub cover and Cover: early successional cover consisting of shrubs, forbs, none is regenerating naturally and perennial native grasses; evergreen shrubs and trees Plant Trees: evergreen species may be planted in are critical for escape and thermal cover in winter areas lacking thermal cover in winter Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire, Herbicide Wildlife management practices Applications, and Disking can be used to maintain early Conservation Easement: can protect critical habitat for successional areas; Prescribed Fire can be used to this declining species rejuvenate and maintain shrub cover; Chainsawing, Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative Dozer-clearing, and Root-plowing can be used to invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for convert forest to early successional cover NE cottontail Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if the local Edge Feathering: to enhance cover and forage availability population is declining or cannot withstand harvest. between fields and forest Wildlife or Fish Survey: because differentiating New Field Borders: to increase usable space around crop fields England cottontails from Eastern cottontails is very Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, difficult and only reliable under genetic testing or Shelterwood, Seed-tree) will enhance habitat for a few morphological skull identification, wildlife agencies years request hunters submit heads of harvested rabbits for Livestock Management: should exclude livestock from identification and analysis of population trends food plots and prevent overgrazing to allow sufficient

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 183 used to estimate population trends Wildlife or Fish Survey: populations need to be lowered additional hunting pressure for recreation and where Increase Harvest: population growth anwhere increase is desired Decrease Harvest: for red squirrels Plant Trees: from forests managed for red squirrel Livestock Management: production; snags should be retained for possible cavities improve species composition and help increase mast Forest Management: red squirrels invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices bark, grass, leaves, twigs forest; nest in tree cavities and build nests of shredded Cover: Water: and mushrooms Diet: Habitat requirements spring and late summer. hulls of nuts and cones accumulate. Young are born in often eat from the same stump or downed log where snow and store conifer seeds in caches. Red squirrels burrows if cavities are not available. They will tunnel in on large tree limbs close to the trunk or in underground Red squirrels den in tree cavities, but will make ball nests coniferous forest and mixed deciduous with a white belly. They are found primarily in boreal implies, they are reddish yellowishor on back and sides regions, and down the Appalachians. As their name in the , , and New England Red squirrels are relatively small tree squirrels that occur General information Red squirrel wide variety of seeds (especially seeds), eggs, coniferous coniferous and mixed deciduous freestanding water required regularly in large open areas to provide future habitat

where populations can sustain

if hunting pressure is limiting Timber StandTimber Improvement observation surveys can be

livestock should be excluded

- - coniferous forest. coniferous when nonnative

can WildlifeHabitat EducationProgram 187

Gilles Gonthier Snowshoe hare General information Snowshoe hares are found in the northern U.S., the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra , and the Appalachians. They have large feet but smallish ears for a hare. Their summer coat is dark brown and their winter coat is white. They are commonly found in both young and mature coniferous and deciduous forest, but prefer dense cover, especially near low wet areas. They forage in recently regenerated forest and forest openings. Snowshoe hares do not use

dens. Home range is about 10 acres. They have 2-3 litters of 2-4 young, which are born April-August. USFWS

Habitat requirements Diet: forbs, grasses, soft mast in spring and summer; browse and bark in winter Water: probably obtain necessary water through diet Cover: dense thickets and young forest cover; mature forest with dense understory; seldom far from dense cover; forest openings and riparian areas; give birth under a shrub or fallen log

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for snowshoe hares Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, Wildlife or Fish Survey: track counts, observation counts, Shelterwood, Seed-tree) will provide dense cover and and hunter observation data can be used to estimate increased soft mast for several years after harvest; population trends Timber Stand Improvement can enhance understory development and soft mast production; Forest Road Maintenence my involve daylighting roads and planting clovers where forage may be limited Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded for forests managed for snowshoe hare; should prevent overgrazing in forest openings to maintain sufficient cover and forage for snowshoe hares Plant Food Plots: (in some ecoregions) forest openings may be planted in forages where food may be lacking Plant Shrubs: where dense shrub cover is lacking and planting is necessary Plant Trees: in relatively large open areas to maintain at least 80 percent forest cover Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting population growth where an increase is desired Increase Harvest: when populations can sustain additional hunting pressure for recreation and when population reduction is desired Wildlife Damage Management: when snowshoe hare populations eat the bark of commercially valuable trees during winter

190 Wildlife Habitat Education Program White-tailed deer General information The white-tailed deer is the most important in North America. There are more than 30 subspecies of white-tailed deer that occur throughout the U.S. and southern Canada, except for California and Nevada. They are extremely adaptable and are found in a wide variety of areas including deciduous and coniferous forests, tropical evergreen forest, dry grasslands, and shrub desert. They are adaptable to humans and exploit suburban areas very well. Whitetails thrive in areas with fragmented areas containing several well-interspersed

vegetation types and successional stages. White-tailed deer are ruminants and are classified as browsers, but have distinct dietary preferences through the seasons. Where overabundant, they can cause significant damage to ornamental plantings and row crops and can be Hillebrand Steve hazardous for motor vehicles.

Habitat requirements Diet: forbs, browse, acorns, beechnuts, grains, grasses, and mushrooms; in the northern parts of the range, coniferous browse is important in winter Water: obtain most of their water from diet, but will drink free-standing water when available Cover: dense woody vegetation as well as relatively tall early successional cover, including native grasses, forbs, and shrubs; at the northern edge of their range white-tailed deer use wintering areas, which are usually dense stands of , , cedar, and hemlock to avoid deep snow and cold winds increased browse and soft mast production and stimulate Wildlife management practices better cover in stands with a poorly developed Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative understory; both methods are often used at the northern invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for edge of their range to manage the quality and vigor of white-tailed deer; sod grasses and sericea lespedeza can coniferous cover within a deer wintering area be particularly problematic in fields and Japanese Leave Crop Unharvested: to provide additional food stiltgrass often reduces forage availability in forests; resource, especially near escape cover although white-tailed deer may eat many nonnative Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded invasive plants in some seasons to some extent, control from forests managed for deer to avoid destruction of of many of those plants, such as kudzu, Japanese the forest understory; livestock should be excluded from honeysuckle, and Chinese privet, can lead to increased riparian areas, especially in the Great Plains Grassland plant species diversity and increased forage quality ecoregion; should prevent overgrazing in woodlands and during various seasons savannas; livestock should be excluded from food plots Edge Feathering: to increase forage availability Plant Food Plots: when naturally occurring food sources around fields and enhance fawning cover are limited, food plots may provide additional nutrition, Field Borders: to increase forage availability (forbs and particularly in late summer and winter of most brambles) around crop fields ecoregions Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where early Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, successional cover is limiting and planting is necessary for Shelterwood, Seed-tree, Group Selection) will provide establishment increased browse, soft mast production, and dense Plant Shrubs: where needed to provide additional soft escape cover; Timber Stand Improvement can provide mast, brushy cover, and browse; often useful in ravines, field borders, other idle land areas and across large open

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 191 areas to provide travel corridors Plant Trees: (in some ecoregions) in large open areas to maintain at least 30 to 40 percent forest cover; where mast producers are lacking, particularly Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire and Disking is recommended to maintain herbaceous openings; Prescribed Fire is recommended to stimulate the forest understory for increased forage and soft mast; Chaining can be used to rejuvenate shrub cover; in areas dominated by mesquite, Root-plowing combined with seeding grasses and legumes may be the best way to increase herbaceous groundcover; Chainsawing, Dozer-clearing and Root-plowing when converting forest to early successional cover to increase forage and enhance fawning cover, and to kill or remove undesirable trees in woodlots and other areas Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of grain crop residue adjacent to cover to make waste grain available as an additional food source Water Developments for Wildlife: where lacking (within one-half mile), dugouts, ponds, and shallow impoundments can provide freestanding water Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting population growth where an increase is desired Increase Harvest: when populations can sustain additional harvest pressure for hunting recreation and when populations need to be lowered because of and habitat degradation; in these cases, it is necessary to concentrate increased harvest on females Wildlife Damage Management: fencing, repellents, and scare tactics may be helpful to keep deer from ornamental plantings, vegetable gardens, and crops; reducing the population through shooting females is recommended when widespread overabundance is causing crop depredation and increasing vehicle collisions Wildlife or Fish Survey: camera surveys, browse surveys, aerial surveys (in open areas such as South Texas, , or , and northern portion of range during winter when there is extensive snow cover), pellet surveys, and hunter observation and harvest data are used to estimate population trends

192 Wildlife Habitat Education Program estimate population trends Wildlife or Fish Survey: additional breeding sites are needed pools; create small, fishless ponds or impoundments if Water Developments for Wildlife: canopy cover) forest cover is needed (should maintain >70 percent Plant Trees: facilities should be developed away from breeding ponds for wood ; livestock watering from forests and from ponds that may be used as Livestock Management: wood frogs, limiting movement to breeding ponds invasive vegetation creates undesirable conditions for Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices debris moist soils, abundant leaf litter, and downed woody cover in deciduous or boreal forests; preferareas with Cover: some time of the year forests; breeding ponds are usually fishless and are dry at Water: phytoplankton from the water crickets, spiders, and earthworms; filter Diet: Habitat requirements quickly and generally transform in 6 to 15 weeks. rapidly (4 breeding seasons are short (6 annual migrations to ephemeral ponds to breed. The and boreal forests. Adults are largely terrestrial, but make frogs are closely associated with closed survive whole serve as cryoprotectants (antifreeze). Individuals can temperatures by increasing blood to withstand extended periods of sub litter to escape freezing temperatures. They also are able northern climates, wood frogs bury themselves in the leaf Canada, and (not shown on map below). In the and westward throughout the Great Lakes region, of to northern Canada, American frog or . They occur from the southern Wood frogs have the most extensive range of any North General information Wood frog adults eat terrestrial invertebrates, such as beetles,

optimum habitat consists of >70 percent canopy breed in shallow water within closed - 30 30 days) in the shallow ponds. Tadpoles grow in large open areas where additional - body freezing for more than a week. Wood

call counts are used to livestock should be excluded

- 14 14 days) and eggs develop

- glucose levels, which maintain ephemeral -

freezing - canopy deciduous where nonnative

- canopy

WildlifeHabitat EducationProgram 209

Bo Zaremba Fish Bluegill

General information The bluegill is one of the most abundant Sunfish species. It thrives in a variety of conditions, ranging from freshwater lakes, ponds, and slow moving streams, to brackish waters of coastal areas. The bluegill’s native range is the eastern U.S. from southern Canada to and Texas, but they have been successfully introduced throughout the U.S.

Habitat requirements Diet: a variety of zooplankton (microscopic animal life) during the first few months of life, progressing to insects and their larvae, eggs, earthworms, tadpoles, small minnows, and Water: basic requirements include dissolved oxygen (minimum of 4 parts per million); pH between 6.5 and

9.0; and water temperature should reach at least 70 F Engbretson Eric during summer (one foot below surface in the shade) Cover: aquatic environments with submerged rocks, woody debris, and aquatic vegetation where small fish (prey) hide

Wildlife management practices Livestock Management: livestock should either be excluded from fish ponds or only allowed access to a small part of the fish pond; livestock watering facilities should be developed away from the fish pond Repair Spillway/Levee: if not functioning properly Water Control Structures: should be installed if none are Native Range atv present so water depth can be controlled Introdued ange Decrease Harvest: refer to Wildlife Management Introduced Range Practices on page 240 for specifics on fish harvest Increase Harvest: refer to Wildlife Management Reduce Turbidity in Fish Pond: by reseeding watershed if Practices on page 241 for specifics on fish harvest soil is eroding into the pond and causing muddy water, by Wildlife or Fish Survey: records, seining, and preventing livestock from entering pond, by eliminating electro-shocking are used to survey bluegill populations bottom-feeding fish, or by reducing suspension of Construct Fish Pond: where no suitable water source is negatively charged clay particles present or where an existing fish pond needs extensive Restock Fish Pond: if the population is too far out of repair, especially to the dike or dam balance to correct via seining or fishing or if undesirable Control Aquatic Vegetation: when necessary to species are present discourage undesirable aquatic vegetation Fertilize/Lime Fish Pond: fertilize to promote phytoplankton growth when visibility is more than 18 inches below the water surface; add agricultural limestone to increase soil pH if total alkalinity is below 20 ppm

210 Wildlife Habitat Education Program Largemouth bass General information Largemouth bass are not really bass but members of the Sunfish family. Largemouth bass are the most popular freshwater sportfish in states where they are found. They can be found in freshwater lakes, rivers, large streams, farm ponds, and brackish marshes. Their native range includes most of the eastern U.S., but largemouth bass have been stocked all over the country successfully. Habitat requirements Diet: young bass eat insects and other invertebrates (, crayfish, and zooplankton); adults eat small fish, such as bluegill, and a variety of minnows, as well as tadpoles, crayfish, and even ducklings Cover: aquatic environments with submerged rocks, woody debris, and aquatic vegetation where small fish (prey) hide Water: basic requirements include dissolved oxygen (minimum of 4 parts per million); pH should range between 6.5 and 9.0; water temperature should reach at least 70 F during summer (one foot below surface in shade) Native Range Wildlife management practices Native Range Livestock Management: livestock should either be Introduced Range excluded from fish ponds or only allowed access to a small part of the fish pond; livestock watering facilities should be developed away from the fish pond Repair Restock Fish Pond: if the population is too far out of Spillway/Levee: if not functioning properly Water balance to correct via seining or fishing or if undesirable Control Structures: should be installed if none are species are present present so water depth can be controlled Decrease Harvest: refer to Wildlife Management Practices on page 240 for specifics on fish harvest Increase Harvest: refer to Wildlife Management Practices on page 241 for specifics on fish harvest Wildlife or Fish Survey: fishing records, seining, and electro-shocking are used to survey largemouth bass populations Construct Fish Pond: where no suitable water source is present or where an existing fish pond needs extensive repair, especially to the dike or dam Control Aquatic Vegetation: when necessary to discourage undesirable aquatic vegetation Fertilize/Lime Fish Pond: fertilize to promote phytoplankton growth when visibility is more than 18 inches below the water surface; add agricultural limestone to increase soil pH if total alkalinity is below 20 ppm Reduce Turbidity in Fish Pond: by reseeding watershed if soil is eroding into the pond and causing muddy water, by preventing livestock from entering pond, by eliminating bottom-feeding fish, or by reducing suspension of negatively charged clay particles

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