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The Trans-Himalayan Flights of Bar-Headed Geese (Anser Indicus)

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The Trans-Himalayan Flights of Bar-Headed Geese (Anser Indicus) The trans-Himalayan flights of bar-headed geese (Anser indicus) Lucy A. Hawkesa, Sivananinthaperumal Balachandranb, Nyambayar Batbayarc, Patrick J. Butlerd, Peter B. Frappelle, William K. Milsomf, Natsagdorj Tseveenmyadagc, Scott H. Newmang, Graham R. Scottf, Ponnusamy Sathiyaselvamb, John Y. Takekawah, Martin Wikelskii, and Charles M. Bishopa,1 aSchool of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, United Kingdom; bBombay Natural History Society, Mumbai 400 001, India; cMongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbataar 210351, Mongolia; dSchool of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom; eSchool of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; fDepartment of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4; gFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, EMPRES Wildlife Health and Ecology Unit, Rome 00153, Italy; hUS Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, Vallejo, CA 94592; and iMax Planck Institute for Ornithology, Radolfzell 78315, Germany Edited by Robert E. Ricklefs, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO, and approved April 27, 2011 (received for review November 18, 2010) Birds that fly over mountain barriers must be capable of meeting Bar-headed geese also have proportionally larger lungs than the increased energetic cost of climbing in low-density air, even those of other species of waterfowl (15) and can hyperventilate at though less oxygen may be available to support their metabolism. up to seven times the normoxic resting rate when exposed to se- This challenge is magnified by the reduction in maximum sustained vere hypoxia (11, 16). These adaptations should significantly Anser indicus climbing rates in large birds. Bar-headed geese ( ) improve O2 uptake and transport at high altitudes, and may make one of the highest and most iconic transmountain migrations contribute to this species’ ability to climb thousands of meters of in the world. We show that those populations of geese that winter elevation without acclimatization. This feat is particularly im- at sea level in India are capable of passing over the Himalayas in 1 d, pressive when considering that humans could suffer dizziness, typically climbing between 4,000 and 6,000 m in 7–8 h. Surprisingly, altitude sickness, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) (17), these birds do not rely on the assistance of upslope tailwinds that and possibly even death when faced with a similarly extreme usually occur during the day and can support minimum climb rates change in elevation. In the present study, we detail how the trans- − ECOLOGY of 0.8–2.2 km·h 1, even in the relative stillness of the night. They Himalayan migration of bar-headed geese is achieved and provide appear to strategically avoid higher speed winds during the after- insights into their aerobic flight capacity. noon, thus maximizing safety and control during flight. It would On the basis of a growing body of literature showing associa- seem, therefore, that bar-headed geese are capable of sustained tions between bird flight and wind conditions, an additional pos- climbing flight over the passes of the Himalaya under their own sibility is that bar-headed geese could enhance their climb rates aerobic power. and/or flight speeds by selecting favorable wind conditions in which to migrate (8, 18). Large mountainous areas are charac- exercise physiology | high altitude | satellite tracking | terized by daily slope winds that occur due to predictable changes vertebrate migration | climbing flight in daily solar radiation and thermal conditions [e.g., the Alps (19, 20), the Andes (21), the Himalaya (22, 23), and mountainous ountains and high plateaus present formidable obstacles to areas in the United States (24, 25)]. These winds reach an upslope Mthe migratory flights of a number of bird species. Large “anabatic” maximum during the warmest part of the day, and birds, such as cranes and geese, may find such barriers particularly a downslope, “katabatic” maximum in the evening and overnight challenging as the sustained climbing rates of birds scale nega- (19, 20). In the Eastern Himalaya, near Mount Everest, these tively with increasing body mass (1). For example, brent geese winds start to blow upslope (from a southerly direction) at −1 (Branta bernicla) are unable to sustain climbing flights over the ∼09:00 h local time, reaching their maximum of around 22 km·h Greenland icecap (summit elevation 3,207 m, mean elevation by 12:45 h and reversing overnight to blow southward (Fig. 1A). >2,000 m) and make regular stops to recover, possibly from partly By flying in the midmorning through to early afternoon, therefore, anaerobic flights (2). Nevertheless, populations of bar-headed geese could take advantage of these updrafts and tailwinds to geese (Anser indicus) that spend the winter at sea level in India maximize climb rates and/or forward ground speeds during their and the summer in central Asia must perform the world’s steepest migration (18). We set out to describe the detailed timings and migratory flight north over the highest mountain range on earth, altitudinal profiles of bar-headed geese during climbing flights the Himalaya (3). There, most passes are at altitudes greater than over the Himalaya and to investigate whether they make strategic 5,000 m, where the air density and partial pressure of oxygen are use of potentially favorable wind conditions. only about half of those at sea level. As a consequence, the partial Results and Discussion pressure of oxygen (PO2) in the arterial blood may begin to limit maximum performance (4, 5), although negative effects on the Movement Over the Himalayas. Our data show that bar-headed rate of oxygen diffusion may be partially ameliorated by an in- geese travel north, from sea level over the Himalayas, in a single crease in the gas diffusion coefficient (6). The thinner air at these day (median date March 24, range March 15 to May 6). The higher altitudes will also reduce lift generation during flapping median crossing time was 8 h (n = 5 geese tracked for the com- flight for any given air speed, thus increasing the energy costs plete crossing, Fig. 1 A and B) and the shortest flights were ∼7h − of flying by around 30% (7, 8). long. Minimum 3D transit speeds (median 53.2 km·h 1, calcu- However, bar-headed geese have adapted in a variety of ways for living and flying at high altitudes (4, 5). Their skeletal and cardiac muscles are better supplied with oxygen, having greater Author contributions: P.J.B., J.Y.T., M.W., and C.M.B. designed research; L.A.H., S.B., N.B., capillary density, more homogenous capillary spacing, a higher P.J.B., P.B.F., W.K.M., N.T., S.H.N., G.R.S., P.S., J.Y.T., and C.M.B. performed research; proportion of mitochondria in a subsarcolemmal location, and a L.A.H. analyzed data; and L.A.H. and C.M.B. wrote the paper. greater proportion of oxidative fibers than other waterfowl (9, The authors declare no conflict of interest. 10). Bar-headed goose hemoglobin is also highly effective at This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. oxygen loading (11), compared with many other bird species, Freely available online through the PNAS open access option. largely as a result of a single amino acid point mutation (12–14). 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected]. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1017295108 PNAS Early Edition | 1of4 Downloaded by guest on September 27, 2021 A 6000 B 4000 2000 4 ms-1 Elevation (m) 14.4 kmh-1 0 00 1206 18 00 Time of day (hrs) C 6000 D 6000 4000 4000 2000 2000 Elevation (m) Elevation Elevation (m) 0 0 26 27 28 00 06 12 18 00 Latitude (°N) Time of day (hrs) Fig. 1. Timing of migrations with 30-min average wind speed and direction from the Nepal Climate Observatory at Pyramid station for geese migrating (A) northward (n = 8) and (D) southward (n = 12) over the Himalaya. Arrows show cardinal direction (north pointing up to 0 °) in which the wind was blowing and arrow length (indicated in A) is proportional to wind speed in A and D.(B) Map showing the northward migration routes; weather station (WS) location is indicated. (C) Elevation of the mean northward track across the Himalaya (for all crossing locations from all eight geese), blue circles show individual data points and blue line shows Lowess smoother for mean ground elevation under the track (black line). lated from the straight line distance and altitude traveled between respectively, over 3 h. These observations represent the longest successive hourly locations (n = 18 locations) were correlated continuous climbing rates ever recorded. Climb rates were not with instantaneous speeds transmitted by the satellite tags (here affected significantly by altitude, flight speed, or wind conditions − − after referred to as “tags,” see Methods; median 64.5 km·h 1, (with geese climbing at 1.04 versus 1.40 km·h 1 in anabatic versus Spearman’s rho = 0.71, P < 0.01), indicating that the geese were katabatic conditions). Geese generally matched the underlying flying aerobically and could not have stopped for prolonged terrain during their climbs (median height 130 m; Fig. 1C) periods (i.e., >15 min) during the climb. These median speeds and were most frequently located within 340 m of the ground −1 are close to the predicted minimum power speed (61.2 km·h ) (containing 80% of locations) and thus avoided climbing any fl (8), thus minimizing forward ight costs and maximizing addi- steeper than was necessary. Rates of climb reported for similarly − tional power available for climbing. The range of speeds recorded sized Greylag geese (1.15 km·h 1 sustained for 20 min at sea are also similar to those previously published for captive bar- level) (1) were similar to our values.
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