Signal Transduction of Apoptosis and Autophagy

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Signal Transduction of Apoptosis and Autophagy Institut für Molekulare Medizin Direktor: Univ.‐Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Sebastian Wesselborg Habilitationsschrift Balancing Cell Life and Death: Signal Transduction of Apoptosis and Autophagy zur Erlangung der Venia Legendi für das Fach Molekulare Medizin vorgelegt der Medizinischen Fakultät der Heinrich‐Heine‐Universität Düsseldorf von Dr. rer. nat. Björn Stork aus Herford Dekan: Herr Univ.‐Prof. Dr. med. Joachim Windolf Eingereicht am 23.05.2013 II Contents CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................................... III ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ..................................................................................................................... V 1. STATE OF THE ART ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 APOPTOSIS.................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Morphology of Apoptosis .................................................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Molecular Regulation of Apoptosis ..................................................................................... 3 1.1.2.1 Extrinsic Apoptosis Pathway ........................................................................................ 7 1.1.2.2 Intrinsic Apoptosis Pathway ...................................................................................... 11 1.1.3 Therapies targeting apoptosis ........................................................................................... 19 1.2 AUTOPHAGY.............................................................................................................................. 21 1.2.1 Types of Autophagy and Morphology ............................................................................... 21 1.2.2 Molecular Regulation of Autophagy ................................................................................. 23 1.2.2.1 The PI3K class III complex .......................................................................................... 25 1.2.2.2 WIPI/Atg18 proteins & Atg2 ...................................................................................... 27 1.2.2.3 Atg9/Atg9A ................................................................................................................ 28 1.2.2.4 Two ubiquitin‐like conjugation systems in autophagy: Atg12‐Atg5 and Atg8‐PE ..... 29 1.2.2.5 Final stage of autophagy: autophagosome‐lysosome fusion .................................... 34 1.2.3 The Ulk1‐Atg13‐FIP200‐Atg101 complex .......................................................................... 34 1.2.3.1 The yeast Atg1‐Atg13‐Atg17 complex ....................................................................... 34 1.2.3.2 The Ulk1‐Atg13‐FIP200‐Atg101 complex in higher eukaryotes ................................ 37 1.2.3.3 Regulation of the Ulk complex by post‐translational modifications ......................... 42 1.2.3.4 Structural aspects of the Ulk complex ....................................................................... 51 1.2.3.5 Downstream targets of the Ulk1 complex ................................................................ 51 1.2.4 Molecular hierarchy of Atg proteins .................................................................................. 54 1.2.5 Physiological Role of Autophagy ....................................................................................... 56 1.2.5.1 Autophagy and cancer ............................................................................................... 56 1.2.5.2 Autophagy and the immune system ......................................................................... 57 1.2.5.3 The Ulk1 complex in disease ..................................................................................... 58 III Contents 1.3 CRITICAL NODES REGULATING APOPTOSIS‐AUTOPHAGY NETWORK ...................................................... 58 1.3.1 The PI3K/PDK1/Akt/mTOR signaling axis .......................................................................... 59 1.3.2 Ca2+ signaling ..................................................................................................................... 68 1.3.3 Beclin 1‐Bcl‐2 interaction ................................................................................................... 71 1.3.4 The tumor suppressor p53 ................................................................................................. 74 1.3.5 Proteolytic crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy .................................................. 77 2. SUMMARIES OF SELECTED RESEARCH ARTICLES ..................................................................... 79 2.1 SUBCELLULAR LOCALIZATION OF GRB2 BY THE ADAPTOR PROTEIN DOK‐3 RESTRICTS THE INTENSITY OF CA2+ SIGNALING IN B CELLS ................................................................................................................. 79 2.2 THE AKT INHIBITOR TRICIRIBINE SENSITIZES PROSTATE CARCINOMA CELLS TO TRAIL‐INDUCED APOPTOSIS . 82 2.3 THE 3‐PHOSPHOINOSITIDE‐DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE 1 (PDK1) CONTROLS UPSTREAM PI3K EXPRESSION AND PIP3 GENERATION ............................................................................................................... 83 2.4 TRIGGERING OF A NOVEL INTRINSIC APOPTOSIS PATHWAY BY THE KINASE INHIBITOR STAUROSPORINE: ACTIVATION OF CASPASE‐9 IN THE ABSENCE OF APAF‐1 .................................................................... 86 2.5 AMPK‐INDEPENDENT INDUCTION OF AUTOPHAGY BY CYTOSOLIC CA2+ INCREASE .................................. 88 2.6 ULK1‐MEDIATED PHOSPHORYLATION OF AMPK CONSTITUTES A NEGATIVE REGULATORY FEEDBACK LOOP 91 2.7 ATG13 AND FIP200 ACT INDEPENDENTLY OF ULK1 AND ULK2 IN AUTOPHAGY INDUCTION .................... 94 3. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 98 4. BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 99 5. ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................. 124 6. CURRICULUM VITAE ............................................................................................................. 130 7. PUBLICATION LIST ................................................................................................................ 131 7.1 ORIGINAL WORKS ..................................................................................................................... 131 7.2 REVIEWS, BOOK CHAPTERS AND ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS .......................................................... 132 8. ADDENDUM ......................................................................................................................... 134 IV Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Die Kontrolle der zellulären Homöostase ist von zentraler Bedeutung für die korrekte Funktion vielzelliger Organismen. Das Fehlen dieser Kontrolle manifestiert sich in verschiedenen Erkrankungen, einschließlich Krebs und neurodegenerativen Krankheiten. Jede beliebige Zelle ist Signalen aus der extrazellulären Umgebung ausgesetzt, die wiederum unterschiedliche biologische Reaktionen hervorrufen. Dazu gehören Aktivierung, Differenzierung, Proliferation, das Überleben der Zelle oder der Zelltod. Die Entscheidung zwischen Überleben und Tod der Zelle ist besonders unter Stressbedingungen wichtig. Zu diesen Bedingungen gehören zum Beispiel DNA‐schädigende Behandlungen, Nährstoffmangel oder Immunreaktionen. Diese stressinduzierenden Faktoren können zu einem vorübergehenden oder permanenten Zellzyklusarrest (auch als Seneszenz bezeichnet), zur sogenannten mitotischen Katastrophe, zur regulierten Nekrose, zur Apoptose oder zur Autophagie führen. Zusätzlich wurden in der Vergangenheit alternative Zelltodformen identifiziert, zum Beispiel Entose, Netose, Kornifikation, Pyroptose oder Parthanatos (Übersicht in Galluzzi et al., 2012). Häufig existieren Kombinationen oder eine geordnete zeitliche Abfolge dieser Prozesse. Dadurch wird eine dynamische Regulierung des Zellschicksals ermöglicht. In der vorliegenden Habilitationsschrift liegt der Fokus auf Apoptose und Autophagie sowie auf den gemeinsamen Kontrollmechanismen dieser beiden Prozesse. Bei der Apoptose handelt es sich um die programmierte Form des Zelltods. Generell existieren zwei Hauptwege der Apoptose‐Induktion, d.h. der extrinsische Todesrezeptorweg und der intrinsische mitochondriale Weg. Letzterer wird z.B. nach DNA‐Schädigung induziert. Wir konnten zeigen, dass der pan‐Kinaseinhibitor Staurosporin neben dem mitochondrialen Weg einen neuartigen intrinsischen Apoptose‐Signalweg induzieren kann (s. Kapitel 2.4). Einen zentralen Einfluss auf das „apoptotische Potential“ einer Zelle haben anti‐apoptotische Überlebenssignalwege. Ein wichtiges Beispiel ist der PI3K/PDK1/Akt‐Signalweg. Die einzelnen Komponenten dieser Signaltransduktionskette sind in Tumorzellen häufig übermäßig aktiviert. Dementsprechend basieren gegenwärtige Therapien auf der Inhibierung dieser Komponenten. Wir konnten darlegen, dass die Inhibierung der Serin/Threonin‐Proteinkinase Akt humane Prostatakarzinomzellen für die Todesrezeptor‐abhängige Apoptose sensibilisiert (s. Kapitel 2.2). Des Weiteren konnten wir einen transkriptionellen Rückkopplungsmechanismus im PI3K/PDK1/Akt‐Signalweg identifizieren,
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