Asian Journal of Research in Agriculture and Forestry

4(1): 1-11, 2019; Article no.AJRAF.48881 ISSN: 2581-7418

Conservation and Restoration of Endangered Species in the Tropical Forests

H. D. Japheth1* and J. A. Ugbe2

1Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, the Federal University of Technology, Akure, . 2Cross River State Forestry Commision, 69 Target Road, Calabar, Cross River, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/AJRAF/2019/v4i130050 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Md. Abiar Rahman, Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Bangladesh. Reviewers: (1) Schirley Costalonga, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Brazil. (2) Nikunj B. Gajera, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Gujarat, India. (3) M. Thangaraj, Annamalai University, India. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle3.com/review-history/48881

Received 29 March 2019 Original Research Article Accepted 05 May 2019 Published 05 August 2019

ABSTRACT

Indiscriminate charcoal productions, timber harvesting, demand for farmlands and overgrazing have aggravatedland degradation process in the tropical regions. At each point of this cycle, species are lost and biodiversity is obtainable only in the National Parks, Game reserves, Forest reserves, Wildlife sanctuaries. Forests and its resources are important assets that the tropical regions can sustainably manage for its renewable potentials, environmental benefits and socio- economic importance to mankind. Thus, this paper aim at reviewing past research works to provide profound solutions for conservation and restoration of forests and its products in the mid of financial shortcoming among the developing nations in the tropical regions. Based on this review, endangered plant species such as Prosopis africana, Parkia biglobosa, Khaya senegalensis, Gleditsia assamica, Gymnocladus assamicus, Aquilaria malaccensis and others can be restored; and genetic heredity (with qualitative characteristics) can be sustain for generational use if only we will all ignore the voice that “demands high financial resources for the management of endangered species before it can be conserved and restored”. Even without the provision of financial resources for conservation and restoration of endangered species, with high interest and euphoria among the youths, the young populace can conserved and restored the tropical forests and its biodiversity in the regions. This can be achieved by frequent inclusion of youths in decisions making and the use ______

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Japheth and Ugbe; AJRAF, 4(1): 1-11, 2019; Article no.AJRAF.48881

of non-formal education methods such as drama, playlet, music concerts among others. Therefore, it is recommended that communities around forest reserves in the tropical regions should be economically empowered, so that they can have alternative sources of livelihood that are biodiversity friendly, thus, reducing their dependence on forests and forest products.

Keywords: Biodiversity threatened; wildlife; degradation; ; tropical region.

1. INTRODUCTION task for all and not for categories of people (Ecologists and Foresters) only? Tropical forests are forested landscapes in iii. How can tropical forests be conserve with tropical regions; i.e. land areas approximately little or no dependence on monetary? bounded by the tropic of cancer and Capricorn, but affected by other factors such as prevailing 3. TREND OF TROPICAL FORESTS winds. Tropical forests occur in all three main tropical landmasses, America, Africa and Asia Globally, 52% of the total forests are in tropical Pacific. Differences in the geological history, regions and they are known to be the most climate, topography, and extent of these three important areas in terms of biodiversity[3]. areas have resulted in characteristic differences Tropical forests occupy center stage in term of in biota. By far the largest area of tropical forest biological diversity, it housing at least two-thirds occurs in the American or neo-tropical region, of the world's biodiversity; despite covering less which contain approximately half (4x106km2) of than 10% of Earth’s land surface [4]. the world’s total. Central and West Africa 6 2 contains approximately 1.8x10 km of tropical The negative environmental impacts of forest forest, extending from the Congo basin westward loss is most evident in the tropics, where the to the Atlantic Ocean. Also, smaller areas of majority of future deforestation is anticipated [5], tropical forest occur in Australia, Madagascar, and which hosts critical ecosystem services East Africa, Hawaii and the islands of the South including biodiversity and carbon storage [6;7]. Pacific [1]. The rapid increase in human population near 2. THE PROBLEM forest ecosystems has increased threats of degradation and fragmentation to these Tropical forests are under great anthropogenic ecosystems [8]. As forest estates in most African pressures and require urgent management countries continue to disappear due to varying intervention to conserve the biodiversity for land use pressures; large numbers of economic productivity and sustainability. Habitat and medicinal species are gradually going destruction, forest fragmentation, and the into extinction. The diversity of tree species is adverse physical and biological consequences of decreasing (due to the rate of habitat destruction edge and buffer effects are some of the effect of and over-exploitation) which are far greater than tropical deforestation. The biological diversity of the rate of genetic diversity collection and tropical forests has been poorly documented, conservation [9]. while the available data is grossly inadequate. Most species (, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrate, small mammals, reptiles, It is clear that most tropical forests will be amphibians) in the tropical forests remain destroyed or degraded within the next few years undocumented [2]. There are more tropical if urgent steps are not taken; because of the size species (organisms) to be identified; though of the human population in the tropics and identifying new species would not provide much subtropics, extensive poverty and our collective help concerning species diversity, ecology and ignorance of effective ways to manage tropical behavior that might contribute to their chances of ecosystems so that they will be productive on a survival. But the much help that is enormous sustainable basis. Over the next few years, the importance are: confrontation between human needs and forest preservation will become higher. The protection i. How can we willingly conserve tropical of forest or game reserves against threat and diversity without expectation of reward for extinction can be achieve, if there is a genuine the conservation? willingness to take the task by all people that ii. How can we take the task of conservation benefit directly or indirectly from forests and and restoration of endangered species as a forest resources.

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There is urgent need for all individual to join settlement [14;15]. A threat to these plant hands and conserve the tropic forests particularly species means a threat to the survival of the rural among the developing countries. All the forests in poor. It is clear that the future of many other parts of the tropics and subtropics (those in biodiversity in the tropical forests depends more Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, than ever on the effective management of human Andean South America, the eastern and actors and their impacts on landscapes [16;17]. southern portions of the Amazon), all the forests of Africa outside the central Zaire basin, and all When area changes by a factor of 10, species the forests of tropical and subtropical Asia will be number changes by a factor of about 2. In other devastated in shortest time; depending on the words, the loss of 90 percent of the area effectiveness of local conservation programs in originally covered by a habitat is expected to lead tropical countries. directly to the extinction of about 50 percent of the species endemic to that habitat; less severe The biological diversity of tropical forests must habitat loss is also expected to lead to therefore be constantly monitored and managed extinctions but of fewer species [18]. in order to direct succession processes towards maintaining species and habitat diversity. This Agbelusi [19], in a paper tagged “conservation of chapter will focus on trend of tropical forests and biodiversity” asserted that Nigeria like many biodiversity in the tropical forests, endangered African countries is faced with the problems of plant species in the tropical forests, conservation environmental destruction fueled by increase in and management challenges as well as possible population growth, political instability and ways forward for conservation and restoration of increasing poverty. Species are lost and lost ecosystems. biodiversity is obtainable only in the National Park, Game reserve, Forest reserves, Wildlife 4. STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY sanctuary. INTROPICAL FORESTS REGIONS 5. ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES No precise estimate can be made of the numbers of species being extinguished in the tropic There is the need for setting priorities for plant forests, due to the unknown numbers of species species conservation efforts, with more attention originally present and dearth information on to the ones whose population have reduced species. There can be no doubt that extinction is drastically; species with narrow range of bio- increasingly far faster than it was in the 19 geographical distribution, endemic species and century. About eight years ago, tropical countries those who belong to mono-specific genera [20]. were losing 127,300 km2 of forest annually, while Any plant species with a declining population deforestation in Nigeria was put at about 3.5% need urgent conservation efforts; such species per annum translating to a loss of 350 000 400 are generally known as ‘threatened or 000 hectares of forest land per annum [10;11]. endangered species’. An endangered plant Forests face with pressures of deforestation, species is a population of plants which is at risk urbanization, poor management and a of becoming extinct. Ecologists, biologists and regeneration problem are virtually nonexistent. Rangers are yet to say when an endangered The impacts of climate change will further species has finally come to an end. There is aggravate the plights of many indigenous and always a chance that a few more individuals will exotic tree species as climatic variability may survive in some remote forests. But the vast limit the ability of forest trees to quickly adapt to majority of species are not monitored at all; such the changing climate. Only 9.8% of the entire as the dead species. tropical forest biome lies within strictly protected areas [12]. The long-term viability of existing It is estimated that more than 8000 tree species reserves is strongly affected by patterns of are endangered worldwide [21]; another estimate human activity; tropical forests are disappearing predicts this between 22 and 47 percent of the at alarming rates worldwide, reducing annually. world’s plants [22]. The rate of extinction is also approximated to be very fast and it is estimated Prospects of tropical forests and the biodiversity that around 1,800 populations are being therein are becoming increasingly bleak owing to destroyed per hour (16 million annually) in unabated deforestation and forest alteration [13] tropical forests alone [23]. No precise estimate that stem from human activities such as logging, can be made of the numbers of species being hunting, agricultural expansion, and human extinguished in the forest estates or in other

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major habitats in the tropical forests, due to the (CITES) placed P. africanaas an Table 1listed fact that mankind do not know the numbers of species in Cameroon and Democratic Republic species originally present in the region. of Congo in 1995, meaning that the species may becomethreatened if trade is not regulated [31]. About 146 species on the International Union for USAID [32] reported that almost 1,000 forest Conservation of Nature (IUCN) list of threatened reserves exist on the world database of protected species are found in the tropical forests of West areas of the IUCN; most of them have been Africa (Nigeria) out of which 18 fall under the seriously degraded or de-reserved. category ‘endangered’ and 15 under the category ‘critically endangered’ [24]. Okafor [25], In a surveyed carried out in NgelNyaki Forest explained that the scope or range of endangered Reserve, Nigeria in 2017, nineteen (19) plant species include (i) wild species which are economic tree species were identified to be restricted to habitats; (ii) widespread but decreasing in abundance while eight (8) were intensively harvested and utilized; (iii) so called increasing. The conservation status of the 27 uneconomic species; (iv) recalcitrant species species encountered in the study area (Table 2) which lose viability early; (v) underutilized or was confirmed on the IUCN red list of threatened neglected species; (vi) primitive cultivars and wild species. Out of the 27 species, two species relatives of crop plants. The highest rates of (Rauvolfiavomitoriaand Sterculiasetigera) were woody plant species loss are in the tropics [26]. reported to be threatened with extinction, Twenty two (22) economic tree species were Khayasenegalensis was reported vulnerable gazette for protection in 2010 by Benue state while 5 species (Acacia , government in Nigeria (Table 1), only three (3) Albiziavomitoria, Allophylus africana, Strychnos species were found within the study area by the spinosa, Vitellaria paradoxa and Vitex doniana) year 2017. These include Prosopis africana, were endangered. Some species were reported Parkia biglobosa and Khaya senegalensis having least concern, while Anogeis susleiocarpa, frequencies of 9, 6 and 4, respectively. pustulata, Rytignia umbellatum, P.africanawas found in seven (7) plots out of the Uapaca togoensis and Pterocarpus erinaceus ten plots sampled while P. biglobosa and K. were not found on the IUCN [33] catalogue. senegalensis were found in six (6) and four (4) plots respectively. This was an indication that Global category for a species may be different their status was actually threatened within the from the national category for that species. region. Probably this might have informed government decision to place these species The general aim of the IUCN Red List Categories under protection. and Criteria is to provide an explicit, objective framework for the classification of the broadest P. africana is a high value tree species. The range of species according to their extinction risk species wood is used for carving mortar and [34]. The specific aims of the Red List are to: i. pestle; these products are used in every Provide a system that can be applied household for pounding yam among others. The consistently by different people; ii. Improve wood is also used for the production of high objectivity by providing users with clear guidance value charcoal; these harvests are destructive in on how evaluate different factors which affect the nature hence the need to protect the tree species risk of extinction; iii. Provide a system which will in the tropical forests among the developing facilitate comparisons across widely different countries. The seeds are used as condiments, taxa; iv. Give people using threatened species just as seed of Parkia biglobosa. International list a better understanding of how individual trade on P. africanabarks from Africa was worth species were classified [20]. US$220 million per year [27], while annual export from Cameroon alone was 2000 tones per year, The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are worth 1.3 million [28]. This species is found in widely accepted as the most objective and Nigeria only in the Mambilla Plateau, reported in authoritative system available for assessing the GashakaGumti National Park and NgelNyaki global risk of extinction for species [35;36;37]. It Forest Reserve [29], but trade in P. africanabark began in the 1960s with the production of the first trade in Nigeria is not well known, but Chapman Red Data Books [38] and has since evolved from [30] reported extensive debarking in the multiple lists and books dedicated to animal NgelNyaki Forest Reserve in 2003. groups or plants into a unique comprehensive Convention on International Trade in compendium of conservation-related information Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [39].

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Table 1. List of protected plant species and their status in Nagiforest reserve, Benue Nigeria

S/No Scientific name Plots sampled Species frequency P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 1. Militia excelsa N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E NE - 2. Entandrophragma spp N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 3. Khaya grandifoliola N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 4 Terminalia superba N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 5 Triplochiton scleroxylon N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 6. Afzelia africana N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 7. Antiaris africana N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 8. Berlina spp N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 9. Vitellaria paradoxa N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 10. Borassus aethiopum N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 11 schweinfurthii N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 12. Elaeis guineensis N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 13. Khaya senegalensis N.E 1 N.E 1 N.E N.E N.E 1 N.E 1 4 14. Parkia biglobosa 1 1 1 N.E 1 N.E 1 N.E N.E 1 6 15. Prosopis africana 2 1 1 1 N.E 2 N.E 1 1 N.E 9 16. Terminalia ivorensis N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 17. Chrysophyllum albidum N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 18. Irvingia spp N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 19. Cola acuminate N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 20. N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 21. Anacardiumo ccidentale N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - 22. Psidium guajava N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E - Total 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 19 Key: N.E = Not encountered; P1----10 = Plot

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Table 2. Conservation trend of some economic plant species in Ngel Nyaki forest reserve, Taraba State, Nigeria

Species Frequencies Conservation Decreasing in Increasing in status availability availability Acacia senegal 26 18 Decreasing Afzelia africana 32 1 Decreasing Albizia gummifera 26 4 Decreasing Allophylus africanus 4 0 Decreasing Anogeissus leiocarpus 11 39 Increasing Bombax cosveolens 5 0 Decreasing Borassus aethiopum 23 0 Decreasing Deinbollia pinnata 2 8 Increasing Garcinia mithmanii 0 10 Increasing Hymenocardia acida 9 39 Increasing Khaya senegalensis 19 12 Decreasing Pleiocarpa pycnantha 2 10 Increasing Prosopis africana 7 18 Decreasing Psychotria microphylla 7 1 Decreasing Pterocarpy erinaceus 53 0 Decreasing Rauvolfia vomitoria 8 0 Decreasing Rytignia umbellatum 0 10 Decreasing Schefflera abyssinica 9 1 Increasing Sterculia setigera 16 1 Decreasing Strombosia postulate 0 17 Decreasing Strychnos spinosa 11 3 Increasing Terminalia irvorensis 24 20 Decreasing Uapaca togoensis 0 56 Increasing Vitellaria paradoxa 19 8 Decreasing Vitex doniana 14 5 Decreasing Ziziphus mauritiana 7 5 Decreasing

In 2008, 44,837 species have been assessed; at Other vulnerable species include Garcinia kola, least 38% of these have been classified as which is categorized as vulnerable for its over- threatened and 804 classified as Extinct [39]. exploitation for chewing sticks in most parts of IUCN [40;41], reported that 164 threatened plant West Africa [42]. Prunus Africana is subjected to species were found in Nigeria, of which 16 were unsustainable debarking for medicinal purpose. critically endangered (CR), 16 were endangered The species bark is being exploited heavily from (EN) and 132 were vulnerable (VU). all the African countries within its distribution Furthermore, 21 (12.8%) of them were reported range, for international trade to Europe for the to be endemic to Nigeria, while the rest were treatment of ‘benign prostatic hyperplasia’. naturally distributed beyond Nigerian borders, Gleditsia assamicaand Gymnocladus assamicus most of which are located in West Africa. The (Caesalpinioideae) are two endemic tree species endemic species were found mainly in Eket (10), of northeast India. Both the sister genera have Oban Division of Cross River National Park (8) typical distribution pattern and a few species are and Degema (3) among other locations, all of available in North and South America, Egypt and which are in the forest eco-zone of Nigeria. The Vietnam tropical forests [43]. Natural population 164 threatened plants comprised 120 trees, 16 of G. assamicusis extremely small having very shrubs, 20 herbs, 6 epiphytes and 2 lianas; while few reproducing individuals [44]. Though the they spread across 53 plant families. Rubiaceae species is not included in the IUCN red list of has the highest number (18) of species threatened species, it has been designated as representatives among the 164 threatened critically endangered regionally [45] and also plants, followed by Caesalpiniaceae (14), included in the priority list for national recovery Meliaceae (12), Papilionaceae (11), program in India [46]. Aquilaria malaccensis Annonaceae and Sterculiaceae (9 each) among (Thymelaeaceae) is an economically important others [20]. tree species known for its precious resin

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impregnated ‘agarwood’; the species is under tropical regions. The intensive logging practices tremendous pressure and facing threats towards has seriously damaged the composition and extinction. structure of tropical forests thereby increasing the economic, social and environmental 6. CONSERVATION AND MANAGE- problems such as desert encroachment, soil MENT CHALLENGES erosion, flood, drought, poverty, poor soil quality, and health challenges. This agrees with Al-min The great majority of tropical humans live as [51] that the decline in tree cover affect aspects draft animals; they are sold to the highest bidders of daily life of the people. along with the habitats that maintain them, and the purchasers are not generally benevolent. Most countries within the tropical region are Through the swirl of changing market values, signatories to many international environmental- there will eventually come a day when the living related treaties and conventions, while they have organisms in a tropical wild land would be as promulgated many such laws to ensure doomed [47]. Many organisms we believe to be sustainable use and conservation of natural safe are really endangered, and those we call resources within their political boundaries. But endangered are in reality extinct. the challenge has always been the poor implementation, fuelled by corruption within The whole world at large are lacking government circles. For example, many of the conservation ethics, the forests throughout National Parks in Nigeria and neighboring Nigeria and the rest of tropical countries are countries are so huge, yet poorly staffed such diminishing at an alarming rate of 3.5% (about that proper monitoring of the parks is not done 350,00-400,000 ha) per annum [48]. In recent [52]. years, greater emphasis has been placed on tropical deforestation and its environmental There is no prospect at the moment that the impact. The major challenge is conversion of scientific task will be completed before large tropical forests to another use, not the demand fractions of the species vanish. No more than for the timbers and non-timber products. Even 1,500 professional in the world are competent to though global environmental awareness has deal with the millions of species found in the been on increase, the tropical forests and humid tropic forests. Their number may be resources continue to be adversely affected at dropping, due to decreased professional alarming rates each year and protected land is opportunities, reduced funding for research, and often mismanaged. the assignment of a higher priority to other disciplines. Data concerning the number of The highest rates of biodiversity in the world are taxonomists, as well as detailed arguments for found in tropical regions populated by developing the need to improve research in tropical countries, which do not have adequate technical countries are given by NRC [53]. The decline has and financial resources to manage all these been accompanied by a more than 50% species. Many Nigerians because of poverty and decrease in the number of publications in tropical high level of illiteracy have seen woody plant ecology from 1979 to 1983 [54]. species vegetation as an infinite natural resource thus it has been misused and abused. These The problem of tropical forests conservation is drivers force people to harvest woody plant the lack of knowledge and the paucity of ongoing species using poor methods and at research. In order to make precise assessments unsustainably high intensities [49]. High intensity and recommendations, it is necessary to know of logging and illegal exploitation of woody plant which species are present; the great majority has species and other resources has continued to not even received a scientific name,their pose serious threat to the country’s biodiversity geographical ranges and possible vulnerability to [50]. This vegetation has received poor environmental change [55]. conservation attention; as a result woody plant species is being whittled away. 7. POSSIBLE WAYS FORWARD

The conservation of plant species has become a Knowledge on the status of tropical forests (both huge challenge in our time in the background of temporally and spatially) is essential for planning farming, fuelwood extraction, building and and managing forest ecosystems in a rational industrial activities due to increasing human manner for short and long term goals; with population with high deforestation rates in the sustainability in mind. Protection and rational

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utilization of tropical forests become more tropics biodiversity and endangered species? important in order to meet the increasing demand The collective power to turn the game around for wood raw material and Non-Timber Forest resides with policy makers. We cannot force the Products (NTFPs). The conservation and youths and the world to conserve tropical nature; restoration of forest ecological zones have but they can be seduced. This can be achieved become an issue in our contemporary. It by involving the young ones in decisions making comprises of different management techniques and implementation of conservation policies. to maintain and enhance the long-term health of Youths are the productive segment of the forest ecosystems and suitable habitats for population, their dominance implies that they will biodiversity. be highly involved in conservation if biodiversity conservation strategies are introduced and they Positive decisions must be made and effected to will be active, hale and hearty in conserving and ensure conservation and restoration of the restoring the biodiversity in the tropical regions. endangered species in the tropical forests; and all decision-making requires information. This There is need for countries within the tropical information can be acquired by means of forest regions: inventories or ecological assessments; systems for measuring the extent, quantity and condition i. To development their national red list; of forests and biodiversity habitats. In carrying ii. To ensure effective protected area out the appropriate management practices, forest management and ex-situ conservation; inventory is needed to obtain the necessary iii. Tree domestication; information for timber evaluation [56]; and iv. To embark on community-based natural ecosystems management. More specifically, resources management; there is need for regular inventories of the v. To carryout evaluation of suspected tropical forests. This calls for need to determine “endangered” plants in the tropic regions. the threats and conservation status of plant species in the tropical forests. Rapid human population growth rate is the major cause of plant species loss.These population Deforestation and degradation of tropical forest growths pose a serious challenge on biodiversity in Nigeria has been estimated to be between due to indiscriminate exploitation by artisans and 350,000 and 400,000 hectares of productive herbalists coupled with the high rate of forest area annually. The only one answer to the agricultural activities; these implied that soil problem of reduction in stands quality and degradation in the area is inevitable [26]. The quantity is to give proper management practices growth of the human population must be halted if to the available forests, control deforestation and possible, since it is obvious that if the scale of raise new trees and forests wherever possible human activities continues to increase for even a with adequate management practices. few more decades, the extinction of much of tropical forests' biota cannot be avoided. The world's tropics are already beyond their capacity for accommodating human activity. Finally, let’s all ignore the voice that demands Guards and Rangers cannot save tropical wild that high financial resources should be placed on lands. Thus, there is a need for join management for sustainably management of endangered between managers of wild lands and society. species before it can be conserved and restored. And the scientific community must aggressively Even without the provision of financial resources participate in writing and executing the for conservation and restoration of endangered management policies for conservation and species, but with high interest and euphoria restoration of biodiversity. Without this among the youths, the young populace can participation and bottom-to-top decisions making, conserved and restored the tropical forests and tropical forests will be nothing but high- its biodiversity in the regions. This can be done degradation and gradual diminishing restoration by frequent inclusion of youths in decisions of forest ecological zones. making and the use of non-formal education methods (such as drama, playlet, music concerts The future lies in the hands of young and agile among others). people, who are well-educated in technologies but they have low interest in conservation of 8. CONCLUSION biodiversity especially among the developing countries. These youths will replace their parents Forests and forest resources are important in the nearest future; what will happen to the assets that the nations in the tropical regions can

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sustainably manage for its renewable potentials, 5. Laurance WF, Sayer J, Cassman KG. environmental benefits and socioeconomic Agricultural expansion and its impacts on importance to mankind. They have the potentials tropical nature. Trends Ecology Evolution. of becoming a major source of revamping the 2014;29:107–16. local economy of the rural and urban 6. Gibson L, et al. Primary forests are communities, since the economy of most of the irreplaceable for sustaining tropical East African Countries depends on tourism. If biodiversity Nature. 2011;478:378–81. only forests and its products would be given the 7. Asner GP, et al. High-resolution forest needed attention for conservation, endangered carbon stocks and emissions in the plant species (such as- Prosopis africana, Parkia Amazon. Proceedings of National biglobosa, Khaya senegalensis, Gleditsia Academic Science; USA. 2010;107 assamica, Gymnocladus assamicus and 16738–42. Aquilaria malaccensis among others) would be 8. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). restore and genetic heredity with qualitative Country report: Nigeria. Forestry Outlook characteristics would be sustain for generational Study for Africa (FOSA). Food and use. Therefore, based on this review, it is Agricultural Organization of the United recommended that; communities around forest Nations, Rome; 2010. reserves in the tropical forest regions should be Available:http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/A economically empowered, so that they can have B592E/AB592E02.htm. alternative sources of livelihood that are 9. National Centre for Genetic Resources and biodiversity friendly, thus, reducing their Biotechnology, Abuja; 2008 dependence on forests and forest products. (unpublished). Laws and edicts establishing the forest reserves 10. FAO. State of the World’s Forests 2009. in most developing nations should be revised so Food and Agriculture Organization of the as to make amendments and incorporate United Nations, Rome; 1999. measures that will serve as panacea to the 11. FAO. REDD-Workshop: monitoring, present problems that are impeding the growth assessment and verification. Rome: FAO. and success of most forest and game reserves. (FAO. Working paper, 2). 2008;20. For decision-making, there should be active 12. Schmitt CB, Belokurov A, Besancon C, involvement of local people living around forest Boisrobert L, Burgess ND, Campbell A, reserves; this should be made a top priority in Coad L, Fish L, Gliddon D, Humphries K, sustainable forest management and conservation Kapos V, Loucks C, Lysenko I, Miles L, for the actualization of restoration of endangered Mills C, Minnemeyer S, Pistorius T, plant species in the tropical forests. Ravilious C, Steininger M, Winkel G. Global ecological forest classification and COMPETING INTERESTS forest protected area gap analysis. Analyses and recommendations in view of Authors have declared that no competing the 10% target for forest protection under interests exist. the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In. University of Freiburg, Freiburg; REFERENCES 2008.

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