Myth, Mediation, Marvel a Wikibook to Accompany Our Study of “Musée Des Beaux Arts” Contents

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Myth, Mediation, Marvel A Wikibook to accompany our study of “Musée des Beaux Arts” Contents

1 Myth 1 1.1 Daedalus ...... 1 1.1.1 Family ...... 1 1.1.2 The Labyrinth ...... 1 1.1.3 Daedalus and Icarus ...... 2 1.1.4 Sicily ...... 2 1.1.5 Daedalus and Perdix ...... 3 1.1.6 Innovator ...... 3 1.1.7 Gallery ...... 3 1.1.8 See also ...... 3 1.1.9 References ...... 3 1.1.10 External links ...... 4

2 Myth, reconsidered and framed: Bruegel 5 2.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder ...... 5 2.1.1 Life ...... 5 2.1.2 Historical background ...... 5 2.1.3 Subjects ...... 5 2.1.4 Family ...... 7 2.1.5 Work referenced in others’ work ...... 7 2.1.6 Works ...... 8 2.1.7 Selected works ...... 9 2.1.8 References ...... 10 2.1.9 External links ...... 10 2.2 Landscape with the Fall of Icarus ...... 11 2.2.1 Description ...... 11 2.2.2 Attribution ...... 11 2.2.3 Mentions in other media ...... 13 2.2.4 References ...... 13 2.2.5 Further reading ...... 14 2.2.6 External links ...... 14

3 Myth, Mediation, and Marvel: Auden 15

i ii CONTENTS

3.1 W. H. Auden ...... 15 3.1.1 Life ...... 15 3.1.2 Work ...... 18 3.1.3 Published works ...... 22 3.1.4 Notes ...... 23 3.1.5 References ...... 25 3.1.6 External links ...... 26 3.2 Musée des Beaux Arts (poem) ...... 27 3.2.1 Synopsis ...... 27 3.2.2 Bruegel’s inﬂuence ...... 27 3.2.3 Cultural legacy ...... 28 3.2.4 References ...... 28 3.2.5 External links ...... 29 3.3 Ekphrasis ...... 29 3.3.1 Deﬁnition ...... 29 3.3.2 History of ekphrasis ...... 30 3.3.3 Ekphrasis genre ...... 30 3.3.4 Other aspects ...... 33 3.3.5 References ...... 35 3.3.6 External links ...... 35

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 36 4.1 Text ...... 36 4.2 Images ...... 38 4.3 Content license ...... 40 Chapter 1

Myth

1.1 Daedalus Eupalamus,[5] or Palamaon,[6] and a mother, Alcippe,[7] Iphinoe,[8] or Phrasimede.[9] Daedalus had two sons: [10] [11] This article is about the mythological character. For other Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew either Talus uses, see Daedalus (disambiguation). or Perdix. In Greek mythology, Daedalus (/ˈdɛdələs ˈdiːdələs/; Athenians transferred Cretan Daedalus to make him Athenian-born, the grandson[12] of the ancient king Erechtheus, who ﬂed to Crete, having killed his nephew, Talos. Over time, other stories were told of Daedalus.

1.1.2 The Labyrinth

Daedalus is first mentioned by Homer as the creator of a wide dancing-ground for Ariadne.[13] He also created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur (part man, part bull) was kept. In the story of the labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way with the help of Ariadne’s thread. Daedalus’ appearance in Homer is in an extended metaphor, “plainly not Homer’s invention”, Robin Lane Fox observes: “he is a point of comparison and so he belongs in stories which Homer’s audience already recognized”.[14] In Bronze Age Crete, an inscrip- tion da-da-re-jo-de has been read as referring to a place at Knossos,[15] and a place of worship.[16] In Homer’s language, objects which are daidala are finely crafted. They are mostly objects of armor, but fine bowls and furnishings are daidala, and on one occasion so are the “bronze-working” of “clasps, twisted brooches, ear- Daedalus constructs wings for his son, Icarus, after a Roman rings and necklaces” made by Hephaestus while cared for [17] relief in the Villa Albani, Rome (Meyers Konversationslexikon, in secret by the goddesses of the sea. 1888). Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the Ancient Greek: Δαίδαλος Daidalos, perhaps related center and out again, and gave it numberless winding to δαιδάλλω “to work artfully";[1] Latin: Daedalus; passages and turns that opened into one another, seem- Etruscan: Taitale) was a skillful craftsman and artist.[2][3] ing to have neither beginning nor end.[18] Ovid, in his He is the father of Icarus, the uncle of Perdix and possibly Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the also the father of Iapyx although this is unclear. Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it.[19] Daedalus built the labyrinth for King Minos, who needed it to imprison his wife’s 1.1.1 Family son the Minotaur. The story is told that Poseidon had given a white bull to Minos so that he might use it as a His parentage was supplied as a later addition to sacrifice. Instead, Minos kept it for himself; and in re- the mythos, providing him with a father in Metion,[4] venge, Poseidon made his wife Pasiphaë lust for the bull

1 2 CHAPTER 1. MYTH with the help of Aphrodite.[20] For Pasiphaë, as Greek feathers together, from smallest to largest so as to form mythologers interpreted it, Daedalus also built a wooden an increasing surface. He secured the feathers at their cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imag- midpoints with string and at their bases with wax, and ined the Minoan bull of the sun to be an actual, earthly gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. bull, the slaying of which later required a heroic effort by When the work was done, the artist, waving his wings, Theseus. found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, pois- This story thus encourages others to consider the long- ing himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in term consequences of their own inventions with great the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to care, lest those inventions do more harm than good. As in the tale of Icarus' wings, Daedalus is portrayed assisting fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the in the creation of something that has subsequent negative consequences, in this case with his creation of the mon- feathers. strous Minotaur’s almost impenetrable Labyrinth which They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos by the time made slaying the beast an endeavour of legendary diffi- the boy, forgetting himself, began to soar upward toward culty. the sun. The blazing sun softened the wax which held the feathers together and they came off. Icarus quickly fell in the sea and drowned. His father cried, bitterly lamenting 1.1.3 Daedalus and Icarus his own arts, and called the land near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria in memory of his child. Some time later, the goddess Athena visited Daedalus and gave him wings, telling him to fly like a god. An early image of winged Daedalus appears on an Etruscan jug of ca 630 BC found at Cerveteri, where a winged figure captioned Taitale appears on one side of the vessel, paired on the other side, uniquely, with Metaia, Medea:[21] “its linking of these two mythical figures is unparalleled,” Robin Lane Fox observes: “The link was probably based on their wondrous, miraculous art. Mag- ically, Daedalus could fly, and magically Medea was able to rejuvenate the old (the scene on the jug seems to show her doing just this)".[22] The image of Daedalus demon- strates that he was already well known in the West.

1.1.4 Sicily

Further to the west, Daedalus arrived safely in Sicily, in the care of King Cocalus of Kamikos on the island’s south coast; there Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings, an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily; long afterwards Aeneas confronts the sculpted golden doors of the temple. Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When Daedalus and Icarus, c. 1645, by Charles Le Brun (1619–1690) he reached Kamikos, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, privately fetched the The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus’ old man to him. He tied the string to an ant which, wings is a late one, that of Ovid: in his Metamorphoses lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the (VIII:183-235) Daedalus was shut up in a tower to pre- seashell stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew vent his knowledge of his Labyrinth from spreading to Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince Minos kept strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail to take a bath first, where Cocalus’ daughters killed Mi- without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled nos. In some versions, Daedalus himself poured boiling the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabri- water on Minos and killed him. cate wings for himself and his young son Icarus. He tied The anecdotes are literary, and late; however, in the 1.1. DAEDALUS 3 founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man envisages his future the 680s on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was artist-self “a winged form flying above the waves [...] a preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought hawk-like man flying sunward above the sea, a prophecy by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani.[23] of the end he had been born to serve”.

1.1.5 Daedalus and Perdix 1.1.7 Gallery • Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could Daedalus and Icarus, by Frederick Leighton, ca not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her 1869. [24] son, named variously as Perdix, Talus, or Calos, un- • Small bronze sculpture of Daedalus, 3rd century der his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. He was BC; found on Plaoshnik, Republic of Macedonia. an art scholar and showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish. • Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (detail) by Peter According to Ovid, imitating it, he took a piece of iron Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1558.[1] and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at • Daedalus and Pasiphaë. Roman fresco in the House one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and of the Vettii, Pompeii, first century AD. made a pair of compasses.[25] Daedalus was so envious of his nephew’s accomplishments that he took an oppor- 1. ^ Ovid: “Some angler catching fish with a quivering tunity and caused him to fall from the Acropolis. Athena rod, or a shepherd leaning on his crook, or a plough- turned Perdix into a partridge and left a scar that looks man resting on the handles of his plough, saw them, like a partridge on Daedalus’ right shoulder and Daedalus perhaps, and stood there amazed, believing them to left Athens due to this. be gods able to travel the sky.”.

1.1.6 Innovator 1.1.8 See also • Such anecdotal details as these were embroideries upon List of things named Daedalus the reputation of Daedalus as an innovator in many arts. • Volund In Pliny’s Natural History (7.198) he is credited with in- venting carpentry “and with it the saw, axe, plumb-line, drill, glue, and isinglass". Pausanias, in travelling around 1.1.9 References Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see xoana) that impressed him: “All the Notes works of this artist, though somewhat uncouth to look at, nevertheless have a touch of the divine in them.”[26] [1] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 296. It is said he first conceived masts and sails for ships for the navy of Minos. He is said to have carved statues so [2] “This is the workshop of Daedalus,” wrote Philostratus of well they looked as if alive; even possessing self-motion. Lemnos in Immagines (1.16), “and about it are statues, They would have escaped if not for the chain that bound some with forms blocked out, others in a quite complete them to the wall.[27] state in that they are already stepping forward and give promise of walking about. Before the time of Daedalus, Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to any Greek you know, the art of making statues had not yet conceived artificer and to many Greek contraptions that repre- such a thing.” sented dextrous skill. At Plataea there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fash- [3] Frontisi-Ducroux, Françoise (1975). Dédale: Mythologie ioned, and an effigy was made from an oak-tree and de l'artisan en Grèce Ancienne. Paris: François Maspero. dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with p. 227.. Cf. Frontisi-Ducroux a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was [4] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 76 called Daedale and the archaic ritual given an explana- tion through a myth to the purpose [5] Hyginus, Fabulae, 39 and 274; Servius on Aeneid 6. 14

In the period of Romanticism, Daedalus came to denote [6] Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9. 3. 2 the classic artist, a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolized the romantic artist, whose impetuous, pas- [7] Bibliotheca 3. 15. 9 sionate and rebellious nature, as well as his deﬁance of [8] Scholia on Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, 468 formal aesthetic and social conventions, may ultimately prove to be self-destructive. Stephen Dedalus, in Joyce’s [9] Scholia on Plato, The Republic, p. 529 4 CHAPTER 1. MYTH

[10] By Naucrate, a female slave of Minos, according to Sources pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Epitome of Book IV, 1. 12 • Thomas Bulﬁnch’s Mythology [11] By a certain Cretan woman, who may or may not be the • Encyclopaedia Britannica Daedalus same as Naucrate Strabo, Geography, 6. 3. 2 • Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: [12] The son of Eupalamus, according to Hyginus, Fabulae 39 Their Careers and Extant Works. Begins with (on-line translation at TheoiProject). Daedalus. [13] Iliad xviii; the passage is often cited as a vivid and authentic reminiscence of Minoan Crete encapsulated in • Peter Hunt, “Ekphrasis or Not? Ovid (Met. 8.183- the orally-transmitted tradition, as in Alfred Burns, “The 235 ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with Chorus of Ariadne” Classical Journal, 70.2 (December the Fall of Icarus” – Essay on Brueghel’s visualisa- 1974 - January 1975:1-12): bibliography. tion of Ovid. [14] Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of • Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Ro- Homer, 2009:187, 188. man Biography and Mythology, London (1873). [15] “The word da-da-re-jo-de on a has been interpreted “Daedalus” as meaning Daidaleionde— “towards” or “into the Daidaleion,” and K. Kerenyi conjectures that it may refer to the choros that Daedalus is supposed to have built 1.1.10 External links for Ariadne” (Burns 1974/75:3; the Kerenyi assertion is in an article in Atti e memorie del primo congresso inter- • Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca. 100 nazionale del micenologia, 1967, vol. II, Rome 1968). photos of Daedalus and Icarus) [16] Fox is unconvinced; other scholars urging caution in making connections with Daedalus are noted by Fox 2009:188 note 6: S.P. Morris, Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art, 1992:76f, and L.M. Bendall, Economics of Religion in the Mycenaean World, 2007:17. [17] Fox 2009:187f. [18] Compare labyrinth and maze. [19] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: From Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, 1992:36, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0. [20] Edith Hamilton, Mythology, (1942) 1998:151, ISBN 0- 451-62702-4. [21] Erika Simon, “Daidalos-Taitale-Daedalus: neues zu einem wohlbekannten Mythos”, Archäologischer Anzeiger (2004:419-22). [22] Fox 2009:189. [23] Pausanias, viii.46.2, ix.40.3-4; T.J. Dunbabin, The West- ern Greeks, 1948; S.P. Morris, Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art (1992:199), all noted by Fox 2009:189 note 9. [24] In Hyginus, Fabulae, 39 Perdix is the name of the nephew; but according to Bibliotheca 3. 15. 8 and the dictionary of Suda (s. v. Perdikos hieron), Perdix is the name of Daedalus’ sister and T son, nephew of Daedalus. The lat- ter source also states that Perdix had a sanctuary dedicated to her near the Acropolis. [25] Both inventions are in Ovid, Metamorphoses viii.236 [26] Pausanias, Description of Greece ii.4.5. Pausanias listed existing works that were attributed to Daedalus in the second century AD, Description ix.40.3 [27] William Godwin (1876). “Lives of the Necromancers”. p. 40. Chapter 2

Myth, reconsidered and framed: Bruegel

2.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder when artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci painted their masterpieces. In 1517, about eight years Pieter Bruegel (also Brueghel) the Elder (Dutch: [ˈpitər before Bruegel’s birth, Martin Luther created his Ninety- ˈbrøːɣəl]; c. 1525 – 9 September 1569) was a Dutch Re- Five Theses and began the Protestant Reformation in naissance painter and printmaker from Brabant, known neighboring Germany. Reformation was accompanied by for his landscapes and peasant scenes (so called genre iconoclasm, and widespread destruction of art, including painting). He is sometimes referred to as the “Peasant in Low Countries. In response the Catholic Church which Bruegel”. From 1559, he dropped the “h” from his name viewed Protestantism and its iconoclasm as a threat to the and signed his paintings as Bruegel. church, at the Council of Trent, which concluded in 1563, determined that religious art should more focused on religious subject-matter, and less on on material things and 2.1.1 Life decorative qualities. At this time, the Low Countries was divided into Bruegel’s place of birth is unclear. Lampsone calls Seventeen Provinces, some of which wanted separation him Pietro Brueghel di Breda (1564/5), which is soon from the Habsburg rule based in Spain. The Reformation adopted by Guicciardini (1567)[1][2] and Vasari (1568).[3] meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denomina- If Brueghel is a patronym, only Breda indicates a place tions, which gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces, of birth: Breda or Bree.[4] However, Brueghel can be inﬂuenced by the newly Lutheran Germany to the east and a toponymic surname, as writes van Mander (1604):[5] the newly Anglican England to the west. The Habsburg “from Brueghel (and) from the Breda area”. These monarchs of Spain attempted a policy of strict religious places are likely to be Grote-Brogel (then Bruegel)[6] and uniformity for the Catholic Church within their domains, Bree (often Latinized to Breda) rather than Breugel and and enforced it with the Inquisition. Increasing religious Breda.[7][8] antagonisms and riots, political manoeuvrings, and ex- He was an apprentice of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, whose ecutions, eventually resulted in the outbreak of Eighty daughter Mayken he later married. He spent some time Years’ War. in France and Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where This was the atmosphere in which Bruegel reached the in 1551 he was accepted as a master in the painter’s height of his career as a painter. Two years before guild. He traveled to Italy soon after, and then returned to Bruegel’s death, the Eighty Years’ War began between Antwerp before settling in Brussels permanently 10 years the United Provinces and Spain. Although Bruegel did later. not live to see it, seven provinces became independent and formed The Dutch Republic, while the other ten re- He received the nickname “Peasant Bruegel” or “Bruegel [9] the Peasant” for his practice of dressing up like a peasant mained under Habsburg control at the end of the war. in order to socialize at weddings and other celebrations, thereby gaining inspiration and authentic details for his genre paintings. He died in Brussels on 9 September 1569 2.1.3 Subjects and was buried in the Kapellekerk. Pieter Bruegel specialized in genre paintings populated by peasants, often with a landscape element, but he also 2.1.2 Historical background painted religious works. Making the life and manners of peasants the main focus of a work was rare in paint- Bruegel was born at a time of extensive change in West- ing in Bruegel’s time, and he was a pioneer of the genre ern Europe. Humanist ideals from the previous century painting. His earthy, unsentimental but vivid depiction inﬂuenced artists and scholars in Europe. Italy was at of the rituals of village life—including agriculture, hunts, the end of their High Renaissance of arts and culture, meals, festivals, dances, and games—are unique windows

5 6 CHAPTER 2. MYTH, RECONSIDERED AND FRAMED: BRUEGEL

The Peasant Wedding, 1566–69, oil on panel The Seven Deadly Sins or the Seven Vices - Anger, 1558

Bruegel began painting the ordinary life of peasants. Of- on a vanished folk culture, though still characteristically ten Bruegel painted a community event, as in The Peasant of Belgian life and culture today, and a prime source Wedding and The Fight Between Carnival and Lent. In of iconographic evidence about both physical and social paintings like The Peasant Wedding, Bruegel painted in- aspects of 16th century life. For example, his famous dividual, identifiable people while the people in The Fight painting Flemish Proverbs, originally The Blue Cloak il- Between Carnival and Lent are unidentifiable, muffin- lustrates dozens of then-contemporary aphorisms, many faced allegories of greed or gluttony. of which still are in use in current Flemish, French, En- glish and Dutch), and Children’s Games shows the variety of amusements enjoyed by young people. His winter landscapes of 1565 (e.g. The Hunters in the Snow) are taken as corroborative evidence of the severity of winters during the Little Ice Age. Using abundant spirit and comic power, he created some of the very early images of acute social protest in art history. Examples include paintings such as The Fight Be- tween Carnival and Lent (a satire of the conflicts of the Protestant Reformation) and engravings like The Ass in the School and Strongboxes Battling Piggybanks.[10] On his deathbed, he reportedly ordered his wife to burn the The Blind Leading the Blind, 1568 most subversive of his drawings to protect his family from political persecution resulting from conflicts between the Although Bruegel often painted scenes of carousing and Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformation. community gatherings, he often accurately depicted cripples or people with disabilities. Perhaps one of Bruegel’s most famous paintings was The Blind Leading the Blind. The sins and virtues Not only was Bruegel’s subject matter unusual, but it also depicted a quote from the Bible: “If the blind lead the During the late 1550s in Antwerp, Bruegel designed blind, both shall fall into the ditch” (Matthew 15:14). engravings for the leading publisher of the city, Using the Bible to interpret this painting, the six blind Hieronymous Cock, at the House of the Four Winds. He men are symbols of the blindness of mankind in pursuing achieved the greatest success with a series of allegories: earthly goals instead of focusing on Christ’s teachings. The Seven Deadly Sins and The Virtues. It is easy to see his compatriot Hieronymous Bosch's influence in these Even if Bruegel’s subject matter was unconventional, the engravings: the sinners are grotesque and unidentifiable religious ideals and proverbs driving his paintings were while the allegories of virtue often wear odd headgear.[11] typical of the Northern Renaissance. The Flemish pro- vided a large artistic audience for proverb-filled paintings because proverbs were well known and recognizable as Peasants well as entertaining. One of Bruegel’s most famous paintings was Netherlandish Proverbs, painted in 1559. The By 1558, Bruegel began painting more than drawing or majority of Bruegel’s paintings have many different ac- carving. He primarily painted religious scenes in a Bel- tions occurring at once, but this painting, with over 110 gian setting, such as in his paintings, Conversion of Paul proverbs, must have been one of his most symbolically and The Sermon of St. John the Baptist. In the 1560s, laden paintings.[12] 2.1. PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER 7

2.1.4 Family

Pieter the Elder had two sons: Pieter Brueghel the Younger and Jan Brueghel the Elder (both changed their name to Brueghel). Their grandmother, Mayken Ver- hulst, trained the sons because “the Elder” died when both were very small children. The older brother, Pieter Brueghel, was not the better painter of the two; he copied his father’s style but without any degree of great talent. Jan was more successful; he turned to the Baroque style and even collaborated with Peter Paul Rubens on the Al- legory of Sight.[15] Other members of the family include Pieter Coecke van Netherlandish Proverbs, 1559, oil on oak wood Aelst and Mayken Verhulst (father-in-law and mother-in- law to Pieter Bruegel the Elder), Jan van Kessel, senior (grandson of Jan Bruegel the Elder) and Jan van Kessel, junior. Through David Teniers, the family is also related Months of the year to the whole Teniers family of painters and the Quelli- nus family of painters and sculptors, since Jan-Erasmus Quellinus married Cornelia, daughter of David Teniers the Younger.

2.1.5 Work referenced in others’ work

The Hunters in the Snow, 1565, oil on wood

Paintings of proverbs were not Bruegel’s only subjects. In 1565, a wealthy patron in Antwerp, Niclaes Jonghelinck, Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, c. 1558, oil on canvas commissioned him to paint a series of paintings of each mounted on wood month of the year. Today, only five of these paintings sur- vive and some of the months are paired to form a general His painting Landscape with the Fall of Icarus is the sub- season. Traditional Flemish books of hours (e.g., the Très ject of the 1938 poem "Musée des Beaux Arts" by W. H. Riches Heures du Duc de Berry;[13] 1416) had calendar Auden: pages that included depictions of what the social life, the weather, and the landscape supposedly would have looked In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how ev- like for that month. erything turns away Bruegel’s paintings were on a larger scale than a typical Quite leisurely from the disaster; the plough- calendar page painting, each one approximately three feet man by five feet. For Bruegel, this was a large commission (the Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry, size of a commission was based on how large the painting But for him it was not an important failure; the was) and an important one. In 1565, the Calvinist riots sun shone began and it was only two years before the Eighty Years’ As it had to on the white legs disappearing into War broke out. Bruegel may have felt safer with a secular the green commission so as to not offend Calvinist or Catholic.[14] Water, and the expensive delicate ship that Some of the most famous paintings from this series in- must have seen cluded The Hunters in the Snow (December–January) and Something amazing, a boy falling out of the The Harvesters (August). sky, 8 CHAPTER 2. MYTH, RECONSIDERED AND FRAMED: BRUEGEL

Had somewhere to get to and sailed calmly possesses it. Much thought is spent on Bruegel’s secret on.[1] motives for painting it. 1. ^ Foote, Timothy (1986). The World of In his book American Barricade, Danniel Schoonebeek Bruegel. Time-Life Library. p. 149. references several Brueghel paintings in his poem “Poem for a Seven-Hour Flight,” notably in the lines: “I am the It also was the subject of a 1960 poem by William Car- hounds in Brueghel / do you know the hounds // here is los Williams and was referenced in Nicolas Roeg's 1976 the single fox I have killed will you wear it around your science ﬁction ﬁlm The Man Who Fell to Earth. shoulders are you ashamed.”

2.1.6 Works

There are about 45 authenticated surviving paintings, one third of which are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. A number of others are known to have been lost. There are a large number of drawings. Brueghel only etched one plate himself, The Rabbit Hunt, but designed many engravings and etchings, mostly for the Cock publishing house.

• Children’s Games (1560), Kunsthistorisches Mu- seum, Vienna

• A detail of Children’s Games (1560) • Two Monkeys, 1562, oil on panel The Triumph of Death (c. 1562), Museo del Prado, Madrid

Bruegel’s painting Two Monkeys was the subject of • The Fall of the Rebel Angels, (1562), Royal Muse- Wisława Szymborska 1957 poem, “Brueghel’s Two ums of Fine Arts of Belgium Monkeys”.[16] • Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky referenced The Tower of Babel (1563), Kunsthistorisches Mu- Bruegel’s paintings in his films several times, notably seum, Vienna, oil on board Solaris (1972) and The Mirror (1975). • The Procession to Calvary, 1564, Kunsthistorisches Director Lars Von Trier also uses Bruegel’s paintings in Museum, Vienna his film Melancholia (2011). This was used as a reference • to Tarkovsky’s Solaris, a movie with related themes. Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap (1565), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna His 1564 painting The Procession to Calvary inspired the 2011 Polish-Swedish film co-production The Mill and the • The Hay Harvest (1565), National Museum Cross, in which Bruegel is played by Rutger Hauer. (Prague), Lobkowicz family collection in Lobkow- icz Palace in Prague Castle [1] Bruegel’s paintings in the Kunsthistorisches Museum are shown in the 2012 film, Museum Hours, where his work • The Harvesters (1565), oil on panel, Metropolitan is discussed at length by a guide. Museum of Art, New York It is believed that his painting The Hunters in the Snow • The Wedding Dance (c.1566), oil on oak panel, The influenced the classic short story with the same title writ- Detroit Institute of Arts ten by Tobias Wolff and featured in In the Garden of the North American Martyrs. • The Census at Bethlehem (1566), oil on wood panel, Seamus Heaney referenced Breughel in his poem "The Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium Seed Cutters". • Massacre of the Innocents, (c. 1565-1567), David Jones references the painting The Blind Leading the Brukenthal National Museum, Sibiu Blind in his World War One prose-poem In Parenthesis: • 'the stumbling dark of the blind, that Breughel knew about The Land of Cockaigne (1567), Alte Pinakothek, an - ditch circumscribed'. illustration of the medieval mythical land of plenty called Cockaigne Michael Frayn, in his novel Headlong, invents a lost panel from the 1565 Months series, which triggers a mad con- • The Peasant and the Nest Robber (1568), flict between an art (and money) lover and the boor who Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna 2.1. PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER 9

• The Peasant Dance (1568), Kunsthistorisches Mu- • The Blue Cloak (or Flemish Proverbs), 1559, seum, Vienna, oil on oak panel Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

• The Beggars (The Cripples) (1568), Louvre, Paris, • The Fight Between Carnival and Lent, 1559, oil on panel Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

• Portrait of an Old Woman, 1560, Alte Pinakothek, 1. ^ Lobkowicz Collections website Munich • 2.1.7 Selected works Children’s Games, 1560, Kunsthistorisches Mu- seum, Vienna

See also: List of paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder • Temperance, 1560

• The Suicide of Saul (Battle Against The Philistines There are about 45 authenticated surviving paintings, one on the Gilboa), 1562, Kunsthistorisches Museum, third of which are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna Vienna. A number of others are known to have been lost. There are a large number of drawings. Bruegel only • Two Small Monkeys, 1562, Staatliche Museen, etched one plate himself, The Rabbit Hunt, but designed Gemäldegalerie, Berlin many engravings and etchings, mostly for the Cock publishing house. • The Triumph of Death, c. 1562, Museo del Prado, Madrid • Twelve Proverbs, 1558, Museum Mayer van den • Dulle Griet (Mad Meg), c. 1562, Museum Mayer Bergh, Antwerp van den Bergh, Antwerp • Naval Battle in the Gulf of Naples, 1560, Galleria • The Tower of Babel, 1563, Kunsthistorisches Mu- Doria-Pamphilj, Rome seum, Vienna • The Fall of the Rebel Angels 1562, Royal Museums • Flight To Egypt, 1563, Courtauld Institute Galleries, of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels London • The “Little” Tower of Babel, c. 1563, Museum • The Death of the Virgin, 1564, (grisaille), Upton Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam House, Banbury • The Procession to Calvary, 1564, Kunsthistorisches • Museum, Vienna The Months, a cycle of probably six paintings of the months or seasons, of which ﬁve remain: • The Adoration of the Kings, 1564, The National • Gallery, London The Hunters in the Snow (Dec.–Jan.), 1565, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna • Massacre of the Innocents, c. 1567, versions at • The Gloomy Day (Feb.–Mar.), 1565, Kun- Royal Collection, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vi- sthistorisches Museum, Vienna enna, at Brukenthal National Museum, Sibiu,[17] and • at Upton House, Banbury The Hay Harvest (June–July), 1565, Lobkowicz Palace at the Prague Castle • Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap, 1565, Royal Complex, Czech Republic Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, inv. • The Harvesters (Aug.-Sept.), 1565, 8724 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York • Landscape with Christ and the Apostles at the Sea • The Return of the Herd (Oct.–Nov.), 1565, of Tiberias, 1553, probably with Maarten de Vos, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna private collection • Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery (1565), • Ass at School, 1556, drawing, Print room, Berlin Courtauld Institute of Art, London State Museums • The Calumny of Apelles, 1565, drawing, British Mu- • Parable of the Sower, 1557, Timken Museum of seum, London Art, San Diego • The Painter and the Connoisseur, drawing, c. 1565, • Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, c.1554–55, Royal Albertina, Vienna Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels – Note: Now seen as a copy of a lost authentic Bruegel • Preaching of John the Baptist, 1566, Museum of painting[18] Fine Arts (Budapest) 10 CHAPTER 2. MYTH, RECONSIDERED AND FRAMED: BRUEGEL

• The Census at Bethlehem, 1566, Royal Museums of [5] Karel van Mander, Schilder-boeck (Harlem, 1604), p 233 Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels [6] Christoffel Plantijn, Belgii Inferioris descriptio emendata • The Wedding Dance, c. 1566, Detroit Institute of cum circumiacentium regionum confinijs (Antwerp, 1582) Arts, Detroit [7] Van Mander believes Breda to be Breda in Brabant, but • Conversion of Paul, 1567, Kunsthistorishes Mu- this must be a mistake, as Breda is far (32 mi.) from seum, Vienna Breugel. Nor is it a logical point of reference, since Breugel is near Eindhoven (5 mi.) and 's-Hertogenbosch • The Land of Cockaigne, 1567, Alte Pinakothek, (15 mi.). Bree on the other hand is the second-nearest city Munich to Grote-Brogel and only 4 mi. far. • The Adoration of the Magi in the Snow, 1567, Oskar [8] Claude-Henri Rocquet, Bruegel, Or the Workshop of Dreams (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991), p Reinhart Collection, Winterthur 69: “But van Mander may have confused Bree in Kampen, • The Magpie on the Gallows, 1568, Hessisches Lan- then called Breedes or Brida and in Latin Breda, with the desmuseum, Darmstadt Breda of Brabant. As for the Kampen village of Brueghel or Brogel, it was divided into Grote Brogel and Kleine • The Misanthrope, 1568, Museo di Capodimonte, Brogel.” Naples [9] Foote, Timothy (1968). The World of Bruegel. Library of • The Blind Leading the Blind, 1568, Museo Congress: Time-Life Library of Art. pp. 18–27. Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples [10] Mayor, A. Hyatt. Prints & People: A Social History of • Printed Pictures. Princeton: Princeton University Press, The Peasant Wedding, 1568, Kunsthistorisches Mu- 1971, 426. seum, Vienna [11] Foote, Timothy (1968). The World of Bruegel. Library of • The Peasant Dance, 1568, Kunsthistorisches Mu- Congress: Time-Life Library. seum, Vienna [12] Stokstad, Cothren, Marilyn, Michael (2010). Art History- • The Beggars (The Cripples), 1568, Louvre, Paris Fourteenth to Seventeenth Century Art. • The Peasant and the Nest Robber, 1568, Kunsthis- [13] Stokstad, Cothren, Marilyn, Michael (2010). Art History- torisches Museum, Vienna Fourteenth to Seventeenth Century Art. • The Three Soldiers, 1568, The Frick Collection, [14] Foote, Timothy (1968). The World of Bruegel. Library of New York City Congress: Time-Life Library. • The Storm at Sea, an unfinished work, probably [15] “Pieter Bruegel, the Elder”. World History in Context. En- cyclopedia of World Biography. Bruegel’s last painting. • [16] Szymborska, Wislawa (1995). View With a Grain of The Wine of Saint Martin’s Day, Museo del Prado, Sand. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 3. Madrid (discovered in 2010) [17] Masterpieces of the Brukenthal Collection

Prints [18] (Het journaal 1–11/11/09). “deredactie.be”. Vrt- nieuws.net. Archived from the original on 27 February • Large Fish Eat Small Fish, 1556, a print after a 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2009. Bruegel design 2.1.9 External links 2.1.8 References • Bosch Bruegel Society [1] Lodovico Guiccardini, Descrittioni di tutti i Paesi Bassi • (Antwerp, 1567), p 99 www.Pieter-Bruegel-The-Elder.org 99 works by Pieter Bruegel the Elder [2] “Guicciardini, Lodovico.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. • Gallery of all paintings and drawings

[3] Giorgio Vasari, Le vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, • Timken Museum of Art’s “Parable of the Sower” by et scultori italiani, da Cimabue insino a' tempi nostri III – Pieter Bruegel the Elder Lampsone’s letter to Vasari (1568) • Creativity Brueghel laid the foundation of the [4] Bree was often Latinized to Breda. Since Lampsone’s let- Netherlands School ters cite places and people by Italianised names, Breda may be a variant of “Bree”. • The political consciousness of Pieter Bruegel 2.2. LANDSCAPE WITH THE FALL OF ICARUS 11

• "Bruegel". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. • Orenstein, Nadine M., ed. (2001). Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Drawings and Prints. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870999901.

2.2 Landscape with the Fall of Icarus

This article is about the Bruegel painting. For the poem by William Carlos Williams, see Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (poem). For other uses, see The Fall of Icarus (disambiguation). Landscape with the Fall of Icarus is a painting in oil on

“Landscape with The Fall of Icarus”, ca. 1590-95, oil on wood (63 by 90 centimetres (25 in × 35 in)), Circle of P.Bruegel the Elder, Museum van Buuren, Brussels, Belgium.

The ploughman, shepherd and angler are mentioned in Ovid’s account of the legend; they are: “astonished and think to see gods approaching them through the aether”,[4] which is not entirely the impression given in the painting. The shepherd gazing into the air, away from the ship, may be explained by another version of the composition (see below); in the original work there was probably also a figure of Daedalus in the sky to the left, at which he Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, Royal Museums of Fine Arts stares. There is also a Flemish proverb (of the sort imaged of Belgium, now seen as a good early copy of Bruegel’s original in other works by Bruegel): “And the farmer continued to plough...” (En de boer ... hij ploegde voort”) pointing canvas (73.5 by 112 centimetres (28.9 in × 44.1 in)) long out the ignorance of people to fellow men’s suffering.[5] thought to be by Pieter Bruegel. However, following tech- The painting may, as Auden’s poem suggests, depict hu- nical examinations in 1996 that attribution is regarded as mankind’s indifference to suffering by highlighting the very doubtful, and the painting is now usually seen as a ordinary events which continue to occur, despite the un- good early copy by an unknown artist of Bruegel’s orig- observed death of Icarus. inal, perhaps painted in the 1560s,[1][2] although recent technical research has re-opened the question. Though the world landscape, a type of work with the title subject represented by small figures in the distance, Largely derived from Ovid, the painting is described was an established type in Early Netherlandish painting, in W. H. Auden's famous poem Musée des Beaux-Arts, pioneered by Joachim Patiner, to have a much larger un- named after the museum in which the painting is housed related "genre" figure in the foreground is original and in Brussels, and became the subject of a poem of the same represents something of a blow against the emerging name by William Carlos Williams, as well as Lines on hierarchy of genres. Other landscapes by Bruegel, for [3] Bruegel’s “Icarus” by Michael Hamburger. example The Hunters in the Snow (1565) and others in that series of paintings showing the seasons, show genre 2.2.1 Description figures in a raised foreground, but not so large relative to the size of the image, nor with a subject from a “higher” In Greek mythology, Icarus succeeded in flying, with class of painting in the background. wings made by his father Daedalus, using feathers secured with wax. Ignoring his father’s warnings, Icarus chose to fly too close to the sun, melting the wax, and 2.2.2 Attribution fell into the sea and drowned. His legs can be seen in the water just below the ship. The sun, already half-set on The painting is probably a version of a lost original by the horizon, is a long way away; the flight did not reach Bruegel, probably from the 1560s or soon after. It is in oils whereas Bruegel’s other paintings on canvas are in anywhere near it. Daedalus does not appear in this ver- [6] sion of the painting, though he does, still flying, in the van tempera. Buuren one (see below). The work was unknown until it was bought by the mu- 12 CHAPTER 2. MYTH, RECONSIDERED AND FRAMED: BRUEGEL

Icarus and the angler The upturned face in the bushes

seum in 1912; subsequently another version on panel, optical microscopy revealed the following structure and generally considered inferior, turned up, which was ac- composition. From bottom to top: quired in 1953 by Daniel van Buuren for his private house, today a museum in Brussels.[7] In this, which ex- 1. Canvas (from transposition); cludes the far left and right sides of the composition, 2. Oily lead white (adhesive); Icarus is in the water but Daedelus is still in the air, and the shepherd’s gaze is directed at him, explaining one as- 3. Thick oily layer with azurite (repaint); pect of the composition of the other version. The original would have been Bruegel’s only known painting of a 4. Chalk ground; mythological subject. The perspective of the ship and fig- 5. Oily lead white with scarce particles of charcoal; ures is not entirely consistent, although this may enhance the power of the composition. Bruegel also produced a 6. Oily blue with azurite; design for an engraving with the ship and the two falling [4] figures. with layers 4 to 6 being original. Since its acquisition by the Museum in 1912, its authen- The presence of chalk ground under the original blue ticity has been controverted by several specialists, mainly proves that this is a panel painting transposed on a canvas. for two reasons: (i) its weaker quality due to overpaint- The original blue layer is lead white with azurite containing ; (ii) it is an oil painting on canvas, an exception in ing a few grains of ochre and charcoal. These structure the work of Peter Bruegel the Elder who made all his oil and composition match perfectly those found on other paintings on panel. certified panels of Peter Bruegel. Moreover it is notice- In 1963, Philippe Roberts-Jones, curator at the museum, able that the wood charcoal particles are very peculiar, and the Bruegel specialist Georges Marlier, hypothesized being very long and acicular, exactly the same as those that an original panel painting had been later moved onto found only in The Census from the same Museum.[9] canvas, as was once common. In 1998, a mixed team Recently, a study of the underdrawing using infrared of scientists from the Belgian Royal Institute for Cultural [10] [6] reflectography has been published. Reflectography is Heritage and the University of Utrecht attempted to based on the fact that the infrared light penetrates all col- solve the authenticity problem by a radiocarbon dating of ors except black. As a result, the drawing, mostly black the canvas that was supposed to be the original support. can be made visible. The interpretation of these reflec- As mentioned here above, the conclusion of this dating tograms is of course more subjective, but in a global way, was that P. Bruegel the Elder cannot have painted on this the drawing from the Fall of Icarus is not really differ- canvas. Later, in 2006, Prof. J. Reisse (Université libre ent from other certified works from Peter Bruegel the de Bruxelles) demonstrated that this dating was worthless [8] Elder. This drawing is generally limited to a layout of for technical arguments. the elements. Probably because the thin, weakly cover- A sample of blue paint taken from the right edge in 1973 ing paint on white ground would hide imperfectly a de- was re-examined by performing analysis such as scanning tailed graphism. A re-interpretation of the reflectograms electron microscopy (SEM) coupled to the energy disper- in agreement with the other analysis would lead to the fol- sive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), which in connection with lowing conclusion: The Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, 2.2. LANDSCAPE WITH THE FALL OF ICARUS 13

view of a world serenely pursuing its own con- cerns, completely oblivious to the almost invisible tiny pair of legs waving pathetically out of the water, the only record of the apocalyp- tic event being a pair of feathers ﬂoating dis- consolately down in the wake of their erstwhile owner.[12]

2.2.4 References

[1] Says the Museum: “On doute que l'exécution soit de Pieter I Bruegel mais la conception lui est par contre at- tribuée avec certitude” - It is doubtful the execution is by Breugel the Elder, but the composition can be said with certainty to be his” Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Bel- gium. “Description détaillée” (in French). Retrieved 3 September 2011. This related work by Joos de Momper includes the ploughman and angler, but Icarus is still in ﬂight, with wax drops falling. [2] de Vries, Lyckle (2003). “Bruegel’s “Fall of Icarus": Ovid or Solomon?". Simiolus: Netherlands Quar- terly for the History of Art (Stichting voor Neder- from the Museum of Fine Arts in Brussels is an oil paint- landse Kunsthistorische Publicaties) 30 (1/2): 4–18. ing on panel, transposed on canvas. The paint layer and doi:10.2307/3780948. JSTOR 3780948. maybe also the underdrawing have been severely dam- aged by this intervention as well as by two more relin- [3] Rico, 19 (gives text) ings, responsible for the heavy overpainting. In the paint [4] Hagen, Rose-Marie; Hagen, Rainer (2001). Bruegel, The sample remains a fragment with structure and composi- Complete Paintings. Midpoint Press. p. 60. ISBN 3- tion matching perfectly the technique of the large panels 8228-1531-4. attributed to Peter Bruegel the Elder. It is therefore in- conceivable that this version of the Fall of Icarus might [5] Hunt, Patrick. “Ekphrasis or Not? Ovid (Met. 8.183-235 be from the hand of a copyist, except perhaps from P. ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with the Fall of Bruegel the Younger. Conversely, the Van Buuren copy Icarus”. with a diﬀerent technique cannot be attributed to Peter [6] Van Strydonck, Mark J. Y.; Masschelein-Kleiner, Liliane; Bruegel neither Father or Son. Alderliesten, Cees; de Jong, Arie F. M. (1998). “Radio- carbon Dating of Canvas Paintings: Two Case Studies”. Studies in Conservation (International Institute for Conser- 2.2.3 Mentions in other media vation of Historic and Artistic Works) 43 (4): 209–214. doi:10.2307/1506730. JSTOR 1506730.

The painting is shown in Nicholas Roeg's film The Man [7] de Vries:4 Who Fell to Earth (1976), where a character opens a book of paintings to an image of it. On the facing page a de- [8] Roberts-Jones, Ph.; Reisse, J.; Roberts-Jones-Popelier, F. scription points out that the scene remains calm, the event (2006). La chute d'Icare: mise au point et controverse. of the fall hardly noticed. Bull. Académie Royale de Belgique 1–6. Eric Steele, whose film The Bridge (2006) documents the [9] Kockaert, Leopold (2002). Bruegel’s Fall of Icarus at the suicides of two-dozen people who jumped off the world’s Laboratory. Symposium Brueghel enterprises, Brussels most popular suicide site - the Golden Gate Bridge - 20–21 June 2002. throughout 2004, has compared images captured in his [10] Currie, Christina; Allart, Dominique (2012). The documentary to those of Bruegel’s Landscape With the Brueg(H)el Phenomenon. Paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Fall of Icarus, because the fatal leaps go almost unnoticed Elder and Pieter Brueghel the Younger with a Special Fo- [11] by passersby. cus on Technique and Copying Practice. Scientia Artis (8). Composer Brian Ferneyhough's 1988 chamber work La Brussels: Institut royal du patrimoine artistique. pp. 844– Chute d'Icare was inspired by the painting: 878. ISBN 978-2-930054-14-8. [11] Holden, Stephen (27 October 2006). “NYT Critics’ Pick What this piece attempts to suggest is ... - The Bridge (2006): That Beautiful but Deadly San Fran- less a reflection on the heroic-tragic dimension cisco Span”. The New York Times. Retrieved 29 July 2012. of the underlying myth than a transcription of the strange sensation of “already having been” [12] Ferneyhough, Brian. "La Chute d'Icare (program note)" which is brilliantly evoked by Breughel in the (PDF). Edition Peters. Retrieved 2014-11-13. 14 CHAPTER 2. MYTH, RECONSIDERED AND FRAMED: BRUEGEL

2.2.5 Further reading

• de Vries, Lyckle, “Bruegel’s “Fall of Icarus": Ovid or Solomon?", Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 30, No. 1/2 (2003), pp. 4–18, Stichting voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties, JSTOR • Kilinski II, Karl (2004). “Bruegel on Icarus. Inver- sions of the Fall”. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 67 (1): 91–114. doi:10.2307/20474239.

2.2.6 External links

• Museum & Gardens Van Buuren Chapter 3

Myth, Mediation, and Marvel: Auden

3.1 W. H. Auden 3.1.1 Life

Childhood Wystan Hugh Auden[1] (/ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən/;[2] 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was an Anglo- American poet[3][4] who has often been regarded as among the greatest poets of the 20th century.[5] His work is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with moral and political issues, and its variety in tone, form and content.[6][7] The central themes of his poetry are love, politics and citizenship, religion and morals, and the relationship between unique human be- ings and the anonymous, impersonal world of nature. Auden grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle-class family and read English literature at Christ Church, Oxford. His early poems from the late 1920s and early 1930s, written in an intense and dramatic tone and in a style that alternated between telegraphic modern and fluent traditional, established his reputation as a left-wing political poet and prophet. In the late 1930s he became uncomfortable in this role and abandoned it after he moved to the United States in 1939. (He became an American citizen in 1946.) In his poems from the 1940s he explored religious and ethical themes in a less dramatic manner than in his earlier works, and combined traditional forms and styles with new, original forms. The focus of many of his poems from the 1950s and 1960s was on the ways in which words revealed and concealed emotions. He took a particular interest in writing opera Auden’s birthplace, 54 Bootham, York librettos, a form that he believed ideally suited to the [8] expression of strong feelings. Following his death in Auden was born in York, England, to George Augustus 1973, his memorial stone was unveiled in Poets’ Corner, Auden, a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden, née Westminster Abbey in 1974. Bicknell, who had trained (but never served) as a mis- He was also a prolific writer of prose essays and re- sionary nurse. He was the third of three sons; the el- views on literary, political, psychological and religious dest, George Bernard Auden, became a farmer, while the subjects, and he worked at various times on documen- second, John Bicknell Auden, became a geologist. Au- tary films, poetic plays and other forms of performance. den, whose grandfathers were both Church of England Throughout his career he was both controversial and clergymen,[9] grew up in an Anglo-Catholic household influential. After his death, some of his poems, no- that followed a "High" form of Anglicanism with doctrine tably "Funeral Blues" (“Stop all the clocks”), "Musée and ritual resembling those of Roman Catholicism.[10][11] des Beaux Arts", "Refugee Blues", "The Unknown Cit- He traced his love of music and language partly to the izen", and "September 1, 1939", became known to a church services of his childhood.[12] He believed he was much wider public than during his lifetime through films, of Icelandic descent, and his lifelong fascination with Ice- broadcasts, and popular media.[5] landic legends and Old Norse sagas is visible throughout

15 16 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

his work.[13] cept when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road, Solihull, near [11] Birmingham,[14] where his father had been appointed the choosing to live amidst physical disorder. School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden’s lifelong psychoanalytic interests Britain and Europe, 1928–38 began in his father’s library. From the age of eight he at- [10] tended boarding schools, returning home for holidays. In the autumn of 1928, Auden left Britain for nine months His visits to the Pennine landscape and its declining lead- in Berlin, partly to rebel against English repressiveness. In mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote Berlin, he said, he first experienced the political and eco- decaying mining village of Rookhope was for him a “sa- nomic unrest that became one of his central subjects.[12] cred landscape”, evoked in a late poem, “Amor Loci”.[15] Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining On returning to Britain in 1929, he worked briefly as a engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. tutor. In 1930 his first published book, Poems (1930), He wrote later: “words so excite me that a pornographic was accepted by T. S. Eliot for Faber and Faber; the firm story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living also published all his later books. In 1930 he began five person can do.”[16] years as a schoolmaster in boys’ schools: two years at the Larchfield Academy in Helensburgh, Scotland, then three years at the Downs School in the Malvern Hills, where Education he was a much-loved teacher.[10] At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a “Vision Auden’s first boarding school was St Edmund’s School, of Agape", when, while sitting with three fellow-teachers Hindhead, Surrey, where he met Christopher Isherwood, at the school, he suddenly found that he loved them for later famous in his own right as a novelist.[17] At thirteen themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; he went to Gresham’s School in Norfolk; there, in 1922, this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to when his friend Robert Medley asked him if he wrote po- return to the Anglican Church in 1940.[24] [10] etry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet. During these years, Auden’s erotic interests focused, as Soon after, he “discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith” he later said, on an idealised “Alter Ego”[25] rather than (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in on individual persons. His relations (and his unsuccessful [18] religion, not through any decisive change of views). In courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelli- school productions of Shakespeare, he played Katherina gence; his sexual relations were transient, although some [19] in The Taming of the Shrew in 1922, and Caliban in evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these rela- [20] The Tempest in 1925, his last year at Gresham’s. His tions with what he later regarded as the “marriage” (his first published poems appeared in the school magazine word) of equals that he began with Chester Kallman in [21] in 1923. Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham’s 1939 (see below), based on the unique individuality of for Graham Greene's The Old School: Essays by Divers both partners.[26] Hands (1934).[22] In 1925 he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology, but he switched to English by his second year. Friends he met at Oxford included Cecil Day-Lewis, Louis MacNeice, and Stephen Spender; these four were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the "Auden Group" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with a third-class degree.[10][12] He was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow student A. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Isherwood was his literary mentor to whom he sent poems for comments and criticism. Auden probably fell in love with Isherwood, and in the 1930s they maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays From the GPO Film Unit’s Night Mail; scene possibly directed by Auden and a travel book.[23] From his Oxford years onward, Auden’s friends uni- From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939, Auden formly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups with the G.P.O. Film Unit, a documentary film-making he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; branch of the post office, headed by John Grierson. in more private settings he was diffident and shy ex- Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and 3.1. W. H. AUDEN 17

collaborated with Benjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto. Auden’s plays in the 1930s were performed by the Group Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees.[12] His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be “more than a bit of a reporting journalist”.[27] In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel book Letters from Iceland (1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937 he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for the Republic in the Spanish Civil War, but was put to work broadcasting propaganda, a job he left to visit the front. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.[10][26] Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid the Sino-Japanese War, working on their book Journey to a War (1939). On their way back to Eng- land they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent the autumn of 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels.[10] Many of Auden’s poems during the 1930s and afterward Christopher Isherwood (left) and W. H. Auden (right) pho- were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s tographed by Carl Van Vechten, 6 February 1939 he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: “If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me” (“The More Loving One”). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the In 1940–41, Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street stability of marriage; in a letter to his friend James Stern in Brooklyn Heights, which he shared with Carson Mc- he called marriage “the only subject.”[28] Throughout his Cullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, and which became life, Auden performed charitable acts, sometimes in pub- a famous center of artistic life, nicknamed “February lic (as in his marriage of convenience to Erika Mann in House”.[32] In 1940, Auden joined the Episcopal Church, 1935 that gave her a British passport with which to escape returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned the Nazis),[10] but, especially in later years, more often at thirteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by in private, and he was embarrassed if they were publicly what he called the “sainthood” of Charles Williams,[33] revealed, as when his gift to his friend Dorothy Day for whom he had met in 1937, and partly by reading Søren the Catholic Worker movement was reported on the front Kierkegaard and Reinhold Niebuhr; his existential, this- page of The New York Times in 1956.[29] worldly Christianity became a central element in his life.[34] After Britain declared war on Germany in September United States and Europe, 1939–73 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January he would return to the UK if needed, but was told that, 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were Britain was later seen by many there as a betrayal, and needed. In 1941–42 he taught English at the University Auden’s reputation suffered.[10] In April 1939, Isherwood of Michigan. He was called up to be drafted in the United moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Au- grounds. He had been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach den met the poet Chester Kallman, who became his lover [10] for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a at Swarthmore College in 1942–45. “marriage” that began with a cross-country “honeymoon” In the summer of 1945, after the end of World War II journey).[30] In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relation- in Europe, he was in Germany with the U. S. Strategic ship because he could not accept Auden’s insistence on a Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing mutual faithful relationship, but he and Auden remained on German morale, an experience that affected his post- companions for the rest of Auden’s life, sharing houses war work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.[31] and apartments from 1953 until Auden’s death. Auden On his return, he settled in Manhattan, working as a dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 freelance writer, a lecturer at The New School for So- and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman.[31] cial Research, and a visiting professor at Bennington, 18 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946 he became meters.[8] The tone and content of his poems ranged from a naturalised citizen of the US.[10][12] pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from con- His theology in his later years evolved from a highly in- [5][26] ward and psychologically oriented Protestantism in the temporary crises to the evolution of society. early 1940s to a more Roman Catholic-oriented interest He also wrote more than four hundred essays and re- in the significance of the body and in collective ritual in views about literature, history, politics, music, religion, the later 1940s and 1950s, and finally to the theology of and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays with Dietrich Bonhoeffer, which rejected “childish” concep- Christopher Isherwood and on opera libretti with Chester tions of God for an adult religion that focused on the sig- Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and film- nificance of human suffering.[31][34] makers on documentary films in the 1930s and with the Auden began summering in Europe in 1948, first in New York Pro Musica early music group in the 1950s and Ischia, Italy, where he rented a house, then, starting in 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: “collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any 1958, in Kirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a farm- [38] house, and, he said, shed tears of joy at owning a home sexual relations I have had.” for the first time.[10] Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his In 1951, shortly before the two British spies Guy Burgess most famous poems when he prepared his later collected and Donald Maclean fled to the USSR, Burgess attempted editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found to phone Auden to arrange a vacation visit to Ischia that he “boring” or “dishonest” in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he had earlier discussed with Auden; Auden never returned [39] the call and had no further contact with either spy, but a felt they would be rhetorically effective. His rejected media frenzy ensued in which his name was mistakenly poems include "Spain" and “September 1, 1939”. His literary executor, Edward Mendelson, argues in his intro- associated with their escape. The frenzy was repeated when the MI5 documents on the incident were released duction to Selected Poems that Auden’s practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his re- in 2007.[35][36] luctance to misuse it.[40] (Selected Poems includes some In 1956–61, Auden was Professor of Poetry at Oxford poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that University where he was required to give three lectures he revised.) each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to winter in New York, where he now lived at 77 St. Mark’s Place in Manhattan’s East Village, and to summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing Early work, 1922–39 in Oxford. He now earned his income mostly by readings and lecture tours, and by writing for The New Yorker, The New York Review of Books, and other magazines.[12] During his last years, his conversation became repetitive, to the disappointment of friends who had known him earlier as a witty and wide-ranging conversationalist.[10][37] In 1972, Auden moved his winter home from New York to Oxford, where his old college, Christ Church, offered him a cottage, but he continued to summer in Austria. He died in Vienna in 1973 and was buried in Kirchstetten.[10]

3.1.2 Work

See also: Bibliography of W. H. Auden

Overview

Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such as ballads and limericks, from doggerel through haiku and villanelles to a “Christ- Cover of the privately printed Poems (1928) mas Oratorio” and a baroque eclogue in Anglo-Saxon 3.1. W. H. AUDEN 19

Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems at thirteen, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especially Wordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especially Thomas Hardy. At eighteen he discovered T. S. Eliot and adopted an extreme version of Eliot’s style. He found his own voice at twenty when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, “From the very first coming down”.[26] This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first book Poems (1928), a pamphlet hand-printed by Stephen Spender.[41] In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work, Paid on Both Sides, subtitled “A Charade”, which combined style and content from the Icelandic sagas with jokes from En- glish school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.[8] This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published book Poems (1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic mediations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were “It was Easter as I walked,” Programme of a Group Theatre production of The Dance of “Doom is dark,” “Sir, no man’s enemy,” and “This lunar Death, with unsigned synopsis by Auden beauty.”[26] A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of The Dance of Death (1933) was a political extravaganza “family ghosts”, Auden’s term for the powerful, unseen in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called psychological effects of preceding generations on any in- “a nihilistic leg-pull.”[43] His next play The Dog Beneath dividual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, the Skin (1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, present throughout his work, is the contrast between bio- was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating of Gilbert and Sul- logical evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psy- livan in which the general idea of social transformation chological evolution of cultures and individuals (volun- was more prominent than any specific political action or tary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects).[8][26] structure.[8][26] The Ascent of F6 (1937), another play written with Ish- erwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in 1931–35 Auden’s next large-scale work was The Or- the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ran- ators: An English Study (1932; revised editions, 1934, som) an examination of Auden’s own motives in tak- 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in ing on a public role as a political poet.[26] This play in- personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style cluded the first version of "Funeral Blues" (“Stop all the became more open and accessible, and the exuberant “Six clocks”), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Au- Odes” in The Orators reflect his new interest in Robert den later rewrote the poem as a “Cabaret Song” about Burns.[8] During the next few years, many of his poems lost love (written to be sung by the soprano Hedli Ander- took their form and style from traditional ballads and pop- son, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).[44] In ular songs, and also from expansive classical forms like 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with the the Odes of Horace, which he seems to have discovered G.P.O. Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary through the German poet Hölderlin.[26] Around this time for Night Mail and lyrics for other films that were among his main influences were Dante, William Langland, and his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, Alexander Pope.[42] socially conscious art.[8][26][44] During these years, much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although his work was more politically ambivalent than 1936–39 These tendencies in style and content culmi- many reviewers recognised.[26] He generally wrote about nate in his collection Look, Stranger! (1936; his British revolutionary change in terms of a “change of heart”, a publisher chose the title, which Auden hated; Auden reti- transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology tled the 1937 US edition On This Island).[26] This book of fear to an open psychology of love.[11] His verse drama included political odes, love poems, comic songs, med- 20 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

itative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but used the syllabic verse he had learned from the poetry of emotionally accessible verse. Among the poems included Marianne Moore.[31] in the book, connected by themes of personal, social, and His recurring themes in this period included the artist’s evolutionary change and of the possibilities and problems temptation to use other persons as material for his art of personal love, were “Hearing of harvests”, “Out on the rather than valuing them for themselves (“Prospero to lawn I lie in bed”, “O what is that sound”, “Look, stranger, Ariel”) and the corresponding moral obligation to make on this island now” (later revised versions change “on” to [8][26] and keep commitments while recognising the temptation “at”), and “Our hunting fathers”. to break them (“In Sickness and Health”).[8][31] From Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long po- of journalist, and he put this view into practice in Letters ems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in from Iceland (1937) a travel book in prose and verse writ- form and content: "For the Time Being: A Christmas ten with Louis MacNeice, which included his long so- Oratorio”, "The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on cial, literary, and autobiographical commentary “Letter Shakespeare’s The Tempest" (both published in For the to Lord Byron”.[45] In 1937, after observing the Spanish Time Being, 1944), and The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Civil War he wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poem Eclogue (published separately in 1947).[31] The first two, Spain (1937); he later discarded it from his collected with Auden’s other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were works. Journey to a War (1939) a travel book in prose included in his first collected edition, The Collected Poetry and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit of W. H. Auden (1945), with most of his earlier poems, to the Sino-Japanese War.[45] Auden’s last collaboration many in revised versions.[8] with Isherwood was their third play, On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End [12][26] styles. 1947–57 After completing The Age of Anxiety in 1946 Auden’s themes in his shorter poems now included he focused again on shorter poems, notably “A Walk Af- the fragility and transience of personal love (“Danse ter Dark”, “The Love Feast”, and “The Fall of Rome”.[31] Macabre”, “The Dream”, “Lay your sleeping head”), a Many of these evoked the Italian village where he sum- theme he treated with ironic wit in his “Four Cabaret mered in 1948–57, and his next book, Nones (1951), had Songs for Miss Hedli Anderson" (which included “Tell a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work. A new Me the Truth About Love” and the revised version of theme was the “sacred importance” of the human body[46] "Funeral Blues"), and also the corrupting effect of public in its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and and official culture on individual lives (“Casino”, “School the continuity with nature that the body made possible Children”, “Dover”).[8][26] In 1938 he wrote a series of (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (“Miss Gee”, that he had emphasised in the 1930s); his poems on these “James Honeyman”, “Victor”). All these appeared in his themes included "In Praise of Limestone" and “Memorial next book of verse, Another Time (1940), together with for the City”.[8][31] In 1949 Auden and Kallman wrote the other famous poems such as “Dover”, “As He Is”, and libretto for Igor Stravinsky's opera The Rake’s Progress, "Musée des Beaux Arts" (all written before he moved and later collaborated on two libretti for operas by Hans to America in 1939), and “In Memory of W. B. Yeats”, Werner Henze.[10][47] "The Unknown Citizen", “Law Like Love”, “September Auden’s first separate prose book was The Enchafèd 1, 1939”, and “In Memory of Sigmund Freud” (written Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea (1950), [8] in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in ro- statements of Auden’s anti-heroic theme, in which great mantic literature.[48] Between 1949 and 1954 he worked deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom oth- on a sequence of seven Good Friday poems, "Horae ers cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary in- Canonicae", an encyclopaedic survey of geological, bio- dividuals who were “silly like us” (Yeats) or of whom it logical, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irre- could be said “he wasn't clever at all” (Freud), and who versible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cycli- [26] became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. cal and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote a sequence of seven poems about man’s relation to nature, “Bucolics”. Both sequences appeared in his next Middle period, 1940–57 book, The Shield of Achilles (1955), with other short poems, including the book’s title poem, “Fleet Visit”, and 1940–46 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical [8][31] poem “New Year Letter”, which appeared with miscella- “Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier”. neous notes and other poems in The Double Man (1941). Extending the themes of “Horae Canonicae”, in 1955–56 At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he he wrote a group of poems about “history”, the term he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such used to mean the set of unique events made by human as “Canzone” and “Kairos and Logos”. Around 1942, as choices, as opposed to “nature”, the set of involuntary he became more comfortable with religious themes, his events created by natural processes, statistics, and anony- verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly mous forces such as crowds. These poems included “T 3.1. W. H. AUDEN 21

the Great”, “The Maker”, and the title poem of his next collection Homage to Clio (1960).[8][31]

Later work, 1958–73

In the late 1950s Auden’s style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria, he wrote “Good- bye to the Mezzogiorno"; other poems from this period include “Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem”, a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting “Dame Kind”, about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared in Homage to Clio (1960).[8][31] His prose book The Dyer’s Hand (1962) gathered many Auden in 1970 of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s.[31] Reputation and influence While translating the haiku and other verse in Dag Ham- marskjöld's Markings, Auden began using haiku for many Auden’s stature in modern literature has been disputed, of his poems.[31] A sequence of fifteen poems about with opinions ranging from that of Hugh MacDiarmid, his house in Austria, “Thanksgiving for a Habitat”, ap- who called him “a complete wash-out”, to the obituarist peared in About the House (1965), with other poems in The Times (London), who wrote: “W. H. Auden, for that included his reflections on his lecture tours, “On the long the enfant terrible of English poetry . . . emerges as Circuit”.[8] In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most its undisputed master.”[50] vigorous poems, including “River Profile” and two po- In his enfant terrible stage in the 1930s he was both ems that looked back over his life, “Prologue at Sixty” praised and dismissed as a progressive and accessible and “Forty Years On”. All these appeared in City With- voice, in contrast to the politically nostalgic and poetically out Walls (1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic leg- obscure voice of T. S. Eliot. His departure for Amer- end culminated in his verse translation of The Elder Edda ica in 1939 was hotly debated in Britain (once even in (1969).[8][31] Parliament), with some critics treating it as a betrayal, He was commissioned in 1963 to write lyrics for the and the role of influential young poet passed to Dylan Broadway musical Man of La Mancha, but the producer Thomas, although defenders such as Geoffrey Grigson, rejected them as insufficiently romantic.[47] In 1971 in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern po- Secretary-General of the United Nations U Thant com- etry, wrote that Auden “arches over all”. His stature missioned Auden to write the words, and Pablo Casals to was suggested by book titles such as Auden and After compose the music, for a “Hymn to the United Nations”, by Francis Scarfe (1942) and The Auden Generation by but the work had no official status.[49] Samuel Hynes (1972).[5] A Certain World: A Commonplace Book (1970) was a In the US, starting in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations tone of Auden’s regular stanzas set the style for a whole with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by sub- generation of poets; John Ashbery recalled that in the ject. His last prose book was a selection of essays and 1940s Auden “was the modern poet”.[50] His manner was reviews, Forewords and Afterwords (1973).[10] His last so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of books of verse, Epistle to a Godson (1972) and the un- the Beat Generation was partly a reaction against his in- finished Thank You, Fog (published posthumously, 1974) fluence. In the 1950s and 1960s, some writers (notably include reflective poems about language (“Natural Lin- Philip Larkin and Randall Jarrell) lamented that Auden’s guistics”) and about his own ageing (“A New Year Greet- work had declined from its earlier promise.[50][51] Auden ing”, “Talking to Myself”, “A Lullaby” ["The din of work was one of three candidates recommended by the No- is subdued"]). His last completed poem was “Archaeol- bel Committee to the Swedish Academy for the Nobel ogy”, about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes Prize in Literature in 1963[52] and six recommended for in his later years.[31] the 1964 prize.[53] 22 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

3.1.3 Published works

The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, see W. H. Auden bibliography. In the list below, works reprinted in the Complete Works of W. H. Auden are indicated by footnote references.

Books

Commemorative plaque at one of Auden’s homes in Brooklyn • Poems (London, 1930; second edn., seven poems Heights, New York substituted, London, 1933; includes poems and Paid on Both Sides: A Charade[44]) (dedicated to Christopher Isherwood).

• The Orators: An English Study (London, 1932, verse and prose; slightly revised edn., London, 1934; revised edn. with new preface, London, 1966; New York 1967) (dedicated to Stephen Spender).

• The Dance of Death (London, 1933, play)[44] (dedicated to Robert Medley and Rupert Doone).

• Poems (New York, 1934; contains Poems [1933 edition], The Orators [1932 edition], and The Dance of Death).

• The Dog Beneath the Skin (London, New York, 1935; play, with Christopher Isherwood)[44] (dedi- Roadsign to Auden’s house in Kirchstetten, now a museum cated to Robert Moody).

• The Ascent of F6 (London, 1936; 2nd edn., 1937; New York, 1937; play, with Christopher By the time of Auden’s death in 1973 he had attained the Isherwood)[44] (dedicated to John Bicknell Auden). status of a respected elder statesman. The Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that “by the time of Eliot’s death in 1965 • Look, Stranger! (London, 1936, poems; US edn., ... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that On This Island, New York, 1937) (dedicated to Auden was indeed Eliot’s successor, as Eliot had inherited Erika Mann) sole claim to supremacy when Yeats died in 1939.”[54] With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his • Letters from Iceland (London, New York, 1937; early work as his best, while American critics tended to verse and prose, with Louis MacNeice)[45] (dedi- favour his middle and later work. Unlike other modern cated to George Augustus Auden). poets, his reputation did not decline after his death, and Joseph Brodsky wrote that his was “the greatest mind of • On the Frontier (London, 1938; New York 1939; the twentieth century”.[7] play, with Christopher Isherwood)[44] (dedicated to A memorial stone for Auden was placed in Poets’ Corner Benjamin Britten). in Westminster Abbey in 1974.[55] • Journey to a War (London, New York, 1939; verse Public recognition of Auden’s work sharply increased af- and prose, with Christopher Isherwood)[45] (dedi- ter his “Funeral Blues” (“Stop all the clocks”) was read cated to E. M. Forster). aloud in the ﬁlm Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems, Tell • Another Time (London, New York 1940; poetry) Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. (dedicated to Chester Kallman). After 11 September 2001 his 1939 poem “September 1, 1939” was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.[50] • The Double Man (New York, 1941, poems; UK Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US edn., New Year Letter, London, 1941) (Dedicated in 2007 marked his centenary year.[56] to Elizabeth Mayer). 3.1. W. H. AUDEN 23

• For the Time Being (New York, 1944; London, Film scripts and opera libretti 1945; two long poems: "The Sea and the Mirror:A Commentary on Shakespeare’s The Tempest", dedi- • Coal Face (1935, closing chorus for GPO Film Unit cated to James and Tania Stern, and "For the Time documentary).[44] Being: A Christmas Oratorio”, in memoriam Con- • Night Mail (1936, narrative for GPO Film Unit doc- stance Rosalie Auden [Auden’s mother]). umentary, not published separately except as a pro- [44] • The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden (New York, gram note). 1945; includes new poems) (dedicated to Christo- • Paul Bunyan (1941, libretto for operetta by pher Isherwood and Chester Kallman). Benjamin Britten; not published until 1976).[47] • The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (New York, • The Rake’s Progress (1951, with Chester Kallman, 1947; London, 1948; verse; won the 1948 Pulitzer libretto for an opera by Igor Stravinsky).[47] Prize for Poetry) (dedicated to John Betjeman). • Elegy for Young Lovers (1956, with Chester Kall- • Collected Shorter Poems, 1930–1944 (London, man, libretto for an opera by Hans Werner 1950; similar to 1945 Collected Poetry) (dedicated Henze).[47] to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman). • The Bassarids (1961, with Chester Kallman, libretto • The Enchafèd Flood (New York, 1950; London, for an opera by Hans Werner Henze based on The [57] 1951; prose) (dedicated to Alan Ansen). Bacchae of Euripides).[47] • Nones (New York, 1951; London, 1952; poems) • Runner (1962, documentary ﬁlm narrative for (dedicated to Reinhold and Ursula Niebuhr) National Film Board of Canada) • The Shield of Achilles (New York, London, 1955; • Love’s Labour’s Lost (1973, with Chester Kallman, poems) (won the 1956 National Book Award libretto for an opera by Nicolas Nabokov, based on for Poetry)[58] (dedicated to Lincoln and Fidelma Shakespeare’s play).[47] Kirstein).

• Homage to Clio (New York, London, 1960; poems) Musical collaborations (dedicated to E. R. and A. E. Dodds). • Our Hunting Fathers (1936, song cycle written for • The Dyer’s Hand (New York, 1962; London, 1963; Benjamin Britten) essays) (dedicated to Nevill Coghill).[59] • An Evening of Elizabethan Verse and its Music (1954 • About the House (New York, London, 1965; poems) recording with the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, (dedicated to Edmund and Elena Wilson). director Noah Greenberg; Auden spoke the verse texts) • Collected Shorter Poems 1927–1957 (London, 1966; New York, 1967) (dedicated to Christopher Isher- • The Play of Daniel (1958, verse narration for a pro- wood and Chester Kallman). duction by the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, director Noah Greenberg)[47] • Collected Longer Poems (London, 1968; New York, 1969). 3.1.4 Notes • Secondary Worlds (London, New York, 1969; [60] prose) (dedicated to Valerie Eliot). [1] The name Wystan derives from the 9th-century St Wys- • City Without Walls and Other Poems (London, New tan, who was murdered by Beorhtfrith, the son of Beorhtwulf, king of Mercia, after Wystan objected to Be- York, 1969) (dedicated to Peter Heyworth). orhtfrith’s plan to marry Wystan’s mother. His remains • A Certain World: A Commonplace Book (New York, were reburied at Repton, Derbyshire, where they became the object of a cult; the parish church of Repton is named London, 1970; quotations with commentary) (dedi- [61] St Wystan’s. Auden’s father, George Augustus Auden, cated to Geoﬀrey Grigson). was educated at Repton School. • Epistle to a Godson and Other Poems (London, New [2] The ﬁrst syllable of “Auden” rhymes with “law” (not with York, 1972) (dedicated to Orlan Fox). “how”).

• Forewords and Afterwords (New York, London, [3] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2002). Prose, 1973; essays) (dedicated to Hannah Arendt). Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 478. ISBN 0-691-08935-3. Auden used the • Thank You, Fog: Last Poems (London, New York, phrase “Anglo-American Poets” in 1943, implicitly refer- 1974) (dedicated to Michael and Marny Yates). ring to himself and T. S. Eliot. 24 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

[4] The first definition of “Anglo-American” in the OED [20] Wright, Hugh, “Auden and Gresham’s” in Conference & (2008 revision) is: “Of, belonging to, or involving both Common Room, Vol. 44, No. 2, Summer 2007 online at England (or Britain) and America.” “Oxford English Dic- schoolsearch.co.uk (accessed 25 April 2008) tionary (access by subscription)". Retrieved 25 May 2009. See also the definition “English in origin or birth, Amer- [21] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell (1994). Juve- ican by settlement or citizenship” in Chambers 20th Cen- nilia: Poems, 1922–1928. Princeton: Princeton Univer- tury Dictionary. 1983. p. 45. See also the definition “an sity Press. ISBN 0-691-03415-X. American, especially a citizen of the United States, of En- glish origin or descent” in Merriam Webster’s New Interna- [22] The Old School: Essays by Divers Hands (London: tional Dictionary, Second Edition. 1961. p. 103. See also Jonathan Cape, 1934) title details at books.google.com the definition “a native or descendant of a native of Eng- [23] Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: land who has settled in or become a citizen of America, Heinemann. pp. ch. 3. ISBN 0-434-17507-2. esp. of the United States” from The Random House Dic- tionary, 2009, available online at “Dictionary.com”. Re- [24] Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New trieved 25 May 2009. York: Random House. p. 69. ISBN 0-394-48359-6.

[5] Smith, Stan, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to [25] Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: W. H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 35. ISBN 0-374-18408- ISBN 0-521-82962-3. 9. [6] Academy of American Poets. “W. H. Auden”. Retrieved [26] Mendelson, Edward (1981). Early Auden. New York: 21 January 2007. Viking. ISBN 0-670-28712-1. [7] Brodksy, Joseph (1986). Less Than One: selected essays. [27] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (1996). Prose New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 357. ISBN and travel books in prose and verse, Volume I: 1926–1938. 0-374-18503-4. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 138. ISBN 0- [8] Fuller, John (1998). W. H. Auden: a commentary. Lon- 691-06803-8. don: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19268-8. [28] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Nicholas [9] “W. H. Auden – “Family Ghosts""". Retrieved 18 Jenkins (1995). In Solitude, For Company: W. H. Auden November 2012. after 1940, unpublished prose and recent criticism (Auden Studies 3). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19- [10] Carpenter, Humphrey (1981). W. H. Auden: A Biog- 818294-5. raphy. London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04- 928044-9. [29] Lissner, Will (2 March 1956), “Poet and Judge Assist a Samaritan”, New York Times: 1, 39, retrieved 26 May [11] Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: 2013 Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-17507-2. [30] Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: [12] Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. “Auden, Wys- Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 46. ISBN 0-374-18408- tan Hugh” (Subscription access only). Retrieved 21 Jan- 9. uary 2007. [31] Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: [13] In “Letter to Lord Byron” he names the saga character Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-18408-9. Auðun Skökull as one of his ancestors. [32] Tippins, Sherrill (2005). February House: The Story of [14] Mendelson, Edward (January 2011). “Auden, Wystan W. H. Auden, Carson McCullers, Jane and Paul Bowles, Hugh (1907–1973)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biog- Benjamin Britten, and Gypsy Rose Lee, Under One Roof raphy: online edition. Oxford University Press. Retrieved In Wartime America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 26 May 2013. 0-618-41911-X. [15] Auden, W. H; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Nicholas Jenkins (1995). In Solitude, For Company: W. H. Auden [33] Pike, James A., ed., (1956). Modern Canterbury Pilgrims. after 1940, unpublished prose and recent criticism (Auden New York: Morehouse-Gorham. p. 42. Studies 3). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 193. ISBN 0-19- [34] Kirsch, Arthur (2005). Auden and Christianity. New 818294-5. Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10814-1. [16] Auden, W. H. (1993). The Prolific and the Devourer. New [35] Allen, Liam (2 March 2007). “BBC report on release of York: Ecco. p. 10. ISBN 0-88001-345-1. MI5 file on Auden”. BBC News. Retrieved 6 January [17] Harry Blamires, A Guide to twentieth century literature in 2010. English (1983), p. 130 [36] Mendelson, Edward. “Clouseau Investigates Auden”. [18] Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New York: Random House. p. 517. ISBN 0-394-48359-6. [37] Clark, Thekla (1995). Wystan and Chester: a personal memoir of W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman. London: [19] The Times, 5 July 1922 (Issue 43075), p. 12, col. D Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17591-0. 3.1. W. H. AUDEN 25

[38] Davenport-Hines, Richard (1995). Auden. London: [55] “Famous People & the Abbey: Wystan Hugh Auden”. Re- Heinemann. p. 137. ISBN 0-434-17507-2. trieved 26 May 2013.

[39] Auden, W. H. (1966). Collected Shorter Poems, 1927– [56] The W. H. Auden Society. “The Auden Centenary 2007”. 1957. London: Faber and Faber. p. 15. ISBN 0-571- Retrieved 20 January 2007. 06878-2. [57] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2008). Prose, [40] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (1979). Selected Volume III: 1949–1955. Princeton: Princeton University Poems, new edition. New York: Vintage Books. xix–xx. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13326-3. ISBN 0-394-72506-9. [58] “National Book Awards – 1956”. National Book Founda- [41] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell (1994). Juve- tion. Retrieved 2012-02-27. nilia: Poems, 1922–1928. Princeton: Princeton Univer- (With acceptance speech by Auden and essay by Megan sity Press. ISBN 0-691-03415-X. Snyder-Camp from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog.) [42] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2002). Prose, [59] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2010). Prose, Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University Volume IV: 1956–1962. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0-691-08935-3. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14755-0. [43] Auden, W. H. and Christopher Isherwood; ed. by Edward Mendelson (1988). Plays and other dramatic writings by [60] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2015). Prose, W. H. Auden, 1928–1938. Princeton: Princeton Univer- Volume V: 1963-1968. Princeton: Princeton University sity Press. xxi. ISBN 0-691-06740-6. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-151717.

[44] Auden, W. H. and Christopher Isherwood; ed. by Edward [61] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2015). Prose, Mendelson (1988). Plays and other dramatic writings by Volume VI: 1969-1973. Princeton: Princeton University W. H. Auden, 1928–1938. Princeton: Princeton Univer- Press. ISBN 978-0-691-164588. sity Press. ISBN 0-691-06740-6. [45] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (1996). Prose 3.1.5 References and travel books in prose and verse, Volume I: 1926– 1938. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0- See also: Category:Poetry by W. H. Auden, 691-06803-8. Category:Books by W. H. Auden, Category:Plays [46] Auden, W. H. (1973). Forewords and Afterwords. New by W. H. Auden and Category:Libretti by W. H. Auden York: Random House. p. 68. ISBN 0-394-48359-6.

[47] Auden, W. H. and Chester Kallman; ed. by Edward Mendelson (1993). Libretti and other dramatic writings Printed sources by W. H. Auden, 1939–1973. Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press. ISBN 0-691-03301-3. See also the listings on the criticism page at the W. H. [48] Auden, W. H.; ed. by Edward Mendelson (2002). Prose, Auden Society web site. In the list below, unless noted, Volume II: 1939–1948. Princeton: Princeton University publication data and ISBN refer to the ﬁrst editions; many Press. ISBN 0-691-08935-3. titles are also available in later reprints.

[49] “United Nations – Fact Sheet # 9: “Does the UN have a hymn or national anthem?" (PDF). Archived from the Bibliography original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 26 May 2013. • Bloomfield, B. C., and Edward Mendelson (1972). [50] Sansom, Ian (2004). “Auden and Influence”. In Stan W. H. Auden: A Bibliography 1924–1969. Char- Smith. The Cambridge Companion to W. H. Auden. Cam- lottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0- bridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 226–39. ISBN 8139-0395-5. See post-1969 supplements in Auden 0-521-82962-3. Studies series listed below. [51] Haffenden, John (1983). W. H. Auden: The Critical Her- itage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100- General biographical and critical studies 9350-0.

[52] “Candidates for the 1963 Nobel Prize in Literature”. No- • Carpenter, Humphrey (1981). W. H. Auden: A Bi- bel Prize. 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2014. ography. London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN [53] “Candidates for the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature”. No- 0-04-928044-9. bel Prize. 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015. • Clark, Thekla (1995). Wystan and Chester: A Per- [54] “Encyclopaedia Britannica Article: W. H. Auden”. Re- sonal Memoir of W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman. trieved 23 February 2008. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17591-0. 26 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

• Davenport-Hines, Richard (1996). Auden. London: • Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-17507-2. Nicholas Jenkins (1994). “The Language of Learn- ing and the Language of Love": uncollected writings, • Farnan, Dorothy J. (1984). Auden in Love. New new interpretations (Auden Studies 2). Oxford: Ox- York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-50418-5. ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-812257-8.

• Fuller, John (1998). W. H. Auden: A Commentary. • Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19268-8. Nicholas Jenkins (1995). “In Solitude, For Com- pany": W. H. Auden after 1940: unpublished prose • Mendelson, Edward (1981). Early Auden. New and recent criticism (Auden Studies 3). Oxford: Ox- York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-28712-1. ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-818294-5. • Mendelson, Edward (1999). Later Auden. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374- 18408-9. 3.1.6 External links

• Smith, Stan, ed. (2005). The Cambridge Compan- See also the descriptive list on the links page at the W. H. ion to W. H. Auden. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Auden Society web site. versity Press. ISBN 0-521-82962-3. • Archival material relating to W. H. Auden listed at • Spears, Monroe K. (1963). The Poetry of W. H. Au- the UK National Archives den: The Disenchanted Island. New York: Oxford University Press. • Works by W. H. Auden at Open Library • Spender, Stephen, ed. (1975). W. H. Auden: A • Works by or about W. H. Auden in libraries Tribute. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN (WorldCat catalog) 0-297-76884-0. • “The W. H. Auden Society”. Retrieved 21 January • Wright, George T. (1969; rev. ed. 1981). W. H. 2007. Auden. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 0-8057-7346-0. • “Fourteen poems by Auden (Academy of American Poets site)". Retrieved 20 January 2007. Special topics • “Auden reads “On Reading a Child’s Guide to Mod- • Haﬀenden, John, ed. (1983). W. H. Auden: The ern Physics"". Retrieved 21 January 2007. Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9350-0. Selected reviews of • Michael Newman (Spring 1974). “W. H. Auden, Auden’s books and plays. The Art of Poetry No. 17”. Paris Review. Retrieved 21 January 2007. • Kirsch, Arthur (2005). Auden and Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300- • Fenton, James (3 February 2007). ""A voice of his 10814-1. own”, The Guardian, 3 Feb. 2007”. London. Re- trieved 3 February 2007. • Mitchell, Donald (1981), Britten and Auden in the Thirties: the year 1936. London: Faber and Faber. • Bucknell, Katherine (4 February 2007). ""In praise ISBN 0-571-11715-5. of a guilty genius”, The Observer, 4 Feb. 2007”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 6 February 2007. • Myers, Alan, and Robert Forsythe (1999), W. H. Auden: Pennine Poet . Nenthead: North Pennines • “W. H. Auden at Swarthmore”. Retrieved 20 Jan- Heritage Trust. ISBN 0-9513535-7-8. Pamphlet uary 2007. with map and gazetteer. • "The W. H. Auden Society Newsletter". Retrieved 21 January 2007. Auden Studies series • “Kindred Britain (extensive genealogical website • Auden, W. H.; ed. by Katherine Bucknell and originally focused on Auden)". Retrieved 18 Nicholas Jenkins (1990) “The Map of All My Youth": November 2012. early works, friends and inﬂuences (Auden Studies 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- • Yale College Lecture on W.H. Auden – audio, video 812964-5. and full transcripts from Open Yale Courses 3.2. MUSÉE DES BEAUX ARTS (POEM) 27

its collection of Early Netherlandish painting. Auden visited the Musée and would have seen a number of works by the "Old Masters" of his second line, including Pieter Bruegel the Elder (ca. 1525–1569).

3.2.1 Synopsis

Auden’s free verse poem is divided into two parts, the first of which describes scenes of “suffering” and “dreadful martyrdom” which rarely break into our quotidian rou- tines: “While someone else is eating or opening a win- dow or just walking dully / along.” The second half of the poem refers, through the poetic device of ekphrasis, to the painting Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (ca. 1560s), at the time thought to be by Bruegel, but now usually regarded as an early copy of a lost work. Au- den’s description allows us to visualise this specific moment and instance of the indifference of the world to suffering, “how everything turns away / Quite leisurely from the disaster ... the white legs disappearing into the green.” The disaster in question is the fall of Icarus, caused by his flying too close to the sun and melting his waxen wings. Auden achieves much in the poem, not only with his long and irregular lines, rhythms, and vernacular phras- ing (“dogs go on with their doggy life”), but also with this balance between what appear to be general examples The Auden collection where the poem first appeared in book form “About suffering” and a specific example of a mythical boy’s fall into the sea. Auden scholars and art historians have suggested that the first part of the poem also relies on at least two additional paintings by Bruegel which Au- den would have seen in the same second-floor gallery of the museum.[4] These identifications are based on a not quite exact, but nonetheless evocative, series of corre- spondences between details in the paintings and Auden’s language. However, none show a “martyrdom” in the usual sense, suggesting that other works are also evoked. The Bruegels are presented below in the order in which they appear to relate Auden’s lines.

Landscape with the Fall of Icarus in the Musée des Beaux Arts 3.2.2 Bruegel’s inﬂuence

lines 5–8: 3.2 Musée des Beaux Arts (poem) Bruegel’s The Census at Bethlehem (catalogued at the Musée as “Le dénombrement de Bethléem”)[5] of 1566 "Musée des Beaux Arts" (French for “Museum of Fine was acquired by the Musée in 1902. Scott Horton noted Arts”) is a poem written by W. H. Auden in Decem- that it would be a mistake to only look to the Icarus paint- ber 1938 while he was staying in Brussels, Belgium with ing when explaining Auden’s poem, for “The bulk of the Christopher Isherwood.[1] It was ﬁrst published under the poem is clearly about a diﬀerent painting, in fact it’s the title “Palais des beaux arts” (Palace of Fine Arts) in the museum’s prize possession: The Census at Bethlehem.” Spring 1939 issue of New Writing, a modernist mag- [6] The painting depicts Mary and Joseph center right, azine edited by John Lehmann.[2] It next appeared in she on a donkey bundled up for the snow of Bruegel’s the collected volume of verse Another Time (New York: Flanders, and he leading with a red hat and long carpen- Random House, 1940), which was followed four months ter’s saw over his shoulder. They are surrounded by many later by the English edition (London: Faber and Faber, other people: “someone else ... eating or opening a win- 1940).[3] The poem’s title derives from the Musées Roy- dow or just walking dully / along.”[7] And there are chil- aux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique in Brussels, famous for dren “On a pond at the edge of the wood” spinning tops 28 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

run its course” (the innocent boys of Herod’s wrath are traditionally considered the first of the Christian martyrs). We can see five of those dogs of Auden’s poem going about their business and an approximation of “the torturer’s horse / Scratches its innocent behind on a tree.” Kinney claims “Only one torturer’s horse stands near a tree, however, and he is unable to rub against it because another soldier, with a battering ram, is standing between the horse and the tree ... Yet this must be the horse Au- den has in mind, since it is the only torturer’s horse in Bruegel’s work, and the only painting with horses near trees.”[9] lines 14–21: Bruegel,The Census at Bethlehem, 1566 Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (catalogued at the Musée as “La Chute d’Icare”)[8] was acquired in 1912. This is the only known example of Bruegel’s use of a and lacing on their skates. scene from mythology, and he bases his figures and land- lines 9–13: scape quite closely on the myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus as told by Ovid in his Metamorphoses 8, 183–235. The painting which Auden saw was thought until recently to be by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, though it is still believed to be based on a lost original of his.[10] The painting portrays several men and a ship peacefully performing daily activities in a charming landscape. While this occurs, Icarus is visible in the bottom right hand corner of the picture, his legs splayed at absurd angles, drown- ing in the water. There is also a Flemish proverb (of the sort imaged in other works by Bruegel): “And the farmer continued to plough...” (En de boer ... hij ploegde voort”) pointing out the ignorance of people to fellow men’s suffering.[11]

Bruegel, The Massacre of the Innocents, 1565-7 3.2.3 Cultural legacy

The Massacre of the Innocents (catalogued at the Musée Some years after Auden wrote this poem, William Carlos as “Le Massacre des Innocents”)[8] is a copy by Pieter Williams wrote a poem titled "Landscape with the Fall of Bruegel the Younger (1565–1636) of his father’s origi- Icarus" about the same painting. nal dated to 1565–7 (illustrated). The Musée acquired it This poem and the painting Landscape with the Fall of in 1830. The scene depicted, again in a wintry Flanders Icarus appear side-by-side 22 minutes into the 1976 ﬁlm, landscape, is recounted in Matthew 2:16–18: Herod the The Man Who Fell to Earth, starring David Bowie. Great, when told that a king would be born to the Jews, ordered the Magi to alert him when the king was found. The Magi, warned by an angel, did not and so, “When 3.2.4 References Herod realized that he had been outwitted by the Magi, he was furious, and he gave orders to kill all the boys in [1] For the chronology of Auden’s composition of the poem Bethlehem and its vicinity who were two years old and see Edward Mendelson, Early Auden, New York: Viking, under.” In relation to the Census painting then we can see 1981. pp. 346–8 and pp. 362–4. why the children of Auden’s poem “did not specially want it [the miraculous birth] to happen.” [2] See Andrew Thacker, “Auden and Little Magazines,” in Both this scene and the earlier are used by Bruegel to Tony Sharpe (ed.), W.H. Auden in Context, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp. 337–346, esp. p. make a political comment on the Spanish Habsburg rulers 339. of Flanders at the time (note the Habsburg coat of arms on the right front of the main building in the Census and [3] For the full bibliography see B.C. Bloomﬁeld and Ed- the Spanish troops in red in The Massacre arresting peas- ward Mendelson, W.H. Auden, a Bibliography, 1924– ants and knocking down doors). With respect to Auden’s 1969. 2nd edition. Charlottesville: University Press of language we can see here “the dreadful martyrdom must Virginia, 1972. pp. 40–45. 3.3. EKPHRASIS 29

[4] The ﬁrst apparently to note these other works was Kinney, Arthur F. (April 1963). “Auden, Bruegel, and 'Musée des Beaux Arts’". College English 24 (7): 529–531. doi:10.2307/372881.

[5] See the online catalog of the Musée(search by artiste: Bruegel, or titre: Le dénombrement de Bethléem)

[6] Scott Horton, “Auden’s Musée des Beaux Arts,” Harper’s Magazine, 30 November 2008.

[7] See the interesting discussion of the painting produced by the BBC as part of their Private Life of a Christmas Mas- terpiece” series.

[8] Musée

[9] Kinney 1963, p. 530.

[10] The Musée catalog reads: “On doute que l'exécution soit de Pieter I Bruegel mais la conception lui est par contre attribuée avec certitude” (“It is doubtful if the execution is by Breugel the Elder, but the composition can be said with certainty to be his”). See also: JSTOR Lyckle de Vries, Bruegel’s “Fall of Icarus": Ovid or Solomon?, Simi- olus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 30, No. 1/2 (2003), pp. 4–18. And for a scientiﬁc study of the canvas see: JSTOR Mark J. Y. Van Strydonck et al., “Radiocarbon Dating of Canvas Paintings: Two Case Studies”, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 43, No. 4 (1998), pp. 209–214.

[11] Hunt, Patrick. “Ekphrasis or Not? Ovid (Met. 8.183–235 “The presence that thus rose so strangely beside the waters, is ex- ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with the Fall of pressive of what in the ways of a thousand years men had come to Icarus”. Philolog Blog by Patrick Hunt, posted 9 Novem- desire. Hers is the head upon which all “the ends of the world are ber 2005. come,” and the eyelids are a little weary. It is a beauty wrought out from within upon the flesh, the deposit, little cell by cell, of strange thoughts and fantastic reveries and exquisite passions. 3.2.5 External links Set it for a moment beside one of those white Greek goddesses or beautiful women of antiquity, and how would they be trou- • Authorized text of poem at Emory.edu bled by this beauty, into which the soul with all its maladies has passed! All the thoughts and experience of the world have etched • Analysis of poem at PoetryPages and moulded there, in that which they have of power to refine and make expressive the outward form, the animalism of Greece, the lust of Rome, the reverie of the middle age with its spiritual am- bition and imaginative loves, the return of the Pagan world, the 3.3 Ekphrasis sins of the Borgias. She is older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned Ekphrasis or ecphrasis, from the Greek description of the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in deep seas, and a work of art, possibly imaginary, produced as a rhetori- keeps their fallen day about her; and trafficked for strange webs cal exercise;[1] often used in adjectival form, ekphrastic. with Eastern merchants: and, as Leda, was the mother of Helen A graphic, often dramatic, description of a visual work of Troy, and, as Saint Anne, the mother of Mary; and all this of art. In ancient times, it referred to a description of has been to her but as the sound of lyres and flutes, and lives only in the delicacy with which it has moulded the changing lin- any thing, person, or experience. The word comes from eaments, and tinged the eyelids and the hands. The fancy of a the Greek ek and phrasis, 'out' and 'speak' respectively, perpetual life, sweeping together ten thousand experiences, is an verb ekphrazein, to proclaim or call an inanimate object old one; and modern thought has conceived the idea of human- by name. ity as wrought upon by, and summing up in itself, all modes of thought and life. Certainly Lady Lisa might stand as the embodi- ment of the old fancy, the symbol of the modern idea.” The Mona 3.3.1 Definition Lisa described by Walter Pater

According to the Poetry Foundation, “an ekphrastic poem is a vivid description of a scene or, more commonly, a Ekphrasis has been considered generally to be a rhetorical work of art.”[2] More generally, an ekphrastic poem is a device in which one medium of art tries to relate to an- poem inspired or stimulated by a work of art. other medium by deﬁning and describing its essence and 30 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

form, and in doing so, relate more directly to the audi- his attempt to achieve perfection in his work, that was to ence, through its illuminative liveliness. A descriptive manifest itself in ekphrasis at a later stage. work of prose or poetry, a film, or even a photograph Artists began to use their own literary and artistic genre may thus highlight through its rhetorical vividness what of art to work and reflect on another art to illuminate what is happening, or what is shown in, say, any of the visual the eye might not see in the original, to elevate it and pos- arts, and in doing so, may enhance the original art and so sibly even surpass it. take on a life of its own through its brilliant description. One example is a painting of a sculpture: the painting is “telling the story of” the sculpture, and so becoming a Plato and Aristotle storyteller, as well as a story (work of art) itself. Virtually any type of artistic medium may be the actor of, or sub- For Plato (and Aristotle), it is not so much the form of ject of ekphrasis. One may not always be able, for exam- each bed but the mimetic stages or removes at which beds ple, to make an accurate sculpture of a book to retell the may be viewed, that defines bedness : story in an authentic way; yet if it’s the spirit of the book that we are more concerned about, it certainly can be con- 1. a bed as a physical entity is a mere form of bed veyed by virtually any medium and thereby enhance the 2. any view from whichever perspective, be it a side el- artistic impact of the original book through synergy. evation, a full panoramic view from above, or look- In this way, a painting may represent a sculpture, and vice ing at a bed end-on is at a second remove versa; a poem portray a picture; a sculpture depict a hero- ine of a novel; in fact, given the right circumstances, any 3. a full picture, characterising the whole bed is at a art may describe any other art, especially if a rhetorical third remove element, standing for the sentiments of the artist when 4. ekphrasis of a bed in another art form is at a fourth she/he created her/his work, is present. For instance, the remove distorted faces in a crowd in a painting depicting an original work of art, a sullen countenance on the face of a sculpture representing a historical figure, or a film show- Socrates and Phaedrus ing particularly dark aspects of neo-Gothic architecture, are all examples of ekphrasis. In another instance, Socrates talks about ekphrasis to Phaedrus thus: “You know, Phaedrus, that is the strange thing about writ- 3.3.2 History of ekphrasis ing, which makes it truly correspond to painting. The painter’s products stand before us as though they Plato’s Forms, the beginning of ekphrasis were alive, but if you question them, they maintain a most majestic Plato discusses forms in the Republic, Book X, by using silence. real things, such as a bed, for example, and calls each It is the same with written words; they seem to talk way a bed has been made, a “bedness”. He commences to you as if they were intelligent, but if you ask them any- with the original form of a bed, one of a variety of ways a thing bed may have been constructed by a craftsman and com- about what they say, from a desire to be instructed, pares that form with an ideal form of a bed, of a perfect they go on telling you just the same thing forever”.[3] archetype or image in the form of which beds ought to be made, in short the epitome of bedness. 3.3.3 Ekphrasis genre In his analogy, one bedness form shares its own bedness - with all its shortcomings - with that of the ideal form, or Ekphrastic Poetry template. A third bedness, too, may share the ideal form. He continues with the fourth form also containing ele- Ekphrasis may be encountered as early as the days of ments of the ideal template/archetype which in this way Homer whose Iliad (Book 18) describes the Shield of remains an ever-present and invisible ideal version with Achilles, with how Hephaestus made it as well as its com- which the craftsman compares his work. As bedness af- pleted shape.[4] Famous later examples include Virgil's ter bedness shares the ideal form and template of all cre- Aeneid when he describes what Aeneas sees engraved on ation of beds, and each bedness is associated with another the doors of Carthage's temple of Juno, and Catullus 64, ad infinitum, it is called an “infinite regress of forms”. which contains an extended ekphrasis of an imaginary coverlet with the story of Ariadne picked out on it. From form to ekphrasis Ekphrastic poetry flourished in the Romantic era and again among the pre-Raphaelite poets, but is still com- It was this epitome, this template of the ideal form, that monly practised. A major poem of the English Ro- a craftsman or later an artist would try to reconstruct in mantics -- Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats— fur- 3.3. EKPHRASIS 31

nishes us with a beautiful example of the artistic poten- book in which it appears. In the chapter “The Spouter tial of ekphrasis. The entire poem is a description of a Inn”, a painting hanging on the wall of a whaler’s inn piece of pottery that the narrator finds immensely evoca- is described as irreconcilably unclear, overscrawled with tive. Later, distinctive uses of the device can be found in smoke and defacements. The narrator, so-called Ishmael, Rainer Maria Rilke's “Archaïscher Torso Apollos”.[5] describes how this painting can be both lacking any defi- The Shield of Achilles (1952), a poem by W.H. Auden,[4] nition and still provoking in the viewer dozens of distinct brings the tradition back to its start with an ironic retelling possible understandings, until the great mass of interpre- of the episode in Homer (see above), where Thetis finds tations resolves into a Whale, which grounds all the interpretations while containing them, an indication of how very different scenes from those she expects. In contrast, his earlier poem Musée des Beaux Arts describes a par- Melville sees his own book unfolding around this chapter. ticular real and very famous painting Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, thought until recently to be by rather than In Pérez Galdós’s Our Friend Manso (1882), the narrator after Pieter Brueghel the Elder, which is also described describes two paintings by Théodore Géricault to point in the poem by William Carlos Williams Landscape with to the shipwreck of ideals; while in La incógnita (1889), the Fall of Icarus. there are many allusions and descriptions of Italian art, including references to Botticelli, Mantegna, Masaccio, Raphael, Titian, etc. Ekphrasis in literature In Ibsen's 1888 work The Lady from the Sea, the first act begins with the description of a painting of a mermaid The fullest example of ekphrasis in antiquity can be found dying on the shore and is followed by a description of a in Philostratus of Lemnos' Eikones which describes 64 sculpture that depicts a woman having a nightmare of an pictures in a Neapolitan villa. Ekphrasis is described in ex-lover returning to her. Both works of art can be inter- Aphthonius' Progymnasmata, his textbook of style, and preted as having much importance in the overall meaning later classical literary and rhetorical textbooks, and with of the play as protagonist Ellida Wangel both yearns for other classical literary techniques was keenly revived in her lost youth spent on an island out at sea and is later the Renaissance. in the play visited by a lover she thought dead. Further- more as an interesting example of the back-and-forth dy- In the Middle Ages, exphrasis was less often prac- namic that exists between literary ekphrasis and art, in ticed, especially as regards real objects, and historians of 1896 (eight years after the play was written) Norwegian medieval art have complained that the accounts of monas- painter Edvard Munch painted an image similar to the one tic chronicles recording now vanished art concentrate on described by Ibsen in a painting he entitled (unsurpris- objects made from valuable materials or with the status ingly enough) Lady from the Sea. Ibsen’s last work When of relics, and rarely give more than the cost and weight of We Dead Awaken also contains examples of ekphrasis as objects, and perhaps a mention of the subject matter of the play’s protagonist, Arnold Rubek, is a sculptor who the iconography. several times throughout the play describes his master- The Renaissance and Baroque periods made much use of piece “Resurrection Day” at length and in the many dif- ekphrasis. In Renaissance Italy, Canto 33 of Ariosto's ferent forms the sculpture took throughout the stages of Orlando Furioso describes a picture gallery created by its creation. Once again the evolution of the sculpture as Merlin. In Spain, Lope de Vega often used allusions and described in the play can be read as a reflection on the descriptions of Italian art in his plays, and included the transformation undergone by Rubek himself and even as painter Titian as one of his characters. Calderón de la a statement on the progression Ibsen’s own plays took as Barca also incorporated works of art in dramas such as many scholars have read this final play (stated by Ibsen The Painter of his Dishonor. Cervantes, who spent his himself to be an 'epilogue') as the playwright’s reflection youth in Italy, utilized many Renaissance frescoes and on his own work as an artist. paintings in Don Quixote and many of his other works. In The Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky employed England, Shakespeare briefly describes a group of erotic ekphrasis most notably in his novel The Idiot. In this novel paintings in Cymbeline, but his most extended exercise is the protagonist Prince Myshkin sees a painting of a dead a 200-line description of the Greek army before Troy in Christ in the house of Rogozhin that has a profound effect The Rape of Lucrece. Ekphrasis seems to have been less on him. Later in the novel another character, Hippolite, common in France during these periods. describes the painting at much length depicting the image Instances of ekphrasis in 19th century literature can be of Christ as one of brutal realism that lacks any beauty or found in the works of such influential figures as Span- sense of the divine. Rogozhin, who is himself the owner ish novelist Benito Pérez Galdós, French poet, painter of the painting, at one moment says that the painting has and novelist Théophile Gautier, Norwegian playwright the power to take away a man’s faith, a comment that Dos- Henrik Ibsen, and Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky. toyevsky himself made to his wife Anna upon seeing the Herman Mellville’s Moby Dick, or The Whale features an actual painting that the painting in the novel is based on, intense use of ekphrasis as a stylistic manifesto of the The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb by Hans Holbein. 32 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

The painting was seen shortly before Dostoyevsky began record. The inadequacy of most medieval accounts of the novel. Though this is the major instance of ekphra- art is mentioned above; they generally lack any specific sis in the novel, and the one which has the most thematic details other than cost and the owner or donor, and hy- importance to the story as a whole, other instances can perbolic but wholly vague praise. be spotted when Prince Myshkin sees a painting of Swiss Journalistic art criticism was effectively invented by Denis landscape that reminds him of a view he saw while at a Diderot in his long pieces on the works in the Paris Salon, sanatorium in Switzerland, and also when he first sees the and extended and highly pointed accounts of the major face of his love interest, Nastasya, in the form of a painted exhibitions of new art became a popular seasonal feature portrait. Nastasya too at one point in the novel describes a in the journalism of most Western countries. Since few painting of Christ, her own imaginary work that portrays if any of the works could be illustrated description and Christ with a child, an image which naturally evokes com- evocation was necessary, and the cruelty of descriptions parison between the image of the dead Christ. of works disliked became a part of the style. The Irish aesthete and novelist Oscar Wilde's The Pic- As art history began to become an academic subject in ture of Dorian Gray (1890/1891) tells how Basil Hallward the 19th century, exphrasis as formal analysis of objects paints a picture of the young man named Dorian Gray. was regarded as a vital component of the subject, and by Dorian meets Lord Henry Wotton, who espouses a new no means all examples lack attractiveness as literature. hedonism, dedicated to the pursuit of beauty and all plea- Writers on art for a wider audience produced many de- sures of the senses. Under his sway, Dorian bemoans the scriptions with great literary as well as art historical merit; fact that his youth will soon fade. He would sell his soul in English John Ruskin, both the most important journal- so as to have the portrait age rather than himself. The istic critic and popularizer of historic art of his day, and gradual deterioration of the portrait as Dorian engages in Walter Pater, above all for his famous evocation of the a debauched life, becomes a mirror of his soul. The re- Mona Lisa, are among the most notable. As photogra- peated notional ekphrasis of the deteriorating figure in the phy in books or on television allowed audiences a direct painting is a unique way to utilize this device. Anthony visual comparison to the verbal description, the role of Powell's novel sequence A Dance to the Music of Time be- ekphrasic commentary on the images was even perhaps gins with an evocation of the painting by Poussin which increased. gives the sequence its name, and contains other passages of ekphrasis, perhaps influenced by the many passages in Ekphrasis has also been an influence on art; for exam- Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu. ple the ekphrasis of the Shield of Achilles in Homer and other classical examples were certainly an inspiration for In the 20th century, Roger Zelazny's "24 Views of Mt. the elaborately decorated large serving dishes in silver or Fuji, by Hokusai" uses an ekphrastic frame, descriptions silver-gilt, crowded with complicated scenes in relief, that of Hokusai's famous series of woodcuts, as a structural were produced in 16th century Mannerist metalwork. device for his story.

Ekphrasis in, or as, art history Ekphrasis in music Since the types of objects described in classical ekphrases often lack survivors to modern times, art historians have often been tempted to use descriptions in literature as There are a number of examples of ekphrasis in music, sources for the appearance of actual Greek or Roman art, of which the best known is probably Pictures at an Ex- which is an approach full of risk. This is because ekphra- hibition, a suite in ten movements (plus a recurring, var- sis typically contains an element of competition with the ied Promenade) composed for piano by the Russian com- art it describes, aiming to demonstrate the superior ability poser Modest Mussorgsky in 1874, and then very popular of words to “paint a picture”. Many subjects of ekphra- in various arrangements for orchestra. The suite is based sis are clearly imaginary, for example those of the epics, on real pictures, although as the exhibition was dispersed, but with others it remains uncertain the extent to which most are now unidentified. they were, or were expected to be by early audiences, at The first movement of Three Places in New England all accurate. by Charles Ives is an ekphrasis of the Robert Gould This tendency is by no means restricted to classical art Shaw Memorial in Boston, sculpted by Augustus Saint- history; the evocative but vague mentions of objects in Gaudens. Ives also wrote a poem inspired by the sculp- metalwork in Beowulf are eventually always mentioned ture as a companion piece to the music.[6] Rachmaninoff's by writers on Anglo-Saxon art, and compared to the trea- symphonic poem Isle of the Dead is a musical evocation sures of Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Hoard. The of Böcklin's painting of the same name. King Crimson's ekphrasic writings of the lawyer turned bishop Asterius song "The Night Watch,” with lyrics written by Richard of Amasea (fl. around 400) are often cited by art his- Palmer-James, is an ekphrasis on Rembrandt's painting torians of the period to fill gaps in the surviving artistic The Night Watch. 3.3. EKPHRASIS 33

Notional ekphrasis • Siglind Bruhn: Musical Ekphrasis: Composers Re- sponding to Poetry and Painting. Hillsdale, NY: Notional ekphrasis may describe mental processes such Pendragon Press, 2000. ISBN 1-57647-036-9 as dreams, thoughts and whimsies of the imagination. It • may also be one art describing or depicting another work Siglind Bruhn: Musical Ekphrasis in Rilke’s Marien- of art which as yet is still in an inchoate state of creation, leben. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi Publishers, in that the work described may still be resting in the imag- 2000. ISBN 90-420-0800-8 ination of the artist before he has begun his creative work. • Siglind Bruhn: “A Concert of Paintings: ‘Musical The expression may also be applied to an art describing Ekphrasis’ in the Twentieth Century,” in Poetics To- the origin of another art, how it came to be made and day 22:3 (Herbst 2001): 551-605. ISSN 0333-5372 the circumstances of its being created. Finally it may describe an entirely imaginary and non-existing work of art, • Siglind Bruhn: Das tönende Museum: Musik inter- as though it were factual and existed in reality. pretiert Werke bildender Kunst. Waldkirch: Gorz, 2004. ISBN 3-938095-00-8 3.3.4 Other aspects • Siglind Bruhn: “Vers une méthodologie de l’ekphrasis musical,” in Sens et signification en Educational value of using ekphrasis in teaching lit- musique, ed. by Márta Grabócz and Danièle erature Piston. Paris: Hermann, 2007, 155-176. ISBN 978-2-7056-6682-8 The rationale behind using examples of ekphrasis to teach • Siglind Bruhn, ed.: Sonic Transformations of Liter- literature is that once the connection between a poem and ary Texts: From Program Music to Musical Ekphrasis a painting are recognized for example, the student’s emo- [Interplay: Music in Interdisciplinary Dialogue, vol. tional and intellectual engagement with the literary text 6]. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2008. ISBN is extended to new dimensions. The literary text takes 978-1-57647-140-1 on new meaning and there is more to respond to because another art form is being evaluated.[7] In addition, as the • Robert D. Denham: Poets on Paintings: A Bibliogra- material taught has both a visual and linguistic basis new phy. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010) ISBN 978- connections of understanding are formed in the student’s 0-7864-4725-1 brain thus creating a stronger foundation for understand- • ing, remembrance and internalization. Using ekphrasis Hermann Diels: Über die von Prokop beschriebene to teach literature can be done through the use of higher Kunstuhr von Gaza, mit einem Anhang enthaltend order thinking skills such as distinguishing different per- Text und Übersetzung der Ekphrasis horologiou de spectives, interpreting, inferring, sequencing, compare Prokopius von Gaza. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1917. and contrast and evaluating. [source?] • Barbara K Fischer: Museum Mediations: Reframing Ekphrasis in Contemporary American Poetry. New Literature examples York: Routledge, 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-97534-6 • Claude Gandelman: Reading Pictures, Viewing • Frederick A. de Armas: Ekphrasis in the Age of Texts. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Cervantes. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-253-32532-3 2005. ISBN 0-8387-5624-7 • Jean H. Hagstrum: The Sister Arts: The Tradtition of • Frederick A. de Armas: Quixotic Frescoes: Cer- Literary Pictorialism and English Poetry from Dry- vantes and Italian Renaissance Art. Toronto: den to Gray. Chicago: The University of Chicago University of Toronto Press, 2006. ISBN 978- Press, 1958. 1442610316 • James Heffernan: Museum of Words: The Poetics • Andrew Sprague Becker: The Shield of Achilles and of Ekphrasis from Homer to Ashbery. Chicago: Uni- the Poetics of Ekphrasis. Lanham, MD: Rowman & versity of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 0-226-32313- Littlefield, 1995. ISBN 0-8476-7998-5 7 • Emilie Bergman: Art Inscribed: Essays on Ekphrasis • John Hollander: The Gazer’s Spirit: Poems Speak- in Spanish Golden Age Poetry. Cambridge: Harvard ing to Silent Works of Art. Chicago: University of University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-674-04805-9 Chicago Press, 1995. ISBN 0-226-34949-7 • Gottfried Boehm and Helmut Pfotenhauer: • Gayana Jurkevich: In pursuit of the natural sign: Beschreibungskunst, Kunstbeschreibung: Ekphrasis Azorín and the poetics of Ekphrasis. Lewisburg, PA: von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. München: W. Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387- Fink, 1995. ISBN 3-7705-2966-9 5413-9 34 CHAPTER 3. MYTH, MEDIATION, AND MARVEL: AUDEN

• Mario Klarer: Ekphrasis: Bildbeschreibung als • Margaret Helen Persin: Getting the Picture: The Repräsentationstheorie bei Spenser, Sidney, Lyly und Ekphrastic Principle in Twentieth-century Spanish Shakespeare. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2001. ISBN 3- Poetry. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 484-42135-5 1997. ISBN 0-8387-5335-3

• Gisbert Kranz: Das Bildgedicht: Theorie, Lexikon, • Michael C J Putnam: Virgil’s Epic Designs: Ekphra- Bibliographie, 3 Bände. Köln: Böhlau, 1981-87. sis in the Aeneid. New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 3-412-04581-0 1998. ISBN 0-300-07353-4

• Gisbert Kranz: Meisterwerke in Bildgedichten: • Christine Ratkowitsch: Die poetische Ekphrasis von Rezeption von Kunst in der Poesie. Frankfurt: Pe- Kunstwerken: eine literarische Tradition der Gross- ter Lang, 1986. ISBN 3-8204-9091-4 dichtung in Antike, Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der • Gisbert Kranz: Das Architekturgedicht. Köln: Böh- Wissenschaften, 2006. ISBN 978-3-7001-3480-0 lau, 1988. ISBN 3-412-06387-8 • Valerie Robillard and Els Jongeneel (eds.): Pictures • Gisbert Kranz: Das Bildgedicht in Europa: Zur into Words: Theoretical and Descriptive Approaches Theorie und Geschichte einer literarischen Gattung. to Ekphrasis. Amsterdam: VU University Press, Paderborn: Schöningh, 1973. ISBN 3-506-74813- 1998. ISBN 90-5383-595-4 0 • Maria Rubins: Crossroad of Arts, Crossroad of Cul- • Murray Krieger: Ekphrasis: The Illusion of the Nat- tures: Ekphrasis in Russian and French Poetry. New ural Sign. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University York: Palgrave, 2000. ISBN 0-312-22951-8 Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8018-4266-2 • Grant F. Scott: The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphra- • Norman Land: The Viewer as Poet: The Renaissance sis, and the Visual Arts. Hanover, NH: University Response to Art. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania Press of New England, 1994. ISBN 0-87451-679- State University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-271-01004-5 X • Cecilia Lindhé, 'Bildseendet föds i ﬁngertopparna'. • Om en ekfras för den digitala tidsålder, Ekfrase. Grant F. Scott: “Ekphrasis and the Picture Gallery”, Nordisk tidskrift för visuell kultur, 2010:1, p. 4-16. in Advances in Visual Semiotics. Ed. Thomas A. ISSN Online: 1891-5760 ISSN Print: 1891-5752 Sebeok and Jean Umiker-Sebeok. New York and Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1995. 403-421. • Hans Lund: Text as Picture: Studies in the Liter- • ary Transformation of Pictures. Lewiston, NY: E. Grant F. Scott: “Copied with a Diﬀerence: Ekphra- Mellen Press, 1992 (originally published in Swedish sis in William Carlos Williams’ Pictures from as Texten som tavla, Lund 1982). ISBN 0-7734- Brueghel". Word & Image 15 (January–March 9449-9 1999): 63-75.

• Michaela J. Marek: Ekphrasis und Herrscheralle- • Mack Smith: Literary Realism and the Ekphrastic gorie: Antike Bildbeschreibungen im Werk Tizians Tradition. University Park: Pennsylvania State U und Leonardos. Worms: Werner’sche Verlagsge- Press, 1995. ISBN 0-271-01329-X sellschaft, 1985. ISBN 3-88462-035-5 • Leo Spitzer: “The ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’, or Con- • J. D. McClatchy: Poets on Painters: Essays on the Art tent vs. Metagrammar,” in Comparative Literature of Painting by Twentieth-Century Poets. Berkeley: 7. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon Press, 1955, University of California Press, 1988. ISBN 978- 203-225. 0520069718 • Ryan J. Stark, Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in • Hugo Méndez-Ramírez: Neruda’s Ekphrastic Expe- Seventeenth-Century England (Washington, DC: rience: Mural Art and Canto general. Lewisburg, The Catholic University of America Press, 2009), PA: Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387- 181-90. 5398-1 • Peter Wagner: Icons, Texts, Iconotexts: Essays on • Richard Meek: Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare. Ekphrasis and Intermediality. Berlin, New York: W. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2009. ISBN de Gruyter, 1996. ISBN 3-11-014291-0 978-0-7546-5775-0 • Haiko Wandhoﬀ: Ekphrasis: Kunstbeschreibungen • W.J.T. Mitchell: Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal und virtuelle Räume in der Literatur des Mittelalters. and Visual Representation. Chicago: University of Berlin, New York: De Gruyter, 2003. ISBN 978-3- Chicago Press, 1994. ISBN 0-226-53231-3 11-017938-5 3.3. EKPHRASIS 35

• Robert Wynne: Imaginary Ekphrasis. Columbus, OH: Pudding House Publications, 2005. ISBN 1- 58998-335-1

• Tamar Yacobi, “The Ekphrastic Figure of Speech,” in Martin Heusser et al. (eds.), Text and Visual- ity. Word and Image Interactions 3, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999, ISBN 90-420-0726-5.

• Tamar Yacobi, “Verbal Frames and Ekphrastic Fig- uration,” in Ulla-Britta Lagerroth, Hans Lund and Erik Hedling (eds.), Interart Poetics. Essays on the Interrelations of the Arts and Media, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997, ISBN 90-420-0202-6.

3.3.5 References

[1] The Chambers Dictionary, Chambers Harrap, Edinburgh 1993 ISBN 0550102558

[2] The Poetry Foundation, Glossary Terms: Ekphrasis (accessed 27 April 2015)

[3] Plato: Phaedrus 275d

[4] Munsterberg, Marjorie, Writing About Art: Ekphrasis (retrieved 27 April 2015)

[5] http://unix.cc.wmich.edu/~{}cooneys/poems/gr/Rilke. html

[6] Mortensen, Scott. “Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England - Notes”. A Charles Ives Website. Retrieved October 19, 2013.

[7] Milner, Joseph O’Beirne, and Lucy Floyd Morcock Mil- ner. Bridging English. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River: Pren- tice, 1999. pp. 162-163.

3.3.6 External links

• Discussion of Form • Essay on musical ekphrasis

• Maier Museum of Art at Randolph College Ekphrastic Poetry Web Page

• Hephaestus Starts Achilles’ Shield • Rainer Maria Rilke’s “Archaïscher Torso Apollos” with English translation • Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror, Ashbery

• Ekphrastic poem by Jared Carter on the Lorado Taft sculpture, "The Solitude of the Soul.”

• Man Lying on a Wall

• Examples of Ekphrasis verse Chapter 4

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

4.1 Text

• Daedalus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus?oldid=677287390 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Matusz, Tucci528, Kevinbasil, Ellywa, Andres, Schneelocke, Furrykef, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, JorgeGG, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Kizor, Romanm, Flauto Dolce, Ruakh, Jor, Unfree, Wolfkeeper, Theon~enwiki, Curps, Zinnmann, Bit~enwiki, Solipsist, Geni, Pmanderson, Curtsurly, Egan Loo, Eranb, Mschlindwein, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Ma'ame Michu, Paul August, Stbalbach, Tsujigiri~enwiki, Bender235, Huntster, Wesman83, Pschemp, Malo, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Ceyockey, Weyes, OzNoz, Briangotts, MONGO, Bennetto, Pufferfish101, Pictureuploader, Qwertyus, TrystanKoch, B. 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Connolley, TUF-KAT, Suisui, Jfitzg, Raven in Orbit, Vroman, Dcoetzee, Dino, Lfh, Magnus.de, Jwrosen- zweig, Maximus Rex, Taxman, Paul-L~enwiki, McKay, Wetman, Jerzy, David.Monniaux, THSlone, PuzzletChung, Donarreiskoffer, As- tronautics~enwiki, Hars, R3m0t, Gidonb, JackofOz, Mushroom, Gamaliel, Yekrats, Solipsist, Jrdioko, Keith Edkins, Quadell, Antandrus, Dunks58, Pethan, Tail, Jklamo, Jbonilla 61, Maartos, Robin klein, D6, Patrickwilken, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Ex caelo, JimR, ESkog, Steerpike, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Mkosmul, RoyBoy, Taarten, Obradovic Goran, Sam Korn, Espoo, Alansohn, Atlant, Dan- Gunn, Bart133, Hohum, Velella, Ceyockey, Imaginatorium, Henrik, FeanorStar7, Anilocra, Etacar11, CyrilleDunant, Smmurphy, Isnow, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, Sparkit, BD2412, Grammarbot, BorgHunter, Ketiltrout, Angusmclellan, Nickroethemeier, Gadig, Artlover, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Djrobgordon, Margosbot~enwiki, CarolGray, RexNL, Pinkville, RasputinAXP, Riki, Ben-w, WouterBot, Chobot, ManuBhardwaj, Helios, Gwernol, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, RobotE, Al Silonov, Sceptre, Jimp, RussBot, Peti- atil, Oxag, Hede2000, Jugander, Alex Bakharev, Abarry, Gerhard51, Tony1, Doncram, Kewp, JdwNYC, 21655, Pietdesomere, Fram, Tyrenius, Village Explainer, TravisTX, Attilios, SmackBot, Prodego, Felix Dance, Delldot, Eskimbot, Sanfam, Cessator, Gilliam, Portillo, TimBentley, Rex Germanus, MK8, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Afasmit, Boshinator, PureRED, Jfsamper, CARAVAGGISTI, Addshore, Grover cleveland, Soosed, Aldaron, Savidan, RaCha'ar, Evenfiel, Fuzzypeg, SpiderJon, Wybot, Wizardman, Curly Turkey, Pilotguy, Ceoil, Tony Sandel, SashatoBot, John, Kipala, Peterlewis, Ben Moore, Noah Salzman, Avs5221, Razr, Doczilla, Neddyseagoon, Rouslan~enwiki,

36 4.1. TEXT 37

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4.2 Images

• File:54_Bootham_York_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/54_Bootham_York_4.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martinevans123 • File:AnotherTime.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c0/AnotherTime.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: http://www.ashrare.com/catalogue_87.html Original artist: ? • File:Auden1970ByPeter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Auden1970ByPeter.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: TorontoPeter • File:Charles_Le_Brun_-_Daedalus_and_Icarus_-_WGA12535.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/ab/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Daedalus_and_Icarus_-_WGA12535.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Charles Le Brun • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_ MK1888.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:DanceOfDeathProgramme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/DanceOfDeathProgramme.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: Scanned by user Macspaunday from privately-owned copy Original artist: ? • File:Der_Sturz_des_Ikarus_(Ausschnitt).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Der_Sturz_des_Ikarus_ %28Ausschnitt%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploader was Lewenstein at de.wikipedia Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Fall_of_Icarus_-_Brueghel_-Museum_van_Buuren.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Fall_ of_Icarus_-_Brueghel_-Museum_van_Buuren.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.museumvanbuuren.com/gb/ oeuvresgb_b.htm Original artist: Unknown (1590-1595) • File:Fingerpost_to_W.H._Auden’{}s_house_in_Kirchstetten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/ Fingerpost_to_W.H._Auden%27s_house_in_Kirchstetten.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herzi Pinki • File:Isherwood_and_Auden_by_Carl_van_Vechten,_1939.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/ Isherwood_and_Auden_by_Carl_van_Vechten%2C_1939.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Van Vechten Collection, reproduction number LC-USZ62-42537 DLC. Original artist: Carl Van Vechten • File:Joos_de_Momper_Icarus.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Joos_de_Momper_Icarus.JPG Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, Bjoertvedt, 2010-11-24 Original artist: Joos de Momper (II) • File:Landschaft_mit_Sturz_des_Ikarus_Pieter_Breughel_d_Ä.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/ Landschaft_mit_Sturz_des_Ikarus_Pieter_Breughel_d_%C3%84.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: blistar Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cropped and relevelled from File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg. Originally C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en très haute déﬁnition: image page Original artist: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en très haute déﬁnition: image page 4.2. IMAGES 39

• File:NightMailCrewe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/NightMailCrewe.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: Non-copyright DVD release of the film by Panamax Films (identical to DVD and VCR releases by other vendors) Original artist: ? • File:Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Adapted from: Nuvola_Ugandan_flag.svg using colors from Gay_flag.svg Original artist: Nuvola_Ugandan_flag.svg: Antigoni • File:Petro_Bruegel_Pictori.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Petro_Bruegel_Pictori.png License: Public domain Contributors: Scan aus: Christian Vöhringer – Pieter Bruegel. 1525/30–1569 Tandem Verlag 2007 S. 15 ISBN 978-3- 8331-3852-2 Original artist: Edme de Boulonois • File:Pieter_Bruegel_d._Ä._095.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84. _095.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_Icarus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Pieter_ Bruegel_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_Icarus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1. Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Seven_Deadly_Sins_or_the_Seven_Vices_-_Anger.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Seven_Deadly_Sins_or_the_Seven_Vices_-_Anger.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_(1568)_The_Blind_Leading_the_Blind.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/2f/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_%281568%29_The_Blind_Leading_the_Blind.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Brueghel Blinde.PNG Original artist: Pieter Bruegel the Elder • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_Hunters_in_the_Snow_(Winter)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_Hunters_in_the_Snow_%28Winter%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: WgFmzFNNN74nUg at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_Peasant_Wedding_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/7/70/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_Peasant_Wedding_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Google Art Project: Home – pic Maximum resolution. Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Census_at_Bethlehem_-_WGA03379.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/7e/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Census_at_Bethlehem_-_WGA03379.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Dutch_Proverbs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Dutch_Proverbs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: WwG8mD89xbELbQ at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_-_WGA3479.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/42/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_-_WGA3479.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Plaque_to_W.H._Auden,_Brooklyn_Heights_01_(9420506021).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ c/c0/Plaque_to_W.H._Auden%2C_Brooklyn_Heights_01_%289420506021%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Plaque to W.H. Auden, Brooklyn Heights 01 Original artist: Joe Mabel (on Flickr as Joe Mabel from Seattle, US) • File:Poems1928.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/55/Poems1928.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: My own scan of a library copy of the facsimile Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Schädel_im_Gehölz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Sch%C3%A4del_im_Geh%C3%B6lz. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan aus: Christian Vöhringer – Pieter Bruegel. 1525/30-1569 Tandem Verlag 2007 (h.f.ullmann imprint) S. 111 ISBN 978-3-8331-3852-2 Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) 40 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Златен_венец.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82% D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Златен венец.svg at mk.wiki Original artist: mk:User:Виктор Јованоски

4.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0