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Introduction 1 NOTES Introduction 1. Steven Mintz, ''At the End of the Century of the Child," (Unpublished paper, presented at History of Childhood Conference, Benton Foundation, Washington, D.C., 2000, in pos­ session of author). 2. See Alex Kodowitz, There Are No Children Here: The Story of Two Boys Growing Up in the Other America (New York: Anchor Books, 1991); Patricia Riley, ed., Growing Up Native American (New York: Avon Books, 1993); Dorinda Makanaonalani Nicholson, Pearl Harbor Child: A Child's View of Pearl Harbor-ftom Attack to Peace (Honolulu: Arizona Memorial Museum Association, 1993); Zlata Filipovic, Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajeo (New York: Viking, 1994); Joyce A. Ladner, Tomorrow's Tomorrow (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1995); Rebecca Carroll, Sugar in the Raw: Voices of Young Black Girls in America (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997); Sonsyrea Tate, Little X- Growing Up in the Nation ofIslam (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1997); Michael L. Cooper, Indian School: Teaching the White Man's Wtzy (Wilmington: Clarion Books, 1999); Jordana Y. Shakoor, Civil Rights Childhood (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1999); Frances Esquibel Tywoniak, Migrant Daughter: Coming ofAge As a Mexican American (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Laurel Holliday, ed., Dreaming in Color, Living in Black and White: Our Own Stories of Growing Up Black in America (New York: Pocket Books, 2000); Cathy Luchetti, Children ofthe ~st: Family Life on the Frontier (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2001); Harriet Hyman Alsonso, Growing Up Abolitionist: The Story of the Garrison Children (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002); Sandra Day O'Connor and H. Alan Day, Lazy B: Growing Up on a Cattle Ranch in the Southwest (New York: Random House, 2002). 3. See Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written by Himself (Boston: Anti-Slavery Office, 1845); Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: Written by Himself (New York: Collier Books, 1962); Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1969); Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life ofa Slave Girl: Written by Herself, edited by Jean Fagan Yellin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Booker T. Washington, Up ftom Slavery, An Autobiography (New York: Bantam, 1967); Ann Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Laurel Book, 1968). 4. See Robert E. Desroches, Jr., "'Not Fade Away': The Narrative of Venture Smith, an Mrican American in the Early Republic," Journal ofAmerican History 84 (June 1997), 42-44. 5. See Eugene D. Genovese, "The Treatment of Slaves in Different Countries: Problems in the Applications of the Comparative Method," in Eugene D. Genovese, ed., In Red and Black: Marxian Explorations in Southern and Afto-American History (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971),158-172. 180 / NOTES 6. The scholarship on the work of black children focuses almost entirely on the chores of enslaved boys and girls. An exception is Vincent DiGirolamo, "The Negro Newsboy: Black Child in a White Myth," Columbia journal ofAmerican Studies 4 (2000): 63-92. Chapter One Mrica's Progeny Cast upon American Shores 1. Sarah Margru to George Whipple, September 18, 1847, American Missionary Association Archives, Tulane Universiry, New Orleans Louisiana (hereafter cited as AMA); John W. Barber, A History ofthe Amistad Captives: Being a Circumstantial Account ofthe Capture of the Spanish Schooner Amistad, by the Africans on Board; Their Voyage, and Capture Near Long Island, New York; With Biographical Sketches of each of the Surviving Africans. Also, An Account ofThe Trials Had on their Case, Before the District and Circuit Courts ofthe United States, For the District ofConnecticut (New Haven: E. L. & J. w. Barber, 1840),3-5. 2. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano: Written by Himself, edited by Robert J. Allison (Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1995), 47, 51. See Vincent Carretta, "Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa? New Light on an Eighteenth-Century Question of Identity," Slavery and Abolition (hereafter cited as S&A) 20 (December 1999): 96-103. 3. Equiano, The Interesting Narrative, 34. See Daniel L. Schafer, "Shades of Freedom: Anna Kingsley in Senegal, Florida and Haiti," in Jane G. Landers, ed., Against the Odds: Free Blacks in the Slave Societies ofthe Americas (London: Frank Cass, 1996), 130-135; Daniel L. Schafer, Anna Madgigine jai Kingsley: African Princess, Florida Slave, Plantation Owner (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 4-8. See also Shelia Lambert, ed., House of Commons Sessional Papers ofthe Eighteenth Century, vol. 68, George III, Minutes ofEvidence on the Slave Trade 1788-1789 (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1975),73-76 for testi­ mony regarding how persons became enslaved in Mrica. 4. David Eltis, "The Volume, Age/Sex Ratios, and African Impact of the Slave Trade: Some Refinements of Paul Lovejoy's Review of the Literature," journal ofAfrican History 31 (1990),489. See Erik J. W. Hofstee, "The Great Divide: Aspects of the Social History of the Middle Passage in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade," (Michigan State University, Ph. D. diss., 2001), especially chapter two, "Children and Infants," 64-105. 5. See Augustino, " 'It Was the Same as Pigs in a Sty': A Young African's Account of Life on a Slave Ship (1849)," in Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., Children of God's Fire: A Documentary History of Black Slavery in Brazil (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1984),37-38; Belinda (Belinda Royall), "Petition of an Mrican Slave to the Legislature of Massachusetts (1782)," in Vincent Carretta, ed., Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World ofthe Eighteenth Century (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 142-144; Boyrereau Brinch, The BlindAfrican Slave, or Memoirs of Boyrereau Brinch, Nicknamed jeffrey Brace. Containing an Account of the Kingdom of Bow-Woo, in the Interior ofAfrica; with the Climate and Natural Productions, Laws, and Customs Peculiar to That Place. With an Account of His Captivity, Sufferings, Sales, Travels, Emancipation, Conversion to the Christian Religion, Knowledge of the Scriptures, & c. Interspersed with Stricture on Slavery, Speculative Observations on the Qualities of Human Nature, with Quotations from Scripture, Electronic edition available at <http:// docsouth.unc.lneh/brinch/brinch.html>; Ottobah Cugoano, "Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species," in Francis D. Adams and Barry Sanders, eds., Three Black Writers in Eighteenth Century England (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1971); Philip D. Curtin, ed., Africa Remembered: Narratives by west Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1967); James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, "A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an Mrican Prince, as Related by Himsel£" Electronic version available at <http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/gronniosaw/ gronnios.html>; Florence Hall, "Memoir of NOTES / 181 Florence Hall" (unpublished ca. 1820) Powel Family Papers, Historical Sociery of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Jetome S. Handler, "Survivors of rhe Middle Passage: Life Histories of Enslaved Africans in British America," S&A 23 (April 2002): 23-56; Jerome Handler, "Life Histories of Enslaved Africans in Barbados," S&A 19 (April 1998): 129-141; Vernon H. Nelson, ed., "John Archibald Monteirh: Native Helper and Assistant in the Jamaica Mission at New Carmel," Transaction Moravian Historical Society 21 Part I (1966): 29-51; Venture Smith, A Narrative of the Lift and Adventures of Venture A Native ofAfrica, but a Resident Above Sixty Years in the United States ofAmerica. Related by Himself in Arna Bontemps, ed., Five Black Lives: The Autobiographies ofVenture Smith, James Mars, William Grimes, The Rev. G. W Offley, James L. Smith (Middletown: Wesleyan Universiry Press, 1971), 1-35. See also David Eltis, Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and Herbert S. Klein, eds., Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD­ ROM (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1999). 6. "Memoirs of Florence Hall," Powel Collection, HSP; Ottobah Cugoano, "Narrative of the Enslavement of Ottobah Cugoano, a Native of Africa; Published by Himself, in the Year 1787," 120; Brinch, "Memoirs," 14, 68-71. Electronic edition available at "Documenting the American South, Universiry of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries," <http://docsouth.unc.edu/new/cugoano/cugoano.html>. Not all children lived under ideal conditions until kidnapped and transported to the Americas. Many chil­ dren were already enslaved in Africa as a result of warfare rhat had little or norhing to do with the trans-Atlantic slave trade. See Hofstee, "The Great Divide," 67. 7. Smith, "A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture," 8; Robert E. Desrochers, Jr., " 'Not Fade Away': The Narrative of Venture Smith, and African in the Early Republic," Journal ofAmerican History (hereafter cited asJAH) 84 (June 1997),40. 8. Smith, ''A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture," 9. 9. Equiano, The Interesting Narrative, 39---40. 10. Ibid., 47-48. 11. Ibid., 48, 51. 12. Ibid., 48-50. 13. Ibid., 50. 14. Ibid., 51. 15. Ibid., 51. 16. Carretta, "Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa?" 96, 98-99, 102. See Handler, "Survivors of rhe Middle Passage," 23-56; Curtin, Africa Remembered; William L. Andrews, To Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760-1865 (Urbana: Universiry of Illinois, 1988),56-60. 17. Gronniosaw, ''A Narrative," 6; Cugoano, "Narrative of the Enslavement of Ottobah Cugoano, a Native of Africa," 120; Augustino, "It Was the Same as Pigs in a Sty'," 38. 18. See Gronniosaw, ''A Narrative," 7; Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., Children of God's Fire: A Documentary History of Black Slavery in Brazil (Universiry Park: Pennsylvania State Universiry Press, 1984),38. 19. Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of rhe Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," Journal of African History 30 (1989), 374.
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