BEAMTIMES AND LIFETIMES

The World of High Energy Physicists

SHARON TRAWEEK

Harvard Universil Y Press Cambridge, Massachusett s London, England 1988 C ontents

Preface

Ackno\Nledgmenta xiii

Prologue: An Anthropologlat Studlell Physic lilts 1

1 Touring the Bite: Powerful Places in the Laboratory 1B

2 Inventing MachlneB T het Dla cover Nature: Detectors at aLAe and KEK 46

3 PlIgrhnla Progrees: Male Telaa Told During B Life In PhYllics 74

4 Ground Statee: Dletinetlona lind the T ies T hat Bind 106

!5 Buying Time and Taking Space: Negotiations, Collaboration. lind Change 126

Epilogue: Knowledge and Pae.lon 157

Notes 165

Index 1B5 R o L o G u E

An Anthropologist Studies Physicists

he public and political role of high energy physicists, th e role T of science as a secular religion, as well as the hi slOry , soci­ ology. and philosophy of physics are the subj ects of many important books by eminent scholars. This book is not about how physicists have shaped our world, or wh y our society has given them power and prestige. Nor is it about the current Slate of knowledge and inquiry in high energy physics. In stead it is an account of how high energy physicists see their own world ; how they have forged a research community fo r themselves, how they lurn novices into physicists, and how theif community works to produce knowledge. Since World \oVal 11 physic ists have maintained a special hold on tile American imagination . Their discoveries are front-page news; Time magazine tries 10 d ~s!,; ri 1Je the latest theoretical developments. Autobiographies oC leading physicists reach best-seller Li sts. The image of Albert Einstein is sti ll used as an emblem of intelligence and creativity. When Prime Minister Fukuda of Japan and Pres­ ident Carter met during the energy crisis of the 1970s, they decided to fund a ten-year, mu ltimillion-dollar research project in high en­ ergy ph ysics. During the budget-cut ting years of recessio n all the major industrial countries continoed to increase the funding of the enormously costl y research in this fi eld ; and in 1987 President Reagan announced hi s support for a new "supercond ucting super­ collider" many times larger than the largest high energy physics faci li ty ever before bu ilt. I How is it that physics and ph ysicists have so strong a claim on our society? Pralog .... e 3

Part of the answer is war. Competition for novel weapons during value. The great accelerators, for example, are li ke medieval ca­ World War ' led to the organization of re search and development thedrals: free from the conslmints of cost-benefit analysis. labs stafTed by scientists and engineers. The modest successes of The physicists who work in these great accelerators study the these labs brought funding during World War II to di verse and basic constituents of matter and the elementary forces that operate esoteric projec:ts, and this time the yield was much greater: it between them. This fi eld of study is called particle physics. 4 (N u­ included radar and, most decisively, the atomic bomb. The search clear physics is a separute subject area, dealing not with the com­ for the fundamental secrets of nature was suddenl y a matter of ponents of the nucleus, but with the relati ons between nuclei. Its nalional power and prestige. The bomb brought political influence implications lie mai nl y in nuclear energy. material science. and 10 the "atom smashers," and wi th that inH uence came money; medicine.) neither has declined in the succeeding forty years, in spile of the Though strong in influence, high energy physicists are not strong fact Ihal since the war almost all high energy physici sts have re­ in number. According to the international leaders of the communit y, fused to do secret research or to work on weapons.! there are about eight hundred to a thousand very active researchers Part of the a nswer is organization. In the new mission-oriented in the world in their fie ld. They suggest that perhaps two thousand labs of World War II , high energy physicists learned to admini ster more are abreast of the latest developments. Three or fou r hundred large interdisciplinary tcnms of researchers, manage huge budgets, of all these people know one another quite we ll , and all the other and speak the language of government age ncies. At the end of th e practitioners want 10.' About half of the group

An Anthr-apologlet Studi •• P hve iclet. 1 5 By contrast, when r in terviewed the .. offices very few of rhem closed [he' d youngest phYSICIsts ill their rate scientists. They want to know how Americans make decisions and stare, and often iflle...... Ir OOrs. Passersby would pause . t . ..upl to carryon . among themselves about the allocation of these resources. They In ervlewee, who would break rr a conversatIOn with my are inl erested in what parts of the American practice of science The counlerpal"! of this d " 0 oure,l(change wit hout ceremony m h Isregard was \Ie al . are distinctively American, and these are my concerns 100. Hence, uc more unguarded in th . ry v uable; they were Japanese curiosity about my observations of the American com· ~ h cy Oft cn spoke to me as ~/~ ~:spo n ses than their seniors; indeed, mun ity has often been the starting point of our conversations. If-being both a nonphysicisf a : were free-associating. h was as There are other differences also. At a Japanese laboratory there to ~se Special knowledge to ;i a woman_I was not in a position is no way that a five-foot-eight green-eyed aubum-haired woman of Information was generalJ g n p~wer. Once I asked what kind can expect to fade ioto Ihe background; and my activities are almost "w JJ ". Y considered W h k . . e. my mformant answered " . ort eepmg secret as strange as my appearance. Until quite recently there has been IS • . . " II was clearly to my ad ' One thmg we never teU a oyOO ~ little public interest in high energy physics in Japan. and very little il ~as sometimcs hard to take v~n~:~e thaI.' was not anyone, but sociology of science; the idea of being interviewed and studied is resist devaluing myself and m . wo 10 dissemble my anger, 10 new and surprising to Japanese scientists. I am always observed at nographer of Ihe Iremendou ~ Y rk , and to Lake nOle as an elh s lorce of to d' '. . • least as much as observing. ~o~mology between outsiders e IVISlon In the physicists' It might seem that an American field worker would share the inSIders. In 1987 when J ' ~o maHer how well·informed and . . . • am notlceabl Id ' commonsense cultural expectations of American physicists. Tra­ I~ I S~S I IDlerview, Ihey still re ~ 0 er than Ihejunior phys- ditional anthropologists have sometimes been suspicious or "repa­ d'Sflncrion 10 thc courtesy of Ih'epond.1O the same way, in sharp triated" anthropology, arguing tbat without strangeness the field­ who ar b h semor and m'd . e at more sccu'·e ,. Ih . J career SC ientists th n elr own po 'r ' worker cannot identify the cultural assumptions of a community; e us~s of the Outside World. SIIOns and more alerl [0 they believe that shared common sense is transparenl and hence HaVing done fie ldwork in Ja an d . invisible. later, { have (Ol/nd Ihal Ih p. unn~ 1976 and again ten years The premise is surely right, but the cases where it applies are mUch mOre ac,-=cssible andere, ~ OO'. promment senior physiCists are th . . . rCliectlve abo [ h . rarer Ihan they may seem. For one thing, repatriated anthropology .. :,r Jumor and less established coli u t elr community than is just that; one of the main reasons I worked in Japanese labs C1~lIerence; japanese scientists in ea~ues. BUI ~ h ere is a major before returning 10 SLAC was to acquire strangeness. And it is differences between one nalio/ J g~ne r~u are very IOterested in the :mpOWlnt to remember that there is plent y of str

ceptable siratcg;ies for making sense and being successful in the energ y phy sicists are at the vanguard of this movement, struggling community, to maintain momentum. Their efforts 10 establish KEK, and to There are, in fact , three intersecting cultures involved here: that bring its equipment to world standards and keep it there, are part of the international physics community, and those of Japan and the of the larger goal of moving Japan from the periphery to the core United Slates , In the conlext of [heir intersections, I have focused of the international community. I have tried to understand how on two activities in particular: the training of novice physicists and thei r strategies for this campaign are re lated to Japanese research the management of changes in the structure of laboratories. Both traditions. the training of novices and the renewal of institutions arc examples Deeper even than submerged assumptions about gender and na­ of. and models for. maintaini ng tradition and achieving change­ tional identity are profound and deeply felt tensions about time key problems in cullUres dedicated \0 innovation. that I find coiled at the center of this culture. In the course of a II j ~ dLJ r in~ apprenliceslup that traditions of re search arc passed career a physicist learns the insignifi cance of the past, the fear of on. Patterns of apprent iceship ditTer in Un it ed Stales ph ysics and having too little time in the present, a nd anxiety about obsolescence in Japanese physics, in ways connected to the larger national cul­ in the face of a too rapidly advancing fu lure. BUl the content of tures in which they arc embedded. Institutional change also, and high energy ph ysics, its e,,-planations of the interactions of funda­ resistance to it , follows di fferent bu t related patterns in Japan and mental particles, screen out all consideration of elapsing, ephemeral the United States. T he two particle physics labs on which my stud y lime. Alt hough the physicists speilk of ge nerations of particles, of is concentrated. K EK and SLAC, face quite similar institutiona l lifetimes and decay, they represent the natural world as a styli zed challenges. Bolh continue to be CO nfrOnted with the problem of dance of only a few forces, endlessly repeating a small set of balanci ng the interests of resident research groups-"insiders"_ choreographed interactions. They have a passionate dedication to with those of visiting e:

demeanor of the guards; others simply joke about the booth and oratory. They were later successful: the Unit ed Stanford Employ­ the mCn in it, saying the whole display looks like a Swiss clock. ees (USE) won the National Labor Relations Board-sponsored The style of [he guards offends the physicists because it reminds vote over the Teamsters. From the beginning USE leaders have them of Ihe gates at labs where "classified" (secret) research is been concentrated at SLAC-panicularl y among the technicians-­ done on behalf of the military. Secret work is distasterul to them and more widely dispersed on the Stanford campus as a whole. because it is seen as "applied" research, in which ideas already The senior physici sts who manage the lab are said to have been established in "basic" or "purc" research are applied to less fun­ outraged at the very idea of a union, which suggested that people damen tal and challenging problems. They are proud of working at could consider their work at the lab as a mere job. The physicists a tt\b where no classified work is conducted, because in their eyes generall y have been commiucd to being scientists since early ad­ basic research has much higher status. olescence, and their own training teaches them to regard physics The guards h ~l ve various small movable wooden sign s. On winter as a calling, nol an occupation. They assumed that everyone at the mornings they post the one that says "Your Lights Are ON." Once Jab would share this same devotion to science and its institutions a month they display "Bookmobile Here Today." At night the sign and were profoundly saddened and angered by the strike and pickel reads "Stop Here 7 P.M. to 6 A.M." During those hours il is nec­ lines called by the union in 1973. The lab has generally altracted a essary to show a lab identification badge and sign a roster before staff devoted both to SLAC and its work. They, as well as the .being . allowed to enter the site. No one objects to the procedUre', physicists, are uncomfortable working with employees who seem 11 IS regarded HS protecting the lab from theft , vandalism and not to share thi s commitment. It is assumed that those who do political terrorism. ' wou ld not consider a strike against the lab, because it would be a Since two bombs exploded at the western end of the accelerator strike against science. on December 7. 1971 , causing several thousand doll ars' worth of The th ird hypothesis suggested that the bomb was the work of damage, the admini st ration of SLAC has been especially concerned nearby residents. Many neighbors were frightened of radiation or with the security of the lab.s The ru le about registering at the booth possible explosions (harking back to the association of physics with dates from that incident; and the Klystron Gallery, which gives weapons research). Others were known to be offended by the huge ~cc.ess to the accelerator, is now kepi locked . With the bombing power lines that provide electricity for the lab: the lines pass mCldent the lab's relationship with the Outs ide world became an through an afflu ent suburb many of whose residents affect the style explicit iSSue f (')[ the first lime. No one was ever apprehended' of Engli sh gentry, including fox hunts. A.ccording to laboratory speculation at tIle lo b Id entified three possible groups that migh; employees, Pete McCloskey, now a former congressman and then h&\le been willing to use violence against the institution. WhIchever a local attorney, negotiated a settlement between the residents and it was. they we re seen as mi sguided and irrational in wishing to the federal government concerning these power lines. The residents disrupt the important wo rk of the lab; the feeling was that, whatever wanted the lines to be placed underground no maller what the the validity of the grievances of the firebombers, th e lab was a n expense, but Lyndon John son decided against this after his per­ inappropriate large!. sonal emissary, Laurance Rockefell er, informed him that thi s was The first hYPOlhesis was that the firebombing was the work of nol the current communit y standard. The compromise struck was radical teft-wing anti-Vietoam War acti vists who assumed that to have the poles designed by a prestigious San Francisco archi­ SLAC was engaged in classified weapons research. The physicists tectural firm, Halprin Associates, and to keep them painted green. find annoying the association in the publi c mind between physics The physicists regarded all these concerns as sill y, a sign of igno­ and weapons research. rance, and a confusion of priorities. Their second theory assumed the bombing mll st have been an After these early conflicts with the community, the director es­ "inside job," their suspects being the people who were then trying tablished a Public Information Office to educate citizens and stu­ to establish the fi rst union at a government-financed research lab- dents about the work conducted at the lab th rough news re leases 22 T aul"l"9 thll!ll Bite PO\Nllrfut P tllcell tn the LabDratorv 23

and tours. The .head of Ihis office evenlually became a popular city ployee benefits, for example, are di spensed through Stanford. (Trus councilman. His demeanor and values are much closer to those of is why the USE was able to install a union at a government facility.) the local communit y than to those of the scientists at Ihe lab. The This pattern of mutual assistance. whereby SLAC is used to citizens consider this man a representative of their point of view enhance the prestige of the university and the un iversity is used by to the lab; at SLAC he is regarded as a delegate from the lab to SLAC as an administrative buffer that also disseminates ioforma· the community. Through him each side feels comfortable commu. tion to citizens, is-so far as I know-unique among ru gh eoergy nicating with the other. physics laboratories. The interaction also has other rewards: phys­ All of the employees of the Public Information Office arc Cau­ icists at SLAC often say that they have the benefits wi thout the casian, like almost all of the audiences they address. The activities liabilities of a university environment. Stanford's science and en· of Ihis office indicate that SLAC sees its role in community-labo­ gineeri ng programs are as extensive and powerful as those at ei ther ratory interactions as didactic.,'hat is. disagreement with the lab's Cal tech or MIT. Having SLAC o n campus enhances Stanford 's policies is seen as a result of lac k of information, which SLAC will pos ition in the science and e ngin~er i ng communities, although in supply, practice students at the Stanford Ph ysics Departmen t seldom visi t By the ntles of the government agency overseeing the laboratory, SLAC. the Department of Energy (formerl y the Atomic Energy Commis­ In add ition to its explicit public relations work, the Public Infor­ sion, Ihen-al the time of th is study-the Energy Research and mation Office conducts ten 10 twent y tours a week with a stronger Development Agency, ERDA, and now the Department of Energy, educational emphasis, Science leachers at high schools and coll eges DOE), the lab cannot openly advertise thi s community service, throughout the San Francisco Bay area routinely arrange for their because such ",:)tices could be construed a!'i using public fu nds to classes to be given tours . Local communi ty and profe ssional or­ solicit SUPp0l1 f() r the lab's budget. The ads routinely placed in the ganizations also make U!'ie of lhis service. I worked at the lab for Stanford University Daily are acceptable within the letter of the three years giving these tou rs. Although their purpose is didactic law because they are defined as intraorgaoizational notices. and the intentions of the guides are serious, I found most visitors The shift from passive Jispensation of information upon request on these tours arrived wanting to be awed rather than info rmed. to more assertive public relations is a move made in the 1970s by This demeanor of awe was especiall y marked among practicing SLAC as well as other laboratories. This development is analogous scientists and engineers. Visitors often behaved as though they had to the changed ~; tance of the "statesmen" of high en€igy physics in been granted a special dispensation to see the inner sanctum of Washington, D.C., and the aggressive political action of labonHory science and its most learned priests. Many were quite bluntly dis­ directors on behalf of their laboratories in the last fo({ y yean; .6 mayed to find a woman gu idi ng them through the hallowed pre­ Mutual !.clf-illtere!>t governs this and other aspects of SLAC. cincts. One chairman of a leading chemistry department. at the Uni versity relations. Once a year, a massive tour or SLAC-twen ty head of a group of about seventy·five academic chemists visiting to thirty bus loads of people-is arranged to impress the families of the lab, approached me and asked where the guide was. When I students as a part of graduation week festivities. Powerful and introduced myself, with barely concealed disdain he said , "Well , if prestigious visit ors to the uni versity are generally given [lersonal they hi red you, I suppose you know your stun'." tours of SLAC. Ties to Stanford arc stressed by the SLAC Public Information Office brochures, and in its fund-raising efforts the Once a visitor passes the info rmation booth and its surrou nding Stanford Developmenl Office emphasizes the Ii uk to the fa mous shrubs of dark gree n manzani ta, the: first bu il dings come into view. research and Nobel Prize-winning work done at SLAC. The formal In the ce nte r of the U-shaped group is a carefully landscaped ap­ affi liation between the two in stitutions is such that the uni versity proximation of the su rrounding natural environment. About a has a contract from DOE to administer SLAC. Payroll and em- dozen li ve oaks, sitti ng in disks of loose gravel, fi rc surrounded by 24 Tourin g t h . Blta Pow erful Plac•• In t h e Laboratory 25 n closely cropped but very dense lawn kept green year.round, The secretaries, librarians, and administrative assistants, all but undl! rscoring the hard sculptural form of the trees. AI noon, if the one of whom are women, typically eat toget her in small clusters. weather is not too soggy, people play vo lleyball or football on the The senior technicians, administrators. and physicists, most of lawn . By creating an English green lawn in an environment of them men, tend not to mingle across job classifications. golden dry savannahs, the lab demonstrates both the authority of It is easy to distinguish between the groups at the cafeteria. The its own vision of nature und its power to commandeer waler in a physicists are dressed most casuall y, in shirt s with rolled sleeves land of re current drought. and jeans or nondescript slacks. They di sdain any clothing that These mesSages have endangered the only indigenous element: would distinguish them from each other. The style to which they the oaks arc quite sensit ive and will die if watered through the conform , furthennore, maintains a carefully calibrated distance summer. Planting the trees in gravel is an a[tempt to have both the from fashion , quality, or tit.' Their generaJ appearance would not lawn and the trees survive. Elsewhere on the site , trees have had be out of place in a midd le-class midwestern suburb on a weekend. to be protected from people parking under them in the summer; t can think of four exceptions among over one hundred physicists. the weight of the cars ki lls the oaks' root systems. An ecosystem One, who wears atypically ti8ht jeans, is clearly identified as En­ has been altered to create both nn eloquent tableall ", ivallt and a glish. Another wears suits and is treated accordingly-like an ad­ site for massive human ent erprise. At least in this case, these two ministrator. The third ;s given to diverse eccentriciti es, such as goals arc severely confl ic ti ng. purple shirts; he is thought to be anomalous in many ways. The On three sides of this grassy square are five of the more than fourth , whose clolhes are neatly pressed, well made, and color­ one hund red structures on the site: the road forms the fourth side. coordinated. is said to be reall y okay: he only dresses "that way" These structures are of one, two, and three storeys, with facades because his wife buys his clothes. of beige and grey aggregate. The fla t roofs have deep overhangs , Engineers and senior technicians seem to affect either a collegiate shadowing the. many large windows. More shrub manza nita sur­ style (khakis. buLton-down Oxford shins, and crew-neck sweaters) round s the buildings, whi ch are linked by asph.alt and concrete or a studiously informal appearance (polyester pants and ligh tly pathways. From the square and from each of these build ings, there starched shirts). Administrators wear classic business attire, bu t are striking views of the region, including San Francisco Bay. leave their jackets in the office. Secretaries, administrative assis· On a knoll at the left of the square as on~ approaches are the tants, and Ihe few female administrators dress informall y but not cafeteria an ti auditorium , joined by a wide breezeway. The walls casuaiiy, in dresses and pantsuits. The dolhing or tile wornen phys­ of the cafeteria are mo stly glass; the limited wa ll space is covered icists generall y consists of slacks or jeans wi th :i bell and a shi rl . WIth rotating exhibits of artwork dOlle by SLAC employees and a In several years at the lab I have seen only one wearing a skirt, blackboard sometimes used by the physicists during their coffee and thai was only on One occasion. lo breaks or after lunch. Outside, away from the squ are and sheltered Usually the ph ysicists from each experi mental research group by oaks, is a patio with several tables and chairs. Altogether there wi ll wal k as a body to the cafeteria and then sil together. pulling a is seating for abOUl o ne hundred (SLAC has about twelve hundred few tables end to end and making room for late arri vals , Sometimes employees). The food is rather good for a cafeteria; the head of senior pb ysicists from different groups have lunch to discuss lab th is service tak~!s great personal care of the entire operatJon, and business. Theorists eat in smaller clusters. While eating, people she and her stan· (which is mostly Chicano) are friendly and skilled .? scan the room frequently, noting who is or is not eating wiLh whom. Many people eat at the cnfeteria every day , alt hough a few Almost no one eats alone. occasionally walk the mi le to nearby restaurants, drive to surround­ Nexi to the cafeteria, through the breezeway, is the auditorium. ing towns for lunch, or cal near th e cain-operated lood-di spensing It has a small lobby with models and photographs of research machines around the lab. Sometimes people picnic on Ihe pastoral equipment at the laboratory. There is also a small "diorama" de­ sile awny from the buildings. but thi s is unu sual for the physicists.K picting a paleoparadoxia in its natural habitat_the SLAC site. The 26 TDurlng I:he Bite Pow.l"ful Phtc•• In th. Labo r ...orv 27 fi ft een-million-year-old remains of this animal we re exposed during wit hin and outside SLAC. The time of day. day of the week. and excavations on the construction si leo A team of paleontologists, month of the year it is used distinguish one group from another. 1l led by the wife of the director, had ide ntified the remains and built On the main axis of the square sits the Central Laboratory and a full-scale model of the an imal in an office at the Illb. Similar its annex (referred to as Central Lab). The three-storey building skeletal remain s have been fo und in Japan, apparentl y lending has many windows and It few balconies, which are never used support to the plate tectonics theory, which suggests thaI Japan (although those offices with balconies, along with the corner olllces, and California were once adjaccnl.lI have the highest status). The walkway approaching the Central Lab In side the auditorium itself there is seating for about three descends a few steps to the entrance. In the foyer are two vending hundred. The Hoor is sloped as in a theater, so that the last row of machines, an unused computer terminal, and a metal bookcase seals is about twenty feel higher than the front row. There is desk holding outdated periodicals and papers discarded by the li brary. space and a small ligh t in from of each seat, In the "stage" area is The floo r here and th roughout the building is beige linoleum. a lectern, a vicwgraph machine for projection from transparencies, To the right arc the offices of the Technical Ill ustration Depart­ six blackboards, and two screens. ment , which is headed by a woman. The half-dozen employees All sorts of groups make use of the auditorium. The tours begin meticulously transform the physicists' handwritten graphs, equa­ here with an introductory lecture lasting about an hour. At lunch­ tions, and diagrams into a standard format , ready for inclusion in time social. educational, and professional groups organized by journal articles or transfer to transparencies and slides to be used SLAC pcrsonm:1 may meel1herc. A weekly colloquium in theoret­ in oral presentations. Physicists bring their own sketches to the ical particle physics is held. and also one for experimentalists; these supervisor and discuss with her how they want them prepared and are in the late afternoon. They are widely attended; the director when they will be finished. The technical ill ustrators are always and his deputy and associat.e directors are almost always there. In very busy, and usually each new order must be added to It waiting the evening community college Courses are held, and local civic lisl. The main room is quite large, has windows on two sides. and groups also usc the space. Small workshops or conferences are is filled with several profess ional drafti ng tables. Illustration is one held in the audilOrium eyery few weeks; these run all day ror three of the few jobs at the lab that are done by people of both sexes. to five days. These meetings are for physicists, and usually of All the illustrators at the time of this study were ei ther Causasian inte rest only to people in one particular speciali ty (theoretical, or Asian. cxperimeniai, or acceieraior physicsj or concentraii ng on one topic To the left of ihe foyer is the L-shaped "Orange Room," with (such as synchrotron radiation). Every summer the lab hosts a two­ seating ror a.bollt fifty " eople. Seminars for the experimentalists are week "summer school" las do other malor labs around the world) held here, as are meetings or labol"Htory groups such as lh~ SLAC for graduate students, "posldocs," and scientists who do not work Women's Organization (SLACWO). SLACWO was founded by at the major labs. These people are brought up to date on the most two senior women employees at the lab for the exchange of infor­ recent experiments and theories. mation of special interest to women; about 15 percent of the lab Once a year, the director holds a series of meetings for "all employees are women; 25 percent are "minorities." There are sem­ hands" (all laboratory employees) to discuss the achievements and inars and lectures on topics such as educational opportunities for goals of the lab and its funding status for the coming year. 11 The women in business, employee benefits, and statistics on the em­ same talk is given several times; people attend the meeting corre­ ployment status of women compared to men in the lab, and in the sponding to the first letter ot: their last name. community as a whole. Some women worry thal the organization Every two or three years a meeting is held for " lI sers." the might be identified as reminist or union oriented. Others openly experimentalists fTom other institutions who have applied success­ endorse this aspect of the group. The lab administration reluctantly fully to make use of the lab's research facilities. The auditorium is nccepted the constitution of the organization, but insists that no the one space on site widely used by diverse groups, both (rom laboratory time be devoted to its activlties. It is one of the few 28 TourIng the Site PO\Nerrul Pla ce. tn t:he Labor.t:orv 29

groups at the laboralOry thaI incl udes members and officers from anything about ph ysics to do the work well , and its status has all occupational status levels , from physicists to fi le clerks. declined accordingly . . In 1978. one oU[ of 222 female employees (0.45 percent) and Behind tht; scanners' rooms are the offices of two groups of eigh ty-one out of 1,082 male employees (7.49 perce nt) were regu­ experimentalists, responsible for maintaining and developing cer­ larly engaged in phys ics research at SLAC .'~ One hundred seve nty­ lain com plex rFsearch equi pment. In return, these physicists are seven women at the lab were employed in nontechnical nonscien­ entilled to do a Itimited amount of research. Among them are some tific positions. Because of the job classification sys tem in effect at former students and employees of the full-time research groups. SLAC, there are few opportunities for significant promotions no On the rest of the first fl oor are small workshops for the machining mailer how skilled and effecti ve one becomes as a manage~ or and fab ricati on of minor equipment needed for ex periments; here administ rator; in almost all cases, the higher positions arc technical too are the offices of visiti ng users, experimentalists from other ?f scientific. The federal agency that oversees all high energy phys­ instit utions who are currently mak ing use of the lab's research ICS laboratories in the United States has requ ired an affirmati ve faci lities. Commingled wilh the us~ r s are the offi ces of the " liaison" action program a t each laboratory since early 1975." In my discus. ph ysicisls: form er students, postdocs, or te mporary employees sions with two affirmative action offi ce rs (one at SLAC and one at whose intimate knowledge of the lab enables them to coordinate DOE regional hl!adquart ers in Oakland, California), I was told that the needs of a visiting user group day by day with those of the " in­ wor.ki ng with the ph ysicists who ran the labs was extremely frus­ hou se" groups, whether for beam time, computer time, or special trRt:lng because the physicists seemed not 10 belie ve that they were machining requirements. At. the time of this study , almost all of the oblJ ged to change their existing hiring practices in any way. approximately one hu ndred experimental isLS al SLAC, including Also on the fi rst fl oor of the Central Lab are th e scanners' rooms. users, we re Caucasian (five were Asian, one a Native America n); Some of the data from experi menls is collected on film . For ex. fi ve were women, one of whom was a liaison. ample, a two-ma nth-Iang chamber experiment, making three pic. The second floor of the Cent ral Lab is reached by two elevators lu.res of each event with as many as forty-n ve events per second , and iI numbe r of narrow, echoing stairwells wilh concrete stairs Will produce about 775 million frames. Each frame is visuall y and handrails of metal pipe. On the second fl oor are the windowed scanned for both predicted and unpredicted informal ion . The scan­ offices of experime ntalists. The windowless of.fices in the core of n e r ~ w~rk in .a large darkroom al big metal tables, with bulk y the second tl oor are occupied by clerks, secretaries , and adminis· proJ Gc tmg eqUipment ovei·heacl . They lise speciai mechanical track­ trative assistants, all of whom are women ; one is. blac.k. There are ing arms to foll ClW Ihe fnu:;es on Ih l! film ; the informat ion picked a few exceptions (0 this arrangement; two admini strative assistants up by these arll'lS is then recorded digitall y by computers. The to high-status research group leaders ha ve offices with windows; room is silent save for the low whirri ng of the film tapes being in the Annex, some space at the core is gi ven over to computer advanced, one frame at a time, and the intermittent clicking of the terminals and 10 small electronics workshops. tracking arms. The offices of the experimentalists are furnished in grey metal: Across the hall is the scanners' lounge; they take frequent breaks des ks. chairs, bookcases (usuall y filled with computer printouts), to relax their eyes. Nine of the thirteen scanners at SLAC are and computer terminals. Mosl offices are shared by two people and women, some young, some middle-aged; six are black and one is feel quite small ; both desks and people face the wa lls. Occasionall y Asian-American. In the 1950s , the earl y days of bubble chamber one sees a poster of some scenic wilderness area, especially moun­ physics, film was: scanned by young physicists; later the chore was tai ns. Doors arc rarely, if ever, closed, unless the offi ce is empty. handled by graduate and undergraduate physics students, then by The office s of the research group leaders are two or three times the general student pop ulation (this last group did the job as reo as large as those of their slaff. Two desks, end to end, stand isolated cently as the late I960s). It is now reali zed that one need not know in the center of the room, with the leader sealed fac ing the door 30 Touring the Site P owBrtul PtaCB. In the Labaratory 31 from behind them. File cabinets, tables, and bookcases are over­ zine in the readi ng area. I rarely saw more than five or six men in loaded with computer printouts, notebooks, rcports, and records this section of the li brary, except during conferences held at the of previous experiments. There is a blackboard on the wall . and laboratory when visitors used th e space for stud ying. orten photograpbs or drawings of the group's detectors. The space Outside the double doors to the li brary is a wide corridor, often is crowded with paper, and access is limited. used for spontaneous discussions between physicists who encoun­ All eight of the experimental group leaders are Caucasian males; ter each other there. On the wall is a bullet in board maintained by onc is Canadian, one is Sconish, and of the six Americans, four the librarians of news clippings about particle physics and other are Jewish. The proportion of Jews among leading high energy laboratories from both the popular press and general scientific pub­ physicists is onen commented upon by Jewish high energy physi­ lications such as Physic.f Today. ! have seen people glance at these cists. clippings occasionally. Unlike the silent hall s downstairs, occupied on ly by people in Upstairs on the third noar, one renches the theoretical physics transit. the second Roor corridors are crossroads, serving as a section, the laboratory directors' offices, and the office of the man greeting place. Orten physicists stand conversing at one another's who edits and writes most of the articles for Th e Beam Line, the office doorways. When major pol icy decisions are occurring, men laboratory's monthly internal publi cation for employees, which de­ stand in small groups, talking and watching. scribes the physics research at the lab. The editor does an excelJ ent Asidc from p ~:ople, the corridors are em pty except for a fe w job of describing the work in terms understandable to anyone who bu ll etin boards Ihal carry notices of local seminars and lectures, has a background in science li nd is familiar with the lab. The Bellm the lalest schedules of the allotment of accelerator beamtime, and Line often reads like an inform al hi storical record of the laboratory. employee nolice ~). I ha ve never seen anyone besides myself "read" Like many laypeople working at the laboratory, the editor has great these boards. reverence for science. scientific di scovery, and the laboratory; at Also on the second floor is the library, which houses basic teX IS, the same time , he sees the practitioners as people, not as gods. journals, and reference books on subjects directly related to the Opposite his office is a sel of glass doors, which are always open, operation of the lab and ils ongoing research. A few general science I leading to the offices of the director. associate and deputy directors, periodicals lire received, as well as a few daily newspapers. A and their staff. At least in contrast with the spartan style of the complete record of all reporl s issued by the lab is also available. rest of the lab, the director's office is as imposing as the man who AU the fUrn ishings (tables, chaIrs. bookshelves. and carrels) are occupies it. Like the other directors of major laboralOries in pariicie grey me tal. A bulletin board has nolices of imminent international , physics past and present, he is fie rcely committed to his lab, with national, and local scientific meeti ngs and lectures, which no one the full force of his personality. The special qualilies widely asso­ seems to notice. A glass-enclosed booth houses an active photo­ ciated with this lab are considered hi~ achievement. Those q ualities copy machine, the onl y one on the entire Iloor. Behind a counter depend in part On an exceptionally well qualified lay slaff, from is a Jarge workspace used by half a dozen library personnel. The clerks to technicians. I have heard physicists in the Un ited States, area is dense with desks, typewriters, computer leminals, and Japan, Europe. and the Soviet Union express envy for the cali ber paper. The head li brarian is male; the others are fema le, one of and commitment of the lay staff at SLAC. But there are also more whom is black; everyone else is Caucasian. The open stock of the elusive qualities attributed to the staff-{)ften commented upon, library consists of about ten bookcases, each eight feel long and but always with a lack of precision that is Clea rl y frustrating to the twenty feel high" as well as fo ur large cases for displaying current speakers. journals and newspapers. There arc four tables with four chairs Across the foyer ;s the office of the associate director, formerly apiece scnttered among the shelves. and tables, chairs. and couches an aC live experimentalist at the lab. This man assumes much of nmong the periodicals. Physicists are seldom to be found in the the responsibility fo r the routine administration of scientific activ­ library, except at the copying machine or leafing through a maga- ities at the lab. For example, he receives all the applications for 32 Touring the B ita P O\NBrful Plecee In t;h. L..boratory 33 research aS50date positions (posldoes) and then coordinates the to become a business executive. The theorists continually peered interview and evaluation process. He is by turns earnest and joe· into the room, their faces registering considerable surprise at the ulaf; he is also clearly devoted to the laboratory. He, the director, presence of the women.) and one relatively inactive experimentalist are the only physicists One rarely sees experimentalists in the offices of theorists. These in their sixties III the lab. and only a handful were in their fifties at people do occasionally discuss physics together, but their meetings the time of the study. typically occur on the second Roar. Several theorists told me that In the same suite are the offices of the deputy director, who as an experimentalist would probably feel awkward among the theor· a theoretical physicist once made major contrib utions to the field . ists who have more status. The third fl oor is very much the domain While the director represents the laboratory within the physics of the directors. theorists, and their staffs. People based on upper community and 10 the federal agencies that fund basic research. fl oors freely use the lower floo rs, but not vice versa. 16 the deputy director represents the laboratory [0 groups outside the The physicists eschew any personal decoration or rearrangement scientific comm.unity, such as academic organizations and science of fu rniture that would differentiate their workspaces. This great policy agencies_ He is articulate, affable , and experienced at de­ visual uniformity, coupled wi th the clean, fun ctional grey metal scri bing researc.h in particle physics in terms understandable to the and glass decor of the building, creates a strong impression of stoic educated publi l:. These qualities, combined with a commanding denial of individualism and great preoccupation with the urgent personality and strong voice, fil him weti for his role as the lab's task at hand. In the use and access to space, there is a sharply official elder statesman. During his tenure in this office, he has defined, nearly military hierarchy between occupational groups and been active in developing nationai arms control polic y. (Il is a an egali tarian conformity within each group. In the Central Lab commonplacc in this community that arms by international ag ree­ one sees Little that betrays any intere st in indi vidual talent , cbar­ ment must be controlled; on the other hand, particle physicists acter, or commitment. 17 rarely advocaU! disarmamenL) It would be considered inappro­ To the right of the grassy square is the Administration and En· priate for other physicists at lhe lab to be so active in public affairs. gineering Building, known at the lab as A &. E. It is the most Roles in administratio n and public policy are clearl y to be under­ impressive-looking structure on the square, with double staircases taken after, not during, a major career in research. leading to the second (main) ODo r; some structural I-beams give From the same large, cluttered office this man also leads the the appearance of a portico of columns. The main entrance, ap­ theoretical phy~ics group, which occupies L'J.e res! of the third fl oer. proacnabie by car, faces away from the square but is c\'en more AH but one of the nineteen theoretical physicists, including visi­ imposing: a very wide bridge wnlkway leads to a glass facade. tors, are male. Their offices usually contain only blackboards and Inside is a large foyer with a greiil wuuden leception desk, leather the routine grey metal chairs and desks. From the corridor one couches, low tables with magazines, and a relief model of the entire hears everywhe.re the low hum of conversation, the dull scrape of laboratory. chalk , and occasionaUy the click of keys from computer terminals. What is significant about this imposing building is the surprisingly Walking past the offices, one sees the theorists standing in groups insignificant status from the physicists' point of view of what is of two or three facing their blackboards. One writes and talk s while grouped under its roof. This includes all administrative services, the olher. a few steps back, ponders. Afler a few moment s of public information, prin ting, medical care, travel services, and most silence, they tr fl de positions and roles. When working alone. the engineering departments. The "on-site" offices of DOE are also th eori sts write lieated at their desks; a few work wi th computers, located here . Finally, any groups proposing new research facilities Situated in the windowless core of lhe third floor is the Green or mod ifications of the accelerator are housed in A & E until thei r Room, which holds about thirty people and is used for small the-­ projects are either rejected or funded. The same suite of offices oretical physical seminars. (Once th is room was used for a luncheon has been used dUring this ,gestational stage by one group after honoring one of the fo unders of SLACWO who was leaving SLAC another. All of the above acti vities are considered support services 34 Touring the Site Powerful P lace. In the Laboratorv 35 for the purely s(:ienlific work conducted by the people in Central allowing them to modify the conditions of the experiment to im­ Lab. Senior personnel from A & E occasionally walk to Ihe Central prove the quality of the data. Lab to confer with the director or other physicists there. Most The Computer Building is massive and looks like a concrete ph ysicists have been in A & E once-to sign the official papers fortress. It was funded during the period or campus political unrest concerning their employment. in the personnel offi ce. in the early 1970s; in aD emergency. all of Stanford University's The last buildi_ng on the square , at the southwest corner, is the administrative computing can be conducted from the fac ility at Test Lab. The performance of various electronic devices is evalu· SLAC, which can be more easily secured than the campus com­ aled here. Some of these, especially Ihe klystron amplifiers, emil puti ng center. The people at the Computer Center do not interact a rather annoying continuous sound, audible for aboul thirty feet often with the physicists, who are primarily interested in having from the building;. The so-called Health Ph ysics Group is also based access 10 on-line data analysis and simply want the lab to have here. It s function is 10 monitor Ihe general levels of radiation at enough computing power to grant them the amount of time they the laboratory, as well as the amount of radiation to which each want. The physicists are aware that the hardware and software employee is exposed. This last is accomplished by means of a specialists working on the main computers are very highl y qualified device cal led a dosimeter, carried by all those whose work brings people who are themselves experts, working on state-of-the-art them near the ac:celerator or the Research Yard. The dosimeter is equipment. For example, SLAC was the first customer to receive a thick plastic card with the bearer's picture and employee number the IBM 3081. IBM keeps several specialists at SLAC to adapt On it. Wedged inside is a film clip that registers the level of exposure their system to the particular needs of the laboratory. IBM in lU rn to radialion. Cards are read at different intervals, depending on the uses the knowledge gained from these special applications to de­ amount of time each person is routinely brought into possible ex­ velop new products for their customers with more conventional posure. Mine, fir st issued to me as a tour guide, was read once a needs. The computer people at SLAC have their own national and year. One must have a dosimeter to pass thc guards at the "SeClOr international networks, conferences. and journals to which they 30" gale leading to the accelerator and the Research Yard . The submit reports of their research at SLAC. guards are there to ensure that all who enter tbese areas carry a The olher five aligned buildings, taken together, are a highly dosimeter. Few admini st rators or theoretical physicists carry a sophisticated factory for producing many of the electronic and dosimeter; there are perhaps a score of women who have one. IS mechanical devices used at the laboratory. The buildings them­ A ;oad encirc t.es the central square, enctosing ihe audiiorium, seives are simple concrele or corrugated-metal structures. The cafeteria, Central Lab, Test Lab, and A & E building. Following equipment in side is an impressive array of advanced machine tools, that road abuut 180 degrees around the circle from the entrance, along with tools produced at the lab itself. Occasionally, lrusled one comes to a group of six buildings arranged in a line tangent to experimentalists are allowed access to these tools. The accelerator the ci rcle. First is the computer complex, which is housed in a itself was produced in these buildings , as well as many magnets facility completed in 1975. SLAC began operation in the early 1960s and much of the other research equipment.. The people who work with an IBM 360/91; in the mid-1970s two 370/168's were added, in this area are engineers and craftspeople who are constantly and in February 1981 an IBM 3081 was install ed. At each stage, producing prototypes, translating the phys icists' designs into hard­ SLAC's computing power has placed it at the forefront of high ware, often developing new techniques in the process. These in­ energy ph ysics laboratories. This means that, in addition 10 oper­ novations are reported in yet another set of journals and meetings. ating various research devices at the laboratory and collecting data It is very important for experimentalists to be on good terms with from the diverse experiments, experimentalists at SLAC can also these engineers and craftspeople , to know whom they can call upon do some "real-ti.me" data analys is. In other words, they can do in emergencies. It is thi s kind of knowledge that gives resident preliminary analyses of data while the experiment is going on, research groups a real advantage over visitor (user) groups and 36 TClu.-'nu the Bite PO\Narfut Pt.g •• tn the L.eboratory 37

why such groups onen employ a liaison physicist at the lab to power burst of high·frequency radio waves (twenty-four mega· facilitate their own work. Almost all of the employees in Ihis area wuns). r9 From the klystron the wlives travel through evacuated (crafts, electronics, fabrication. heavy assembly. and warehouse copper rectangu lar waveguides. which divide twice 10 produce [our buildings) arc male. There are many female "pinups"; when asked waves from each kl ys tron. These waves descend the twenty·five about women work ing in the area, the men respond thm it is not feet to the accelerator. whic h is itself a copper pipe about four work suited fo r women because there is little that is routine. The inches in diameter. The pipe is actuall y a series of cylinders about older men, mostly in their fifties and sixties, are Caucasian. Many fo ur in ches across and one inch thick separated by thi n disks with of the you nger employees arc black and Spanish-su rnamed; SLAC small holes in the center. (I t be can be visuali zed as n two·mile has a rather active technician training program operated in coop­ stri ng of pet food cans wi th one-i nch holes in the bott om, brAzed eration with a local community college. together to form a pipe,)20 The "injector gu n" at the beginning of the accelerator in the west Between the computer complex and the manufacturing area is a produces and aims electrons into the copper accelerator, It also road blocked by a gate with a guardhouse alongside it-this one "bunches" the electrons and positrons, each bunch according to with a more than ceremonial funct ion. The guard checks that all specified parameters . The radio waves (2,856 MHz) entering the who wis h to pass have dosimeters. which wilJ measure their radia. accelerator from the kl ystrons at ten·foot intervals "push" the elec~ ti on exposure in the accelerator and research areas. Be yon d this tron bunches for Len feet un ti l the next wave enters the accelerator. point one is within the areas enclosed by the "radia tion fence," The waler·cooled accelerator itself must be perfectl y aligned so which is placed a specified number offeet away from any radiation that the "beam" (the collection of electron bunches) can remain source. Beyond that gate, extending two mile s to the west and straight. To accomplish th is , the accelerator is mounted on an twelll y·(ive feet underground, is Ihe linear accelerator. Above alu mi num pi pe, two feel in diameter. containing Fresnel lenses. ground, all one sees is a corrugated metal structure called the These lenses are used to align the accelerator; the beam itself is Klystron Gallery, about twenty feet wide, one storey high , and two focused by magnets every 333 fceL 11 miles long, with. a service road run ning along both sid es; duri ng The eniire apparatus stand s on the fl oor of a tunnel eleven feet lunch times the road serves as a popular jogging track. high and ten reet wide, with thick, steel-reinforced concrete walls, Walking into the Kl ystron Gallery one hears the fa miliar, op­ which is separated from the SU lface level by twenty·five feet of pressive SO U!1d of the 245 klystron am plinGfS, which are plnced at earih- aii of which is fu r I'adiation protection . No one is allowed for ty·foot intervals. The replicati on of equipment every forty fee! into the tunnel while the accelerator is ol)eraling; a system of for two miles gjves the visual impression not of a great visla, as safeguards would cause the ucceieraLOr to turn off ir anyune wC l'e from the central square, bu t of being in a forty-foot hall with mirrors to try 10 open one of the doors between the Kl ystron Gallery and at either end . All sense of depth is doubled back on itself. A group the accelerator tunnel. The tunnel was also specially constructed of BBC filmmakers. producing a show on high energy physics for to withstand earthquake movements.!! For stability, the two·mile which I served as laboratory liaison, were able to visually convey tunnel fl oor has no expansion or contraction joints. New constmc­ the length of the accelerator and the Kl ystron Gallery only with tion techniques were developed for this project: eighty-foot·long subtle and difficult lighting arrangements. Behind each of the sections were poured, mixed wilh ice to delay curinS while the roughly cylindrical klyst rons (aboul two feet in di ameter' and six next section was poured. Especiall y developed techniques for eval· feet high) are large grey metal power modulators that transform \latjng building sites near earthquakes were necessary for govern· low-frequency commercial electric power into direct current and ment approval of the 480·acre Stanford site. Construction of the then feed this sto red current to the klystrons at regular intervals. accelerator was authorized by Congress on September 15, 1960. The klystrons, which were developed by the Varian brothers in the wilh an estimated cost of 114 mi llion doll ars; the first beam was later 19308, amplify the weak high·frequency Signal to a very high· acceler~tled on Moy 21. 1966.n 38 Touring the Blt:a Powerful P lllce. In th. Laboratory 39

At the eastern end of the two-mile accelerator, neur the guard­ bient radiation, bUl the beams as they enter from the switch yard house where radi.ation badges are checked. is a large fan-shaped are relatively unshielded . Some theorists will not go into the Re­ mou nd of earth. In this region. one thousand feet long, the di scre te search Yard while the acceleratQr is running and experime nts arc bunches of accelerated electrons are steered toward one of six in progress; they consider the ntdiation levels there to be hazard­ different experim ental areas by means of large pulsing magnets, ous. I have never henrd experimentalists discuss this. According This area, called the Beam Switchyard , has extra-thick concrete to the Health Physics Officer at SLAC, which monitors rad iation walls and earth covering because of the increased radiation. The exposure on site. the amount of radiation at SLAC is less than that switch yard, under fluorescent lights, looks like the interchange in at man y industrial plants in the region. The officials at the Stanford a subway system with large rails upon which the magnets are University Fire Department substation at SLAC consider the threat moved. It is very cool and quiet: a ni ce. place to sit on a hOI day. of fire to be greater than any radiation problems. The beam switChing, along with accelerator operations, is man­ The fear of contamination from radiation emitted by the accel· aged from the Main Control Center by means of POP·9 and SOS- erator and experiments at SLAC l\its been 3 constant source of 925 computers and some auxiliary POP-8's. T he people al the Main laboratory-community tension.15 T he " radiation fence" is five Control Center de veloped new devices. such as '·lOuch panels," to hundred fcet from the research and accelenttor areas, completely facilitate their operations.1• The. Ce nter, a simple metal build ing, enclosing them. To SLAC, this fe nce represents the solution; to looks on the inside li ke the cockpits of ten jets combined. It is an the local residents, it represents the problem. The federal govern ~ entertaining array of flashi ng colored lights, CRT displays. and men! established that maxi mum radiation exposure near such fa­ butlons, all framed by cartoons and posters above the control cilities should be no more than double Ihe amount people are boards and great tangles of computer cables on the floor. In addition exposed to "normally" (which includes both natural sources, such to the mechanical processes they oversee, these operations are as cosmic rays, and synthetic sources, such as X-rays). SLAC sometimes the focus of intense pressure from physicists. When placed the fe nce at a distance such that a person standing there for their share of the beam is not delivered exactly as promised. the a full year would receive one-half this "doubling dose."16 The safe experimentalists complain vociferously. On the other hand, if their level of exposure to radiation is much debated . research equipment malfunctions for a while so that they do not Many cultures identify substances or acti vities as poll uting if use all of the beam allotted to their experiment, the physiCists may they cannot be easil y classified into some bounded systemY Often, try to cajole the operators into 11- share of !.he beam later on. Tht: actions and ihings that ure forbidden

purifying, demarcating and punishing transgressions have as their iron pot, dimly li t golden images, a young monk selling for a few main function to impose system on an inherently untidy experi­ yeo calligraphed papers imploring one to "destroy the self," and ence .. ReAection on [pollution] involves reflection on the the whole front of the temple wrapped in a banner of white chry­ relation of OJ-der to disorder. being to non-being, form to form­ santhemums on a pu rple background. On the porch of the temple­ lessness, life to death . ~ to the left of the incense burner and directly opposite the young The SLAC radiation fence is a tangible border, but it does not monk-was a bright red Coca-Cola vending machine. Behind the confine the rad:iation, although the potency does diminish with the temple, near the living quarters, a monk was fiUing the tank of a distance from the source. It is a symbol of the lab's restraint, its large black limousi ne from the temple gas pump. 11 took me s~~e responsibility in its dealings wit h the community; it is also a symbol time to realize that Tsukuba and KEK were much less familiar of the lab's very great and dangerous power. Conversely, the de­ than they seemed at first glance, less American and very Japanese. signer-green power lines carrying energy into SLAC are- a reminder From Mount Tsukuba, I could see the university and the sur­ of SLAC's dependence on the society which su pports it. ~ rounding fa rming communities. A few of the towns and vi llages have important religious shrines, and some, such as Mashiko and Kasama, are centers of traditional Japanese pottery making. The There are no fences around the major high energy physics lu bora­ laboratOry site was visible, 100. The layou t of the laboratory on its tory in Japan, KEK (Ko-Enerugie bUfsurigaku Kenkyusho). It is site was quite familiar, yet the allusion escaped me until the day 1 part of a new "science city," Tsukuba, which includ es many sci­ bought a piece of pottery in Kasama. Returning to the visi.to.rs' entific research labs, a university, and housing for the staff of all trailer at KEK where l was stay ing, I unwrapped the box contammg these institutions and their familie s.7'l Many Japanese people say my purchase. Wrapping things is given very special attentjo~ in that Tsukuba Science City is "not reall y Japan. " I think that TSll­ Japan. For each wrapping material, there appears to be a canomcal kuba represent.s a distinctively Japanese experiment in the organi­ method. For things wrapped in paper, a rectangular piece is always za ti on of basic scientific and engineering research. There is nothing used', the container to be wrapped is aligned witb an imaginary like it anywhe-rc in the world. It is disturbing to many people in diagonal line on the paper. 1 have seen very young sales clerks Japan, I believe, because it breaks with some Japanese traditions make two or three tries at wrapping a box until they have found in science and engineering, in work and in education. It is also a the " right" diagonal reference line. The fini shed product is a wrap­ very new town in a largely agricultural district; most Japanese seem ping with fol ds only along the edges of the container, and onl y one nowadays to p-refer the huge, established cities, especially Tokyo. exposed paper edge which cuts a diagonal across one surface. The Certainl y there are many fru .~trfltio n <; :em!'! difficulties here for both wrapping is held securely closed by one sticker, usually decora­ the Japanese newcomers and the visiting foreigners; there are also tively embossed, placed upon this final single diagonal. Whenever imm easurable opportunities. Americans would call it a "frontier I opened one of these carefully wrapped parcels, I studied the town." creases on the paper to see if 1 could duplicate the process. The Part of Tsuk uba and part of KEK seemed quite familiar to me creases formed a series of diagonals and triangles (where pleats after my sojourns at SLAC and Fermilab, but the familiar parts had been made at the corners) . were strangely juxtaposed with other features that seemed very The creases in the paper wrapping the pottery from Kasama Japanese to me:. This reminds me of visiting Nariaiji , a temple near strongly recalled the site plan of KEK, wi.th the two main office Amanohashidate on the western side of Honshu. The temple was and laboratory bu ildings and their shared reflecting pool aligned on isolated and nicely situated on a mountain top. It took me a long that initial diagonal. The remaining rectangles and triangles are time to get there. Everything was as I had fantasized the "ideal" filled with laboratory buildings, parking lots. and open land . Japanese temple: multicolored streamers marking the long stair­ There are many evergreen trees and thick, shin y high grasses case, remarkable wooden architecture, incense burning in a great around the lab in the spring. As I walked from Ihe guest trailer to 42 Touring the Site Powerful PIece. In the Laboratory 43

the main building, it was often difficult to find the path in the the collection had been gathered , translated, and published to co­ luxuriant , sweet·smeJling grass. Some of the people at the lab had incide with a meeting of nn international history conference in cleared a space :i n the field for a volleyball court. which was as Tokyo.H As it was passed around, everyone at the table looked at busy at noon as the nets at SLAC. At both KEK and Fermilab. the book care[ully, and each seemed very surprised, though I could near Chi cago. thl! site is Hat and the mounds of earth covering the not say why. Finally one of the postdocs asked me, "How did such accelerator and swilchyards provide the main diversity in the im­ a beautiful woman come to study physics?" mediate land scape, aside from the multisloreyed laboratory build· Neither in my home culture nor in Japan could this question be ings. taken at face value. I had learned 1l1ready that my red hair and KEK is an active, busy place, and the buildings are li gh t and green eyes remind mnny Japanese of a monster called Tengu fro m spacious. This was in sharp contrast 10 the university physics a· folk tale often told to children, When I went marketing, children departments I had visited in Japan. University offices were small would sometimes fa ll off their bicycles in surp.1se if they saw me and neat, often with elevated tatami mats and a place near the unexpectedly ; I could hear them murmuring "engu l" as they lay office door 10 leave one's shoes; but the halls were crammed with crumpled in a heap, staring up at me. I was well aware that my fi ling cabinets and research equipment; they were also orten un­ presence in Japan as a researcher, my subject area, and my being kempt. This jarred one of my cultural stereotypes. J learned that a woman surprised the physicists. In addition, I was in Japan with each universit y departmenl's budget includes money for keeping my (now former) hu sband. Par a woman to continue working after the shared space clean. A department can decide to use those funds she is engaged to be married was still relatively rare in Japan at in other ways, keeping only the most rudimentary janitorial ser­ the time. Finally, in Japan when men who work together gather to vices. In Japan. as in England and Europe. spartan, barely main­ eat dinner, their wives do nOljoin them. When women are present tained schools can symbolize a studied di sregard for material life with men on formal occasions, they do nOI speak often ; it is men and a commitment to intellectual pursuits.)O ·By the time I saw who have the responsibility in mixed company for establishing and Tohoku, the new university at Sendai, and the new laboratories at maintaining social conversat·ions . For all these reasons, my pres­ Tsukuba, I was able 10 be starlled by their very clean and very ence in the physics library and at dinner, my conversation and my modern large, light spaces,l! They seemed very stark and foreign appearance, would all be quile foreign. When I arrived at KEK 1 to me . discovered that my presence at the lab and my researches surprised I"nside Ihe main laboratory building are offices and Ihe library. 1 11 0 one. I learned that many of the physicists at KEK have studied used the library as my office : a place to write field noles, describe or even worked abroad for extended periods; they were more interviews, and s tud y the documents produced by the Jab, as I had familiar with the existence. and behavior of American women re­ done at SLAC and Fermilab and many research cenlers in Japan. searchers, As always, Ihe \·egular library staff were women, and most of the In university departments, a senior professor's offi ce is crowded, library users we·re young men, At Nagoya University, when I first It USUa ll y includes his desk , bookcases, his secretary's desk. 3 arri ved , a senior physicist pointed out 10 me a very good collection table for discussions, and a small couch and side table, and it serves on the hislOry and phi losophy of physics in the department li brary­ as a gathering place for lhe whole research group. My fi rst meeting the result of his own strong interest in lhe subject. That evening at with a senior uni versity profe ssor (arranged in advance by tele­ dinner with three faculty members and four graduate students and pho ne) began with me being seated at the small couch. The rest of postdocs, all mf~n , one cautiously asked if r had found the library the group would join us; then the secretary brought tea on a tray useful. I said yes, adding that I had found a book there which I and served a cup to each. 1 was quite embarrassed to discover, had been wanting very much to read . It was a collection of articles well into my fi rst such interview, that J was the only one drinking writlen by Japanese histori ans and sociologists of science as well the tea; 1 had not realized the tea was to be regarded onl y as a as physicists, on the subject of science (primarily physics) in Japan; social gesture. Once the men gath ered, I would begin to ask 44 Touring the Bits P owerful Place. In t he Leboratory 45 questions and t!hey would ask me how things were organized at accelerators (or " linacs"), such as SLAC's, in order to reduce the American universities and laboratories. Such talks usuaUy lasted radiation loss at high energies. about one-and-a-half hours. The KEK sy nchrotron is composed of fo ur accelerators, a 750 At KEK I had had difficulty arranging a meeting with one re­ keY Cockcroft-Walton preinjector, a 20 MeV injector linac, a 400 search group leader because the whole group was in the prOcess MeV fast-cycling booster, and the main 12 GeV synchrotron.]J The of mov ing to another set of offi ces. When I came across him Cockcroft-Walton was brought to KEK fro m Tokyo Uni versity. pointing here and running there, directing the move, 1 was sure he The linac. booster. and main ring are new. The components for the would not want to stop for our scheduled talk, but 1 was mistaken. accelerator were constructed by private industries. Because Mil­ He announced to all within earshot that he was going to be inter­ subishi had special capabil ities in copper·plating tec hniqu e they viewed by this }'oung lady, and thaI he wou.ld be to such-and-such constructed the li nac. The magnets were built by Hitachi and the an office across the hall with me if he were needed. He seemed to ion vacuum pump by Nikon Varian. Construction on KEK and the enjoy all the atleolion this brought him. We sal in the makeshift accelerator began in April 197 1; an 8 GeV beam was achieved in office and began tal king immediately. At KEK, Tokyo Uni versity, March 1976, shortly before my arri val. and Tohoku University at Sendai, [ was able to have prolonged In 1965 the accelerator was designed to reach 40 GeV, but in co nversations with ind ividuals, but meeting with groups of people 1968 the budget was cut 10 one,quaner of its projected thirty million was difficult to arrange . The opposite was true at other Japanese yen funding. The accelerator has been designed to accommodate universities and in stitutes. extensions to higher energies, should the ph YS icists be able to get The accelerator at KEK is a proton synchrotron. Proton accel­ more funding. In order to gain that funding the Japanese physicists erators, as the name suggests, accelerate protons, which, along needed to become more fam iliar with the co rridors of power in with the neutron, form the nucleus of the atom. Prolons are thought Tokyo. An American ethnographer studying geisha life told me that to contain many constituent particles; when the accelerated protons she had served at dinner meetings of busi nessmen, politicians, and collide with targets, these particles form parl of th e resulting debris. basic-research scientists. She said that th e scientists had difficulty Usually protons are accelerated in a circle, as at KEK and Fer­ participating in the informal banter and subtle negotiations which milab, increasing their energy with each circumnavigation; in a arc the substance of such meetingsY synchrotron, th<:ir path is held at the proper radius by magnets, In her excell ent account of the development of KEK from 1959 which increase the power of their magnetic fieid s as th e energy oi to 197 1, Liiiian i-i oddeson argues lhat "common strudurai features the protons increases. Protons must be preaccelerated in smaller, contributed to Fermilab's and KEK's development in the period less powerful accelerators before being "injected" into the syn­ 1959-1!:J64 on stn kingly parallel tracks ... Bul the histories chrotron , with its rather large radius. (At Fermil ab, the 400 GeV di verg[e] notably .. in the peri od 1965-1970. "J5 Thi s divergence proton accelerator is two kilometers in diameter; the di ameter of was due, in part, to the differences between American and Japanese the KEK machine is 108 meters.) science funding politics and the organi zation of the physics com­ As particles accelerate (whether they are protons or electrons), munit y in each country. It is to the difference in machines thai 1 they radiate ene rgy in the form of photons at a rate proponional now lurn. to their velocity·, wh ich is both increasing and changing direction in the curved palh of the accelerator. Protons have 1,800 tim es the mass of electrons; if an electron is accelerated to the same energy, its ve locity is that much greater than the proton's, producing more radi ation. Because of difficulties in cont rolling the radiation, elec­ trons are now usually accelerated in the more expensive linear Notes

Prologue; An AnthropolDghs!: Studle. PhYBlclet:&

I. "A T heory with Strings Attached," Time, November 24, 1986, p . .'12; Freeman Dyson, DisfllriJing the Universe (New Y()rk: H arper and Ro w, 1979); Richard P. Feynmlln, "Surely You're Joking. Mr. Feymnlllll" Adw>n ,nfes of II Cllrioll.f Character, as told to Ralph Leighto n, ed. Edward Hutchings (New York: Norton , 1985J; Hideki Yukawa, TabibilO, (mns. L. Brown aod R. Yosh­ id a (Singapore: World Scientifi c Publishing Co., 1982); Roland Barlhes, "The Brain of Einstein," Mythologies. selected and trans . Ann ette Lavers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), pp. 68~70; Daniel J . Kevies, Th e Physicists: The I-lis/ory of (j Scientific Community in Modem America (New York: Al fred A. Kn opr, 1978; Cambri dge, Mass.: Harvard UnIversit y Press, 1987). 2. Kevles, 11!1! Physicists (n. I) . 3. Paul K. Hoch, "The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: American Physics and th e Military in the 1940s," p!'lper presented 10 the Sociology of Science Yearbook Conference on Science lind the Milit ary at Harvard Uni· versify. January 1987 . 4. For surveys of the history of particle physics, see Albert Einstein and Leopold Infe ld , Th e Evolw/on QjPhy.rics; The Growlh ofIde(lSjrom Emly Concepts 10 Rtlatil'ity (!nd QII(!f1/G (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1938); Richard Feynman, TIll! Character of Physical Law (Cambri dge: Cambridge Unive rsity Press, 1965); Walte r Fuchs. PhySics/or the Modem Mind, trans. M. Wilson a nd M. Wheaton (New York: Macmillan, 1967); Werner Heisen­ berg, Physics lind Philosophy: The Rel'o/lIIioll ill Modi'm Sciellce (New York: Harper, 1958); Mary fl . Hesse, Forces and Fields: The Com:ept of Actioll at (I Distallce in the /listory of Physics (London: T. Nelson, (96 1); Gerald Holton, Th emfllic Origins of Sdetllific Thought: Kepler 10 Ein.flein (Cam­ bridge, Mass.: Ha rvard University Press, (973); Stanley laki , The Relel'tlflce of Physics (Chicago: Uni versi ty of Chicago Pre~s, 1966); Sir James Jeans, Tht' Growth of PilysiC(1I Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Universit y P res~, 1950); J 166 167

Stephen TouJmin and June Goodfield, Tl r ~ Arc/liltClllre of Maller (New York: Changing Order: ReplictJIion 01111 I"ductlan ill Sdt'nti/ic Practict' (Beverl y Harper and Row, 1962). Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1985): Uoe li e Elzen, "The Ultracentrifuge," S. On the notion of "invisible coUeges," see Diana Crane. Im-jsible Social Stllllies 0/ Sclent'e (forthcoming): Ranual\ Comns and Sal Restivo, Colleges (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972). The numbe~ men­ "Robber Barons and Politicians in Mathematics: A Confl ict Model of Science," !inncd lire those used repeated by informants; I have done no survey myself. Conadi(11I JOlm,"/ of Sociology 8, no. 2 (1983), 1!}9-221; Joan H. Fujimura. 10 nth,er words. these numbers represent the informants' sense oflhe size of "The Construction of Doable Problem~ in Cancer Research." unpublished ms., their community. Tremont Research Institute, 1%6; Peter Gali son, How Experimt'nls End (Chi· 6. Kc:vlcs, Th e PhysiciJls (n. I), For a less naHering view of Lawrence cago: Uni ve rsity of Chicago Press. 1987); Ger.l1 d Holton. The Scienlifie Imag­ (a perspet:ti"c: rarely taken in print), see Robert Hermann. Lctlcn; Column, ination: Case SlIIdie! (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1918), and Physic&' T()dlty. November 1977. Them(llic Origins of Scienli/i~' 711Ouglll: Kepler 10 Einstein (Cambridge, MlUiS.: 7. On new directions in anth ropologica.l research, including "rcpatriuted Harvard University Press, 1913); Kilrin Knorr-Cetina, Tile Manllfacture oJ anthropology," see George M. Marclls and Michael M. J. Fischer, Anthro­ Knowledge: All Essay 01/ lhe ConStrucllvisl and COfltexll/ol NO/lift of Science pology 01 Cuill/rot Critiqlle: An Experlmetlfol Momellt In lit e ' ''mrOtr Sciem:es (Oxford and New York: Pergamon, 1981); Karin Knorr-Celina , Roger Krohn, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Benedict. Tht'. Chrysanlhtm.rum a nd R. D. Whitley, eds., The SociaI Proee.r.,· oJ Scientific Investlgalion (Dor· nnd lhe Sw()rd: PntUms oJ Japanese CII/lllre (New York: New Amerrcan drecht: Reidel, 1981): Karin Knorr-Celina and Michael Mulkay, eds.. Sclenct' Libtjjry, 1%7), Wll.\l originall y published in 1946. Observed: Perspectives (}II the Social Sludy oJ Science (London: Sage Publi­ 8. See Charles Brnzerman. On Rlletoric in Sciem:e (Madison: University cations, 1983); Bruno Latour, Scienct' ill Action (Cambridge, MASS.: Harvard of Wisconsin Press, forthcoming). Universit y Press, 1981); Bruno Latour nnd Steve Wooigar, Lflbo ratlJry Life: 9. For un introduction to current debates in anthropology on the fonn The Social COIIS/rlletlon. 0/ Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills. Calif.: Sage Pub· and content of ethnographies. sec Writing Cultl/re: The Poetics and POlilics lications, 1919); Michael Lynch. Art and Artifact;n LaborOiory SciellCe (Lon­ of ElhnograJlhy, ed. James Clifford and George Marcus (Chicago: University dOn: Routledge and Kegan l'au1. 1985) ; D. MacKenzie, "StAtistical Theory of Chicago Press, 1986). and Sociallntercsts: A Case Study," Social Studies oJ Sciellce 8 ( 1978) , 3.5- 10. See David Schneider, "Notes loward a Theory of Culture," and Clif­ 83; Andy Pickering, Constructing QI/arks : A Sociological His/ory oJ POrl icie ford Geerlz, " From tht Native's Point of View: On the Nature of Anthropo­ Physics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Trevor Pinch, Con/rom­ logical Unde.rstanding," in Muming in Anlhropo/ogy, ed. Keith Basso and ing NO/urI' (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986); Sal Restivo, Tile Social Reiat/ofIJ oJ Henry A. Selby (Albuquerque, N.M.: University of New Me~ ico Press, 1916). Physics. Mystldsm, and Malhl!mlllics (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1983); and "Com­ II. Important research on the social construction of (contested) scient ific mentary: Some Perspective! in Contemporary Sociology ofSdence," Science. and technological knowledge is often published in thejoumAJ SO(,/III SlIIdiu Technology. &: HI/man Valuu 6 ( 1981), 22-30; B. Wynne. "C. G . Barkla and oJ Scienct' a nd 1 recommend it highly. This research is founded upon the the J Phenomenon: A Case Study of the Treatment of Deviance in Physics," insights in two crucial books whose importance cannot be overemphasized: Soci,,1 Studies of Science 6 09i6j, 30i-]4i. Paul K. Fey,:rabend, Agallrsl Method (London: New Left Books, 1975), nnd TI10ftlQS S. K uhn, TIle Slmt'/ure oJ Scientific Rellolutllllrs. 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1910). which in tum was informed by Ludwig 1 . TOUl"lng th. Btt.: Pow.rlut p t.e•• In th. Fleck, Gene.ds lIlId Dc:velopment of a Sclenti/i(' Fncl (Chicago: University of Labol"lttol"v Chicago P re~!s. 1979). A Jist of books and articles in this field that I consider I. For a discussion of environmental pressures on th e o~ganization of to ~ significant includes the following: Poina, Abir-Am. " How Scientists View human groups, see Robin Fox, Kinship fw d MUffitlgt: lin IInthropological Thtir Heroes: Some Remarks on the Mechanism of Myth Construction," Perspec/;"e (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. 1976), and more specificl!.lIy, Jormml oJthe History oJ Biology 15 (1982), 281-315: Barry Barnes and Da.vid E. E. Evans·Pritchard. The NJler: A Descriptiofl oJ the Modes oJ L/velilu)od Bloor, "Relativism, Rationalism and thl! Sociology of Knowledge," in RatioII' lind Polilkal br,n/lIIllollS oJ (J NUol ic People (New York: Oxford University aUty and Rdatlvism, cd. M. Hollis and S. Lukes (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982): Press. 1918). Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, eds., Natl/ral Order: /lis/oriedl Swdfu oJ 2. See Stanford University Campl/s Reports, November II, 1914, p. 11. Scit'lI/jfic Cu/tllre (Beverl y Hills, Calif.: Sage Pu blications, 1919); Wiebe J. Douglas William Dupen, Tlrt' Story of SlmJ/ord's Two Mile Long Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, cds., The Socia/ Consmlctlorl oJ A. cceleralor, SLAC Report no. 62 (Stanford: StAnford Linear Accelerator Tecillla/ogicl1l S)'stems: New Direcliofls ifl the Sodology (ltId Hislory oJTech­ Center, May 1966). lIology (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988); Albeno and Peter Cambro~ i o 4. For an explication of the relation of the signified and their signifiers, Keating, "Going Monoclonal: Art. Scicnce, and Magic in the Day to Day Use set! Roland Barthes, Elemenls of Semiology, trans. Annetle Lavers and Colin of Hybridoma Technology," Soci(I/ Problems (forthcoming): Harry M. Collins, Smith (New York: Hill and Wang, 1971). 168 Notes to Psg •• 20-27 Notall to Pag •• 28-37 169

5. For a report on the incident, see The Beam Line (Stanford Linear (n . 8), and Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization." A Philo!ophkal lnqlliry Accelerator ecnle.r), December 20, 1971. This in-house newsletter has been into F,'elld (Boston: Beacon, 1956), who argues that controlling "the flux or published under a variety of names over the years; I always use the tille as time is society's most natural ally in mai ntai ning low and order" (p. 231). given in the issue cited. 14. In 1978, 222 women were employed at SLAC. Five of them, all 6. For a history of these coming-ta-power politics, see Daniel J. Kevles, Caucasian, were fully Hedged, nonstudent panicle ph ysicists, but four of these The PhysicislS: .The lfis/Qry of a Sciemi/ic Community in Modern Amerit'(I five were visitors, Of the nearly I, I 00 me n employed, 91 were nonstude nt (New York; Alfred A. Knopf. 1978; Cambridge, Mass.: Hatvanl University particle physicists, of whom te n were visitors. Five or the mal e physici ~ l s Press, 1987). were Asian-American; one was American Indian. 7. For a profile of the cafeteria m

(n. 18); pp. 27-46. See also Richard 8 . Neal, "SLAC: The Accelerator," . 14, Liza Crihfield Dalby, personal communication. See her anthropolog. Physic$ Today, April 1967. pp. 27-41. leal study. GeMw (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1983) . '22. Dupt!n, Story 0/ Stanford's Acctltrator (n. 3), pp. 70-81,66-69, 125. 35. Lillian Hoddeson, "Establishing KEK in Japan and Fermilab in the n. Ibid ., pp. 5]-58, l IS . A hi story of this laboratory is being written by United States; In ternationalism, Nationalism, and High Bnergy Accelerators," Bruce Wheaton of the University of California a l Berkeley. Three laboratory Social Studiu of Science, April 1983, p. 3. _ oflicials have eJC{~nsivt! personal collections of documents. 24. Starrjord Linear At'(.'e/erolOr Center 1971 Annual R"p0rl (n . 18), Inv.ntlng Mao""n.a That: C I.oovar NatUr8Il pp. 42-4]; "Taming SLAC's Beam," The Bellm Line, April 23, 1973; Warrtn e. C.t.a"ora ." SLAe and KEK Struven, "Computer Control of the SLAC Accelerator," SLAe Beam Line, Ma y 20, 1975. I. Ian Hacking. "Do We See through a Microscope?" Rrpruenting alld 25. "SLAC Plans Anger Neighbors," The Stanford Daily, ApriL 22.1981 , Intervtning: III/rOllI/Clary Topics in /h l! Phflosophy of Natural Science (Cam. p. 3. bridge:; Cnmbridge Unive uity Pre:ss, 1983). 26. See Dup<:n , Story of Srariford's Acct/tralOf (n. J). p. 62. 2. Bruno L.atour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratury Llfl!: Thl! Social Can. 27. For a discussion of these issues, see Mary Douglas, PuriTy and Dan· struc/ion of Scientific FoclY (Beverly f. lill.os, Calif: Sage Publications, 1979). ger: An Analysis .,f tht Concepts of PoilUliOn fwd Taboo (London: Routledge pp. 51,63-69,242, and 259, n. 15. and Kegan Paul, I 97g), pp. 55, liS, and passim; and Mary Douglas and Aaron ] . Donald A. Glaser, "The Bubble Chamber," SCie.ntific A.merican, Feb­ Wildavsky, Risk curd Culture: A.n Essay an the Sf'lection of Tt!Chn ologicnl and ruary 1955, pp. 46--50. For another perspet:tive on fhe development of the £nvironmelZtal DlIngers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). See bubble chamber and its implications for Ihe organization of work in high energy also Bruno Bettelhei m, Symbolic Wounds: Pllbtrty Rites alld the £rlVious physics, sec Peter Galison, "Bubble Chambers and the Experimental Work. Male (New York.: Collier Books, 1971); Edmund Leach. "Magical Hair," place," in Obse.rvarion. Experiment, and Hypo/heriY In Mode.rn Physico/ Sci. Journal of the RnYtJl Anthrop%gicall1witute, vol. 88 (1958), pp. 1 47-1~ ; enCI!, cd. Peter Achinstein and Owen Hanaway (Cambridge. Mass.: MIT and Raymond Finh, Symbols: Public and Privnte (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Uni' Press. 1985). pp. ]53-359. versity Press, 1975). pp. 262-298. 4. Glaser, "The Bubble Chamber" (n. 3). 28. Mary Douglas. Purity and Dallgtr (n. 26). pp. 2-5. 5. '''Moratorium' Party for 82-lnch Bubble Chamber;' The Beam Lintl, 29. For a de:;cription of the facilities at T5ukuba, see Henry Birnbaum, December 4, 1973. "Japan Builds a Science City," Physics Today, February 1975. pp. 42-48, and 6. Gerald K. O'Neil, "The Spark Chamber," Scientific American. Au. "Tsukuba Science City," in Guide /0 World Science, vol. 17: Japan, ed. gust 1962, pp. 36-4]; and D. E. Yount. "The Streamer Chamber." Scientific O. B. Forbes (Guernsey, U.K. : Francis Hodgson), pp. 141-147. A.merican. October 1967, pp. 3&-46. Por additional information about diffe:rent 30. Personal communication, Thomas Rohlen. For a discussion of the ty~s of detectors of this generation, see Georges Charpak, "Multiwire and spartan ethos of J:apanese elite secondary schools. sec Donald Roden, School· Df!f~ Proportioml.! Chamt;€is"; Wi::iiifJi j. Wiliis, "Tile Large Spectrometers"; days in Imp erial Japan: A Study in /lre CII/ture of a Swdent Elite (Berkeley: Jack Sand we iss. "The High Resolution Streamer Chamber"; and n . R. Nygren University of California Press, 1980). and J. N. Marx . "The Time Projtttions Chamber"; all in Phyri':J Today , 31. The Japanese novelist Junichiro Tanizaki explores the contJll.stinll O\;tober 1978, pp. 28-53. values implicit in stark light and sublie shadows in I'In essay entitled In Praise 7. "'Moratorium' Party" (n. 5j. of Shadows, tran s. Thomas J. Harper ami Edward G. Seidensticker (New 8. "Forty Inch Bubble Chamber_Now World's Faslesr." The sue Haven; Leete's It-la nd Books, 1977). Ne.ws, September 1971; " Hybrid 4O-inch Uubble Chamber Sludies ' Inelastic 32. Kiyonobu ltakun'l and Eri Yagi, "The Japanese research system and Muon·Proton Scattering, '" Tlrl! Bellm Lilrl!, March 7, 1973 ; "Ccrenkov Counter the establishment of the Institute of Ph ysical and Chemical Research"; Hi ro· Being Built for New Hybrid Bubble Chamber Facility," SLAC Beam Lint', shigc Tetu. "Social conditions of prewar Japanese research in nuclear phys· December 1974. ics"; and Yoshinori Kaneseki, "The elemenlary particle theof}' IIrOUp"j aU in 9. Gordon Bowden, "Hybrid Bubble Chambers: An Operator's View," Srugeru Nakayama, David L. Swain, Eri Yagi, eds., Sciem:e and Sociery in The Beam Line, February 6, 1973 . Modern Japan: Selected HistOrical Sourcl!S (Tokyo: University of Tokyo 10. "Rapid Cycling Bubble Chamber," The SLAC News, October 16. Press, .and Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974). 1970; "Rapid Cycling Bubble Chamber TURNS ON," The Beam Line, April 33. For a description of KEK specificatinn.os, see TelSuji Nishikawa. '"The 5, 1973. Japanese 12 GeV Accelerator," KEK Preprint 2 (1974), and KBK Annual I I. "SLAC and MIT Collaboration Studies Prolon Struclure," The SLAC Reports for 1974, 1976. 1977, and 1980, National Laboratory for High Energy News, February 26, 1970; Steve Koc iol , "Does 'time Ro n Backwards?" Th e Physics, Qho'ma(;hi , Tsukuba·gun, [baraki·ken, 300-32. Japan. SLAe News, July 31. 1970; Charles Oxley, "MPC improves Spectrometer