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Wildlife

This chapter contains information on species featured in each of the ecoregions. Species are grouped by Birds, , Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fish. Species are listed alphabetically within each group. A general description, habitat requirements, and possible wildlife management practices are provided for each species. Wildlife management practices for a particular species may vary among ecoregions, so not all of the wildlife management practices listed for a species may be applicable for that species in all ecoregions. Refer to the WMP charts within a particular ecoregion to determine which practices are appropriate for species included in that ecoregion.

The species descriptions contain all the information needed about a particular species for the WHEP contest. However, additional reading should be encouraged for participants that want more detailed information. Field guides to North American wildlife and fish are good sources for information and pictures of the species listed. There also are many Web sites available for wildlife species identification by sight and sound.

Information from this section will be used in the Wildlife Challenge at the National Invitational. Participants should be familiar with the information presented within the species accounts for those species included within the ecoregions used at the Invitational.

It is important to understand that when assessing habitat for a particular wildlife species and considering various WMPs for recommendation, current conditions should be evaluated. That is, WMPs should be recommended based on the current habitat conditions within the year. Also, it is important to realize the benefit of a WMP may not be realized soon. For example, trees or shrubs planted for mast may not provide cover or bear fruit for several years.

Index to Wildlife Species Note: Refer to this list for the correct spelling and capitalization of species for Activity I (Wildlife Challenge).

Birds (86) American bittern golden-cheeked warbler prairie falcon golden-fronted woodpecker prothonotary warbler American kestrel golden-winged warbler pyrrhuloxia American robin grasshopper sparrow red-cockaded woodpecker American wigeon great horned red-eyed vireo American greater prairie-chicken red-tailed hawk greater roadrunner black-backed woodpecker greater sage-grouse ring-necked pheasant black-bellied whistling duck hairy woodpecker rock pigeon black-capped chickadee house finch ruby-throated hummingbird black-throated sparrow house sparrow blue-winged teal house wren sage thrasher Brewer’s sparrow ladder-backed woodpecker scaled quail broad-winged hawk lark bunting sharp-tailed grouse brown thrasher Lawrence’s goldfinch song sparrow quail loggerhead shrike sooty grouse California thrasher long-billed thrasher southwest willow flycatcher goose spotted sandpiper common nighthawk marbled murrelet spotted towhee crested caracara mountain bluebird rail crissal thrasher western bluebird dickcissel western kingbird dusky grouse northern flicker white-tailed ptarmigan eastern bluebird white-winged dove eastern meadowlark northern harrier European starling Wilson’s snipe ferruginous hawk Nuttall’s woodpecker Gambel’s quail ovenbird yellow-rumped warbler golden eagle peregrine falcon Wildlife Habitat Education Program 69 Mammals (34) American beaver desert cottontail New England cottontail American marten eastern cottontail big brown bat eastern black bear eastern gray squirrel black-tailed jackrabbit black-tailed prairie fisher river Rocky Mountain Brazilian free-tailed bat Indiana bat collared peccary mink white-tailed deer Columbian black-tailed deer wild pig common muskrat mountain cottontail mountain lion

Reptiles (9) eastern box Gila monster horned lizard eastern indigo gopher tortoise timber rattlesnake eastern snapping turtle plains hog-nosed snake western diamond-backed rattlesnake

Amphibians (7) American bullfrog rough-skinned newt crawfish tiger salamander Monterey salamander wood frog northern red-legged frog

Fish (6) bluegill cutthroat channel largemouth Coho salmon rainbow trout

Range map keys for wildlife species

Range map key for birds: Range map key for mammals, Range map key for fish: reptiles, and amphibians:

Year Round Native Range Year Round Introduced Range Summer Winter

Winter Migratory

70 Wildlife Habitat Education Program 74 counts are used to estimate trends in populations Wildlife or Fish Survey: shouldremoved be water inareas wherecats can the catch birds; waterof canprovided be in urban areas; DevelopmentsWater for Wildlife: in used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for robins provide suitable structure for robins; Mowing Set nestingwhere sites may be limiting Plant Trees: and winterberry mightinclude dogwoods, hollies, golden currant, Plant Shrubs: quality for American robins nonnative invasive vegetation begins to reducehabitat ControlNonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices nestsearly nestingfor and Cover: water from low Water: artificialuse feeders soft mastfrom shrubs and trees inwinter; seldom Diet: Habitat requirements branches to eatberries, fruit, and . ground feeding earthworms,on but also perch will on building ledges. Robins spend considerable time theon a tree or shrub limb, andcold snow. Robins buildnest a grassof and mud on out northernof latitudesduring winters with sustained throughoutNorth America, though they may migrate residential areasare attractive to robins. Theyfound are trees and shrubs. Parks,golf courses, urbanrobins areas, large use open areas and nearby types, from mowed grassy areas to forested areas. In American robins usea wideassortment of vegetation General information American robin Urban - back back Succession: insectsand worms during spring and summer; shrubs, evergreen trees, and deciduous trees used require water daily in warm seasons; obtain Wildlife canused be to set areas

both deciduous and evergreen; wheresoft mastlacking; is exampl

- escape; evergreen trees often used for Habitat Education Program lying areas, ponds, and rain

butwill occasionally on Prescribed Fire observation counts and point

-

backsuccession and

birdbaths and pans

Mowing and lawns in , Disking

do notdo place

when -

filled gutters , and may be

es

Lee Karney used to estimate trends in populations Wildlife Fish or Survey: common nighthawks in used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for to open, early successional areas; clearing promote bare ground for nesting; foraging; Mowing Set forsites common maintain herbaceousopen areas provide foraging Livestock Management: Wildlife management practices gravel areasare favorite nesting locations rooftops, and other places with numerous sand and nighthawks sources attractinsects, which providefood for Water: moths, and Junebugs Diet: Habitat requirements insects. They are nocturnal and feed “ fields or on rooftops. They use open fields for foraging. nighthawks nest on bare soil or gravel areas common in open areas in late evening and early morning. Common they are often seen flying over city parks and other open woodlands, cities, and towns. In cities and winter. Common nighthawks are found in grasslands, during summer, but migrate to during Common nighthawks are found throughout the U.S. informationGeneral nighthawk Common

- back Succession: flying insects, including flying ants, mosquitoes,

obtain ample water from diet,but water , and can maintain early successional areas for Disking Cover: Root and nighthawks - riparian plowing Prescribed Fire Herbicide Applications

Urban observation counts can be grazing regimes that areas, ridge tops, flat

can convert woode

on

areas - the Mowing Chainsawing

- , wing” on flying Disking

may be , and can , d areas

towns, Dozer -

WildlifeHabitat Education Program Education

89 Gary Kramer

94 fighting among males beplaced no closer than 80 yards apart to limit territorial entranceh boxes should be approximately feet5 high an with naturalof cavities maylimiting be the population; nest NestingStructures: from recently planted trees and shrubs Live around crop fields FieldBorders: killed and left standing)around fields perching sites, and potential cavity trees (if trees are Feathering:Edge in forestsbecause easte potential nest sites and perching in sites areasopen (not Snags:Create bluebirdseastern native vegetation and reduces habitat quality for nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with ControlNonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices Cover: free use Water: pokeweed, and hackberry blueberry,blackberry, blackgum, hollie as spiders; various fruits, such as black cherry, sumac, beetles and larvae,as well as otherinvertebrates, such Diet: Habitat requirements bluebird populations. programs havehad a major impact inrestoring east bluebirds may have1 nest boxes. Clutches are normally 3 in cavities, especially old woodpecker cavities, as well as prevalent du spring and summer, whereas various fruits are most that provideperches. Insectsdominate the during diet areas,open but typically near trees, shrubs, orfence a areas with morestructural diversity. Bluebirds forage in trees may notreceive as much use interspersion of hedgerows, fencerows, and scattered (where cavitiesavailable). are Largeopen areas without trees and shrubs, for perching, foraging and nesting successionalearly communitieswell backyards, edges hayfieldsof and cropfields, and herbaceoususe openings, savannas, pastures, parks, Eastern bluebirds arefound across the eastern U.S. They General information Eastern bluebird

stock Management: insects, especially grasshoppers, crickets, adult nest incavities of trees and fenceposts necessary water obtained from diet, but may Wildlife Habitat Education Program - standing water when available ole ole 11/2 inches in diameter; nest boxesshould ring falland winter. Eastern bluebirds nest to increase foraging opportunities wherecavities are limited to provide

to increaseforaging opportunities, shoulderected be wherea scarcity -

3 broods3 per year. Nest box rn bluebirds notuse do forests)

livestock be must excluded

by bluebirdsthose as - - 6 eggs.6 Eastern interspersed with

s, dogwoods,

when

other ern bechecked to monitor use and success nest to monitor bluebird populations; nest boxesshould Wildlife Fish or Survey: eastern bluebirds in ma savannas and early successional communities; Root dominated by young trees and shrubs; successional areas and prevent them from becoming can be used to maintain and rejuvenate early Applications Set future distant in sites nest potential provide may limiting; ope large relatively limiting be may foods winter or sites Shrubs: insects attract to important is component forb necessary; is planting where groundcover herbaceous Forbs: and Grasses Native Plant y be used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for - back Succession: - plowing

in relatively large open areas where perching perching where areas open large relatively in , Mowing can be used to convert forested areas to Urban n areas where perching sites are are sites perching where areas n Prescribed Fire , Chaining pointcounts canused be areas

, and to aid in establishing establishing in aid to , Drum Disking Chainsawing Plant Trees: Trees: Plant -

chopping , Mowing Herbicide Plant Plant and in in

Dave Menke 96 questionnairesused are to monitor starling populations pointcounts, and wildlifedamage management populations euthanasia are appropria harassmentpractices may beeffective; trap and starlings around buildings shouldremoved; be various are notwanted; food, water, and cover availableto prevent accessto buildings and other areas where they Wildlife Damage Management: Wildlife management practices Cover: Water: garbage,and even dog and Diet: Habitat requirements or benefit starlings should not occur in any situation. of insects, , grain, and soft mast. Practices to attract buildings. Starlings feed Starlings are cavity nesters and nest in large trees or old areas, but also are abundant in agricultural areas. areas with large trees and shrubs interspersed with open Starlings prefer older suburban and urban residential them from areas where they are causing necessary to reduce starling populations and exclude a consequence, wildlife damage management is cavities and deplete food resources for native wildlife. As and in urban areas. They exclude native species from considered pests. They commonly cause damage to They were introduced to the U.S. from and are European starlings are found throughout . General information European starling

insects,soft mast, seeds, earthworms, grain, nest intree cavities, buildings old require freestanding water during warm seasons Wildlife Habitat Education Program Wildlife Fishor Survey:

on the ground and eat a variety te to reduce starling

foodcat

exclusion practices to

observation counts,

damage.

crops

Thomas G. Barnes House finch General information House finches are native to the western U.S., but were introduced in the eastern U.S. in 1940. Since, they have spread throughout the eastern U.S. and have become one of the most common birds in the U.S. They are found in a wide variety of urban, suburban, and agricultural areas that have trees, shrubs, and some herbaceous openings. They also are found in canyons and semi-arid regions in the western part of the country. House finches nest in a variety of locations and make a nest from weed Kramer Gary stems, small branches, and leaves. House finches are vegetarians and eat a variety of seeds, soft mast, and buds, both from the ground and in trees.

Habitat requirements Diet: soft mast, buds, and weed seeds; in the warm season, house finches eat some insects Water: free-standing water is needed daily in the warm season Cover: nest 5 feet to 7 feet aboveground on low branches of trees, branches of bushes, in natural cavities, old holes excavated by woodpeckers, and any projection or ledge they can find on houses and buildings

Wildlife management practices Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: to provide forb in rural areas where forbs are lacking Plant Shrubs: for nesting and hiding cover adjacent to open areas where shrubs are lacking Plant Trees: for nesting cover in areas where trees are lacking Set-back Succession: Mowing may be used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for house finches in Urban areas Water Developments for Wildlife: birdbaths and pans of water can be provided, or a low area in the yard can be filled with water; do not place water in areas where cats can catch birds; cats should be removed Wildlife or Fish Survey: point counts are used to estimate trends in populations Artificial Feeders: may be used to attract finches in Urban areas; millet and sunflower seeds are favorites

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 109 House sparrow General information House sparrows are found throughout the U.S. They are an from England (they are also called English sparrows) and are found throughout the U.S., and are very common in urban areas. House sparrows also are very common in and around buildings in

agricultural areas where grain is available. Because they are a nuisance, management objectives are often needed to reduce the quality and quantity of food and cover. Wildlife Damage Management is often needed and commonly implemented. House sparrows are cavity

James W. Arterburn W. James nesters and will frequently occupy buildings and houses to nest within the eaves or other areas with a cavity or opening. House sparrows feed on the ground and in woody vegetation for seeds, insects, and soft mast. House sparrows outcompete bluebirds for cavity nesting space and compete with several other native birds for food and space.

Habitat requirements Diet: variety of insects, soft mast, buds, forbs, weed seeds, and waste grain Water: free-standing water is required daily in warm seasons Cover: nest in natural cavities, low branches of trees, and bushes 5 feet to 7 feet aboveground, and on any projection or ledge they can find on buildings or other structures

Wildlife management practices House sparrow populations often grow to levels where they cause wildlife damage or will cause detrimental conditions for native wildlife by out competing native species for habitat requirements; therefore, wildlife damage management most likely will be necessary in all situations, especially in suburban/urban and agricultural areas. Habitat management to attract house sparrows should never occur. Wildlife Damage Management: trap and euthanasia are often appropriate to reduce house sparrow populations; exclusion practices may prevent house sparrows from accessing an area; remove food, water, and cover available to house sparrows; various harassment practices may be effective Wildlife or Fish Survey: observation counts, call counts, and questionnaires related to wildlife damage management are useful in estimating trends in populations

110 Wildlife Habitat Education Program estimate trends inpopulations nesting Plant Trees: and nesting for Plant Shrubs: stateor wildlifeagency website design and placement, visit your local E and excluding house wrens; for specifics neston box prevent housesparrows and starlings from entering house;hole the should be 1.5< inchesin diameter to beplaced high tree a on trunk underor the eaves aof adequatewhere nesting sitesare lacking; boxesshou NestingStructures: vegetation and degrade habitat for house wrens nonnative species begin to compete with native Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife ma and other structures Cover: Water: feeders are usually notused ants,bees, ticks, earthworms, and millipedes; artificial Diet: Habitat requirements and aboveground. as 30 feet aboveground. They forageboth theon ground House wrens nest ina variety elevatedof cavities,as high openings higher at elevations,well as asin aspenstands. wrens also arefound inforests with her residential areas with large shrubs and trees. House winter months. In breeding season, and migrate to the Deep during South House wrens arefound throughout the U.S. during the General information House wren spiders, grasshoppers, nest innatural cavitiesin trees old buildings necessary wateris obtained from the diet Wildlife orFish Survey: where treesare lacking for cover and wherelacking cover for whilefeeding nagement practices

Urban

nest boxes be may provided areas,house wrens prefer older

crickets, beetles,caterpillars,

pointcounts are used to xtension office baceous

when

ld WildlifeHabitat Program Education

111 Dave Menke

Plant Trees: areasopen provide additional food resource when limiting in Plant Shrubs: during forest management activities the for StandTimber Improvement more areaopen and possiblysnags for a short time; Management:Forest species as well where snags are limiting, especially softwoods, but other Snags:Create vegetation and degrade habitat for flickers nonnative species begin to compete with native Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices unavailable are trees where structures h and banks, in holes posts, in nest will flickers preferred; are willow, and cottonwood, poplar, yellow as such trees, softwood used; are often decay age) or (old senescence of signs show that trees Cover: waterprobably is obtained from die Water: artificialuse feeders also eaten; flickersare partial to poison ivy fruit and may percent of the diet; seeds, soft mast,and earthworms are Diet: Habitat requirements cavity other and flickers of cavities nesting occupying from starlings prevent to betaken should action Appropriate . own their take often starlings European necessary be may management damage Wildlife trees. ornamental damage or houses on siding in wood holes create may they where areas urban in problematic become can Flickers seeds. and mast soft as as well biologic for species important an are considered flickers Thus, species. other for sites roosting and nesting become later cavities these nesting; for trees in cavities create Flickers parks. and courses, golf trees, large with areas residential o prefer They areas. urban and zones riparian along found often are flickers Northern openings. herbaceous with interspersed woodlands and forests year U.S. the of most inhabit and America, North of all occupy flickers Northern General information Northern flicker antsa are favorite est and providesnags; snags shouldretained be tree cavities are used for nesting; old, mature mature old, nesting; for used are cavities tree daily water requirements unknown;sufficient al diversity. Flickers eat insects, especially ants, ants, especially insects, eat Flickers diversity. al

in large open areas without trees

several soft mast to enhance possible

ForestRegeneration

- food and make up about 50 nesting wildlife. nesting

- can open can open the structure of round. Flickers are found in in found are Flickers round. - oles in houses and and houses in oles over flicker cavities for for cavities flicker over - bearing shrubs can

sites for cavities t

when will provide

lder urban urban lder . urban areas; issuet preferred ArtificialFe estimate trends inpopulations Wildlife Fish or Survey: flickers from anarea prevent accessto buildings; harassment can repel excavating wooden buildings; exclusion practices can prevent Wildlife Damage Management: forcover northern flickers in Mowing layerlitter and facilitateforaging ground; the on Set - back back Succession:

damagefrom foraging, drumming, and mayused be to maintain foraging and loafing eders: WildlifeHabitat Program Education may be used to attractflickers in

Prescribed Fire pointcounts are used to Urban

maynecessary be to areas will consume the

123 Dave Menke

nesting areas can be usedto monitor population trends Wildlife Fish or Survey: exclusion practicesshould beused to di prey upon domesticbirds, suchhoming as pigeons; Wildlife Damage Management: cliffsto and skyscrapers NestingStructures: Wildlife management practices structures for nesting and Cover: water needs from foods they consume Water: catch during flight Diet: Habitat 34 mph to more than 200 mph inpursuit prey.of fastest birds onplanet, the cruisingwith a speed of 25 25 to more than 1,300 feet high. are They one theof locatedoften theon ledges cliffs of buildingsor from and European star other tall structures and whereabundant rock dove areas with skyscrapers,smokestacks, bridges, and occur. They also may be found inurban and industrial congregations shorebirds,of songbirds, and waterfowl and mountain Peregrinefalcons arefound primarily along the coasts General information Peregrine falcon mostly birds,mostly butalso bats,which falcons require tall cliffs, buildings, and other tall requirements largely unknown;likely obtain requirements ranges Northof America where

ling populations occur. Nestsare nesting platforms canadded be

visual surveys near known

perching

peregrinefalcons can

scourage damage

-

WildlifeHabitat Program Education

129 USFWS

138 are used to estimatetrends inpopulations questionnaires related to wildlifedamage management occur management to attractrock pigeons should never harassmentpractices may beeffective; habitat anddoes it when not impactdesirable wildlife species; and desirable covershould beremoved when possible practices recommended direct control techniques; exclusion gunspellet inurban areas), toxicants, and trapping are Wildlife Damage Management: Wildlife management practices a variety of otherstructures Cover: during seasons warm Water: rock pigeons commonly eathuman handouts Diet: Habitat requirements ground a around buildings. Rock pigeons primarily feed on the other vegetation, and nest aboveground and oron areas. They createa shallow nest of sticks,leaves, and regularlyfound around largebuildings, parks,and open overabundantrockpige management practicesare often required to control respiratory problems inhumans. Wildlifedamage histoplasmosis,fungal a disease that can cause Droppings rockof pigeons may also contain pe to salmonella, encephalitis, Newcastledisease, and others, Pigeons also can carry and spread diseases,including problems inagricultural areasby contaminating feed. accumulations droppings.of They also cause severe damageb areas where they develop densepopulations and pests because theygenerally are protected in urban and agricultural areas intheU.S. They areconsidered introduced species found year Rock General information Rock pigeon

ople and livestock through theirdroppings. pigeons (commonly called pigeons) are an waste grain and weed seeds; inurban areas, Wildlife Fishor Survey: barn lofts, window free Wildlife Habitat Education Program nd eat small grains, seeds, crumbs, and garbage. prevent access to livestockfeed; food, water, uildings and other structures with - standing waterrequired is frequently

on on populations. Rockpigeons are

ledges,rooftops, bridges,and

observation countsand - round throughouturban shooting (including

James W. Arterburn to to establish NOTE: if appropriate flowersplanted are Rooftop/BalconyGardens: primrose,columbine, and cardinal flower gladiolus, nasturtiums, begonias, morningglory, evening PlantFlowers: and quicklydevelops a moldcan that kill hummingbirds hummingbirds becausehoney fermen problems with territoriality; nevergive honey flowerswhere arelimited; multiple feeders reduce may water (1 partsugar partsto 4 boiled water) may be used Ar trends inpopulations especially visitation feeders, at are used to estimate favorites fl owering dogwood and various fruit trees are Plant Trees: andvine, lilac resourcesare limited; favoritesinclude hibiscus, trump nectar mayplanted be wherenesting sites and food Plant Shrubs: throated hummingbirds native vegetation and reducehabitat quality for ruby nonnative invasive vegetation begi ControlNonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices Cover: Water: Diet: Habitat requirements areInsects an important sourceof protein. Nectar is high insugars thatsupply needed energy. vegetation. Hummingb the shape aof small cup andbuilt is of lichens and other owering plants. Ahummingbird’s is nest constructed in settings, they prefer areas with large treesand nearby fl plantsfrom which they can feed theon nectar. In urban during winter. Hummingbirdsareas use with flo hummingbirds migrate into Centraland South America widespread species. Other thancouple a exceptions,of America.ruby The areThere 18 species of hummingbirds found inNorth General information Ruby tificialFeeders: nectar from flowers andfound insects flowers on PlantFlowers treesand shrubs for nesting; flowersfor feeding - necessary water obtained from diet throated hummingbird Wildlife orFish Survey: Rooftop/Balcony Gardens where potential nesting sitesare limited;

flowering shrubs and vines that provide preferred flowersinclude petunias, - throated hummingbird is the most artificial feeders filled with sugar

shouldbe not recommended irds require high

can providesource of nectar

observation counts, ns to compete with ts fasterts than sugar -

energy foods.

when

- waterto wering - - et

WildlifeHabitat Program Education

139

Greg Lavaty

Song sparrow

General information Song sparrows are familiar and relatively common and inhabit all of the U.S., but will migrate from extreme northern areas during the colder months of the year. Song sparrows typically use shrubby areas interspersed with herbaceous openings and forest, especially along riparian areas. Song sparrows often nest along forest edges. The nest is made of grass and leaves and in the shape of a cup. Nests are often placed on the ground under a shrub or in thick herbaceous cover. Song sparrows primarily feed on the ground and eat seed, insects, and fruit.

Habitat requirements Diet: weed seeds, insects, soft mast

Water: freestanding water is required frequently during Karney Lee the warm seasons Cover: thick shrubs and herbaceous cover for nesting, loafing, and escape

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with native vegetation and degrade habitat for song sparrows Forest Management: Timber Stand Improvement practices can stimulate increased brushy cover where lacking Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where lacking and necessary to provide cover for nesting Plant Shrubs: to provide soft mast where there is little soft mast available Set-back Succession: Chainsawing can create additional brushy cover; Prescribed Fire can be used to maintain shrubby cover; Mowing may be used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for song sparrows in Urban areas Water Development for Wildlife: drinking water may be provided in birdbaths or pans of water Wildlife or Fish Survey: point counts are used to estimate trends in populations Artificial Feeders: for use in Urban areas; millets and sunflower seeds are favorites

144 Wildlife Habitat Education Program reduce shrub cover where neces can be used to maintain and rejuvenate grasslands and Applications back Succession: limiting; may provide potential nest sites in future Plant Trees: winteror foods be may limiting Plant Shrubs: herbaceous groundcoverwhere planting necessary is Plant GrassesNative and Forbs: territorial figh shouldplaced be no closer than 80 yards apartto limit entrancehole 11/2 inches in diameter; nest boxes boxes should be approximately feet5 high an with natural cavities maylimiting be population; the nest NestingStructures: from recently planted trees and shrubs Management:Livestock fieldscrop FieldBorders: killed and left standing) around fields perching sites, and po Edge Feathering: areas (notin forests) potential nest sites and to provide perching sitesin open Snags:Create mountain bluebirds native vegetation and nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with ControlNonnative Invasive Vegetation: Wildlife management practices Cover: Water: beetles, and spiders; various fruits in Diet: Habitat requirements nest boxes. Clutches normally consist of 4 cavities, especially old woodpecker cavities, as well as during fall and wint and summer, whereas various fruits are most prevalent provide perches. Insects dominate the diet during spring vegetation, but typically near trees or a fence that Mountain bluebirds forage in open areas with short perching and nesting (where cavi openings with scattered trees, which are used for edges of hayfields and crop fields, and other herbaceous They use open savannas, pastures, parks, backyards, Mountain bluebirds are found across the western U.S. General bluebird Mountain invertebrates, especially grasshoppers, crickets, nest incavities of trees and fenceposts necessary water obtained from diet

information , in large open areas where perchin Mowing ting among males in large open areas where perching sites wherecavities are limited to provide to increase foraging opportunities around PrescribedFire to increase foraging opportunities, er. Mountain bluebirds nest in

may tential cavity trees (if trees are , reduces habitat quality for Chaining beplaced wherescarcity a of livestock be must excluded

sary; , and ties are available). , Disking to to aid inestablishing

fall and winter Chainsawing Drum

- , 8 8 eggs.

when Herbicide - chopping

g sites are

Set ,

- bechecked to monitor use and success nest shouldboxespopulations;bluebird nest monitor to Survey: Fish or Wildlife mountain bluebirds in used to maintain foraging and loafing cover for and successional early communities; forestedconvert shrubor Dozer - clearing WildlifeHabitat Program Education , and Root Urban - - point counts can be used be can counts point plowing dominated areas to savannas areas

canused be to Mowing

may be

119 Dave Menke

Western bluebird General information Western bluebirds occur in portions of the western U.S. and southwestern U.S. and . They tend to use more wooded areas than eastern or mountain bluebirds. Western bluebirds are usually found in open woodlands, especially ponderosa and pinon -juniper. Open deciduous forest, particularly aspen that has been burned, where cavity trees are plentiful, are commonly used. Wooded riparian areas in arid environments also attract western bluebirds. Like other bluebirds, insects

dominate the diet during spring and summer, and various fruits are most prevalent during fall and winter. Western bluebirds nest in cavities, especially old woodpecker cavities, as well as nest boxes. Clutches consist of 2-8

eggs. Western bluebirds may have 1-3 broods per year. Woodruff Michael Habitat requirements Diet: invertebrates, especially grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and spiders; various fruits, such as chokecherry, elderberry, grape, raspberry, sumac, serviceberry, and poison , in fall and winter Water: necessary water obtained from diet Cover: woodlands; nest in cavities of trees and fence posts Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with native vegetation and reduces habitat quality for western bluebirds Create Snags: where cavities are limited to provide potential nest sites and perching sites in open areas Plant Shrubs: in large open areas where perching sites Edge Feathering: to increase foraging opportunities, or winter foods may be limiting perching sites, and potential cavity trees (if trees are Plant Trees: in large open areas where perching sites are killed and left standing) around fields limiting; may provide potential nest sites in distant future Field Borders: to increase foraging opportunities Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire is recommended to around crop fields improve woodland structure and maintain herbaceous Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Seed Tree, openings for western bluebirds; Herbicide Applications Shelterwood) may be used to enhance habitat in pine may be used to reduce tree density; Chaining and Drum- forests for a few years, especially if coupled with chopping can be used to reduce shrub cover where Prescribed Fire; Timber Stand Improvement may be necessary; Chainsawing can be used to convert forested used to enhance habitat by reducing tree density in pine areas to open woodlands; Root-plowing may be used to forests and woodlands reduce shrub density and promote herbaceous openings; Livestock Management: livestock must be excluded Mowing may be used to maintain foraging and loafing from recently planted trees and shrubs cover for mountain bluebirds in Urban areas Nesting Structures: should be erected where a scarcity Wildlife or Fish Survey: point counts can be used of natural cavities may be limiting the population; nest to monitor bluebird populations; nest boxes should boxes should be approximately 5 feet high with an be checked to monitor use and nest success entrance hole 11/2 inches in diameter; nest boxes should be placed no closer than 80 yards apart to limit territorial fighting among males Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where groundcover is lacking and planting is necessary 150 Wildlife Habitat Education Program roosting; caves, andmines buildingsused for are daytimeroosts; bathouses also may be usedfor daytime Cover: are active Water: Diet: Habitat requirements fa stored on rely instead but months, winter during feed actively not do they Therefore, latitudes. northern in winter in the hibernate bats brown Big source. water a into jaw lower “on drink will bats brown Big c mammals only the are and nocturnal are species, bat other all as as well bats, brown Big attic. or tree hollow a in often pups, two or one to birth give usually Females nursing. and born are pups when colony separa roost usually females and butmales numbers, in small or individually roost may females and Males daily. insects in weight their eat will females Lactating insectivores. are bats brown Big caves. in hibernate butmost s and roosts summer daytime for houses and buildings use frequently They neighborhoods. suburban and parks, cities, including areas, inurban common are bats brown Big forest. deciduous mature to farmland from types, vegetation south and south except U.S., the of all nearly inhabit They America. North in batspecies 46 of are one bats brown Big General information Big brown bat used in percent50 open areas for foraging; mowing be may Fire Roo Set roostsites presentto promote future old trees that may provide Plant Trees: natural roost siteslimiting are Nestin fall)they where roost sites maylimiting be posethey danger no to human structures healthor when Create Snags: Wildlife management practices - back Succession: t (in rural areas) can be used to maintain morethan - night plowing g Structures:g tely. Females may roost together in a maternal maternal a in together roost may Females tely. buildings and hollowtrees are often usedfor free Urban

- flying insects, especiallybeetles

- t reserves. t standing waterrequired is daily when they in large areasopen wherefew treesare , to provideroost sites (only inareas where areas to maintain openings HerbicideApplications - central central may provide additional roost sites if

ometimes as winter hibernacula, hibernacula, as winter ometimes Chainsawing

Texas. They use a variety of of a variety use They Texas.

- the

- wing” by dipping their their dipping by wing” , Dozer , and apable of flying. flying. of apable

-

clearing

Prescribed , trends echolocation surveys areused to estimate population Wildlife Fish or Survey: roosting or hibernating inareas occupied by Wildlife Damage Management: path fencing bracing) or so bats anhave unobstructed flight constructed with nothing above the water(such as attract insects; waterdevelopments should be impoundments may be constructed for drinking and to open Water Developments for Wildlife:

waternot is available, small ponds and shallow

WildlifeHabitat Program Education observation countsand maynecessary be when where available

161 Don Pfitzer

Coyote

General information are found throughout the continental U.S. and have even been observed in large cities and urban areas. Grasslands, shrubland, and farmland provide optimal habitat for coyotes, but they also use forested areas as well. Coyotes den in a variety of places, including brush- covered slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thickets, and hollow logs. Coyotes are most active at night, during early morning, and around sunset, but they may be active throughout the day. Coyotes live in packs, alone, or in mated pairs, depending on the time of year. Coyotes have an extremely varied diet that fluctuates with the seasons.

Habitat requirements Thompson Steve Diet: , , and other small mammals, insects, birds, eggs, deer, carrion, and soft mast; livestock and wild ungulates (deer, elk, pronghorn) usually are represented in coyote stomachs as carrion; however, in some cases, coyotes prey heavily on deer and pronghorn fawns, and can limit reproductive success in some situations Water: requirements are not well documented; necessary water probably is obtained in diet Cover: grasslands, shrublands, regenerating forest, mature forest; crevices and burrows along river banks, rock ledges, brushpiles, and holes under stumps or abandoned buildings are used as den sites for raising pups herbaceous openings; Prescribed Fire can be used to Wildlife management practices enhance forest understory structure and Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative composition; Chainsawing can be used to create invasive vegetation reduces habitat quality for coyote additional forest openings where necessary prey species Decrease Harvest: where hunting or trapping has limited Edge Feathering: (in some ecoregions) to increase cover population and additional coyotes are desired to control and food availability for prey species around fields Field a prey species that is overburdened Borders: to increase usable space for prey species Increase Harvest: through hunting or trapping where around fields coyote populations need to be lowered Forest Management: (in some ecoregions) Forest Wildlife Damage Management: may be necessary Regeneration (Clearcutting, Shelterwood, Seed-tree, where livestock or pet depredation is a problem Group Selection) and Timber Stand Improvement can Wildlife or Fish Survey: track counts, trapper harvest improve habitat for prey and lead to more abundant prey data, and camera surveys are used to estimate Livestock Management: should maintain adequate cover population trends for prey species Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where additional early NOTE: Situations in which landowners would manage for successional cover is needed for prey and planting is coyotes are exceptionally rare. However, the coyote is a necessary native predator and plays an important role in many Plant Shrubs: in areas where additional shrub cover is ecosystems. Although management is rarely, if ever, needed to attract prey and provide security cover for implemented to promote coyotes, management for their coyotes prey helps both prey populations and coyote Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire, Disking, Chaining, populations and promotes a healthy ecosystem. and Herbicide Applications are recommended to maintain

170 Wildlife Habitat Education Program Desert cottontail General information Desert cottontails can be found in woodlands, grasslands, creosote brush, and desert areas from California to Texas and from northern Montana to Mexico. In the Hot Desert ecoregion, desert cottontails use thick shrub cover interspersed with open areas. Riparian and urban areas also are used. Because cottontails do not travel far, shelter and food must be close together.

Habitat requirements Diet: a variety of forbs and grasses spring through fall; in winter, bark and twigs of shrubs are important; buds, grain, seeds, and soft mast also are eaten when available Water: necessary water obtained from diet Cover: grassland, shrub vegetation, and ground burrows for hiding and nesting cover

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: where nonnative invasive vegetation is competing with native vegetation and limiting habitat for cottontails Field Borders: to increase usable space around row crop fields Forest Management: (Mediterranean ecoregion only) Forest Regeneration (Clearcut) provides optimal brushy cover for a few years Leave Crop Unharvested: to provide additional food and cover, especially corn, alfalfa, and Livestock Management: prevent overgrazing to allow ample amounts of herbaceous vegetation for nesting, cover, and forage; livestock should be excluded from food plots Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when additional Plant Food Plots: where rainfall is sufficient, forage plots rabbits are desired and hunting or trapping is limiting may be planted adjacent to shrub cover growth Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where early successional Increase Harvest: where populations can sustain cover is limited and planting is necessary to provide additional hunting and trapping pressure for additional grasses and forbs recreation and where populations need to be lowered Plant Shrubs: in areas where shrub cover is lacking Set- Wildlife Damage Management: shooting, trapping, and back Succession: Prescribed Fire is recommended to exclusion techniques can be used where there is damage maintain herbaceous openings; Prescribed Fire and to ornamental and garden plants Chaining can rejuvenate decadent shrublands and Wildlife or Fish Survey: observation counts, track counts, encourage additional herbaceous groundcover (burning and transect flush counts can be used to estimate is not recommended in the Hot Desert ecoregion unless population trends sufficient precipitation is available); Mowing can be used to maintain herbaceous openings in Urban areas Tillage Management: cropland tillage may be delayed in spring to allow use of standing stubble for cover; tillage may be eliminated in the fall to allow access to waste grain

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 171

Eastern cottontail General information Eastern cottontails occur in the eastern half of the country. They prefer brushy cover interspersed with herbaceous openings. Eastern cottontails also are found in suburban areas, parks, golf courses, and stream corridors. Eastern cottontails are prey for the majority of carnivorous predators within its range. They are prolific breeders; females may have 7 litters per year, with 3 to 6 young per litter. This reproductive rate is required to perpetuate populations because 70 to 80 percent of all rabbits die each year.

Habitat requirements Diet: forbs and grasses, browse, and soft mast from

spring through fall; in winter, bark of shrubs and trees, Aubrey Deck Aubrey as well as buds, grain, and browse Water: necessary water obtained from diet Cover: shrub cover, brushpiles, native warm-season grasses and forbs for loafing and escape cover; burrows also are used for denning and escape

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: where nonnative invasive vegetation is competing with native vegetation and limiting habitat for cottontails; sod grasses, such as tall fescue and bermudagrass, can be especially problematic Edge Feathering: to increase usable space around fields Field Borders: to increase usable space around fields can be used to rejuvenate shrublands, especially where Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut), herbaceous groundcover is shaded out; Chainsawing, provides optimal brushy cover for a few years Leave Dozer-clearing, and Root-plowing can be used to Crop Unharvested: to provide additional food and convert forest cover to early successional communities; cover, especially corn, alfalfa, and wheat Mowing can be used to maintain herbaceous openings Livestock Management: should prevent overgrazing to in Urban areas allow sufficient herbaceous vegetation for nesting, Tillage Management: fall tillage may be delayed until cover, and forage; exclude livestock from food plots spring to allow use of standing stubble for cover and Plant Food Plots: where additional forage or grain is waste grain for food needed; best situated adjacent to dense brushy cover Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when additional Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where early rabbits are desired and hunting or trapping efforts are successional cover is limiting and planting is required to limiting growth; low populations are almost always promote additional grasses and forbs a result of inadequate habitat, not harvest levels Increase Plant Shrubs: in relatively large openings with few Harvest: where populations can sustain additional shrubs; field borders, fencerows, and other idle land hunting or trapping pressure for recreation or where areas may be good places to plant but usually shrubs populations need to be lowered and brushy cover will develop naturally in most areas Wildlife Damage Management: shooting, trapping, and through succession exclusion techniques can be used where there is damage Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire, Disking, and to ornamental and garden plants Herbicide Applications are recommended to maintain Wildlife or Fish Survey: observation counts, track counts, early successional areas, especially when litter hunter harvest data, and transect flush counts can be accumulation or woody encroachment is excessive; used to estimate population trends Chaining, Prescribed Fire, and Herbicide Applications

172 Wildlife Habitat Education Program Eastern gray squirrel General information The eastern gray squirrel lives primarily in mature deciduous forests and woodlands. They also forage along the edge of crop fields, especially mature cornfields. Eastern gray have adapted to parks and other urban areas where mature trees are available. Eastern gray squirrels forage both in trees and on the ground. They den in cavities of mature trees and also build nests, generally 30 feet or more aboveground. Eastern gray squirrels will use nest boxes, but nesting structures are not necessary because squirrels build nests when cavities are not available. Thus, cavities are not a limiting factor

for eastern gray squirrel populations.

Habitat requirements

Diet: a variety of hard and soft mast, miscellaneous Laura Perlick Laura seeds, grains, bark, buds, and mushrooms; they also may eat bird eggs Water: necessary water generally is obtained through diet, but free-standing water is also used Cover: mature forest and woodlands; suburban and urban areas with mature trees; den in tree cavities and also build nests of leaves and twigs

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to compete with native species and reduce habitat quality for eastern gray squirrel; several nonnative trees, such as tree-of-heaven Plant Food Plots: grain food plots, especially corn, and royal paulownia, and nonnative groundcover and can provide an important food source during winters vines, such as Japanese stiltgrass, kudzu, and English ivy, with poor mast availability can displace more valuable native species and make Plant Trees: plant mast trees (especially and finding food difficult hickories) where they are limiting; most appropriate for Edge Feathering: can enhance forest structure and large open areas that do not represent habitat for gray increase food availability in forested areas squirrels; also may be appropriate where composition of surrounding fields wooded areas is lacking mast and limiting gray squirrel Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Group population Selection, Single-tree Selection) can increase soft mast Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when additional and availability of various seed-producing plants used gray squirrels are desired and hunting pressure is limiting by eastern gray squirrels; Timber Stand Improvement population growth can encourage larger crowns of mast-producing trees Increase Harvest: where populations can sustain and enable oaks, hickories, beech, and others to additional hunting pressure for recreation and where produce more mast; also can increase soft mast populations need to be lowered availability and provide snags for potential den sites Wildlife Damage Management: may be required if Livestock Management: should not allow overgrazing gray squirrels become a nuisance around houses in woodlands; livestock should be excluded from forests Wildlife or Fish Survey: observation counts are to prevent overgrazing of the forest understory; most often used to estimate population trends livestock should be excluded from riparian areas in Artificial Feeders: may be used in urban areas to open landscapes where tree cover is largely limited to increase viewing opportunities riparian areas; livestock should be excluded from food plots and from areas where trees have been planted to enhance habitat for eastern gray squirrels 174 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Mountain cottontail General information Mountain cottontails occur in the mountainous regions of the western U.S. They use thick shrubs and burrows for nesting and cover, and eat a variety of forbs, grasses, and browse. They have relatively small home ranges and daily movements, so food and cover should be close together.

Habitat requirements Diet: a variety of forbs, grasses, seeds, and soft mast in

spring through fall; in winter, bark and browse is most important; grains and alfalfa are eaten when available Water: necessary water is obtained from diet Cover: thick shrubs and burrows for nesting and cover Scharpf Lewis

Wildlife management practices Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for mountain cottontail Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut) will enhance cover and stimulate additional forage for a few years Livestock Management: should prevent overgrazing and maintain sufficient groundcover for rabbits Plant Food Plots: where additional forage is needed, forage food plots can be planted adjacent to good cover Plant Native Grasses and Forbs: where desirable groundcover is lacking and planting is necessary for establishment Plant Shrubs: where shrub cover is lacking Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire and Chaining can be used to rejuvenate and maintain shrubby cover and stimulate forbs and grass interspersed with shrub cover; Mowing may be used in Urban areas to maintain openings Decease Harvest: may be necessary when additional rabbits are desired and hunting or trapping efforts are limiting growth

Increase Harvest: where populations can sustain additional hunting or trapping pressure for recreation or where populations need to be lowered

Wildlife Damage Management: may be necessary to control damage to ornamental and landscaping plants and vegetable gardens

Wildlife or Fish Survey: track counts, observation counts, and hunter observation data can be used to estimate population trends

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 181 Raccoon General information are very common throughout most of the U.S., except in certain parts of the Rocky Mountains, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. Raccoons are found in a variety of vegetation types, but are usually most abundant near riparian areas and wetlands. They also are found in urban areas. Raccoons den in hollow trees, in burrows under

stumps or brush piles, or in chimneys, attics, and crawl Dave Menke Dave spaces of houses and buildings. They are omnivorous and eat a wide variety of foods. Raccoons can become pests in urban areas and in wetlands (depredating waterfowl nests). Raccoons also have been identified as major predators on gamebird nests and young gamebirds. Habitat requirements Diet: , birds, eggs, small mammals, insects, lizards, , worms, fish, carrion, grains, seeds, hard and soft mast, and foods prepared for human and pet consumption Water: require water frequently during warm seasons Cover: riparian areas, bottomland hardwoods, and along other wetlands; natural tree cavities are used for denning trees and daytime loafing; raccoons also den in ground Repair Spillway/Levee: if not functioning properly Set- burrows under stumps, brush piles, junk piles, old back Succession: Prescribed Fire is recommended to abandoned buildings, and rocky cliffs and ledges rejuvenate old decadent wetland vegetation; Prescribed Fire and Disking can maintain herbaceous openings; Wildlife management practices Prescribed Fire, Herbicide Applications, and Chaining are Control Nonnative Invasive Vegetation: when nonnative recommended to rejuvenate decadent shrub cover invasive vegetation begins to reduce habitat quality for Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of grain crop raccoon residue adjacent to cover to make waste grain available Create Snags: where denning sites are limited as an additional food source Edge Feathering: to increase usable space for Water Control Structures: should be installed in existing prey around fields dikes, dams, or levees if not present to control water Field Borders: to increase usable space for prey around levels and provide water less than 2 feet deep and fields stimulate emergent vegetation and enhance habitat for Forest Management: Forest Regeneration (Clearcut, prey Shelterwood, Seed-tree, Group Selection, Single-tree Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow Selection) and Timber Stand Improvement can impoundments can provide a water source and stimulate soft mast production and cover for prey additional habitat for various prey species Leave Crop Unharvested: especially cornfields adjacent Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting to bottomland hardwoods and riparian areas population growth where an increase is desired (this Livestock Management: livestock should be excluded situation is rare) from riparian areas and other wetlands; this may include Increase Harvest: where populations can sustain development of livestock watering facilities in uplands to additional hunting or trapping pressure for recreation discourage congregation in and overuse of riparian areas and where populations need to be lowered for various Plant Food Plots: annual grain food plots, especially corn, reasons may be planted where food is limiting and where an Wildlife Damage Management: is often necessary when increase in raccoon population is desired (this situation is raccoons get into garbage cans, occupy residences or exceptionally rare) buildings, or prey upon poultry; exclusion is cost- Plant Shrubs: where soft mast is lacking and to provide effective; cultural modification, such as using wildlife- corridors across large open areas proof trash cans, is effective; trap and kill is most Plant Trees: in riparian areas and adjacent to wetlands effective for problem raccoons where few trees are present to maintain riparian Wildlife or Fish Survey: track counts, camera surveys, and corridors; maintain approximately 50 percent deciduous trapper harvest data may be used to monitor population forest cover; also in large open areas where there are few trends

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 185 escape cover; increased browse, soft mast production, and dense Shelterwood Forest Management: and brambles) around crop Field Borders: around fields and enhance fawning cover Edge Feathering: seasons various during quality forage increased and diversity species plant to lead can privet, Chinese and honeysuckle, Japanese kudzu, as such plants, those of many of control extent, some to seasons some in plants invasive white although s Japanese and fields in problematic beparticularly white for quality habitat reduce to begins vegetation invasive Vegetation: Invasive Nonnative Control Wildlife management practices avoidto deep snow and cold usually dense stands ,of fir, cedar, and hemlock white forbs, and shrubs; at the northern edge theirof range successionalearly cover,including grasses, native Cover: will drinkfree Water: range,coniferous browse is importantin winter grasses,and mushrooms; innorthern the parts of the Diet: Habitat requirements hazardous for motor vehicles. to ornamental plantings and row crops and can be Where overabundant, they can cause significant damage have distinct dietary preferences through the seasons. deer are ruminants and are classified as br vegetation types and successional stages. White fragmented areas containing several well suburban areas very well. Whitetails thrive in areas with des tropical evergreen forest, dry grasslands, and shrub of areas including deciduous and coniferous forests, are extremely adaptable and are found in a wide variety southern Canada, except for California and Nevada. They white in North America. There are more than 30 subspecies of The white General information White tiltgrass often reduces forage availability in forests; forests; in availability forage reduces often tiltgrass ert. They are adaptable to humans and exploit forbs, browse, , - - - tailed deer tailed deer use wintering areas, which are tailed deer; sod grasses and sericea lespedeza can can lespedeza sericea and grasses sod deer; tailed dense woody vegetation as well as obtain most of their waterfrom diet, but - tailed deer - tailed deer is the most important game , Timber Stand Improvement - Seed standing waterwhen available to increase forageavailability (forbs - tailed deer may eat many nonnative nonnative many eat may deer tailed that occur throughout the U.S. and to increaseforage availability - tree Forest Regeneration

, Group Selection

fields

beechnuts, grains, winds

) will provide

- when nonnative nonnative when

interspersed owsers, but can provide relatively tall ( Clearcut

increased increased -

tailed ,

field borders, other idle landand areas across large open mast, bru Plant Shrubs: establishment successional coveris limiting and plantingnecessary is for ecoregions particularlyin late summer and winter of most are limited, food plots may provideadditi Food Plant Plots: savannas; livestock should beexcluded from food plots ecoregion; should prevent overgrazing inwoodlands and riparian the forest understory; livestockshould beexcluded from from forests managed for deer to avoid destruction of Livestock Management: resource,food especiallynear escapecover Leave coniferous cover withindeer a wintering area edgeof their rangeto managethe quality and vigor of understory; both methods are often used at the northern better cover instands with a poorly developed increased

Crop Unharvested: areas, especially in the shy cover, and browse; often useful in ravines,

browseand soft mast production and stimulate PlantNative Grasses and Forbs: WildlifeHabitat Program Education where needed provide to additional soft

when naturallyoccurring food sources livestockshould be excluded to provide additional Great Great Plains Grassland onal nutrition,

whereearly

191

Steve Hillebrand areas to provide travel corridors Plant Trees: (in some ecoregions) in large open areas to maintain at least 30 to 40 percent forest cover; where mast producers are lacking, particularly oaks Set-back Succession: Prescribed Fire and Disking is recommended to maintain herbaceous openings; Prescribed Fire is recommended to stimulate the forest understory for increased forage and soft mast; Chaining can be used to rejuvenate shrub cover; in areas dominated by mesquite, Root-plowing combined with seeding grasses and legumes may be the best way to increase herbaceous groundcover; Chainsawing, Dozer- clearing and Root-plowing when converting forest to early successional cover to increase forage and enhance fawning cover Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of grain crop residue adjacent to cover to make waste grain available as an additional food source Water Developments for Wildlife: where lacking (within one-half mile), dugouts, ponds, and shallow impoundments can provide freestanding water Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting population growth where an increase is desired Increase Harvest: when populations can sustain additional harvest pressure for hunting recreation and when populations need to be lowered because of overpopulation and habitat degradation; in these cases, it is necessary to concentrate increased harvest on females Wildlife Damage Management: fencing, repellents, and scare tactics may be helpful to keep deer from ornamental plantings, vegetable gardens, and crops; reducing the population through shooting females is recommended when widespread overabundance is causing crop depredation and increasing vehicle collisions Wildlife or Fish Survey: camera surveys, browse surveys, aerial surveys (in open areas such as South Texas, Kansas, or Oklahoma, and northern portion of range during winter when there is extensive snow cover), pellet surveys, and hunter observation and harvest data are used to estimate population trends

192 Wildlife Habitat Education Program