Language and National Identity in Africa also edited by Andrew Simpson and published by Oxford University Press Language and National Identity in Asia Language and National Identity in Africa edited by ANDREW SIMPSON 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © 2008 editorial matter and organization Andrew Simpson © 2008 the chapters their various authors The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published by Oxford University Press 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 978–0–19–928674–4 HB ISBN 978–0–19–928675–1 PB 13579108642 Contents List of Maps vii Notes on Contributors viii 1 Introduction 1 Andrew Simpson 2 Egypt: From Egyptian to Pan-Arab Nationalism 26 Yasir Suleiman 3 Morocco: Language, Nationalism, and Gender 44 Moha Ennaji and Fatima Sadiqi 4 Sudan: Majorities, Minorities, and Language Interactions 61 Wendy James 5 Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca 79 Fiona McLaughlin 6 Mali: In Defence of Cultural and Linguistic Pluralism 98 Ingse Skattum 7 Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration 122 B. Akíntúndé Oyètádé and Victor Fashole Luke 8 Ghana: Indigenous Languages, English, and an Emerging National Identity 141 Akosua Anyidoho and M. E. Kropp Dakubu 9 Ivory Coast: The Supremacy of French 158 Anne Moseng Knutsen 10 Nigeria: Ethno-linguistic Competition in the Giant of Africa 172 Andrew Simpson and B. Akíntúndé Oyètádé 11 Cameroon: Official Bilingualism in a Multilingual State 199 Edmond Biloa and George Echu 12 D. R. Congo: Language and ‘Authentic Nationalism’ 214 Eyamba G. Bokamba 13 Kenya: Language and the Search for a Coherent National Identity 235 Chege Githiora 14 Tanzania: The Development of Swahili as a National and Official Language 252 Farouk Topan vi Contents 15 The Horn of Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia 267 David Appleyard and Martin Orwin 16 Zambia: ‘One Zambia, One Nation, Many Languages’ 291 Lutz Marten and Nancy C. Kula 17 South Africa: The Rocky Road to Nation Building 314 Rajend Mesthrie References 339 Index 363 List of Maps Africa xiv Egypt 27 Morocco 46 Sudan 63 Senegal 82 Mali 99 Sierra Leone 124 Ghana 142 Ivory Coast 160 Nigeria 174 Cameroon 201 D. R. Congo 215 Kenya 238 Tanzania 253 Ethiopia 270 Eritrea 281 Somalia and Djibouti 284 Zambia 292 South Africa 316 Notes on Contributors AKOSUA ANYIDOHO has a PhD in Foreign Language Education from the University of Texas at Austin, and has taught for many years in the Department of Linguistics, University of Ghana, Legon, where she was the Head from 2000 to 2002. She is still associated with that institution after her retirement, supervising graduate students’ dissertations. Her research interests include second language teaching and learning, language in education, and women’s oral culture in Africa. She has published many articles in these fields. She currently works as the Director of New York University’s study abroad programme in Ghana. DAVID APPLEYARD is Professor Emeritus of the Languages of the Horn of Africa at SOAS (School of Oriental and African Studies) in the University of London, where he taught Amharic and a number of other Horn of Africa languages, as well as various aspects of Ethiopian Studies, from 1975 until his retirement in 2006. His research interests cover a wide range of languages and linguistic issues of the region, but focus especially on the typological, comparative, and historical linguistics of Ethiopian Semitic and Cushitic languages. He has written extensively in these fields, and his major publications include Ethiopian Manuscripts (1993), the textbook Colloquial Amharic (1995), and A Comparative Dictionary of the Agaw Languages (2006). He is currently a member of the international advisory and editorial board of the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. EDMOND BILOA is Professor and Chair of the Department of African Languages and Linguistics in the University of Yaoundé I in Cameroon. His teaching interests include French linguistics, generative syntax, and psycholinguistics. He is the author of Functional Categories and the Syntax of Focus in Tuki (Munich: Lincom Europa 1995); Syntaxe générative. La théorie des principes et des paramètres (Munich: Lincom Europa 1998); La langue française au Cameroun (Bern: Peter Lang 2003); Cours de linguistique contemporaine (Munich: Lincom Europa 2004), Grammaire générative. La théorie minimaliste de Noam Chomsky (Yaoundé : Cameroon University Press 2004); Le français en contact avec l’anglais au Cameroun (Munich: Lincom Europa 2006). He has published articles on the linguistics and sociolinguistics of the French language in Cameroon, on the syntax of African languages, and on the acquisition of French. EYAMBA G. BOKAMBA is Professor of Linguistics and African Languages in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where he has served since 1974 in a variety of administrative positions. Initially trained as a Bantu syntactician at Indiana University where he earned his PhD in 1976, he developed a secondary interest in sociolinguistics and has pursued research into multilingualism, in particular including language policies vis-à-vis education in Africa, language variation, and code-switching. He has published extensively in these areas, on Bantu syntax, and on African language pedagogical materials, with his latest publication (co-authored with his spouse) being Tósolola na Lingála: A Multidimensional Approach to the Teaching and Learning of Lingála as a Foreign Language (NALRC Press, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2004). He is currently working on the production of a sociolinguistic Notes on Contributors ix book entitled Multilingualism in Sub-Saharan Africa, which will represent the culmination of his research in this area. MARY ESTHER KROPP DAKUBU is a Professor in the Institute of African Studies of the Uni- versity of Ghana, where she has been on the staff since 1964. Her research is centred on the Niger-Congo languages, especially Kwa and Gur. She is the author of Dagaare Grammar (Legon: Institute of African Studies 2005); Ga Phonology (Legon: IAS 2002); Ga–English Dictionary with English–Ga Index (Accra: Black Mask Publishers 2002); Korle Meets the Sea, a Sociolinguistic History of Accra (New York and Oxford: OUP 1997); The Dangme Language: An Introductory Study (London /Accra: Macmillan /Unimax 1987); and One Voice: The Linguistic Culture of an Accra Lineage (Leiden: African Studies Centre 1981). She edited and was a major contributor to The Languages of Ghana (London: Kegan Paul International Ltd. 1988). GEORGE ECHU is Associate Professor of French and Linguistics and Head of the Department of Bilingual Studies in the University of Yaoundé I in Cameroon. His teaching interests include French linguistics, sociolinguistics, contrastive linguistics, and translation. He was Senior Ful- bright Scholar at Indiana University Bloomington from August 2002 to May 2003. In the area of research, he has published several articles and co-edited the following books: Official Bilingualism and Linguistic Communication in Cameroon (New York: Peter Lang 1999); and Africa Meets Europe: Language Contact in West Africa (New York: Nova Science Publishers 2004). MOHA ENNAJI holds a PhD from the University of Essex in Linguistics (1982). He is Full Professor at the Faculty of Letters, University of Fez, where he was Chair of the English Depart- ment from 1988 to 1994. He is currently the Director of the international journal Languages and Linguistics, published in Morocco under his supervision since 1998. Professor Ennaji is the author and/or editor of numerous books and articles on language, culture, and society. His most recent books are: Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco (Springer 2005); A Grammar of Amazigh (2004) co-authored with Fatima Sadiqi; and A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic (2004) (co-authored with A. Makhoukh, H. Saidi, M. Moubtassime, and S. Slaoui). His most recent articles are: ‘The Arab World (Maghreb and Near East)’, in Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity, edited by Professor Joshua Fishman (OUP 1999), and ‘Language Contact, Arabization Policy and Education in Morocco’, in Language Contact and Language Conflict in Arabic, edited by Aleya Roushdy (Curzon 2002). CHEGE GITHIORA is primarily engaged in descriptive studies of east African languages and linguistics. He has published on G˜ıkuy˜ u˜ morphosyntax and orthography, Swahili lexicography, and on culture and identity of the African Diaspora in Latin America. He is author of Diccionario Swahili–Español (El Colegio de Mexico 2002) and co-editor (with Manfredi and Littlefield) of Trends in African Linguistics Vol VI (Africa World Press 2004).