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THE EREMITICALIDEAL OF IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA: FROM THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES TO THE FIVE CHAPTERS By MARKA. TATE ·. Bachelor of Arts Oklahoma Baptist University Shawnee, Oklahoma ' 1988 Master of Arts Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 1990 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY July; 1998 THE EREMITICAL IDEAL OF IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA: FROM THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES TO THE FIVE CHAPTERS · Dissertation Approved: ~.f.:ar Dissertation Co-Advisor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The first of all thanks belongs to God, our Savior, and the eternal lover of our souls. May He be pleased with this achievement of His servant. I would also like to acknowledge the help, kindness, and assistance of everyone in the Department of History at Oklahoma State University. From Susan Oliver to the several Department Heads while I have been here, I have tried to treat everyone with kindness and respect and have received much more in return than that which I extended. I have'' especially,appreciated the kindness and assistance of Alain Saint-Saens arid Joseph Byrnes with their continuous encouragement, . ' support, and guidance in my efforts here. I would also like to extend a heartfelt "Thank Youn to my fellow graduate students, especially David Tait and Steve Jones. We have endured much together. The real passion for learning that lay within me has come from my mother. She did not have this opportunity, encouragement, and support and should have. My doctorate is as much hers. Also to Laura, my wife, whose patience and encouragement have been constant, and to my daughter, Wendy, to whom the challenge to know is passed. These three women in my life have endured me and with me; I love you and could not have come this far without you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION . 1 IL THE EARLY FORMATIVE ENVIRONMENT OF IGNATIUS'S EREMITICAL IDEAL ............................ 22 Spanish Christianity, 1469-1563 .............................. 23 The European Tradition of Christian Ascetiscism, Mysticism, and Eremitism . 30 The Ancient Period . 34 The Early Medieval Period . 44 The Late. Medieval Period . 56 HI. SOURCES OF IGNATIUS'S EREMITICAL IDEAL: . EARLY FORMATIVE EXPERIENCES AND INFLUENCES ......... .' .. 75 Early Formative Experiences: Life in.Spain ...................... 75 Spain: The Young Hidalgo ............................. 75 Pamplona: The Wounded Knight ........................ 79 Early Formative Experiences: From Knight to Hermit . 82 Montserrat: Dedication to Christ . 82 Manresa:· Ignatius's Initial Eremitical Experience ......... : .. 82 Formative Literary and Monastic Influences ..................... 85 The Flos Sanctorum by Jacobus de Voragine . 88 The Vita Jesu Christi by Ludolph of Saxony . 93 The. Carthusians of Seville . 97 · The Benedictines of Montserrat . 99 The Ejercitatorio de la Vida Espiritual by Garcfa Jimenez de Cisneros '. ...................... 100 The Dominicans ofManresa ........................... 104 The lmitatio Christi by Thomas A Kempis . 105 · Ignatius's Early Writings:· The Spiritual Exercises .................................... 112 Chapter Page IV. SOURCES OF IGNATIUS'S EREMITICAL IDEAL: LATER FORMATIVE EXPERIENCES AND WRITINGS ............. 123 Educational Experiences . 123 Education in Spain . .. 124 Education in France . 128 Post-Educational Experiences . 133 The Vow at Montmartre . 133 Venice through Vicenza .-............................. 135 Later Writings . 141 The Five Chapters ... ; .... ; ......... : . 142 Letters . 146 V. CONCLUSION: THE EREMITICAL IDEAL OF IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA.; .... : .......................... 159 SOURCES CONSULTED . 172 APPENDICES . 185 APPENDIX 1-AN IGNATIAN CHRONOLOGY .................. 185 APPENDIX2--HISTORIOGRAPHIC ESSAY .................... 186 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3-1 The Golden Legend and The Spiritual Exercises . 92 3-2 The Life of Christ and The Spiritual Exercises ................... ·. 97 3-3 The Exercises for the Spiritual Life and The Spiritual Exercises . 104 3-4 The Imitation of Christ and The Spiritual Exercises ............... ·. 109 3-5 All of the Literary Influences Compared to the Spiritual Exercises . 111 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Inigo de Onaz de Loyola, Saint Ignatius.Loyola, has attracted many by his romantic youth, _dramatic conversion, and sacrificial life of service to the Jesuit Order and the Catholic Church. 1 Christians and non-Christians have studied his life and found him to be a remarkable man, whether or not they agree with the religious cause hE) championed for most of his adult life. Scholars continue to • ' ,, ' • \,1 • ' ' . write about his life and character. Hi~ writings pontinue to be edited and footnoted. New translations of many of his writing~. especially The Spiritual Exercises, regularly appear in ·an the major languages of the world. Members of the Society of Jesus and the.ir educational institutions can be found all over the world. Although Jesuits have published his works in edited form, the critical value of Ignatius's three major works, The Spiritual Exercises, The Five Chapters, and The Autobiography has been questioned by scholars. He also wrote 7,000 letters, but he wrote most of these after 1539 and they have little impact on this study. The question is, "Are these three works critically reliable?" 1 2 The Spiritual Exercises is a handbook of spiritual life and practice. He -__ began it in 1522, in Manresa, continuing to revise and expand it until 1541 when its text was substantially complete. He shared its contents in. an incomplete form until its first publication in 1548. The Inquisition examined it several times. The · Holy Office did not condemn •it, nor approve it, either. Most scholars accept that . Ignatius wrote The Spiritual Exercises, although a scholarly consensus about origins, influences, and exact content remains elusive. 2 As a primary source, they have been scrutinized more closely than many other late-medieval documents and remain aCC$pted as written. - The Five Chapters is the foundation document for the Society of Jesus. ·There is-no serious question that-Ignatius and his companions wrote them and submitted them in verbal form to Pope Paul Ill, in late-August of 1539. The development of that document into the. Constitutions of the Society of Jesus has been well-documented. My interpretation of them as the corporate expression of The Spiritual Exercises applied to the newly formed Society of Jesus is dependent upon their being the earliest foundation document for the incorporation of the Society. The most questionable of the three works of Ignatius is The Autobiography. It is his own chronicle of his life, dictated to others near the end of his life in 1556. It provides important information about his life, but the circumstances under which he composed it cause its contents to be suspect. He dictated it to at least two individuals, one of whom was Italian. Ignatius's Italian 3 ·· was relatively poor and the last portion may not have accurately reflected his dictation.3 Some time passed between one secretary's hearing oUhe dictation and his writing it down. It is also possible that Ignatius may have simply dictated .how he felt and what he remembered at the end of his life, rather than his previous, actual feelings at the time of his conversion or other subsequent experiences. Because of these concerns, I use the Autobiographyas a guide to Ignatius's life, but use his other two, more reliable writings for the majority of my conclusions regarding the content of his eremitical ideal. This method allows me to use all three works without ignoring serious questions of reliability. New ~ditions of Ignatius's writings, numerous biographies, and works on ·Jesuit origins are the foundation ofany study of Ignatius and the Jesuits, but are not the focus of the present work.. 1focus specifically on Ignatius's eremitical · · ideal, a little emphasized and poorly recognized aspect of his life. Ignatius's mysticism is the major topic of present work about him, but important as his mysticism was to him, eremitism was most influential. As Ignatius matured in . Spanish society, he became an agressiveSpanish knight guided by an interior chivalric ideal. During his initial eremitical experience in Manresa, Ignatius began a process in which he became an active hermit guided by an interior eremitical ideal. His entire spiritual life of sanctity and service was defined by his desire to help· souls; a desire initiated during that individual experience at Manresa, and later expanded by his education, and his confirmatory, corporate eremitical experience at Vicenza. ·His eremitical ideal was further formed in the 4 · mutually exclusive environments of a cave and riverbank at Manresa, the libraries and classrooms of the University of Paris, and the countryside and villages around Venice and Vicenza. Through these strikingly diverse experiences, Ignatius developed a unique eremitical ideal, further influenced by a combination of popular devotional literature, traditional monastic piety, the scholastic learning of late-medieval Western Latin Christianity, and the new spirituality exemplified in the Modern Devotion and other similar ascetical, mystical, and eremitical writings. Ignatius shaped these experiences into an active lifestyle and eventually produced a five-part eremitical ideal that was the foundation to his entire · spiritual life. He discovered that to go forth; to live in poverty and simplicity, to
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