Military Heritage from 20Th Century

Home , 1st Division (Estonia), Hatteng, John Willem Gran, Molotov Line, Operation Archery

Military Heritage from 20th Century

Militage.book.indd 1 20.04.2018 19:18 Published by ICOFORT Norway c/o Riksantikvaren Postboks 8196 Dep 0034 Oslo [email protected]

Cover: The winner of the Militage photo competition Photo: Heikki Lahdenmäki

Design Jiri Havran

Printed by Oslo Digitaltrykk

Supported by:

Militage.book.indd 2 20.04.2018 19:18 Military Heritage from 20th Century

Preservation, Reuse and Management

September 4th – 7th, 2017, Northern Norway

Roberta Luciani (editor)

Icofort Norway 2018

Militage.book.indd 3 20.04.2018 19:18 CONTENTS

Foreword...... 6 LUCIANI, Roberta

The Preservation of Two Military Futuro Houses...... 8 ANDERSSON, Ingela; Svärd, Karl-Martin

Concrete at the Front - The Brugges Submarine Shelter (1917-1918)...... 14 BEEKERS, Willem; DE MEYER, Ronald

Cold War Heritage in the Russian Federation...... 20 DOBRONOVSKAYA, Marina

Puerto Rico Coastal Defenses during 20th Century: WWII...... 26 FLORES ROMÁN, Milagros

From garbage to heritage? Two land defence lines in Arctic Norway: ...... 32 the Lyngen line (WW2) and the Frøy line (Cold war) HESJEDAL, Anders

The cult of the Defensive? Cold-War Norwegian defense planning...... 40 HÅKENSTAD, Magnus

Heritage Management of WWII ‘Conflict landscapes’ in PNG: Issues ...... 42 related to ephemeral landscapes and multiple stakeholders in a developing nation context KELLY, Matthew

20th century fortifications on the National Heritage List for Poland...... 46 KLUPSZ, Lidia

The German Coastal Defence Strategy in Norway...... 58 KORSNES, Kjetil

HDM, the Heritage Development Model by bunker...... 60 MEIJER. Gerko

Architecture and Landscape: Recovery of Fortresses in Lessinia, Italy...... 70 MENEGHELLI, Fiorenzo; MENEGHELLI, Andrea

Formation of Scenic Place by way of Exploitation of Former ...... 78 Military Exercise Field in Hokkaido MIYAKE, Riichi

Traces in the landscape...... 90 MORTENSEN, Hanne Langhoff

Militage.book.indd 4 20.04.2018 19:18 German Underground Defensive Positions at Southwest France...... 98 RUIZ, José Manuel Paneda

Protecting the remains of war and hostility - recent discovery...... 102 of an important past SANDMO, Anne-Karine

Beyond the Bunker: Challenges and Confrontations in Cold War Heritage....106 SCHOFIELD, John

Northern Security and Russia after the Cold War...... 108 SPOHR, Kristina

Exploring the unknown – Estonian military heritage of 20th century...... 110 TREUFELDT, Robert

The Values of Coastal Military Heritage in Kinmen and its Conservation...... 116 TSENG, Yi-Jen; HUANG, Hsin-Ying; HSU, Sheng-Fa

The cultural reuse of the military site of Zsambek, former Soviet ...... 130 Air Defence Battalion near Budapest, Hungary VARGA, István

Militage.book.indd 5 20.04.2018 19:18 Foreword

Roberta LUCIANI Architect, The Norwegian Defense Estates Agency, Norway President ICOFORT Norway

This publication presents the full pa- While our interests and areas of ex- pers submitted to the conference pertise were diverse, our collaboration “Militage 2017” organized by Ico- worked toward several objectives. The fort Norway from 4th–7th September Militage conference proposed: 2017. This occasion also marked the • to be a forum for current perspec- first time an Icofort international meet- tives and different approaches; ing took place in Norway. • to build awareness of the need to The title of the conference was “Mil- discuss the values, usage and safe- itary Heritage from the 20th Century guarding of 20th Century military - Preservation, reuse and manage- heritage in general; ment.” The conference was arranged • to strengthen the international net- as a combination of site visits and work; lecture sessions. With 53 partici- • to promote «good practice» ap- pants from four different continents proaches, including enhancing the and many countries including Aus- role of the local communities in tralia, Taiwan, Puerto Rico and sever- those processes; al European nations, the conference • and to show the Icofort interna- represented a broad cross section of tional committee a variety of installa- scholars and experts from around the tions and military landscapes which world. The conference changed ven- are significant in Norwegian history. ues, moving from the County Council in Tromsø, to the Frøy- and Lyngen The participants were invited to meet, defence lines in Storfjord, to Mauk- find inspiration and exchange expe- stadmoen camp in Skjold in Målselv, riences and knowledge about the to the Narvik War Museum, the Tron- topics of the conference and their denes fort and finally the Meløyvær discussions contributed to the ongo- fort in Harstad. ing international work and processes concerning the protection of military In addition to key-note speakers, heritage, with emphasis on the Sec- there were almost 20 participants who ond World War and the Cold War. The contributed with short presentations conference presented contemporary and papers. expertise on military heritage from

Militage.book.indd 6 20.04.2018 19:18 many countries, focusing on historical Flores Román, and the members of the values, as well as challenges in pro- scientific committee of Icofort Norway. tection, management and transforma- Moreover, I would like to thank all the tion. collaborators who made the confer- Despite big variations in history, ence possible: The Norwegian Army landscape and the types of military Brigade Nord, Troms County Council, sites, the issues are often the same. Nord-Troms Museum, Sør-Troms Mu- The conference provided new discus- seum, Narvik War Museum and Valhall sions on how we value military sites, in Meløyvær. i.e. those that concretize or stand for The conference was supported by painful memories or those that do not the Norwegian Ministry of Defence, fit into a general understanding of The Norwegian Defence Estates what cultural heritage is or should be. Agency, The Norwegian Directorate Remains of a for- Another discussion indicated that for Cultural Heritage, Giertsen Tun- mer POW’s barrack at Trondenes Fort in the challenges of transformation into nel AS, Jotun Group and ICOMOS Harstad, Norway new usage, which may or may not re- Norway. fer to the symbolic values of the former military sites is also an issue discussed in every country. Additionally, reinvestment projects that propose to fund site maintenance through profit from sustainable activities add new di- mensions to this discussion.

Moreover, the conference addressed the interaction between stakeholders, local authorities and even private people in the management of military heritage. Navigating these dynamics will be a continuing challenge in our field.

On behalf of the Icofort Norway committee, I would like to thank our keynote speakers: archeologist John Schofield from the University of York, historian Kristina Spohr from London School of Economics, historian Mag- nus Håkenstad from The Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, and all the authors who contributed with papers and discussions during the conference.

I would also like to thank the president of Icofort International, Milagros

Militage.book.indd 7 20.04.2018 19:18 The Preservation of two Military Futuro Houses

Ingela ANDERSSON, Karl-Martin SVÄRD Architects, Swedish Fortifications Agency, Sweden

Abstract Key words: Futuro-houses, Air force, In the beginning of the 1970ies, the Observation towers, Reuse Swedish Armed Forces bought three specially adapted Futuro-houses to Forgotten heritage use on top of observation towers at In 2014 a journalist raised a question training areas. Two of the three Fu- about preserving two observation turo-houses were used as observation towers as cultural heritage. The towers towers at the Noran training area in had been used for measuring impact the middle of Sweden. In 1998, the points at a former military training area was closed down and now one of area for air bombing at Noran train- the Futuro-houses is sold and the oth- ing area outside of Söderhamn. No er one transferred to the Swedish Air one within the Swedish Fortifications Force Museum. The third is still in use Agency or the Swedish Armed Forc- at another military airfield. The remov- es had thought much about the two A model of the Noran towers no longer in use. The towers target area at Söder- al of the Futuro-houses was the sec- hamn/F15 Air Force ond best way to make at least one of in question are two out of three Fu- Museum them publicly accessible at a museum. turo-houses bought by the Swedish Armed Forces in the beginning of the 1970ies specially adapted to military use.

The Noran target area The Futuro-houses on Noran military training area were abandoned by the Swedish armed forces following the 2004 political decision to further de- crease the number of active training areas. This was done in retrospect of the end of the cold war and the decreased need for airbases in Sweden. Noran had served as the principal target area for the pilots of the 15th airbase located in nearby Söderhamn.

Militage.book.indd 8 20.04.2018 19:18 The Futuro House

The airbase was active on Noran from completely equipped with custom fur- 1945 to 1998. nishings that fit the interesting shape of the house. The design of the mili- The Futuro house tary versions were altered to fit on top The two towers have an interesting of the concrete towers and to their use military as well as a design history. as military observation towers. Finnish architect Matti Suuronen orig- Instead of entering the house inally designed the Futuro house in through an airplane like flight of stairs, 1968 as a ski lodge. It was constructed you had to enter the military ones of a plastic material in eight sections climbing a ladder through a tube in and was easy to assemble and place the middle of the tower, originally the wherever you wanted to have your place for a fireplace. Instead of furni- winter or summer house. At Noran ture, the houses were fitted with plat- they were lifted in place by a military forms with desks to facilitate working The Noran target helicopter. in the towers. area today The designer himself claimed that the design was based on pi, 3.14. There are similarities both with contemporary design and architecture, for example Eero Aarnios Ball Chair in fibre glass from 1963 or the moveable “capsule houses” designed by the Archgram group. Others associate the Futuro houses with UFOs and sees it as a part of a space age design. 1 The house has a diameter of 8 meters and the original design came

1 (Wilund, 2015).

Militage.book.indd 9 20.04.2018 19:18 Preparations When the Swedish Armed Forces handed over the target area to For- tifications Agency the work began to prepare the area for civilian use. The first step was to analyse the extension contamination caused by unexploded ordnance (UXO). Luckily, the area with high volumes of UXO was quite small and concentrated to a marshland in the middle of the property. Next up was the question of what to do with the buildings once used by the Air Force. Some of them had a potential for civilian use without alterations. The Futuro-houses however The Futuro-house has The Futuro house is a circular con- could not serve a civilian purpose in landed on the ground struction divided into eight sections, such a remote location. originally with two oval windows in each section. The military version has Preservation vs disposal only one large window in each section The first step was to do an evaluation to make it easier to see the impact of the heritage values. As little was points. Working conditions in the tow- known about the two towers, a report ers though were not very good. In the was written on their history and a dis- summer, it could be very hot and in cussion began on their value as herit- the winter freezing cold. age. The Futuro-houses as such is not After 1998, the towers were closed unique, there are around 60 still in use in waiting for a decision what to do all around the world. In Sweden there with them. As the Futuro houses were are only four Futuro-houses, one in situated on top of concrete towers in a Örebro in the original design and the remote area they were not easy to visit three military ones that were owned for anyone. This made them especially by the Swedish Fortifications Agency, interesting for urban explorers. After two at Noran and one at military air- one of the towers were broken into, field in another part of Sweden. The the entrance doors to both towers adaptation of them for military use were welded shut. This did not stop makes them interesting historically it from happening one more time. but possibly that decreases their val- Somebody used considerable force ue as a design object since they lack to bend the steel door and frame to several of the original design features. the side to gain entrance and the roof After having read the report the hatch was thrown to the ground let- Swedish National Heritage Board de- ting birds in. It was therefore impor- cided that the towers definitely were tant to find a solution on what to do worth saving as heritage but realized with the towers before more damage it was hard to preserve them in their was done to them. original location if they were to be

Militage.book.indd 10 20.04.2018 19:18 opened to the public. The number Instead, the Swedish Fortifications Tower no 2, Interior of people that would be able to visit Agency passed the question on to them would be also limited. another state administration, the The regulation regarding disposal Swedish Air Force Museum outside of of state property in Sweden secures Linköping and asked if they were will- the opportunity for the state to trans- ing to take over one of the Futuros as a

fer the property to the rightful state museum object. They said yes, as they Detail of device for administrator. The receiving part will saw the potential of the Futuro house handling of the rocket have no other cost than the book val- to tell another kind of history about the and bomb targets. ue. As the towers had high cultural value, the National Property Board of Sweden was a natural recipient as the Property Board manages the state owned cultural heritage that is no longer in use by the military or other state administrations. The Property Board declined taking over responsibility for the Futuro-houses since they saw difficulties in preserving them on site and adapt them for public access. In addition, the costs would be too high as they were two solitary objects in a remote location.

Militage.book.indd 11 20.04.2018 19:18 The Futuro-house waiting to be sold in Nor- rköping

Swedish Air Force than for example down to the ground. This procedure the airplanes in their collection. required exceptional strength from After this input, the Swedish For- the crane because of the weight of the tifications Agency took an internal part of the concrete tower that had to decision to transfer one of the Fu- be lifted. After a day of preparations, turo-houses to the Air Force Museum the first house was lifted to the ground while the other one should be sold in April 2016, followed by the other to the highest bidder on a state web one a day later. Local media as well as auction. In order to do this the hous- some of the national press followed es had to be removed from the Noran the whole process closely as well as an target area and stored until the final international website specialized in Fu- destination was clear. turo-houses; thefuturohouse.com. When both houses were on the Dismantling and transporta- ground, the plastic construction was tion disconnected from the concrete. When the decision to move the two In May the houses were loaded on Futuro-houses had been made, the two separate trucks. Because of the Swedish Fortifications Agency looked 8-meter diameter, the transport to at different options on how to actu- the Norrsundet port in the Baltic Sea ally move the buildings. Lifting the was made in the middle of the night. Futuro-houses off their towers with a This way the E4 could be closed down helicopter would be too expensive. about 12 km without causing a traffic Instead, the Swedish Fortifications jam. The transport went well and the Agency decided on using a combina- houses were then loaded on a boat tion of trucking and shipping. with a destination port in Norrköping First the plastic house had to be dis- a two-day journey further south. connected from the concrete tower When arriving in Norrköping the that it was connected to. This could procedure was repeated in the re- not be done while the house was on verse order. First the Futuro-houses top of the tower. Therefore, the top were lifted off the boat and then the part of the tower was cut with a con- houses were transported on trucks crete saw and the upper part was lifted to Bråvalla, a former air base. One

Militage.book.indd 12 20.04.2018 19:18 of the houses were then transported to the Swedish Air Force Muse- um in Linköping. Once again having to close down one side of the E4 at night time. It is now (2017) awaiting its renovation and will be transformed into a conference room.

The sales process In order to have an effective sales process a sales prospect was produced in advance so that the media attention could be taken advantage of. Most of the international interest came from the USA and of course, Finland were the houses originate. The house sold at an auction in August of 2016 to a bly undergo major interior changes The lifting of Futuro Swedish mega fan of the Futuro-hous- when they are adapted to their new house on tower no 1 es. She and her partner disassembled uses. Some or maybe most of the the house before moving it. All with heritage values will inevitable be lost the intention of a full renovation be- when handling them this way. It can fore reassembling it at the final des- be discussed if this is right or wrong. tination. The couple already owns an The Swedish Fortifications Agency odd building in the southern Swedish however still owns a third tower with town Laholm, Nebotornet. To this, a Futuro-house identical to the two they plan to add the Futuro-house in at Noran. It is therefore possible that the garden also possible to book as a this tower can be classified as cultural hotel room. heritage on site and opened to the public sometime in the future. Un- Remarks and Conclusions til that happens, the remaining Fu- The removal of the Futuro-houses was turo-house tower will be a part of our second best way to preserve the two living military heritage. military Futuro-houses and make it accessible to the public. Preserving them Bibliography on location and opening them to pub- Wilund arkitekter & antikvarier/For- lic in a relatively remote area would tifikationsverket. 2015. Futurohusen have meant that the cost for preserv- på Norans före detta skjutfält, Söder- ing them would be high and only be hamns kommun. a limited number people would have been able to visit them. (© All photos are from the Swedish Both Futuro-houses will now be Fortifications Agency with Ingela An- opened to the public in different dersson or Johan Danielson as pho- ways, one as a conference room at tographers) a museum and one as a privately owned hotel room. Both will proba-

Militage.book.indd 13 20.04.2018 19:18 Concrete at the Front of the Bruges Submarine Shelter (1917-1918)

Willem BEKERS, Ronald DE MEYER Architects, Department of Architecture, Ghent University, Belgium

Abstract around the turn of the 20th century, Starting in August 1917, a large sub- when calculation methods, building marine shelter was erected in the port codes and standards for reinforced of Bruges. Its construction completed concrete are developed, after dec- a transition from mixed wood-and- ades of trial-and-error construction in steel structures to all-concrete bunkers different fields. While most attention in this area. The new Gruppenunter- in this respect goes to the pioneering stand prefigured many of the typo- work of civil entrepreneurs, the influ- logical and technical key features of ence of the military remains underex- the iconic submarine pens from World posed. However, military courses on War II. An early application of rein- concrete calculation were organized forced concrete, the bunker in Bruges and experimental laboratories had illustrates how the Great War serves been installed well before the start as a breeding ground for experiment. of the war, for instance in the Belgian Moreover, it exemplifies the underex- Royal Military Academy.2 By 1914, af- posure of military pioneering work in ter half a century of constructing for- the field of construction. tifications in unreinforced concrete, military engineers had realized that Key words: bunker, submarine pens, only reinforced concrete would offer First World War, reinforced concrete, protection to contemporary siege ar- Bruges tillery. The upcoming war would ac- celerate the implementation of these Introduction insights. At the same time, it estab- In his book Concrete and culture: a lished a firm association between re- material history, Adrian Forty acknowl- inforced concrete and warfare in peo- 3 edges the transition of reinforced ple’s minds. An early but advanced concrete from the realm of vernacular example of such experiments is the experiment to that of industrialized large group shelter or Gruppenunter- building and engineering as being stand for submarines in the northern instrumental in concrete’s association port of Bruges, erected in 1917-1918. with modernity.1 This transition from This paper highlights its importance, ‘mud’ to ‘modernity’ takes places 2 (Van De Voorde, 2011), 134-153. 1 (Forty, 2012), 13-42. 3 (Forty, 2012), 169-170.

Militage.book.indd 14 20.04.2018 19:18 Example of Kragun- terstand and Uboots- tall (BA-MA)

both as a typology and construction developed throughout the war. Apart paradigm. from some isolated particular designs, most shelters predating the Gruppe- The need for new typologies nunterstand can be divided in two The stalemate of the First World War main types.6 marks the transition to a full three-di- Cantilevering canopies (Kragunter- mensional battlefield, characterized stände) attached to the existing quay- by overhead, underground and sub- sides constitute a first type. They come merged warfare.4 The introduction in a variety of construction methods, of those new tactical layers radically mostly using steel beams or trusses disrupted the traditional spatiotem- as a primary structure and corrugated poral experience of conflict space and steel as a secondary structure. These paved the way for new building typol- cantilevers are counterbalanced by ogies. For instance, the confrontation containers filled with concrete or sand, between the new weapons of strate- or they are anchored to the quay. In gic aerial bombing and submarine some cases, the roof is doubled to warfare, is condensed in the construc- create a hollow explosion chamber or tion of bombproof shelters in the Ger- to integrate an impact-absorbing lay- man occupied Belgian ports, together er of clay bags. Sometimes the upper forming the Kaiserliche Marinewerft roof is covered with steel plating, in Brügge.5 The inland harbor of Bruges, other cases a thin slab of reinforced linked by canals to the coastal ports concrete is used. of Zeebrugge and Ostend, housed The second type, the so-called the headquarters of the Untersee- Ubootsstall (U-boat shack), is a small boots Flotille Flandern, operating covered dock, excavated between around the British Isles. This flotilla’s metal sheet pile walls. Part of the exca- successes turned the Marinewerft into vated earth is used to create a protec- an important objective for strategic tive dike. The dock itself is covered by aerial bombing. To keep pace with a roof composed of wooden supports, the rapidly increasing intensity and steel girders and corrugated steel destructivity of aerial attacks, succes- plates. Bomb proofing is attained by sive submarine shelter designs were absorbing sand layers separated by a slab of reinforced concrete. 4 (von Busch, 2011), 2-3. 5 The Kaiserliche Marinewerft Brügge (KMW) Such proliferation of typologies and comprised the ports of Bruges (principal seat), Zee- brugge and Ostend (dependencies) and disposed of 6 (BA-MA RM 120/97) summarizes aerial bombing shipyard facilities in the ports of Ghent and Antwerp. and different shelter typologies in the KMW.

Militage.book.indd 15 20.04.2018 19:18 reduced steel consumption, at a time when this had become scarce as a building material. The new bunker was planned in the northern port, at the end of a partial- ly excavated dock, whose construction had been commenced before the outbreak of the war. From the initially planned 11 covered docks, only 8 bays were completed by the end of the war, each measuring 8.80 by 62 meter. The bunker was built on the water to save time-consuming excavation works, a solution that at the same time would overcome the lack of steel sheet piles needed for retaining walls. A total number of 1,200 wooden piles measuring Gruppenunterstand construction methods indicates an em- over 10 meter of length were driven in (KLM) pirical approach towards shelter design the bottom of the dock using floating at this point in the war. Often, pragmat- steam pile drivers.9 The overall layout of ic reasons or local conditions, such as the bunker followed the outline of the the load bearing capacity of existing dock, resulting in the stepped floorplan quay walls, or the increasing lack of that characterizes the building. The main steel as a construction material can ex- structure was executed as a framework plain particular design decisions. of piers, columns and beams in reinforced cast-in-place concrete. To avoid Constructing the Gruppenun- extensive scaffolding and formwork terstand in the northern port7 over the water, the roof was composed Following a peak in aerial bombing of lined-up U-shaped precast concrete activity in the summer of 1917, the elements. Concrete ties, placed at regu- German navy command planned a lar intervals in between those elements, new bombproof shelter for the sub- further ensured the horizontal stability. marines of the Flandern flotilla. Realiz- Similarly to the Ubootsställe, this sup- ing the flaws in earlier shelter designs, porting structure was then topped with the engineers of the Hafenbauabtei- a blast roof, here a double reinforced lung I conceived a new typology of concrete slab, followed by an elastic juxtaposed covered wet docks that layer of gravel and on top an impact relied almost entirely on the use of layer of double reinforced concrete. To reinforced concrete.8 The choice for protect the base of the facades from concrete added the potential of max- bomb damage, protruding eaves were imum protection to the advantage of cast along the contours of the roof. For 7 This draws upon ongoing and unpublished re- similar reasons, the voids between the search of archival sources from BA-MA, KLM, WLB columns in the facades were filled with and NCAP. 8 (BA-MA RM 104/234) describes explosion tests blast walls in brick masonry, leaving only in March 1915 to assess he resilience of different construction methods. 9 (Journal de Bruges, 10 October 1951), 3.

Militage.book.indd 16 20.04.2018 19:18 small openings for access and natural lighting. The size of the Gruppenunterstand allowed for a semi-industrialized construction process. Materials were de- livered directly on site by train or via the dock, where a jetty provided direct access to a purpose-built concrete plant. The mixed concrete was raised to a casting tower and from there grav- itationally distributed over the building site through a rotatable casting arm.10 Additional narrow-gauge tracks on the roof and on the ground complemented this system. The stretch of land behind dock No.7 housed a production line for the precast roof elements, sufficiently large to cast val base for the short-lived Corps des Interior view of the the roof elements for an entire bay. Torpilleurs et Marins.12 Following the Gruppenunterstand (BA-MA) Wooden gantry cranes displaced the dismantlement of the navy corps in finished elements to the end of this 1927, the city of Bruges attempted in line, where they were hoisted by an vain to have the bunker demolished identical roof-mounted crane. In turn, for the extension of the port. The civ- this crane would run on tracks over il authorities claimed that the contin- the columns to place the elements on ued lowered water level in the dock their final position over the dock. This had caused the wooden piles to rot to semi-industrialized process reduced such a degree that the building risked the construction time considerably. collapsing.13 Insisting on its strategic Work started in August 1917 with the importance, the army dismissed the installation of the concrete plant and argument. In April 1939 the bunker the pile foundation of the northern was converted into a floating fuel de- bay No.8. By the end of the year, two pot for the war to come.14 Somewhere bays had been completed, followed between that time and early 1943, al- by six more in the first half of 1918. No most half of the building did collapse building progress was made after the after all.15 In 1951 the remainders were end of July 1918, days before the start finally dynamited to extend the dock.16 of the allied campaign that eventually would end the war.11 Design continuity After the Armistice, the bunker in The March 1942 issue of the periodical Bruges was recovered by the Bel- L’Illustration proudly announced the gian army. Initially, it served as a na- 12 (KLM 185/311) The navy corps was formed 10 According to (Illingworth, 1972) concrete with German ships that were assigned to Belgium by pumps were patented only later in 1927 by engi- the Treaty of Versailles. neers Max Giese and Fritz Hull. 13 (KLM 185/3294). 11 Account based on (KLM aerial photograph 14 (KLM 185/5320). database), pictures dating between 30 September 15 (WLB); (NCAP 25-524); (NCAP 25-525). 1917 and 19 September 1918. 16 (Journal de Bruges, 14 March 1951), 3.

Militage.book.indd 17 20.04.2018 19:18 Construction of Nord- see III (1941), showing framework, concrete blast walls and be- veled roof edge (BA- MA)

completion of the concrete submarine Moreover, pile foundations, such as in pens in Saint-Nazaire.17 Interesting- Bruges, would later be dismissed, be- ly, the article also included a picture ing too sensitive and unable to take on of the bunker in Bruges and the text supplementary loads after construc- identified the Gruppenunterstand as tion. Wherever possible, later bunkers the ancestor of the new submarine would be founded directly on rock soil, pens.18 Even if the interwar evolution for this reason sometimes even away of technology had dramatically in- from the waterfront (Keroman I and II). creased the scale of the new bunkers, In the 1940s, steel trusses were pre- the typological resemblance is evi- ferred over precast concrete for the dent, for instance in the juxtaposition roofs in France, until the increasing of the covered docks and the protrud- lack of steel would favor pre-stressed ing eaves. Less visible are other simi- concrete trusses for the later construc- larities, such as the layered blast roof, tions in Germany and Norway. the judicious application of precast The submarine bunker Nordsee III concrete or the thought-out organiza- in Helgoland, Germany, is interesting tion of the building site. But essential in this respect. Built in 1940-1941, but differences also exist. The shelter in conceived in the late 1930s, it con- Bruges, for instance, does not dispose stitutes a missing link between both of the workshop facilities that were in- wars.19 It shares some of the trade- tegrated in later designs. Its primary mark features of the bunker in Brug- structure is composed of a concrete es that were completely abandoned framework, while the examples of in later projects, such as the skewed the 1940s feature solid concrete walls plan, the construction on the water, and eliminate the masonry blast walls. the concrete framework or the bev- eled eaves. On the other hand some 17 (L’Illustration, 21 March 1942). By then, German propaganda would supervise the editorial board of ideas from Bruges were further devel- L’Illustration. 19 (Neitzel, 1991), 97-99; (BA-MA RM 45-II/471- 18 A point of view shared by (Neitzel, 1991), 9-15. 476).

Militage.book.indd 18 20.04.2018 19:18 oped or modified. Examples are: the mastering of reinforced concrete con- use of soldier pile walls for the foun- struction, that undoubtedly would jus- dations of the piers, the installation of tify the label ‘modern’. concrete blast walls and most notably the application of an enormous mo- Archival sources and bibliog- bile concrete formwork for the roof raphy instead of precast concrete. Bundesarchiv-Militärchiv (BA-MA), Even if no hard evidence of continui- Freiburg, Germany. RM 104/32, RM ty between bunkers of both wars could 120/97, RM 45/II/471-476. be found, the juxtaposition in L’Illus- Royal Museum of the Armed Forc- tration under German supervision is a es and of Military History (KLM), Brus- strong indication that the shelter in Bru- sels, Belgium. 185/311, 185/3294, ges was used at least as a starting point 185/4406, 185/5320, aerial photo- for later designs. This seems to be con- graph database, image database. firmed by the fact that officials of the Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte (WLB), Krupp Germania submarine shipyards Stuttgart, Germany. Bildsammlung in Kiel photographed the ruins of Bru- Horst Dressler. ges in March 1943, only weeks before National Collection of Aerial Pho- the start of the construction work on tography (NCAP), Edinburgh, UK. 25- the Konrad submarine bunker, located 524, 25-525. next to their premises in Kiel.20 Journal de Bruges. 14 March 1951, 10 October 1951. Conclusion L’Illustration. 21 March 1942. Within the timespan of the war, subma- Forty, A. 2012. Concrete and cul- rine shelters evolved from improvised ture: a material history. London, UK, mixed-material structures to all-con- Reaktion Books. crete pens constructed in a semi-in- Illingworth, J.R. 1972. Movement dustrialized manner. Rather than be- and distribution of concrete. London, ing an endpoint of an evolution, the UK, McGraw-Hill. Bruges Gruppenunterstand sets a Neitzel, S. 1991. Die Deutschen typological example for later subma- Ubootbunker Und Bunkerwerften: rine bunkers. Moreover, it exhibits cer- Bau, Verwendung, Und Bedeutung tain technical solutions that would be Verbunkerter Ubootstützpunkte in continued, improved or dismissed in Beiden Weltkriegen. Koblenz, Germa- later designs. In particular, the exper- ny, Bernard & Graefe. imental use of reinforced concrete in Van De Voorde, S. 2011. Bouwen in military context raises the question if beton in België (1890-1975): samen- the bunker in Bruges, in the words of spel van kennis, experiment en inno- Adrian Forty’s Concrete and Culture, vatie. PhD. Dissertation, Ghent Uni- is ‘mud’ or ‘modern’. If the previous versity. Kragunterstände and Ubootsställe still von Busch, O. 2011. Design at the tend towards empirical experiment, Front. Helsinki, Finland, Aalto Univer- the later Gruppenunterstand displays sity. a certain engineering rationality and

20 (WLB); (Neitzel, 1991).

Militage.book.indd 19 20.04.2018 19:18 Cold War Heritage in the Russian Federation

Marina DOBRONOVSKAYA Independent scholar, Russian Federation

Abstract rades, clubs and youth movements Numerous military sites from the Cold of field research and expeditions, and War time are scattered all over Russia. museums of military glory. Victory me- During the 1990s, many were aban- morials and monuments exist in every doned and have deteriorated due to Russian city and town. Yet, the only natural causes and looters. None of one real historic site from World War II these sites are listed in the Nation- is Prokhorovo Battlefield near Kursk. It al Registrar. Inventorying, research became a historical museum-preserve and basic conservation would be the in 1995. first steps in preserving those sites. The Cold War is not celebrated or This paper argues that the Cold War commemorated in Russia, and there sites may fit the concept of preserv- are no sites associated with the Cold ing cultural landscapes in the form of War that are under state or local au- historical-cultural preserves, which the thority as monuments. And yet, numer- state agency for historic preservation ous military sites are scattered all over is currently developing, since they are the former Soviet republics as materi- a particular type of cultural landscape. al remnants of the fierce international strife that dominated a half-century of Key words: Russian Military Heritage, Soviet history. The Cold War phenom- Russian Cold-War Historical Preserva- enon not only defined international re- tion lations; it was also at the core of Soviet domestic policies, and loomed over Russia has a long history of wars and the lives and minds of Soviet citizens military conflicts. In the 20th centu- for fifty-five years. After 1990, many ry it was a major actor in both World of these sites were abandoned, and wars and of the Cold War that defined missiles and armaments were disman- international relations for 55 year. A tled and removed. While research and cult of the Great Patriotic War (Rus- preservation of the Cold-War heritage sian part of the World War II) contin- has been conducted in numerous oth- ues through these days. It is a part of er countries, and in the former Soviet the state ideology and it is expressed republics, in Russia all these sites lay in through book publications, movies, neglect, and quickly deteriorate. They historic reconstructions, military pa- are not considered cultural heritage in

Militage.book.indd 20 20.04.2018 19:18 need of protection. This paper is the Command station first attempt to identify problems- re 15B52Y. View from the bottom. Photo: lated to the protection of military her- frantsouzov.livejour- itage sites in Russia and to determine nal.com the set of immediate tasks to be taken for their preservation. The main aspects of preservng the military legacy of the second half of the 20th century include:

1. Classification and evaluation of military heritage sites; 2. The mechanism of designation and preservation; 3. Main stakeholders.

1. Classification and evaluation of all the military sites need deeper research since there are name SS-19 mod.2 Stiletto, put into many different types of settings. It is service in 1979). The stationary missile beyond this paper to provide detailed complex included 10 intercontinen- technical information about weapons, tal ballistic missiles 15A35 mounted but some basic descriptions may be in silo launchers 15P735, as well as a gathered from open sources such as unified command station 15B52Y of Wikipedia and public blogs and on- high security, designed to withstand line forums. While useful, however, nuclear strike. Within modern Russia some of this information may be out- boundaries 170 silos were built. This dated or not accurate. Much deeper station is located in Kaluga district, 250 research needs to be conducted, and km south from Moscow. It comprised a taxonomy still needs to be devel- of a 40-meters deep, twelve-levels oped. At first glance, however, several underground vertical command sta- types of properties can be identified: tion made of re-enforced metal, and a) Military bases to house troops, a system of underground tunnels. De- with barracks, training facilities etc. scription and photographs of the type These ordinary structures, built of are available at the Museum of rocket bricks or concrete, are not master- forces in Ukraine.1 pieces of architecture. Now these are Another type of site includes the almost completely destroyed, full of R-16 missiles units of three silos and a junk and debris. control system (NATO reporting name b) Intercontinental ballistic missiles’ SS-7 Saddler). One known site that is silos and their control and command left is located in Novosibirsk district, centers. Examples of this type include others were destroyed and flooded. the unified command station 15V52U The R-16 was the first truly successful [15B52Y] that operated the UR- intercontinental ballistic missile devel- 100UTTKh (15A35, the NATO reporting 1 http://varandej.livejournal.com/369299.html

Militage.book.indd 21 20.04.2018 19:18 remnant, for example an underground former strategic storage facility for food supply in the city of Samara. To- tal capacity of the underground complex, including rooms and corridors, amounted to 16,400 tons. Repair and spare-parts factories and facilities were built to serve armed trains, aircrafts and military vehicles in the 1950-s through the 1980-s. Many of them were abandoned after the Cold War, since these vehicles were also abandoned and destroyed. These Underground strategic oped by the Soviet Union. It was on were often very large structures. An storage of food supply duty in 1963 through 1977. On normal example of this kind of site was the in Samara. From Live- depot for maintenance and repair of journal duty the missiles were stored in hang- ars, and it took one to three hours to the Combat railway missile system roll them out, fuel them, and reach (abbreviated BZhRK, ghost train), a launch readiness. train designed to carry strategic mis- c) Antiaircraft forces units, such as sile systems. The train carried the RT- S-200 (NATO reporting name SA-5 23 missile (NATO reporting name SS-24 Gammon), also still exist. The S-200 Scalpel). In total, the USSR produced was a long range, medium-to-high al- twelve trains starting in 1987. Two of titude surface-to-air missile (SAM) sys- these trains were transferred to muse- tem designed to defend large areas ums, all others were destroyed after from bomber attack or other strategic the end of the Cold War. The depot aircraft. Each battalion had 6 single-rail was closed. It is located in Kostroma missile launchers for the 10.8 m (35 ft) district. long missiles and a fire control radar. A number of facilities for testing air- S-200 was put into service in 1967. This craft and missiles engines were closed unit is located in Archangelsk district. in the 1990s. One of these is located in d) Radio-location stations, such as Samara district, with remains of techni- a radars system located in Naro-Fo- cal equipment still in place (Figure 7). minsk, Moscow district, are possible All these sites are in poor condition, sites for preservation. This site was a full of junk and debris. Once people part of the A-35 (later A-135) anti-bal- discover them, they are quickly loot- listic missile system deployed around ed for metal. However, many people Moscow to intercept enemy ballistic who visit these facilities express fas- missiles targeting the city. The A-35 cination with the size, the power, the was supported by the two Dunay radars machinery that was operated, and the (NATO: Cat House and Dog House) meaning and spirit of that era. It is im- and the Soviet early warning system. portant to preserve what is left before It was in operation since 1971. it completely vanishes. e) Ammunition and food supply stor- Of course, not all these places have ages are another type of Cold-War values to be preserved. But such fa-

Militage.book.indd 22 20.04.2018 19:18 cilities as missile silos and command es since they usually are located in nat- stations, radio-location stations, etc. ural settings such as forest areas. The represent outstanding achievements Chief Administration for Protection of in science and technology. Some of Cultural Heritage of the Ministry of them were built in order to withstand Culture (CAPCH) has the authority to a nuclear strike, and their construction designate Cold-War sites as historical required innovative design and great places or cultural monuments and put effort. Thus, they are outstanding ex- them under legal protection. The first amples not only of science and tech- steps for designation would be inven- nology, but also of building technolo- torying, research and documentation, gies. Some types of weapons, such as and evaluation. If designated, the next the C-75 Dvina, went down in history stage would be to implement security and became legendary. They were measures to protect against looting, used in Vietnam beginning in July and basic preliminary conservation of 1965. In May 1960, one of the C-75 the properties to prevent further de- missiles shot down an American re- terioration. This, however, presents a connaissance aircraft, a U-2, piloted problem because the land and struc- by Gary Powers, while on a secret mis- tures where these sites are located sion over Sverdlovsk. belong to the RF Ministry of Defense, which would be responsible for securi- 2. The mechanism of designa- ty and protection. tion and preservation Recent measures taken by the Minis- Identifying and classifying these sites try of Defense show that it has an un- is the first task to be undertaken. A sec- derstanding of the importance of pro- ond task revolves around the question tecting military heritage and of its role how these properties receive designa- in public’s patriotic upbringing. In July tion as cultural heritage status. One 2016 it opened the Military Patriotic of the major problems of protecting Park of Culture and Recreation of the Cold-War sites is that, at present, they RF Armed Forces “Patriot”, with exhi- are not considered cultural heritage. bitions of Soviet and Russian aviation, No agency has expressed interest in rocket and aerospace devices and protecting them, although there ex- equipment, and armored and special ists a legal basis for their preservation. vehicles. To date, this park compris- The law “On Objects of the Cultural es several kinds of structures, such Heritage of Peoples of the Russian as the Central Museum of Armored Federation” (art. 3) reads that valua- Weapons and Equipment, the mili- ble objects of science and technology tary-historical complex Guerilla-warri- including military may receive a desig- ors village (imitation of a World-War nation as “monuments of cultural her- II partisan-guerillas camp), the Center itage” or as “historical places”. “His- for Military-Tactical Games, and a field torical places” are cultural and natural for historical reconstructions. The mis- landscapes related to historic events, sion of park “Patriot” is to contribute including military sites. Probably, the to the education of citizens and youth, best way to preserve these sites would to create an attractive and friendly im- be under the definition of historic plac- age of the RF Armed Forces, and to

Militage.book.indd 23 20.04.2018 19:18 Testing facility. Sama- settings. The emotions, the sense of ra district. From Swal- power of the original structures, and ker website the opportunity to be in a real structure would be impossible to recreate in a museum or amusement park. The same law “On Objects of the Cultural Heritage” (art. 57, 58) allows for protection of cultural landscapes in the form of “historical-cultural preserves”. This is a relatively new concept that has not been widely used yet. The CAPCH is planning to promote this concept in the near future. “His- torical-cultural preserve” would differ from a “museum-preserve” arrangement that has been traditionally used in Russia for preserving cultural land- help developing a sense of pride and scapes. The main difference is that the respect for the Motherland. The Park historical-cultural preserve may have combines education with amusement. a museum or may not, but it will not Within a short period of time, it be- relay on a museum collection as the came a popular place, receiving hun- main attraction to the site. Instead, it dreds of daily visits.2 may have one or several original (not This military park demonstrates the replicated) historical attractions of high country’s commitment to and pride cultural value, in their original historical in its military heritage, although the and natural settings. Historical-cultural Park is different from historical sites preserve may be a separate institution, associated with original events. Park or may be a part of a national park. “Patriot” and traditional other mili- This concept is similar to that of nation- tary museums bring together mova- al monuments and national parks in ble artifacts in the form of a museum Northern America and some European collection. Protection of original sites, countries. The Cold-War sites do not often in remote areas, is a different have to be the only attraction in a his- matter and involves a different con- torical-cultural preserve. For example, cept. Still, the success of park “Patri- the unified command station 15B52Y, ot” gives hope that it may lead to the mentioned above, is located on the next step, namely protection of origi- border of a large natural national park, nal sites. They present not only tech- Ugra. An adjacent historical-cultural nical or scientific achievements of the preserve would complement the park time, but also what it took to build and and would be mutually beneficial. The maintain the construction. Equally im- CAPCH considers creating a histori- portant, the original location of these cal-cultural preserve in Northern Russia, sites would give visitors a very differ- Karelia, with the lake Onega Neolithic ent experience than that in museum petroglyphs as its core. In addition, examples of traditional wooden vernacu- 2 http://patriotp.ru/about/general-information/

Militage.book.indd 24 20.04.2018 19:18 lar architecture and churches would be included. Military sites are also located in the area and could be incorporated. Creating a historical- cultural preserve with multiple historical sites of different typology would attract tourists with a wide range of interests. This concept of historical-cultural preserves may be adopted by the Ministry of Defense. This will fit the goal of creating a positive image of the Armed Forces, and may be an additional tool for patriotic education of Russian citizens, particu- communities and individuals often take Ghost train main- larly of youth. good quality detailed photographs of tenance depot. Kost- roma district. From Potential audience is an important their trips, maintain blogs and websites Livejournal question, since this will define the - in and exchange information and com- terpretation and adaptive use of the ments on the internet. They include properties. At present, the Cold War thousands of people from all regions heritage sites are in high demand of the Russian Federation. Their activ- among two segments of population. ity demonstrates that there is interest One is looters and hunters for metals. in military heritage, and they are a po- They bring with them heavy tools to tential core audience for military histor- strip off all metal armor, doors, stairs ical-cultural preserves. They are also a and equipment, and they destroy the source for documentation and poten- sites quickly. The second group is the tial volunteers. numerous communities of adventurers and amateur explorers of abandoned 3. Main stakeholders places. They range from former military It is clear that efforts to preserve Cold- officers to teenagers looking for excite- War heritage sites may be accom- ment. Some of these people have an plished in collaboration between the interest in military history and do re- Chief Administration for Protection of search and analysis of military equip- Cultural Heritage and the Ministry of ment, which may be a useful source of Defense. The public and adventurers’ information, Such a person is Martin communities would be a third major Trolle Mikkelsen, an amateur military participant in this effort. Finally, the researcher and traveller from Den- issues of research, legal designations mark.3 Others are engaged in extreme and adaptive use need to be decided tourism and guide unauthorized tours. with local authorities, a fourth group Young people, such as “Lana” from of stakeholders. Designation of the Moscow, for example “like to look be- Cold-War heritage properties and yond fences, unwashed windows and making them into historical attractions locked doors simply because it’s inter- will be a long and costly process. But esting and exciting.”4 These types of it is necessary to start it today before

3 https://www.flickr.com/photos/martintrolle/al- these sites disappear. bums 4 http://lana-sator.livejournal.com/

Militage.book.indd 25 20.04.2018 19:18 Puerto Rico Coastal Defenses during 20th Cen- tury: WWII

Milagros FLORES-ROMÁN MA in History at the University of Navarra, Spain President ICOFORT International

This papers intends to share the state of its new domains through the design of identification and protection of the and implementation of a Defensive US Military Heritage which was intro- System included all main ports of duced in Puerto Rico by the US Army the Caribbean resulted on a military based on the modification and reuse engineering masterpiece today it of the old Spanish colonial fortifica- stands as a UNESCO World Heritage tions to serve new modern military and remains as a testimony to the purposes in support of the defense of historic strength and the power of the Panama Canal during WWII. Spain in the New World. Western European Military Heritage Puerto Rico, remained as the last was introduced in the Colonial stronghold of the Spanish colonial Caribbean during early 16th century domains in the new world until the as result of Spain’s struggle against events of Spanish American War in the other European Nations to 1898 when the island was transferred defend its new territories discovered under the domain of the United States in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. of America. As result, old Spanish Spain placed their special interests colonial fortifications were modified in safeguarding the Caribbean which and reused by the Military forces of was the entrance to power and wealth the United States of America.

San Juan Defenses

Militage.book.indd 26 20.04.2018 19:18 After the new sovereignty change measures of military infrastructure of the island of Puerto Rico under both at the continental level and at the command of the United States the level of its new territories. and facing the panorama of World In Puerto Rico, these infrastructures War I the American army made were mostly built by the United States several attempts to improve the Army Corps of Engineers during the bad state of the defenses of the 1940s and were mostly located in the island, thus giving beginning to San Juan Bay and Passage areas of an initiative of preservation of the the island of Vieques. fortifications of San Juan. The first During the German threat to plan of improvements to the old the American possessions in the Spanish defenses recommended the Caribbean during the period of 1939- installation of new and more efficient 1941 became the time of Preparations artillery according to the “Junta Taft”, before the imminent war being was created in the year 1905. This required that the military authorities plan was not implemented because it in Puerto Rico modify the old Spanish was considered very expensive. fortifications located in San Juan. A few years later, in 1915 the War It was decided to create the Military Department presented another Department of Puerto Rico (Puerto improvement plan to determine what Rico Army Department) with the changes were needed to optimize objective of transforming the island the future of the artillery. After World into an “impregnable citadel”. War I, the US Army published the Between 1938 and mid-1939 the conclusions and recommendations of fortifications in San Juan underwent a this commission, which would serve program of improvements. The work as fundamental guidelines during was assigned to the construction World War II. The US Army reiterated company Rexach. The work consisted among others the need to build high- of the demolition of part of the old caliber batteries, modifications to walls, provided new foundation and the old defenses according to the rebuilt the section of wall. In addition new artillery site, the construction to the bastions San Agustín and Santa of a battery system or coastal Elena, Sentry Boxes were repaired defenses complemented by a fleet along the walls. In Castillo San Felipe of aircraft, and the consideration of del Morro, which had been converted the establishment of a first-class naval into an administrative and housing base. complex, electricity was introduced, Again because of the high cost, the drinking water and the construction option of building coastal batteries of new free standing buildings on the and with high-caliber artillery prevailed grounds of El Morro. Also as part of as an option during the 1920s and the defensive improvements a canon 1930s. Amstrong of 4.7 inches was installed. As the world political scene changed Prior to the outbreak of World and with the possibility of a Second War II, Washington openly accepted World War becoming a real threat, the that the island was the Key to the United States incorporated preventive Caribbean Sea and an essential base

Militage.book.indd 27 20.04.2018 19:18 Fort Brooke, San Juan for the defense of the Panama Canal. on over foundations of old Spanish Defenses WWI For the United States, possession was defensive installations of the of utmost importance for the defense nineteenth century. of the territory against aggressions All the facilities built during 1939 overseas because Puerto Rico was the and the war years were connected by most eastern land in the Caribbean a system of roads called “military”, under American sovereignty. Puerto and they had the necessary services of Rico’s own governor, Blanton Winship, water, communications and electricity. indicated that the island “had become the most important piece of the Harbor Defenses of San Juan American defensive system.” By the 1940 the Harbor defenses of The island of Puerto Rico was to San Juan Harbor were composed: become one of the most important Fort Brooke (1903 - 1949/1966), Old strategic points in the Atlantic, with San Juan the establishment of large aviation This was the U.S. Army’s main bases, naval bases and other military garrison post, centered mainly installations. The security of San around the historic El Morro and San Juan, its capital city was vital for the Cristóbal Castles. Originally known effective defense of Puerto Rico. as the San Juan Military Reservation. Along the coast of Puerto Rico Renamed in 1943. The Americans artillery batteries and observation built a harbor entrance control post posts were established, sometimes (HECP) and Battery Point (a three-

Militage.book.indd 28 20.04.2018 19:18 inch gun mounted on an older 4.7- San Juan Defenses. inch Armstrong gunblock) on the old Observation Post Castillo San Cristobal El Morro fortress, as well as three fire-control stations (one still exists). Located at San Cristóbal Castle were two fire-control stations (still here), and a 155mm gun battery on Panama mounts. Numerous barracks and quarters covered the open plain below El Morro (“El Campo del Morro”). The old Ballajá Barracks became the Fort Brooke Army Hospital (aka Rodriguez Army Hospital) in 1943. The Convento de los Dominicos, originally built in 1523, was used in WWII as the administrative headquarters of Fort Brooke and the U.S. Army Caribbean control post. Originally known as the (Antilles) Command. It is now a Cabras Island Military Reservation museum. Most of the historic areas of until 1943. This site is now used as a the post were nominally transferred to local police training area and shooting the NPS in 1949. range. San Juan Fortifications under the US Punta Escambrón Military Res- Department of Defense ervation As a result of the Spanish-American (1941 - 1949), Puerta de Tierra War of 1898 the Spanish cede Puerto Located here was Battery Schwan Rico to the American government. (1942 - 1949, destroyed 1965) at Pun- With the signing of the Treaty of Paris ta Escambrón near Fort San Geróni- that same year the San Juan Military mo. A hotel swimming pool was locat- Reservation is established in the forts ed later on the site. and the site is reserved by the US Government for military purposes by Fort Amezquita an Act of Congress in 1903. The military (1941 - 1948), Isla de Cabras used the fortifications until the 1960’s. During World War II, the island of Several alterations occurred in San Cabras was connected to the mainland Cristobal during the American military of Puerto Rico by a rocky causeway presence: constructed by the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army during the • Fixtures for a new sewer and 1930s and El Cañuelo became part of plumbing system were installed in the new “ Fortress Amezquita “. 1899. World War II batteries here were • Electricity was introduced in 1901. Battery Reed (1941 - 1948); a 155mm • A large housing development for Panama-mounted gun battery nearby; military personnel was erected at La and an Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat Princesa Bastion in 1930. battery. A secondary harbor entrance • The late 1930’s were characterized

Militage.book.indd 29 20.04.2018 19:18 by restoration and repair work car- During the summer of 1942, ried out by the US Army. the Caribbean Maritime Frontier • The harbor defense system was headquarters and the Joint Operations installed during World War II years, Center were moved to a bomb-and- 1941-1945. gas-proof structure built in the dry • Two fire control stations were built moat at Fort San Cristobal in San Juan. at El Caballero and the North Bas- At this time, the presence of enemy tions. submarines, the administration and • The Joint Operations Center was defense of the Netherlands Antilles, constructed in the main moat in and the situation in Martinique were the 1942. most important issues in the Command. • Several gun blocks are placed At the end of June 1943, Puerto along the northern edge of the out- Rican troops began to replace the works. American troops, while they began to be transferred to other points of the The Morro Castle also saw various al- Caribbean and Pacific. Three years terations during the American military and five months after the attack on presence: Pearl Harbor, peace returned to the Caribbean. • Electricity was introduced in 1901. At the end of World War II, • A new water supply system was developments in military technology built. and new combat tactics experienced • New building was constructed on during World War II changed the the grounds in front of the fort. concept of coastal defense originally • A golf course and a pool was add- projected by the Modernization ed to the area. Program of 1940. In addition, the • In 1929 damages done in 1898 development and use of the atomic were repaired. bomb dramatically changed the • Some restoration work was done planning of military strategy opaque starting in 1939, including the resto- all existing defensive systems military ration of the sentry boxes. strategy and opaque all existing defensive systems since the beginning During WWII (1941-1945), the con- of World War II. The American defensive crete observation tower was built into strategy changed from a defensive the walls and the bunker was built in against a possible invasion to a defense the moat. against a possible destruction. The In December 1941, the enemy new concept of amphibious warfare, presence in the area was confirmed new tactics and landing gear, coupled by intelligence reports which caused with an eagerness to economize in fear of an attack or invasion of Puerto the immediate absence of a powerful Rico to increase. This caused the enemy naval force, brought about the mobilization of personnel by assigning practical end of coastal defenses. All the headquarters of the Army in La attempts by the Costa Artillery Corps Princesa, the Fort of San Cristóbal and to improve, maintain or modify existing the Island of Cabras in Cataño. facilities failed.

Militage.book.indd 30 20.04.2018 19:18 In Puerto Rico, all coastal defenses were eliminated by the end of 1947. Most of the armaments used during the war were removed and stored. After World War II the function and use of the fortifications of San Juan changed dramatically due to the use of modern weapons that made the fortifications obsolete. Indeed, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had expressed concern about the historic importance of these forts since 1934, San Juan Defenses. References Visitor Center Castillo and legislation was introduced in the Bearss, Edwin C., San Juan Fortifica- United States Congress to include them tions, 1898-1958 (Washington, D.C.: in the national park system since 1935. US Department of the Interior, Na- Negotiations between the War tional Park Service, 1984. and Interior departments had Berkowitz, Cliver, Crisson et al. The begun during the decade of 1930 Fortifications of San Juan National when the historical character of the Historic Site. Historic Structure Report, fortifications of San Juan began Vol. I, II, III (Southeast Regional Office: to focus considerably as the first National Park Service, 1991) historical units to became accepted as Lewis, Emanuel Raymond, Seacoast parts of the system of national parks, Fortifications of the United States were summarized in 1946, culminating (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, in 1949 when President Harry S. 1993). Truman established the San Juan Terrance McGovern y Bolling Smith, National Historic Site, Initially under American Coastal Defenses, 1885- cooperative administration between 1950 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, the Department of the Army and the 2006). National Park Service. Pinero Cádiz, Gerardo M., El In 1961, San Juan fortifications were Gibraltar del Caribe en Guerra Las officially transferred as part of the Defensas Costeras en Puerto Rico National Park Service site at San Juan durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial National Historic Site. (San Juan, Isla Negra Editores, 2015). As part of the National Park Service’s Alonso M.M. y Flores M., El Caribe mission of presenting the history en el siglo XVIII y el ataque británico of the site, the new Visitor’s Center a Puerto Rico en 1797 (San Juan: is housed in the old Joint Forces Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 1998). bombproof shelter. A structure was González, Flores, Sepúlveda et al., built in preparation for any possible San Juan la Ciudad que rebaso sus involvement of the Caribbean area murallas (Ediciones Puerto: San Juan, during WWII, and for protection from 2005). modern weaponry. Today, this modern installation serves to tell the story of the site.

Militage.book.indd 31 20.04.2018 19:18 From garbage to heritage? Two land defence lines in Arctic Norway: the Lyngen line (WW2) and the Frøy line (Cold War)

Anders HESJEDAL. Archaeologist, Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Norway

The mountain area between the Finn- war history of the northern part of ish border and the bottom of the Lyn- Norway is under communicated. Un- gen fjord has probably been one of the pleasant and painful parts of the his- most important military strategic areas tory, as the Norwegian business sec- in Norway during the last 70 years. In tors cooperation with the Germans, or 2014-2015 a part of the mountain area the role of the Norwegian police force was surveyed (Hesjedal og Andreas- in the deportation of the Jews was sen 2015). More than 1000 structures not raised. The destiny of the Soviet were mapped, most of them remains POWs, including Operation Asphalt from the Lyngen line constructed as an dis not became a part of the Norwe- “unconquerable” defence line against gian history before the Cold War had the Soviet army in 1944-1945. During come to an end. This of course was the Cold War the area became strate- also the case for the history of the gic important for NATO. From 1950 Cold War. After 1990 archives, both in and onwards military installations were west and east was opened, new ques- regularly constructed. In the 1980 a tions asked, and new historical insight modern land defence line, the Frøy acquired. There was also an increasing line was constructed, finished around interest in the material remains both year 2000. The Norwegian defence from the WW2 and the Cold War. decided to demolish the line because of the détente between Russia and The Lyngen line, historical the west. In 2012 the local communi- background ty and the regional heritage manage- Norway’s geopolitical situation have ment managed to stop the demolition since 1941 been dominated by a few in the mountains in the municipality but important factors. Firstly, the for- of Storfjord. A process was started to mer Soviet, now Russia, and Norway evaluate the landscape and the vari- are neighbours in the northeast. Sec- ous military structures as heritage. ondly, Norway has a long coastline When the “official” history of the with long and narrow fjords towards WW2 in Norway was written it was the Atlantic in the west. If you con- biased. Focus was mainly on what trol the coast, you have the possibility happened in the southern part of the to control the north Atlantic. Thirdly, country and still the occupation and there was no railway connecting north-

Militage.book.indd 32 20.04.2018 19:18 ern Norway to the south. This was the of the many conditions the Finns had to situation when the Germans attacked accept was that the Finnish army now in 1940 and still today the Norwegian should fight the Germans still in Finland, Railway ends at the city of Bodø. This all German troops had to leave imme- means that Northern Norway must be diately. The Germans first considered seen an island when it comes to de- a defence line in Lapland, from Petsa- fence matters. Supplies to North Nor- mo via Ivalo to Karesuando, but this way, soldier and military equipment plan was dropped due to poorly devel- must come by ship or by plain, both oped defensive positions. In addition, vulnerable transport methods. During nickel from the Petsamo area was not the war, the Germans invested heavily necessary for the German war industry, in the construction of railways in Nor- there was no need to defend the mines way. The planned Polar Railway, that and the nickel industry. So, under at- should end up in Kirkenes close to the tack from the Finnish army the German Russian/Soviet border, was one of Hit- Lappland-army or 20th Gebirgsarmee lers prestige projects and an attempt started to withdraw from Finland head- to improve the military defence ca- ing for Norway and the mountainously pacity in the north. One of the crucial area between Finland and Lyngen fjord. tasks for both the Lyngen and the Frøy Finnmark, the northernmost county in line was to protect the Bardufoss air- Norway is huge, the landscape is flat, is base, important for the Germans and sparsely populated and difficult to de- essential for the Cold War Norwegian fend. In Troms County, the landscape and NATO defence. changes. The mountains are higher, When Germany attacked Soviet the steeper and more alpine and divided goal in the high north was to conquer by deep and narrow valleys. This is a Murmansk, an important Soviet port. landscape that favours an army defend- However, the attack failed, and the ing itself, and this was exploited both German army got stuck in the Litza val- by the German army during the WW2 ley, and three years of trench warfare and the Norwegian defence forces dur- followed between the Soviet and the ing the cold war. German troops. The German attack on In the beginning of October 1944, Soviet was followed by a Finnish attack, the Soviet army attacked the Germans in Finland this is called the Continuation at the Litza front line and the Germans War. The Finns wanted revenge for the were completely overrun. The fighting loss in the Winter war in 1939-40, where developed to a race to the south and Finland lost 10% of their land to the So- west, the Germans desperately trying viet. During 1943 it became apparent to to avoid being trapped by the Soviets. the Finns that the Soviet and the allies In the end of October, the Red Army would win the war. This would probably stopped their advance. The eastern have serious consequences for Finland part of Finnmark was liberated. The and therefore the fins started to try to German Lapland army consisted of get to an agreement with Soviet. Ne- ca 220 000 soldiers, 60 000 horses, gotiations between the Finnish and the 20 000 vehicles and an unknown num- Soviet governments led to a ceasefire in ber of Soviet POWs. The plan was to the beginning of September 1944. One get most of the army behind or the

Militage.book.indd 33 20.04.2018 19:18 planed Lyngen defence line and to scape that favours the defender and build it so strong that if the Soviets make an attack more complicated and attacked they should not be able to risky. The order from Berlin told the break through. 6. Gebirgsjäger division to establish an unconquerable defence line in the Scorched earth policy mountains (Fossum 2014:54). The divi- The first line of defence however, sion brought with them between 8000 was to force the civilian population to and 10 000 POWs. The POWs had to move away and to burn and destroy work on the defence line, constructing the land. All territory east and north roads, cable cars and defence struc- of Lyngen should be laid desolate. In tures like dug inns, gun posts etc. and Finland 110 000 people had to leave the desolate mountain area now be- their homes, 50 000 to Southern Fin- came a major construction site with land the rest to Sweden. In Norway thousands of people working there. about 70 000 were affected by the Time was short, the construction work forced evacuation. The majority, ca should be finished in May 1945. The 50 000 were transported to the south, cold, the snow, the polar night to- some thousand fled into the moun- gether with lack of food, medicines tains, living there hiding from the Ger- and bad housing and clothing gave mans during the winter, the rest living especially the POWs a hard time, and in the liberated areas. Fishing villages, about 800 died, most of them the last barns, residential buildings, hospitals, few months of the war. schools etc were burned or blown up. Bridges, telephone poles, ports The material culture and roads were destroyed. Livestock There was established a system of small was killed. The scorched earth policy POW camps close to the construction should make it as difficult as possible sites, housing Soviet prisoners forced for the Soviet army to reach the Ger- to work on the defence structures. man defence lines. Most of the camps was named after villages and cities in Austria1, espe- Constructing the Lyngen line cially from the federal state of Salz- Simultaneously with this systematic burg. Maps shows where the camps2 destruction of the north, the construc- Kitzbühel, Gastein, Zermatt, Windeck, tion work in the mountains started. Salzburg, Mallnitz, Spittal, were situat- The choice of the Lyngen area is ob- ed in the mountainous Lyngen area. vious, and the Lyngen line is based The landscape must have reminded on the German experience from the the Austrian soldiers of their homes Litza front. The Lyngen fjord cuts deep and the naming could be interpreted into the land and is a natural barrier as an attempt to symbolic “plant” a surrounded by high and steep moun- part of the Alps into the North Norwe- tains. Distance from the bottom of gian mountains. We do not have much the fjord to the Finnish and Swedish information about the camps, prob- border is only about 40 km. The land- 1 A few names were from Germany and one from scape is dominated by steep moun- Switzerland. tains and narrow valleys, it is a land- 2 The spelling of the names is in accordance with German maps from 1944/45.

Militage.book.indd 34 20.04.2018 19:18 Cluster of German dug outs/shelters

ably some of the documentation was Camp Mallnitz was probably the destroyed by the Germans at the end worst camp in the area. Prisoners to of the war (Soleim 2009:345) weak or ill to work on the defence From two of the camps, camp Mall- line were gathered here to starve to nitz and camp Kitzbuhl however, there death, their food rations taken away are some photos and reports from an from them and given to the prisoners Allied War Crime Commission visiting still able to work. Most of the photo the area in June and July 1945. POWs documentation from the commission here were maltreated to death and consist of dead prisoners. But some of then the corpses were hidden in four the photos shows the landscape and mass graves by the German/Austrian could help us to find the spots were soldiers. The War Crime Commission different actions took place. tried to find the hidden corpses, iden- The Germans in Norway capitulat- tified them and documented the cause ed 8. Mai 1945. The soldiers where of death. The dead ones were then tak- repatriated to Germany/Austria, the en to the local churchyard at Hatteng surviving POWs repatriated to their for the funeral. Here they were until countries, and the Norwegian civ- 1950 when the Norwegian govern- il population could return to their ment decided to rebury all the Soviet homes. The British and the Norwegian POWs at Tjøtta, an island in the county armies cleaned the area for munition, of Nordland. The argument was that weapons and explosives. The German the Soviet visitors to the churchyards defence structures now became an where the POWs were buried was So- important resource for the local pop- viet spies, spying on Norwegian and ulation. Huts and barracks where dis- NATO military facilities. mantled and the materials was used

Militage.book.indd 35 20.04.2018 19:18 for rebuilding and repairing the de- turned down in the first place, fortifica- stroyed homes. No one thought of the tions were built in the area. The Kore- German remains as heritage. an war, the increased tension between Soon after the WW2 the Cold War east and west and the increasing im- was a fact. In 1949 Norway became portance of the north-eastern corner a member of NATO. During the cold of the NATO alliance led the defence war the area were gradually militarized forces to strengthen the land defence again. The fortifications from the Lyn- in the area. The military exercises in gen line was reused during military the area used and partly rebuild a few exercises, a few were also remod- of the German defence structures. elled. Probably some of the German (Jaklin 2009, Gjeseth 2012). structures were demolished when the Operation Asphalt is an example of Cold War defence structures were the authorities fear of the Soviet ene- constructed. This however is not re- my. In 1945 deceased Soviet POWs corded, but traces in the landscape were buried on local church yards suggest this. all over the country. The authorities considered Soviet officials and -pri Historical background, the vate persons visiting the churchyards Frøy line as potential spies. In 1951 therefore In 1948 there was a secret meeting in the POWs was exhumed, put in paper Oslo between Norwegian and Swedish bags treated with asphalt and moved officers and German ex Nazi officers to the distant island of Tjøtta in Nor- who had served in Norway during the dland county, were almost 7000 were war. The purpose of the meeting was buried in a common grave and ca 800 how to defend the Scandinavian penin single graves. Operation Asphalt insula against Soviet. The German of- also included destroying monuments ficers proposed a defence line in the raised by surviving POWs to remem- Lyngen area, a continuous line of forti- ber and honour their dead comrades. fications (Jaklin 2009:31-42). The new The operation was kept secret and Lyngen line were however not built. was first described in its full width af- The Norwegian parliament thought ter the Cold War. Destroying the POW that it was too expensive, the priority camps immediately after the war, the was given to rebuild the country after relocation of the deceased POWs and the war, especially the northern part. the destruction of the monuments A military objection was that the post- shows how the authorities used ma- war coastal artillery was inadequate. terial culture to achieve a kind of col- There were not enough personnel to lective strategic forgetting the rela- man the German coastal forts. In additions between the Soviet POWs and tion, many of the forts were outdated local communities trying to help them and did not meet the post-war military as best they could. (Fjermeros 2013, requirements. Attacking Soviet forces Soleim 2016) could therefore invade the coast fur- During the 1970 the plan for build- ther south and attack the line from ing a land defence line was highlight- behind and thereby making it useless. ed again. Now the coastal artillery Even if a major construction phase was was modernized, and more important,

Militage.book.indd 36 20.04.2018 19:18 German Dug out. The Lyngen Alps in the background

there was economy to start building in Troms. And to make it difficult for an the line. The new line was called the attacker, the infrastructure in Finnmark Frøy line and was built as a system was supposed to be destroyed by the of ca 300 strongpoints, mainly in the local population and the Norwegian same areas as the German Lyngen line army during the withdrawal. (Rapp from 1944-1945. (Gjeseth 2012, Dal- 2011, Gjeseth 2012, Dalmo 2014). mo 2014). When constructing a part The Frøy line consist of dug-inns and of the Frøy-line in Nordalen a grave gun-positions, distributed through sev- with 16 deceased Soviet POWs were en municipalities. The major task for the found. It is unclear whether this was a defence was to stop or to slow down new grave, or it was a part of one of an attack until we got in allied NATO the mass graves excavated by the War forces to combat and fight back the at- Crime Commission in 1945.This was in tacker. The Bardufoss Airbase, ca 60 km the beginning of 1980ies, the tension south west of the Frøy-line was a central between NATO and the Warsaw pact element in this strategic thinking. Here was high. Finding WW2 Soviet POWs allied forces should land, and allied air- when constructing defence structure crafts were to operate from this base directed toward Soviet was a delicate together with the Royal Norwegian Air political issue and information about Force. In this area, the NATO partners the discovery is scarce. stored lot of heavy military material to The general plan for the Frøy-line be used in a conflict with Soviet. was very much the same as the Ger- The construction work continued af- man plans for the Lyngen-line. The ter the collapse or the dissolution of county of Finnmark was too difficult to the Soviet Union and the Warszawa defend, an attack had to be stopped pact in 1991. In fact, the Norwegian

Militage.book.indd 37 20.04.2018 19:18 defence forces continued to construct and environment. When the demoli- defence works until after 2000 even tion of the Frøy line started, people if official politics now said that Russia felt that their history was threatened. or the former Soviet no longer was a The physical structures were part of a threat to Norway or the west. (Dalmo history, which on the one side was not 2014, Solvang 2013). The Frøy line known outside the local community, was never staffed, the new geopoliti- but on the other was important for un- cal situation led to a reorganizing and derstanding the Norwegian WW2 and downsizing of the Norwegian armed Cold War history. Demolition of the forces. The coastal fortresses were dis- cold war structures was to neglect the mantled, the same happened to the impact and how the consequences of Frøy line. the military installations, both German However, the regional cultural herit- and Cold War, had affected the com- age management and the local poli- munity for more than 70 years. The ticians managed to stop the demoli- demolition was also seen as an exten- tion of some of the structures in the sion of the under communication of municipality of Storfjord, arguing that Northern Norway’s role in the national the structures were important materi- war and Cold War history. al remains from the cold war era and therefore should be treated as cultural Managing a military landscape heritage and preserved. Similarly, the in a changing world material remain from the Lyngen line There were, and are different stake- is important documentation of a de- holders involved in the negotiations cisive phase in European history. Be- on how the area and the military struc- ing situated close to each other in a tures from WW2 and the Cold War mountain landscape, the structures is should be managed in the future. a unique material record of the 20th Landowners, the Norwegian Defence century Arctic military infantry warfare Estates Agency, Statskog; the State- and strategic thinking. It is possible owned Land and Forest Company, the to argue that the material culture in Directorate for Cultural Heritage, the this area is a material representation regional heritage management and of Norway’s political, ideological and the local community started to nego- military relations to the world. As we tiate how the material remains should saw, the Lyngen line were constructed be interpreted. Basically, the con- when the local population were evac- tradictions were between those who uated. When they returned home they perceived it as garbage which should had to come to terms with the military be removed and those who perceived structures. For the local community it as European heritage that should this was also a story about how the be protected. This controversy, inter- local population had to deal with and esting as it is, were however solved. adapt to decisions taken other plac- There was an agreement on that the es, like London, Washington, Moskva, material remains was heritage that Berlin. On a general level this was also should be protected, and the discus- a history of how the authorities repeat- sion concentrated upon how and who edly made free with their landscape should manage the area. The Directo-

Militage.book.indd 38 20.04.2018 19:18 rate for Cultural Heritage started together with the stakeholders to plan for protecting a part of this area. In 2014 the problems between Ukraine and Russia escalated. West- ern countries introduced sanctions against Russia and the political tension between east and west gradually increased. In 2016/17 the Norwegian defence signalized a renewed interest in the area and in the remaining structures of the Frøy line. In 2012 the Defence wanted to demolish the line, then the heritage management wanted to protect some of them, and then the material culture once more was given the status as military ma- forbrytelser. Tekst & Cetera. Winter begins in Oc- terial. The planned protection of the Gjeseth, Gullow 2012 Landfors- tober. German dug out/shelter, Lyngen sites was postponed and the dug inns, varets krigsplaner under den kalde defence line. guns posts, and commando centre is krigen. Fagbokforlaget Vigmistad & now again a part of the Norwegian Bjørke AS. Bergen. defence. Once again Norway’s secu- Hesjedal, Anders; Andreassen, rity policy response affected the Lyn- Dag-Magnus 2015 «Kulturminne- gen area, the material culture and the undersøkelser i 2015, Krigsminne- local community. This somewhat con- landskap Troms. Registreringer langs firms the importance of the area and Lyngenlinja i Storfjord kommune». that the military structures certainly Befaringsrapport Kulturetaten 2015. are an important part of the national Troms fylkeskommune. and European heritage. If it is possible Jaklin, Asbjørn 2009 Isfront:den to combine heritage perspectives and kalde krigen i nord. Gyldendal. Oslo military activity is a task for the future. Rapp, Ole Magnus 2011 «Norge ville ofre Finnmark». Aftenposten Litterature 12.10.2011 Dalmo, Kurt Henrik 2014. «Forsvarstill- Soleim, Marianne Neerland 2009 inger i Lyngen-området. Bakgrunn og Sovjetiske krigsfanger i Norge 1941- beslutning om bygging 1950-1981». 1945. Antall, organisering og repatri- Oslo Files on defence and security ering. Scandinavian Academic Press. des/2014. Institutt for forsvarsstudier. Spartacus forlag. Oslo. Fjermeros, Halvor 2013. Med lik i Soleim, Marianne Neerland 2016. lasten: Operasjon asfalt: de sovjetiske «Operasjon asfalt»: kald krig om krigs- massegravenes skjebne i Norge. Scan- graver. Orkana akademisk. Stamsund. dinavian Academic Press. Oslo. Solvang, Ola 2013 «Den hemmelige Fossum, Finn 2014. «Den tyske Lyn- underjordiske festningen». Nordlys, genlinja». I (red): Figenschau,Tore Kri- 27. april, 2013 gen i Storfjord. Mord, mytteri, krigs-

Militage.book.indd 39 20.04.2018 19:18 The cult of the Defensive? Cold-War Norwegian defense planning Summary

Magnus HÅKENSTAD Historian, Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, Norway

Magnus Håkenstad is Research Fellow fence strategy during the Cold War, at the Norwegian Institute for Defence including membership in NATO Studies. He has a MA in history from from 1949, a massive armament pro- the University of Oslo, and he has par- gramme, general conscription and the ticipated in several projects, such as total defence concept, etc. He con- The History of the Ministry of Defence; cluded that in spite of the situation Long-term plan, risk preparedness during the Cold War, Norwegian mil- and crises administration. Håkenstad’s itarization was firmly established with area of scholarship is Norwegian and the intention to defend, never to at- European military history and he has tack. written several articles and books in this field, among others:Balansegang , Long-term defence planning, Mellom fred og krig.

The Cult of the Defensive? Magnus Håkenstad first explained that Norway’s considerable militarization during the Cold War was due to strategic, tactical and operational concepts, but also an ideological im- perative born of the Norwegian experience during the Second World War. Characterized by the slogan “aldri mer 9. april”, a date synonymous with the Nazi invasion of Norway in 1940, the Norwegian Cold War militarization was based in part on the notion the nation should always be prepared to defend itself if an enemy should attack again. Håkenstad then detailed the most important points in the country’s de-

Militage.book.indd 40 20.04.2018 19:18 Line-up Bardufoss, 1987

Militage.book.indd 41 20.04.2018 19:18 Heritage Management of WWII ‘Conflict landscapes’ in PNG: Issues related to ephemeral landscapes and multiple stakeholders in a developing nation context.

Matthew KELLY Senior Archaeologist at EXTENT Heritage Advisors, Australia

The WW2 campaign in the South-West of integrity associated with the Kokoda Pacific from 1942 to 1945 has played a battles and other events of WW2. How- significant role in the development of ever none have, until recently, been the current Australian national identity as subject of systematic heritage survey well as being the catalyst for national or archaeological recording. independence for Papua New Guinea Since 2010 I have been lucky enough (PNG). to direct projects undertaking the ar- The artefacts and sites remaining from chaeological survey of three areas of the fighting along the Kokoda Track es- PNG associated with significant WWII pecially are the focus for both nations’ activity: efforts to manage heritage associated with the military activities in WW2. 1. A battle field at Eora Creek on the The battle along the Kokoda Track Kokoda Track; has historical and commemorative 2. A rest and recreation area for importance that is recognised in Aus- troops outside Port Moresby known tralia through its listing as a place of as Blamey’s Garden (local name Na- national heritage significance. For manatabu) ; Papua New Guineans while no such 3. And an extensive military support listing exists it is nonetheless acknowl- landscape around Jacquinot Bay, on edged as a place which helped forge the south coast of New Britain. their move to nationhood by bringing their disparate peoples together for a All three sites are currently within common purpose. properties on PNG’s Tentative List for For Australians the sites along the World Heritage nomination. Kokoda Track now rival Gallipoli, where Our work at the first two sites has the ANZAC myth was born, as a place resulted in substantial management which forged a unique Australian char- documents, shown here, which are acter. Both Gallipoli and the Kokoda anticipated to become model reports Track are visited by thousands of Aus- for a number of other significant sites tralians each year as acts of personal, along the 96km of the Kokoda Track. familial and national commemoration. Our work on New Britain is designed PNG contains numerous places, bat- to investigate and provide additional tlefields and objects, in varying stages heritage information on the local cul-

Militage.book.indd 42 20.04.2018 19:18 tural values for an area where only the Bootless Bay artillery natural values are well documented. battery remains near Port Moresby, PNG The heritage management regime in PNG is largely focused on their extensive and rich indigenous archaeological and cultural heritage. Numerous archaeological and anthropological research projects have been undertaken over decades focussed on this to the exclusion of its colonial past. The responsibility for management of the sues identified by both the National country’s heritage assets is the respon- Museum and trek operators themselves sibility of the chronically underfunded is the continuous removal of items, National Museum of PNG. spent ammunition, equipment, and In respect of WWII heritage the rel- sometimes weapons, by the trekkers. evant legislation is the War Surplus However things are gradually chang- Material Act of 1952 described by the ing. preamble to legislation itself as an Act Our work at Eora Creek, 80km NE of “to facilitate the collection of war sur- the capital Port Moresby, was the re- plus material and for other purposes”. sult of a request from the PNG Dept. It is a piece of legislation enacted in of Environment and Conservation in the years immediately after WWII by 2012, to develop a heritage manage- the then colonial power – Australia. It ment plan for the site, considering that is a piece of legislation of its time and the area has a high visitation rate from was never designed for heritage man- trekkers crossing the Kokoda Track. agement. The Eora Creek site extends primary Policing this legislation has proven rainforest in a wilderness area of the difficult where no adequately funded Kokoda Track. The 5 sq. Km site lies Museum administrative arm previous- between 1400m and 2100m above ly existed to develop protocols and sea level on the slopes of a steep river procedures to manage items of colo- valley. Visibility can only be described nial or military heritage. as severely limited and many features The PNG National Museum holds an lie beneath 700mm of leaf litter that extensive collection of objects in its has accumulated over the 70 years store that relate to WWII – items big since the battle took place. and small. Many of the larger piec- Japanese defensive revetments and es stand outside in the elements, with bunkers here, constructed of local soft little effort at conservation, while the woods, have completely rotted away smaller pieces, that are under cover, leaving some tell-tale features buried are yet to even be catalogued. beneath the leaf litter. Over the last 40 years numerous The battle site also lies within the tra- items of WWII heritage have been lost ditional hunting lands of the local villag- to PNG through circumvention of the ers, the people of Alola, and so issues legislation. related to community access and use Even today as Australian trekkers walk of the battlefield as a resource overlie the Kokoda Track one of the major is- other issues such as site access for out-

Militage.book.indd 43 20.04.2018 19:18 Remains of Fokker and a hike up a mountain the only cur- aircraft in grounds of rent means of access. the National Museum of PNG As at Eora Creek the site’s natural resources are used to support the own- er’s family through hunting game and gardening. Blamey’ Garden site formed part of the landscape of support for the Allied defence of PNG. siders, UXO still being present on the Surrounding the Garden were hospi- ground and Australian trekkers disturb- tals, machinery workshops, transport ing features and moving artefacts. units, fuel stores and airfields with The site also lies within a still ac- associated accommodation – all sup- tive local mythological landscape and porting the Allied war effort. some areas of the battlefield remain The Garden was originally designed off-limits to the survey team. The oral to provide an area of rest, reflection histories we have recorded from the and recuperation for soldiers who had Alolans, have interestingly conflat- fought along the Kokoda Track and ed some events of the war with local the north coast of PNG against the myth sites – evidence of the continu- Japanese. ally developing social landscape that Today the features and artefacts, contains the battlefield. which comprise its archaeological re- The work at Blamey’s Garden was mains, are disturbed, scattered and also initiated by the PNG Dept. of En- overgrown. Its original purpose is vironment and Conservation. now largely forgotten. Part of the initiative here, recognis- Once realised, it was not substantial ing the importance of military tourism material remains that defined the gar- to the country, was to provide an in- den but its plantings, views and path- terpreted WW2 site, closer to Port ways. Moresby to which military tourists Its use is often misunderstood and it could travel in a day, without undergo- remains a difficult site to place within ing the trek across the Kokoda Track. the narrative of the military operations Blamey’s Garden, in contrast to Eora on 1942-3. Creek, lies on privately owned land in Again, as at Eora, the site is part of dry savannah hills south-east of Port an active mythological landscape and Moresby. access to some areas is only permissi- Access is still problematic with a riv- ble while the site custodian is present. er crossing (with crocodiles perhaps) The spirit that dwells in the central lake of the site is very much an active presence and the attendance of the custodian is necessary to ensure visitors do not suffer from potential mali- cious intent of the lake spirit. Remains of former The work at Jacquinot Bay is part of garden pathways at a joint project, with James Cook Uni- Namanatabu (Bla- versity in Cairns, through an Australian mey’s Garden)

Militage.book.indd 44 20.04.2018 19:18 Government grant to review the cultural heritage significance of the area. Jacquinot Bay lies within the poorest developed province of all of PNG with access to the region only by plane or 24 hour boat trip and then access to some of the sites through hikes in rainforest and sinkhole dotted limestone karst landscapes. The WWII survey is largely concentrated on the coast where the efforts of both the Japanese and Allied Forc- es were focussed between 1942 and 1945. As at Eora Creek, the survey is remnant WWII material culture here. WW2 remains on the undertaken through tropical rainforest Collectors have over the last 30 years, foreshore at Palmal- mal Jacquinot Bay with 100% canopy with limited visibil- however, paid local landowners for ity and complete ground cover of rot- the wrecks and have subsequently re- ted vegetation making the identifica- moved the aircraft from the country, tion of features difficult. contra the1952Act, to refurbish them Many of these sites here are current- in the US or Australia. ly under threat from logging, palm oil Our work in PNG has produced plantations and road construction. two Conservation Management doc- This development of basic infra- uments for Eora Creek and Blamey’s structure is undertaken, not by the Garden. They are based on the con- local and National Governments of servation approaches outlined in the PNG, but by the logging and palm oil Burra Charter; an Australian devel- companies who are filling the funding oped values based assessment pro- gap in this under developed region at cess. the expense of the adequate policing As a practical advance PNG has of PNG Environmental and Heritage recently employed a Military herit- legislation. age advisor at the National Museum So for example the archaeological whose brief includes the implemen- sites of three of the early 20th colo- tation of these Conservation Plans at nial coconut plantation houses have their respective sites then the use of already been destroyed by devel- the approach as a model applied to opment construction in the last 12 more sites along the Kokoda Track months. These three sites represent- and then other WWII sites in PNG. ed the most substantial European set- We hope that these recent develop- tlement structural complexes in the ments are the first stages in the crea- bay area and the threat to other local tion of a viable heritage management sites continues. regime in PNG. A regime that is hap- Jacquinot Bay was also the site of py to consider elements of its colonial a large military airfield from 1944 on- past and 20th Century military events wards – still used for flights to the area. as worthy of conservation for future Both NZ, Australian and Japanese air generations of Papua New Guineans. force plane wrecks formed part of the

Militage.book.indd 45 20.04.2018 19:18 20th century fortifications on the National Heri- tage List for Poland

Lidia KLUPSZ, Landscape architect, National Heritage Board of Poland

Abstract Key words: fortifications, defensive There are a lot of defense structures structures, national register of monu- dating from the oldest ages to con- ments, cold war temporary times on the territory of Po- land. Some of them are protected by Introduction entry into the register of monuments, Territory of Poland is characterized 20% of which are 20th century fortifi- by a large variety of defensive struc- cations. They are very various in terms tures from different historical periods of technical solutions as well as their starting from the early Middle Ages to origin. We can find fortifications from modern times. The fortifications were the World War I, World War II and the built not only by the Polish State, but Cold War era between them. These also by other armies fighting in cen- are Prussian, Austrian, Russian, Polish, tral Europe like for example Swedish German and Soviet defense struc- army of Charles X Gustav or French Detail of Soviet doub- tures. Those fortifications are valuable army of Napoleon, and after the par- le embrasure artillery monuments, because they are exam- titions of Poland by the partitioning traditor in Przemysl, 1941. Photo: Lidia ples of the most modern solutions of powers states: Russia, Austria and Klupsz particular defense systems. Prussia. This situation is associated with the turbulent history of Poland among others due to geopolitical location and with a loss of independence in the nineteenth century.

The characteristics of historic fortifications in Poland Those defensive structures, which are valuable because of the historical, scientific and less because of artistic values, are protected on the national level through the entry into the register of immovable monuments which forms the National Heritage List for Poland.

Militage.book.indd 46 20.04.2018 19:18 Concrete Soviet double embrasure artillery traditor in Przemysl, part of Molotov Line from 1941. Photo: Lidia Klupsz

Types of historic fortifications Austria and Prussia or military forces entered into the Polish regis- of Nazi Germany and Soviet Union ter of monuments during the period of World War II or According to the classification adopt- Soviet Union’s military forces during ed for the list of different types of im- Cold War time. movable monuments entered into the Border changes after the World War register, fortifications were classified II are important fact for the current as defensive structures. This catego- resources of historic fortifications ry includes objects of defensive con- in Poland, especially of Prussian and struction such as for instance walls, of Nazi Germany defensive structures. gates, arsenals, forts, etc. They came to Poland with territorial The Polish register of monuments compensation covering the eastern which contains about 71 000 objects, part of Germany as a result of the includes about 1200 defensive decisions that were made at the Yalta structures (not counting about Conference. From other hand, at the 400 castles) from various historical same time Poland lost a large part periods, which were constructed of territory on the east (with Polish according to the principles of different fortifications of different historical schools and systems of defence. periods) which passed into the Soviet Those fortifications were built not Union. Poland was also placed in the only by the Polish State, but also by zone of influence of the Soviet Union the allied forces which for example by decisions taken at the Yalta and was Napoleon’s army or by the armies Potsdam Conferences. Therefore, of enemies like Swedish army of during the Cold War time, since 1955. Charles X Gustav and the armies of Poland was a member of the Warsaw the partitioning powers states: Russia, Pact (the Warsaw Treaty Organization

Militage.book.indd 47 20.04.2018 19:18 of Friendship, Cooperation, and Accordance with the military Mutual Assistance). doctrine and new fighting techniques Legal protection of these most in the early twentieth century, the recent fortifications became possible partitioning powers states has only after the dissolution of the modernized 19th century fortresses Warsaw Pact in 1991, but in practice and forts. These works included only after leaving the territory of among others the rebuilding and Poland by the Russian army in 1993. strengthening the old fashioned forts Currently, 20th century defensive by concrete and steel to increase structures in the number of about resistance to artillery fire. There is 240 which are protected, represents a big number of Prussian, Russian 20% of the total number of about and Austrian defensive structures 1200 fortifications listed on register on the territory of Poland, which of monuments. were modernized before the World War I. Most of them were part of Types of the 20th century for- the 19th century fortresses like tifications entered into the Prussian defensive structures: Torun Polish register of monuments Fortress, Grudziadz Fortress, Poznan 20th century fortifications, which are Fortress, Boyen Fortress, Kostrzyn included to the National Heritage List Fortress, Swinoujscie Fortress, for Poland can be divided into three Wroclaw Fortress, Austrian defensive groups: structures: Krakow Fortress, Przemysl Fortress and Russian defensive 1. fortifications erected at the begin- structures: Modlin Fortress, Warsaw ning of the twentieth century during Fortress, Deblin Fortress, Brest the preparations to the WWI by the Fortress and Osowiec Fortress three partitioning powers states. which are protected as 19th century 2. defensive structures associated fortifications. with the World War II built by the These fortresses occupy very Polish State and by the occupying large areas, sometimes even goes armies of Nazi Germany and Soviet out beyond the borders of cities. Union; Nowadays they are very often not 3. military heritage coming from the protected as a whole complexes but Cold War period. in the form of selected defensive structures and because of that Fortifications erected at the only some new elements of the fortifications from the period of beginning of the 20th century Poland did not exist at the begging modernization of the pre-World War of the twentieth century, during the I are protected and inscribed in the preparations to the World War I, that’s register of monuments but only as why fortifications erected at that time, the part of 19th century fortifications. which exist today on the territory of In addition to strengthening the 19th present-day Poland were built by century fortresses the partitioning three partitioning powers states which powers states built also completely were Prussia, Austria and Russia. new defensive structures of concrete

Militage.book.indd 48 20.04.2018 19:18 and reinforced concrete, which also Russian fortifications are the smaller were equipped with armour. part of defensive structures from the Prussian fortifications are the largest pre-World War I period which were part of defensive structures from the built according to the modern system pre-World War I period which were and which are inscribed on the Polish built according to the modern system National Heritage List as as the 20th and which are inscribed on the Polish century defensive structures. These National Heritage List as the 20th include: century defensive structures. These include: • Complex of concrete and earth- • Fortress Chelmno (Festung en defensive structures of Brest Kulm) protected as a complex of Fortress lying on the left side of the thirty defensive structures (8 forts, River Bug in Terespol’s bridge-head 10 shelters for infantry, 10 shelters built in 1912 - 1915: Fort “Kobyla- for ammunition and 2 fixed artillery ny”, Fort “Koroszczyn”, Fort “Zuki” batteries) designed and build ac- , the group of fort’s “Zuki”, artillery cording to the new principles since magazine, artillery battery “Leb- 1903 to the World War I. iedziew”, artillery battery “Struga”, • Group of the fifteen historic for- artillery battery “Kolonia Dobra- tifications constructed from 1906 to tycze”, military warehouse “Kobyla- 1914 located in the foreground of For- ny II”, military warehouse “Borek”, tress Boyen consisting of a whole defensive structure “Kobylany I” complex of defensive structures of lookout tower. concrete and earth, and communica- • Few concrete and earthen defen- tion networks. Preserved objects are sive structures of Modlin Fortress primarily material example of shaping built in 1912 – 1914: Fort XVII B space and landscape for defensive “Janowek”, Fort X „Henrysin”,Fort purposes what decide on their unique XI „Strubiny”, point of resistance historical and scientific value. No. 8 “Czarnowo”. • Object called today Fort Out- • Two concrete and earthen defen- post (Fort Placowka) dates back to sive structures of Rozan Fortess built 1911, is part of the Prussian sys- in 1905 – 1912: Fort I and Fort II. tem of coastal fortifications, rebuilt by Polish military forces before the Austrian fortifications are the smallest World War II. It is located in Gdansk, group of the defensive structures from on Westerplatte peninsula, on the the pre-World War I period which were area of the protected battlefield built according to the modern system commemorating Battle of Wester- and which are inscribed on the Polish platte and Germany’s invasion of National Heritage List as the 20th cen- Poland on 1 September 1939 which tury defensive structures. These are: was the beginning of World War II. • Few concrete and earthen defen- • Five defensive structures of sive structures of Przemysl Fortress the complex of Fort No. 9 for infan- built in 1900 – 1905: Fort XIII „Zablo- try from 1912 are located in Wroclaw cie”, Fort „Cykow” for infantry, dou- Fortress. ble shelter of Fort XVI “Zniesienie”.

Militage.book.indd 49 20.04.2018 19:18 • Few concrete and earthen defen- army during the World War II on the sive structures of Krakow Fortress territory of Poland, which are currently built in 1900 – 1904: artillery battery within the borders of Poland. of the Group of Fort “Wegrzce”, shelter for ammunition of Fort „Swo- • Central section of Fortified Front szowice”. Oder-Warthe-Bogen (the Festungs- front Oder-Warthe-Bogen) which Defensive structures associat- consists of system of anti-tank ob- ed with the World War II stacles and barriers, underground This group includes: system of tunnels linking the ground Polish fortifications - built by the Pol- defensive structures, 44 combat ish State (Republic of Poland) in the bunkers, observation bunker, 4 pre- 1930s. These are: tendative cupolas, rotary bridge, 2 • Three reinforced concrete combat armored towers, ventilation shafts, bunkers of Mlawa Position (complex drainage systems, 2 machine gun of 49 bunkers) built in 1939. stands and other defensive struc- • Two reinforced concrete combat tures built in 1934 – 1944. bunkers in Pultusk built in 1939. • Complex of railway headquarter, • Two defensive structures of Rein- part of Installation South (Anlage forced Military Transit Depot on We- Süd) built for Adolf Hitler which steplatte Peninsula, Gdansk, built in consists of 2 reinforced railway tun- 1925 – 1939. nels, 5 combat bunkers and obser- • Complex of fortifications of the Hel vation posts with other buildings Fortified Area which consists of 6 used for operations, administration, concrete-strengthened positions for and maintenance, built in Stepi- artillery batteries, 10 concrete com- na-Cieszyna in 1940 – 1941. bat bunkers, 4 ammunition storage • Reinforced railway tunnels, second bunkers and 4 firing positions, built part of Installation South (Anlage in 1931 – 1935 in Hel on Hel Penin- Süd), the railway headquarter built sula. for Adolf Hitler in Strzyzow in 1940 • Complex of 4 reinforced concrete – 1941. combat bunkers of the Jastarnia Re- • Complex of “Schleswig-Holstein sistance Centre built in 1939 in Jas- Battery” for heavy coastal artillery tarnia on Hel Peninsula. which consists of three emplace- • Concrete combat bunker in ments for 406 mm coastal guns (the Cieszyn-Boguszewice, part of De- same type as gun in Trondenes in fensive Position of Cieszyn, built in Norway), rangefinder tower and two 1939. munitions magazines built in Hel on • Command bunker (command post) Hel Peninsula in 1939 – 1941. of the Fortified Area of Silesia in • Complex of Coastal Artillery Bat- Chorzów, built in 1938. teries “Vineta” consists of rebuilt 4 barracks and combat bunkers, com- German fortifications – built in Ger- mand bunker, engine room bunker many by the Nazi Germany in the and guardhouse built in Swinoujscie 1930s and by the German occupying in 1938.

Militage.book.indd 50 20.04.2018 19:18 • Above-ground, anti-aircraft con- survived in original form and materi- crete gun blockhouse towers built in al. Some of them are located in the Wroclaw in 1941-1943. area which is still controlled by the • Underground anti-aircraft concrete army. shelter built in Wroclaw in 1942- • The second protected defensive 1943. structures constructed during the • Anti-aircraft concrete bunker shel- Cold War period on the coast of Bal- ter in Glogow in 1930. tic Sea are shelter and the tower for rangefinder built in 50s in the com- Soviet fortifications - built by the So- plex of the 25th Coastal Battery of viet army on the territory of Poland Fixed Artillery (BAS) in Westerplatte during the World War II, which are near Gdansk on the also nowadays currently within the borders of Poland. protected territory of the first battle These are: of the World War II. • Former German defensive struc- • Group of 3 reinforced concrete tures of the complex of Coastal Bat- combat bunkers (2 of one level and tery of Artillery “Vineta” in Swinoujs- 1 of two levels) of Przemysl fortified cie rebuilt in 60s into backup reserve region (part of so-called Molotov command post of the People’s Army Line) in Medyka, built in 1940 – 1941. of Poland in case of World War III with • Complex of 8 concrete bunkers underground tunnel which links the of Przemysl Fortified Region built-in ground defensive structures built in earlier fortifications of Przemysl For- 1965, were entered into the register tress (part of so-called Molotov Line) in 2016. in Przemysl, built in 1940 – 1941. Remarks and Conclusions Military heritage coming from The largest and highly diverse group the Cold War period of the 20th century fortifications in- This is the smallest group in terms of cluded on the National Heritage List number of the protected 20th centu- for Poland are German fortifications ry fortifications. It includes defensive from World War II like for example constructions built by the People’s well preserved Fortified Front Od- Polish Army, not by the Soviet Army, er-Warthe-Bogen, the complex of although there are many defensive the defensive structures of fortified structures in the territory of Poland military defence line of Nazi Germa- constructed by the Soviet Army, which ny between the Oder and Warta riv- was stationed in Poland from the end ers. It was the most technologically of World War II until 1993. advanced fortification system of Nazi Germany built in 1934 – 1944. The • The most important is complex central section of the Fortified Front of 19 Fixed Coastal Battery built in Oder-Warthe-Bogen listed in rhe reg- Kolobrzeg on the coast of the Baltic ister of monuments consists of several See in 1951. This battery was used bunkes which are interconnected with until the late 70s. It contains of eight an underground system of tunnels 32 different defensive structures which kilometers long and and up to 40 me-

Militage.book.indd 51 20.04.2018 19:18 tres deep. The railway stations, work- West – the phenomenon of fortified shops, engine rooms and barracks are landscapes in Poland; Between East also situeted in this underground sys- and West. Between East and West, tem, wchich is a great turist atraction. Firenze, Edifir Valuable from the point of view of Klupsz, L. 2015. Problems of the technical solutions and history is com- protection, conservation and re-use plex of a pair of railway headquarters of the military monuments in Poland. built for Adolf Hitler in Nazi-occupied Fortified heritage: management and part of southern Poland where was sustainable development, Pamplona, organized a meeting of Adolf Hitler Pamplona City Council with Benito Mussolini in connection with the aggression on USRR on 27-28 August 1941 and complex of Schle- swig-Holstein Battery on Hel Peninsu- la which is similar to the Battery Theo with four guns mounted at Trondenes Fort in Norway. Group of Polish defensive structures connected with World War II is valuable because of the history and Polish technical solutions. Mil- itary heritage from Cold War period is inadequately protected in terms of legal, despite the fact that it is a great tourist attraction. Some examples of military and defensive structures built by the Soviet Army stationed in Poland until 1993 should be now entered into the register of monuments because apart from scientific values, they present also the historic values. Above all, they are a testimony to the history of this part of Europe.

Bibliography Kaufmann, J.E., Jurga, R. 2002. For- tress Europe: European Fortifications of World War II, US, Cambridge, Da Capo Press Klupsz, L. 2002. The fortress landscapes - the proposal of the new heritage category. Polish examples. 13th General Assembly, Scientific Symposium, Spain, International Council of Monuments and Sites Klupsz, L. 2012. Between East and

Militage.book.indd 52 20.04.2018 19:18 53

Militage.book.indd 53 20.04.2018 19:18 The German Coastal Defence Strategy in Norway

Kjetil KORSNES *, Bengt STANGVIK, Håvard HOVDET, Olve DYBVIG Korsnes is Freelance Historian, Førsteamanuensis Fakultet for Biovitenskap og Akvakultur, Bodø, Norway

Abstract coastal traffic was raised by the OKW, German coastal defence strategy in that recommended strengthening of Norway during WWII was influenced coastal batteries and increased effort by the topography, invasion of Sovi- by the air force (Luftwaffe)1. It was ap- et Union with drain of soldiers from parent that the defence of the Norwe- Norway and British commando raids gian coastline would cause challenges. against Lofoten. In 1941, the devel- The topography was demanding with opment of the war called for strength- numerous fjords and islands where ening of the entire Atlantic wall to re- the enemy could hide easily, and the place the soldiers moved east. Priority infrastructure was poorly developed, was given to the coastlines of Norway, particularly in the northern parts of Denmark and Belgium. In Norway, a Norway, making the transportation of lack of mobile army forces lead to the supplies dependent on sea transport. build-up of coastal artillery battalions In mid-1940 the German Wehrmacht as replacement. Construction of forti- had to defend a coastline stretching fied coastal sites continued during the from French Biscay to the North Cape, war and followed the principal plan a coastline which would eventually laid out in 1941. constitute the Atlantic Wall. To understand the structure of for- Key words: Coastal defence, WWII, tifications in Norway, it is necessary Kriegsmarine, Wehrmacht, Norway to look at how the German coastal defence was organised. The primary Shortly after the invasion of Norway tasks were to protect the important in 1940 (operation Weserübung), the shipping routes and prevent enemy German High Command (Oberkom- landing of troops. In occupied areas, mando der Wehrmacht – OKW) re- this responsibility was split between alized the problem of protecting the the navy (Kriegsmarine), protecting supply lines along the coast. The the coastal traffic and seaways, and

coastline was vulnerable to attacks 1 WFA/Abt. L Nr. 33034/40 g.K. Chefs. Richtlinien from ship and aircraft, and the German für Feindtäuschung. Dated 25th May 1940. It was pointed out that the 8 divisions in Norway needed navy struggled to supply the land forc- replacement of way to transport supplies until it was es, particularly in Narvik. Already in obtained control of the entire operation area. Na- tional Archive and Record Administration (NARA) May 1940 the issue of protecting the microfilm T1022 roll 3467, frame 200.

Militage.book.indd 54 20.04.2018 19:18 the army (Heer), charged with repel- new ones were prioritized. The Ger- Chain of command ling invasion attempts and raids. This man navy focused on protecting the of the German coa- caused limited unity in the chain of most important harbours and anchor- sal artillery defence in Norway. Solid lines command, as the responsibility for ing areas with strong points, while, are navy and dotted engaging the enemy rested with two due to lack of resources, the army lines are army chain independent bodies. When interro- was asked to build, equip and man of command. Extrac- gated after the war and asked why batteries in other areas as part of the ted from report by Seacoast Artillery coastal defence was placed under the anti-invasion defence. The coastline of Evaluation Board da- navy rather the army, Albert Speer Norway was divided into three sectors ted 20th December replied that coastal defence targets with a navy Admiral responsible for 1945. National Archi- were fundamentally the same as naval the defence in each sector. In 1940, ve and Record Admi- nistration, USA. targets with moving ships and he con- the focus was on protecting the im- sidered it a sound organisation2. The portant shipping route to Narvik3. concept of dual control of command 20th December 1945. Record group 498, item functions persisted during the war, 5821479, NARA, USA. In the fall of 1945, a survey of the German seacoast artillery defences complicating the organisation, creat- in Europe was performed and lead by US Army ing a basis for rivalry and fight for re- with the purpose of providing data to the War Department on seacoast artillery organisation, sources between the navy and army. tactics, technical design and construction. The This complexity is visible in figure 1. Board visited numerous sites and interviewed German personnel. This report is a very use- After the ceasefire in Norway in June ful source to the organization and function of 1940, strengthening of former Norwe- the German fortifications along the European coastline. The interrogation of Albert Speer is gian fortified sites and construction of cited in the report. 2 German Seacoast Defenses – Report by 3 Ibid. The German army divisions partici- Seacoast Artillery Evaluation Board, dated pating in the occupation where still in Norway

Militage.book.indd 55 20.04.2018 19:18 In February 1941, OKW expected gian coastline was for attacks. The increased activity of British forces in British launched the first Combined the Mediterranean and coastal areas Operation, operation Claymore, to- of western Europe, including Norway. wards the Lofoten islands in the begin- Increasing the coastal defences was ning of that month. The small town of seen as a necessary protective meas- Svolvær was raided and shipping and ure, especially to guard the seaways fish oil factories destroyed7. Svolvær to Narvik and along the Artic coast- was carefully chosen as target based line (Polarküste)4. Even more, as the on weak protection and a remote lo- attack on the Soviet Union (operation cation difficult to reach by German Barbarossa) was under way with the reinforcements. Most importantly, need to secure the vital transportation there was no German airfield close- route to supply the forces attacking by. The German Navy High Command from Norway and Finland. This creat- in Norway responded to this attack ed an urgent need to strengthen the by pointing out the need for close coastal defence. This became appar- air support, and already in Decem- ent in April, when OKW issued an or- ber 1940 the need for better coastal der to the Wehrmacht commander in protection had been discussed with Norway to provide personnel for the Reich Commissar Terboven8. This tip planned operations Silberfuchs and and run raid added further weight to Renntier which were parts of Barbaros- arguments for more resources to pro- sa5. The build-up and deployment of tect the coastline, and proved that the German troops necessitated transpor- expected increase in British war effort tation and secure supply lines, and was real. As a response to the raid, the only way of providing this for the OKW issued a Kampfanweisung (war- northern frontlines was by sea. The fare instruction) for Norway9. This was German army forces used in Silber- based on expectation that British forc- fuchs and Renntier were mainly taken es would exploit the fact that German from Norway, and this resulted in sub- army divisions were occupied in other stantial weakening of the defence of places in Europe. To prevent further the country6. In March 1941, it became attacks or landing of Allied troops, obvious how vulnerable the Norwe- the OKW guidelines for the defence of Norway involved strengthening of at the end of 1940, and part of the main defence of Norway. This was experienced forces the coastal artillery by transfer of 160 capable of moving mechanized warfare. The Luftwaffe was also strong, with responsibility for air reconnaissance off the coastline. 7 The planning and how the operations was 4 Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, Nr. carried out is well described in DEFE 2/140- 44141/41 gK Chefs. WFSt/Abt.L (I Op.). Dated 142. The National Archives, Kew, London, UK. 15th Februar 1941. NARA microfilm T1022 roll The raid tok place on the 4th of March, with 3467, frame 296. success and according to the objectives. No 5 Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, Nr. German opposition was met. 44508/41 gK Chefs, WFSt./Abt. L (I Op.). Unth- 8 Admiral Norwegen. Kriegstagbuch for Mar- ernehmen “Silberfuchs” und “Renntier”. Dat- ch 1941. Bundesarchiv catalouge RM45III/103, ed 10th April 1941. NARA microfilm T1022 roll Freiburg, Germany. 3467, frame 317. 9 OKW/2072. Oberkommando der Wehr- 6 Ibid. Wehrmacht Befelshaber Norwegen macht, Nr. 00469/41 gK Chefs, WFSt./Abt. L was ordered to supply troops and material for (I Op.). Kampfanweisung für des Verteidigung Silberfuchs and Renntier, which would neces- Norwegens. Dated 26th March 1941. Microfilm sarily result in drain of experienced army per- NHM 198/FAa reel 1288, Norwegian Resistan- sonnel from the defence of central Norway ce Museum, Oslo Norway.

Militage.book.indd 56 20.04.2018 19:18 army artillery batteries10. Thus, already stroy vital supplies. Operation Anklet in March 1941 it was obvious that was ambitious with a goal to stay for Norway needed strengthening of the several months to block traffic to and coastal artillery. In early December from Narvik and northern Norway, but 1941, OKW had the entire Atlantic failed and a hastily retreat was neces- Wall under revision. The movement sary after just three days. Operation of German forces from the west to the Archery, on the other hand, was suc- east as Barbarossa progressed repre- cessful and achieved most of its ob- sented a challenge for the defence jectives, destroying fish oil factories of the coastline in Europe against an and German shipping13. The raids in invasion. A “new” west wall (neuen Norway were on the agenda when the Westwall) was suggested by OKW, ba- German Navy High Command (OKM) sically replacing regular mobile army had one of the regular conferences divisions with coastal artillery battal- on naval affairs with the Führer in the ions11. The increased effort of building evening of 29th December14. Hitler fortifications also meant that prioritiza- was concerned that British forces once tion was needed. This meant that ar- again had attacked the Narvik area, eas with challenging topography and and pointed out that the navy should poor infrastructure, restricting mobili- increase the protection and move sur- ty of army troops to reach the combat face ships to Norway to strengthen area rapidly, were given higher priori- the coastal defence. He made it clear ty. The list of prioritized seacoast areas that defence of Norway was impor- included Norway, Denmark and Bel- tant. The year of 1941 became very gium, followed by the Netherlands, much decisive for the coastal defence Germany and finally the Baltic Coast12. strategy in Norway. The Norwegian coastline was in the In January 1942, OKW responded to need for imminent improvement. This the raids with a supplementary Kamp- was underlined by the next large scale fanweisung for Norway15. In March, British raids on Norway, carried out in Führer directive number 40 was issued late December 1941, simultaneously with detailed guidelines to coastal de- in Vågsøy island (operation Archery) 13 The Archery and Anklet operations took place 27th and 26th-29th December and are well to the south and Lofoten islands (op- described in catalogues DEFE 2/81-83 and eration Anklet) to the north coordi- HS 2/225 (Archery) and DEFE 2/73-74 and HS 2/198-199 (Anklet). Archery became the bap- nated to interrupt shipping and de- tise of fire for the Combined Operation organ- 10 Ibid. The instruction (Kampfanweisung) isation and was the last against Norway. From from OKW is extensive and includes methods 1942 only small raids were carried out, as Ger- to prevent invasion, where both air force, navy man defence became stronger and suitable and army should be aware of the increased risk objectives could no longer justify the effort. of attack. The National Archives, Kew, UK. 11 OKW/1739. Oberkommando der Weh- 14 Der Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmari- rmacht, Nr. 003022/41 gK Chefs, WFSt./Abt. ne und Chef der Seekrigsleitung. Vortrag des L (I Op.). Küstenverteidigung. Dated 14th De- Ob.d.M. beim Führer am 29.12.41 abends in cember 1941. Microfilm NHM 198/FAa reel Wolfsschanze. NARA microfilm T1022/1729. 1285, Norwegian Resistance Museum, Oslo, 15 H22/106. Oberkommando der Wehr- Norway. macht, Nr. 00226/42 gK Chefs, WFSt./Abt. L 12 Ibid. OKW listed the various cost lines (I Op.). Kampfanweisung für die Verteidigung with decreasing priority, and the vulnerable Norwegens. Dated 18th January 1942. Evau- and exposed coast line in Norway was given lation of the strategy as Norway had become high priority. Shipping with supplies to Norway one key area where the enemy attacked. Mi- and metals, fish and minerals back to Germany crofilm NHM 198/FAa reel 2685, Norwegian were important to secure and protect. Resistance Museum, Oslo Norway.

Militage.book.indd 57 20.04.2018 19:18 fence of Europe16. This directive point- war, and in February 1945 the official ed out the existence of an increased records listed 258 unique locations20. risk of enemy invasion in near future. The number of artillery pieces conse- In Norway, directive 40 caused consid- quently also varied, and one estimate erable friction between the navy and is 1130 guns of various calibre when army in how to organise the coastal the war ended. The whole register defence17. The inherent problem of of calibres was present, ranging from dual command was never solved dur- long range naval guns of 40,6 cm, to ing the war. In general, the main task short range guns of 6,5 cm for local for the navy batteries was defence of defence. The most abundant calibres the sea lanes to protect coastal traf- were 15,5 and 10,5 cm, which made fic and repel enemy ships while the more than 50% of the artillery piec- army batteries should repel any ene- es21. Most of the coastal batteries did my landings the navy batteries failed not fire any of its guns in anger against to stop18. The decision to substantially naval targets, with a few exceptions in increase the number of coastal bat- the Egersund and Måløy/Vågsøy arteries in Norway was made in early eas (south) and at the frontline close 1941. Execution of the plans were car- to Kirkenes/Petsamo (north)22. Anti-air- ried out successively and coordinated craft guns (Flak) were the only types by the army commander in Norway. which were frequently used through- As the war progressed, the Norwe- out the war. gian coastline became a battle zone. In many local communities in The British Fleet Air Arm and Coastal Norway, the coastal artillery sites have Command attacked German coastal been and still are highly visible remains traffic, warships, fishing industry and of the German occupation from 1940 military sites to the end of the war. The to 1945. Preservation of such sites German navy was the primary target, should include knowledge of their or- but these attacks were also part of igin, use and function and be placed an overall strategic deception to pre- in the broader historical context. The pare for the allied landing in France coastline of Norway as a battle zone in June 194419. The number of coastal is one of the lesser known histories of batteries and sites varied during the World War II, and the coastal artillery batteries played a significant role. 16 Der Führer und Oberste Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht. OKW/WFSt./Op. Nr.: 001031/41 20 PG 75881, AOK 20. Gliederung der Küs- g.Kdos. Weisung Nr. 40. Dated 23rd March 42. ten-Artillerie in Norwegen, Ia/H.K.Arko. Dated Microfilm NHM 198/FAa reel 2686, Norwegian 20th February 1945. NARA microfilm T312- Resistance Museum, Oslo, Norway. 1651, frame 894. This is not a complete listing 17 OKW/168. Various correspondence be- of all sites, as several torpedo batteries are tween army commander and navy high com- lacking. mand in Norway. Microfilm NHM 198/FAa reel 21 German Seacoast Defenses – Report by 1285, Norwegian Resistance Museum, Oslo, Seacoast Artillery Evaluation Board. Dated Norway. 20th December 1945. Record group 498, item 18 OKW/1535. Anlageheft zu «Organisation 5821479, NARA. The report is not accurate in Küstenartillerie». Dated October 1942. Micro- number of guns and sites, but give an overview film NHM 198/FAa reel 1285, Norwegian Re- of the German coastal defence organisation sistance Museum, Oslo, Norway. and equipment used. 19 The British intensions and war effort 22 In the northernmost part of Norway, the against occupied Norway are described in coastal batteries were involved in heavy fire detail by Christopher Mann (2012) in: British against enemy forces and in particular during policy and strategy towards Norway, 1941-45. the Soviet invasion of Finnmark in late October Palgrave Macmillian. ISBN 978-0-230-21022-6. 1944.

Militage.book.indd 58 20.04.2018 19:18 Division of the Eu- ropean coastline in different sectors with responsible navy com- manders. With permission from Deutsches Wehrkundearchiv, Ger- many.

Militage.book.indd 59 20.04.2018 19:18 HDM, the Heritage Development Model by bunker

Gerco MEIJER, Architect, Bunker v.o.f. office for heritage development, restauration and architecture, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Introduction stored. Damaged parts are repaired Decay is a continuous process, every- and actions are taken to prevent fur- thing tends to be dust again. Once ther decay. The main argument for do- erected the fight against the ele- ing so is that they are monuments and ments starts. Maintaining a building therefor important to society for their or construction through the process outstanding beauty and/or reflection of conservation is therefore an ongo- of an historic event. ing process too. As long as we use Until recent heritage objects were the buildings we see the maintenance analyzed, carefully listed and put un- as a normal obligation and take it for der sometimes very protective and granted. Once the use of the object rather limiting constraints. The world gets economically difficult or even of conservation became a very closed ends, the maintenance will become world. Small group of people had the insufficient to outrun the decay. The ability and means to gain the required mentioned dusty dystopia will be- expertise and the connections to the come more and more a reality. network. The greater mass was spend- To guarantee maintenance, usage ing their time in the tabula rasa devel- of the object is a first requirement. If opments of residential and commer- an object cannot be used it should be cial areas. Heritage was on a distance. able to adapt to facilitate. This adap- But why do we need to preserve our tation is an recurring process. It could heritage? Heritage is a communica- be seen as an impulse that would pro- tor, a message from the past. Ideas long its existence. and policies once got materialized in Thinking about the development in buildings and artefacts. These prod- this way will results in a different ma- ucts ones represent the society who terial manifestation of the impulse, created them. They are open, out in different to a more static traditional public, for everyone to reed. But it is approach. the immaterial, the cultural narrative, that it is the most inspirational for us. Conservation versus Develop- The historic substance is nothing more ment than the carrier of this message. These Traditionally, buildings would be de- messages contain esthetical and ethi- clared heritage and would be re- cal values that could make society in-

Militage.book.indd 60 20.04.2018 19:18 Comparing scenarios, © bunkerQ

tellectually richer and therefore give relevant theme. Combining the pres- meaning to live, enhance wellbeing ervation of the historic substance and and boost creativity. expressing its cultural narrative with Understanding of this cultural narra- modern day adaptive solutions is a tive and its value can give us a free- very challenging task. dom to alter object function and its physical aperients and still be benefi- Action Arena cial to the expression of its narrative. How to design the best solution for The best way of maintaining the ob- adaptation with respect to the historic ject is using it. Usage is by a defini- substance and the cultural narrative? tion related to the current society. This As stated, the main focus of conser- relation is formed by the communica- vation professionals should change tion of entrepreneurial and personal from conservation to the develop- interest of the user. When these inter- ment. The object should never be ests meet the cultural narrative of the seen as a stand-alone but as a part specific object, they can both benefit. of the area development. De value of The better the fit, the more certainty the single monument is related to the towards a long-lasting relationship be- combined value and appreciation of tween user and monument. the area. In order to facilitate usage, the In an area development many stake- stakeholders should spark the adapta- holders will and must be involved. tion impulse. These stakeholders are actors in the The practice of conservation should so called ‘action arena’ (Ostrom 2007) change to a practice of designing the and together they define their collec- material consequences of these mo- tive action. Heritage experts should ments of adaptation, the impulses. be aware of this prosses. The role of Heritage conservation should be re- the heritage experts is to help formu- placed by heritage development. Not late the collective action. They should the past but the future should be the inform and outline the policymaking

Militage.book.indd 61 20.04.2018 19:18 bandwidth to partner stakeholders. •expected yearly maintenance costs The policymaking is based on argu- • impulse period ments. In case of heritage, arguments • yield potential are founded on values of authentici- • annual reservation impulse invest- ty, esthetics, ethics, social, economic ment and ecological impact. To get a grip on the discussion various technics are By applying the model consequent- available. For example, the Q-sort ly, you can direct proper investments method (McKeown & Thomas 1988) and have the control over yield. The uses frames. By formulating frames, HDM results can be used in quality en- appreciation of the various aspects of hancement, clever sustainability and heritage can be valued and various broad preservation of cultural herit- scenarios of development could be age. The calculated results can justify defined. future actions and verify the results of But how can we know which scenar- these actions. io is the best for given specific devel- The method can be used as an argu- opment? The Heritage Developments ment generator in policymaking pros- Model is a format which produces eco- es. It is the first input for business case nomic indicators of the projected ex- scenario’s. It can be helpful in plan- ploitation based on analyses of mod- ning of future functions in the existing eled development scenarios. It can real estate. It can be an economic ref- be described as a consensus-based erence an administrative base for the assessment method. In a quick and future site management. highly structured way various param- The HDM is a relational database. eter of each scenario are combined Every registered aspect of the project with the modelled real estate. is captured in a specific table. These tables are connected through shared Heritage Development Model parameters. The outcome will be (HDM) based on equal preconditions. Every The HDM is a scientific model which user can make his/her own selection of deals with strategic and economical information to be processed and the dilemmas in middle sized and large way that these results are presented. heritage conservation projects. It is a The process starts with modeling the structured relational database for are- physical and geographical situation in as, sites and objects, differentiated by its existing form. Objects and sites are typology, size, quality and ambition. modeled by location, size, quality and Based on a detailed administration of typology. the existing situation and of the new The most relevant table is the objects development scenarios, the database one. Objects are named, numbered returns an: and geo-tagged. They are grouped on a locational level and detailed in • relevance index of the objects with- the component level. Each object is in the modelled development sce- categorized by typology specified as: nario buildings, civil structures, infrastruc- • current demand for investment ture and landscape. For each typology

Militage.book.indd 62 20.04.2018 19:18 two more layers are added to define found unit price, corrected for quality Relational structure material and morphology. level and ambition of the new project. data-base HDM, © bunkerQ Example: barrack X belongs to the The correction rates are set in a sep- location of Fort Waakzaam and con- arate table and should be discussed sists of four separate rooms/ compo- amongst the stakeholders. nents. Typology: building; morpholo- Example: The preservation of bar- gy: small barrack; material: brick. rack X at Fort Waakzaam will cost on The parameters for the size of the average; 150m2 (gross surface) x € object and current quality are fixed. 345,77(/m2) = € 51.865,-. But the Future ambition parameter is relative barrack is in a bad shape and its new to the modelled scenario and variable. function as a restaurant will require a Combining these 3 parameters will re- high utilization level. The ambition is sult in a relevancy of the specific ob- high and therefore the investment will ject within the total group. The critical become higher. The model will gener- objects within the group will surface. ate the result of € 174.426,- . needed Further investigation should focus on to develop barrack X in to the high- these objects. end restaurant. Some assumptions towards the an- To estimate the impulse period and nual economics for maintenance and yield potential, more detailed admin- investment demand are generated istration is required. Estimation of im- by comparing the objects to typo- pulse period is primarily based on the logical similar reference objects. The type of object. A wooden construction assumption is that similar typological will be cheaper to build than a stone projects share the same average unit one, but the impulse time is much price. The investment is calculated by shorter since the stone is much more multiplying the gross surface with the durable. A second parameter is the

Militage.book.indd 63 20.04.2018 19:18 Objectpage HDM, © function of the components within the income probability parameter is set bunkerQ object. A kitchen for example would within the projected scenario. How need a new refurbishment much certain is it that the yield will be effec- quicker than a storage room. tuated? The higher probability will re- Last parameter is the intensity of use. sult with higher yield. When a room or component is more Example: A restaurant in the barrack intensively used the wear will be more X has a minimum revenue of € 62- / severe. This shortened the period be- m2/yr. and a maximum of € 178, - / tween the points of maintenance and m2/yr. The chance parameter for this adaptation, the impulse period. revenue is ´feasible’, so the database Yield potential is generated by esti- will pick a price level at 50% off the mating a yearly ‘rent’ of the clear floor bandwidth, equals € 250, - /m2/yr. The space depending on its function. Each yield for barrack X at Fort Waakzaam activity (function) is valuated for possi- would be 138m2 x € 120 /m2/yr. = € ble revenues within a bandwidth. The 16.538, - a year! minimum and the maximum of yearly As the impulse period is known an income per square meter is set in the estimation can be made for the next function table. On the object level the impulse investment and regular main-

Militage.book.indd 64 20.04.2018 19:18 tenance costs. These funds can be translated to a yearly reservation. The value of the running maintenance parameter is derived from the reference projects. The total of impulse reservation is calculated by multiplying the gross surface with the average impulse costs. The project is considered sustainable when the potential yield covers both maintenance and the impulse reservation. In that way the object be- comes autonomous. Example: Converting barrack X returns the following results. The investment needed is € 174.426, - and the yield is € 16.538, - a year. The impulse period is 26 years. The annual maintenance costs will be € 1.835,- and the reservation for future impulse will be € In 2003 bunkerQ, office for heritage Fort bij Vechten, © 2.601,-. The surplus will be € 12.102,-. development was commissioned by NDW governmental agency A very profitable investment. the National Project agency to combine the results of various investiga- Application of the HDM tions and generate a clear assumption Development of the New Dutch Wa- of the investment demand for the con- ter Line was organized by a National servation of the objects of the NDWL. Project agency, a group of the state bunkerQ used the Heritage Develop- professionals delegated from various ment Model to generate the estima- ministries and provinces. Together tion. Based on this calculations the with other stakeholders they were National Government of the Nether- responsible for the creating and man- lands decided to invest 75 million eu- aging of the governance models and ros in the conservation and develop- management plans. ment of the former strategic defence One of their first actions was to de- line. This investment was doubled by velop a plan for the recognition and the provincial governments along the safeguarding of the NDWL as the big- geographical line of the New Dutch gest monument in the country. Not Waterline. only big in the historical and potential To illustrate the use of HDM in prac- value, but foremost big as a structure tise two examples are given: Fort bij with more than 70.000 m2 of build Vechten (FbV) and Fort het Hemeltje surface. In the same time they started (FhH), two neighbouring forts in the working on a development plan. This middle of the strategic defence line of resulted in the ´Panorama Krayenhoff´. the new Dutch Water Line. A plan where the future ambition of the Fort bij Vechten had the highest am- NDWL and its individual forts was set. bition. As an ecological reservation

Militage.book.indd 65 20.04.2018 19:18 and 5,7% on FhH. A profitable outlook but compared to the market normal of 8%, investments were proclaimed not sure enough. The National government considered this gap between the investment and return as their public responsibility and gave a large subsidy to the plan. The work on the forts could start. Now at the end of 2016 both projects are finished and in use for more than a year. A definitive list of expens- es can be made. On FbV € 21 million and on FhH € 2,5 million were spent. The smaller investment on the FhH is due to the fact that not all of the Fort ‘t Hemeltje, © Fort het Hemeltje had a lower ambi- planned extension of the build area NDW governmental tion. The estimation for the conserva- was realized. agency tion of the existing structures on Fort FbV earns money on renting spac- bij Vechten was € 9,5 million and for es for parties and gatherings, to sub- the Fort het Hemeltje € 0,75 million. tenants, events and public entrance New additions to the existing objects to the pavilion. Roughly calculated it were excluded from the calculation. could accumulate to an amount of € Subsequently the estimation of in- 400.000,- a year. FhH earns money vestments and possible yield ware by renting office spaces in the central added to the HDM data-base. By barrack to tenants. The income there 2008 new calculations were published is € 80.000,-. As a return on invest- where the ambition parameter of the ment FbV scores 1,9% and FhH 3,2%. projects was revaluated and the in- Income for FbV is more at risk because vestment needs were compared with it largely based on a public spending. the possible yield. FhH has a long-term tenant and there- For Fort bij Vechten the calculated fore low risk of failing to generate an needed investment came to a € 20 mil- income in the future. lion and for the Fort het Hemeltje to In both cases the actual income is a € 4 million. The results were higher subsequently lower than originally than the first estimate from 2003. This estimated. What could be the rea- was a result of addition of new build son that these income targets are not area of 4.500 m2 on FbV and 500 m2 met? Is it the result of wrong assump- on FhH. FhH was also put to a higher tions in calculating the expected in- ambition level as it was to become an come? With the implementation of office place. the work lots of energy and control It is estimated that the annual in- is put to the execution of the spend- come could be € 1.000.000 on FbV ing. Managing the income side of and € 230.000 on FhH, which gives the project has had less attention. a return on investment of 5% on FbV It also could be stated that FbV was

Militage.book.indd 66 20.04.2018 19:18 managed from a public body where Thoughts and considerations as FhH from a private point of view. Generally speaking and for better un- Managers of the public projects tend derstanding the HDM could be seen to have more distance to the eco- as a computer game. You start model- nomic side of the project since the ling the situation as it is and by testing money is not theirs. various development scenarios you Managing and stimulating money will get a sense of the actual poten- spending by visitors have a low prior- tial of your heritage site. The most ity at the investment lists and project balanced strategy for development design. In most cases people start will step by step become clearer. The thinking about it when the projects strategy where both, the heritage and are already build. Extra investments the user could gain, without the costly must be done to safeguard more in- mistakes in the field. come. Impulse period and reservation It is not our view that development In the Heritage Development model of monumental sites should be only the calculated impulse period is very the commercial one. The examples important. It defines the yearly res- on FbV and FhH, although very differ- ervation for impulse investment. The ent in size and approach, prove that yearly impulse reservation is the most the spending is not the problem but relevant factor in the sustainability of the income is. The results show that investment. it is very important that projects earn some income within a bandwidth of Sustainability ethical and esthetical values and con- The objects are economically sustain- strains. If it is possible they should be- able if capable of funding annual cost come economically autonomous and of maintenance and reservation for therefore sustainable. If the income future impulse investment. In that sit- side is neglected there is no point of uation no additional investment from spending money. third parties are required. If the whole Both studies on FbV and FhH also area development can be economi- prove that the costs of utilisation of cally autonomous the ultimate goal is the monument exceed the costs of reached. simple conservation, by far. So, if the goal is to safeguard the monumental Limitation substance, simply do so. But if you There is always a danger that by de- want to communicate and be inspira- veloping the commercial utilization tional to society be very aware of what will take over the monumental quality you are doing. It is accepted to physi- of heritage sites and objects. Overde- cally change a monument and broad- velopment should be seen as non-ap- en up the ways of use or to commu- propriate and harmful to the monu- nicate the narrative more clearly. But mental value. if because of this spending exploita- With modeling in the HDM we can tion is destined to go bankrupted, no calculate what would be the turning monument in the physical sense will point in development, the point where gain from it. income outreaches the financial de-

Militage.book.indd 67 20.04.2018 19:18 mands of the heritage. It gives a limit become a base for communication to the possible development. and cooperation for Heritage Devel- opment Professionals. Interpretation A lot of a parameters in HDM are not Literature factual and have to be set by expert Brons, R., Rodermond, J., & Wallagh, judgment. Therefore, the model pa- G. (2005) Ontwerpen aan Geschieden- rameters should be evaluated by ex- is. Rotterdam, Stimuleringsfonds voor perienced professional. Architectuur. Dommelen, S. van, & Pen, C-J. Using the HDM, you…. (2013) Cultureel Erfgoed op Waarde Geschat. Den Haag, Platform3. • know what you have KPMG Advisory N.V. (2010). Du- • think before you act urzame Financiering van Landschap. • avoid tunnel vision Amstelveen, KPMG. • do not spend money where you Luiten, E., Hezewijk, J. van, Joost- shouldn´t ing-Bunk, E., & Witsen P.P. (2003). • earn yield where you can Panorama Krayenhoff: Linieperspec- • split budgets on accepted princi- tief. Schiedam, De Eendracht. ples McKeown B., & Thomas D. (1988). • generate arguments for collective Q methodology. Thousand Oaks (Cal- action ifornie), Sage. Meijer, G (2003). Kostenraming In- Future standhouding Nieuwe Hollandse The Heritage Development Model is, Waterlinie. Bijlage stuurgroepverga- as its subject, developing continuous- dering 18-09-2003. Utrecht, archief ly. New relationships are made with in- Projectbureau Nieuwe Hollandse Wa- ternational partners. Universities, pub- terlinie. lic and private companies in Holland, Ostrom, E. (2007). Institutional Ra- Belgium, Poland, India and Indonesia tional Choice; An Assessment for In- are asked to use the HDM and review stitutional Analysis and Development its potential. Framework, In: Sabatier,P. (Edt.), The- Hopefully, this will result in a coop- ories for the Policy Process. New York, eration of heritage parties committing Westview Press. Pp 21-64. themselves to communicate and de- Raats, K. (2016). De Herbestemming velop shared strategies on large scale van de Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie. heritage conservation projects. When Groningen, InPlanning. potentials are energized, our heritage Rosenberg, F. Wever, E., Schulen- and therefore our future generations berg, R., & Damen, M. ( 2008). KKBA should benefit. Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie. Amster- A Facebook group is formed, dam, RIGO Research en Advies BV. https://www.facebook.com/ Staatsbosbeheer. (2010). Standaard- groups/1773573426227585/?fref=ts kostprijs directe werkzaamheden Ter- as well a web domain, www.HDM.nu. reinbeheer voor gezamenlijke TBO’s. The website will be online soon and Amsterdam, Staatsbosbeheer.

Militage.book.indd 68 20.04.2018 19:18 Verschoor, M.(2009). Concep- tontwikkeling voor Creatieve Broed- plaatsen. Eindhoven, Technische Uni- versiteit. Will, C. (2002) Op Sterk Water. Utre- cht, Uitgeverij Matrijs.

Militage.book.indd 69 20.04.2018 19:18 Architecture and Landscape: Recovery of For- tresses in Lessinia, Italy

Fiorenzo MENEGHELLI Architect, President of Istituto Italiano Castelli, Section Veneto, Italy Andrea MENEGHELLI, Architect, Freelance

Abstract During the Austro-Hungarian Empire The preservation projects of the mil- (1814-1866), Verona became the main itary buildings should be based on fortified town of the Quadrangle, by “compatibility and sustainability” cri- developing a defence system that over- teria in full respect of the context in takes the urban nature and expands on which we act with the goal of safe- the area, known as “entrenched field”, guarding all the existent historical and with the fulfilment of a double belt of environmental/landscape heritage. detached forts (1848-1866). After this The role of the preservation of for- very first phase, in the area was devel- tresses should be the expression of opment of a wide defensive plan called the local community needs: Environ- “fortified region” which connected the mental, safeguard and landscape and morphological nature of the area (Gar- environment; touristic and education- da lake, Adige, Mincio and Po’ rivers, al, promote the touristic value of the pre-Alpine elevations) with the ways of place by offering cultural and environ- communication (mostly rails and roads) mental itineraries and services; local and the fortified system. In 1866 Vene- development, conservation and de- to is hand-over to the Italian Reign. velopment of the local typical manu- The border with Austria then moved to facturing aimed to promote an unique the current borderline between Vene- receptive offer and cultural interest. to and Trentino Alto Adige. The Italian defence considered the “closure” of Key words: compatibility and sustain- the numerous ways of communication, ability; landscape; local development. coming from the Alps, with a system made of blockage forts, in order to From the Austro-Hungarian guarantee manoeuvre’s freedom to the Empire to the Italian Kingdom Padania area’s troops between the two The city of Verona in its strategical ge- banks of river Po. The Italian military ographic position acts as a fundamen- Corps of engineers modified (1880-85) tal crossroad between Italy and the the Austrian fortresses of the Rivoli’s North of Europe. During the centuries, blockage (Rivoli and Ceraino’s Forts) the city has maintained a crucial stra- which was closing the Adige plain tegic role of control on the Lombardy (Valdadige), and realised new Forts plain (“Padania”) and the Alpine area. such as S. Marco (1883, renovated in

Militage.book.indd 70 20.04.2018 19:18 1913), Masua (1880-85, and 1900), or on the defence works made until that Defensive system of gun battery array of Rivoli Fort (1884), moment. At the end of 1800, the use of Verona at the beginning of World War the “Tagliata” of Incanal (1884) and the high-potential explosives marked the I. In red, the border Cimo Grande and Noale armoured ar- end of polygonal-plan masonry forts between the Kin- rays at the beginning of 1900. On the covered in soil. Therefore, the Italian gdom of Italy and North-East side of Verona, at the bot- military corps of Engineers begun to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. 1 fort Santa tom of the Lessinia’s mountains, Cas- investigate other fortresses in Europe, Viola. 2 fort Monte telletto Fort (1885-1900), San Briccio where large fortified systems were built Tesoro ( graphics F. Fort (1885) and the Monticelli array in an anti-German function, for e.g. in Meneghelli) were built, while the armoured Forts Belgium in the city of Antwerp, Liège, of Monte Tesoro and Santa Viola were and in France. The Italian military corps developed between 1908 and 1911. of Engineers developed a model of The pre-Alpine militarization led the armoured fort which has been adopt- territory to deep changes. The agricul- ed between 1905 and 1908 in the ture area was replaced with the con- Alpine barricades of the North-East- struction of infrastructures that can be ern boundary. The new forts were de- summarised in new roads, bridges, aq- signed to have concrete thick walls and ueducts with fountains and tanks, tele- were provided with artillery protected phone lines, devices for light signals, by cast-iron and steel casemates. The etc.. and troops’ logistic support such blockade fortification is no more con- as barracks, commands, hospitals, bak- ceived as an isolated building, but as a eries, warehouses, barns, gun-powder group of infrastructures deployed over magazines, etc...; fortified system, such the area able to conduct complemen- as blockage forts of the valleys and tary function in a defensive action. The trenches’ network. The choice of the fort had, thanks to its reduced dimen- Italian defence in building barricade sion, a good integration in the environ- structures on the Alps with the aim of mental context, but its structural limits controlling the entry passages to the left it as a vulnerable target. In respect plains and halting the enemy action on to the fast-technological evolution of the border, required a change of mind fire-arms, the defensive building result-

Militage.book.indd 71 20.04.2018 19:18 ed after few years inadequate or even from the local point of view, but also obsolete to fulfil its defensive role. because it is involved in a wider territo- Some years ago, thanks to historic re- rial concept. All the case studies which search regarding the fortified buildings are briefly introduced below share a fostered and disseminated by publi- common vision on the valorisation on cations and exhibitions, a widespread the fortified heritage. interest and value recognition that this historic heritage possesses have arisen Santa Viola Fort in the population, therefore nowadays The project of recovery of the Fort of there is a growing awareness on the ne- Santa viola is fostered by the Munic- cessity of safeguarding it by appraising ipality of Grezzana and the Lessinia the territory. With this new attitude and Mountain Community. The project is consensus, actions led by some Mu- placed in a vaster territorial context nicipalities together with the Lessinia aimed to increase the value of the de- Mountain Community and the Lessinia fensive system realized by the Italian Regional Park were noticeably carried corps of Engineers in Lessinia at the Fort Santa Viola with aerial view. Photo: F. out. Thenceforth, the recovery of these beginning of 1900s. The project pro- Meneghelli buildings cannot be considered only vides the recovery of the fort, which is owned by the Municipality itself, that could become the “entry door” to the Lessinia’s Park. The location of both the fort and the whole defensive line marks, indeed, the transition from an urbanized and humanized environment to an area which still preserves a natural value bound to High Lessinia, corresponding with the Park’s protected area. All this portion of land represents a valuable territorial landmark, from a local flora and fauna and from an orographic perspective, that allows a 360° sight of all the area around, ideally connecting to the panoramic viewpoints already identified in the Lessinia’s Park

The fort recovery will permit the realization of a place, that at the same time will be utilised as receptive and museum centre for tourism activities, especially orientated to the younger segment. In this area of relevant landscape and environmental value, the fort’s location can constitute an added value for the development of a signifi-

Militage.book.indd 72 20.04.2018 19:18 cant role also from a tourist hospitality, reception of small groups of visitors; Fort Monte Tesoro, by realizing low cost receptive services the conservation of the upper story’s recovery project by. F. Meneghelli and focussing mostly on young people, existent untreated stonework realizing whose demands cannot find currently only small interventions of inner finish- an efficient offer in Verona’s Mountains. ing, such as the positioning of metal Another important possibility, beside doors and glazed windows on the ex- a proposal of individual usage, is to ternal walls, which will be addressed involve the Youth International Asso- to temporary exhibitions and museum ciations which are yearly organising centre. The electrical system has been working and formation camps, with a made by exposed pipes of steel and a following offer positioning on the Eu- linear development of luminous body ropean market. The intervention has with opaline glass shaded neons-light- been carried out according to two main ing. The air-conditioning system (only criteria: the restoration and architectur- for the ground floor) is composed of al integration, that respect to the decay a micropore steel circular channel. condition of the fort’s different parts. Work’s data: Area surface: sq m 10.226; For e.g., the restoration took place for total covered surface: sq m 1.284. Vol- the exposed stonework section and the ume cubic metre 9.887. The interven- well-conserved historic segment. The tion occurred in respect to loans and architectural integration has been rein consecutive moments: 1st moment alized: on the semi-demolished stone- (2005-2007); 2nd moment (2007); 3rd work with the addition of exposed moment (2011-2013); 4th and last mo- concrete castings; with the insertion of ment in 2014. The amount of the real- steel structures inside the destroyed ized works was about 1.170.000 €. portions of stairs, attics and roofing. The inner works followed a double Monte Tesoro Fort intervention modality: an appropriate The fort has been used as military area finishing touch at the ground floor for until 1980, then it has been handed the rooms destined to food service and over to the Government Property, and

Militage.book.indd 73 20.04.2018 19:18 now on the basis of the State Property cultural and environmental itinerary Federalism it has been transferred to that has as main points the localities the Municipality of Sant’Anna d’Alfae- of Molina (the Waterfalls and the Bo- do thanks to an increasing value pro- tanic Museum), Sant’Anna d’Alfaedo gramme presented by the Municipali- (the Prehistoric and Paleontological ty divided into several points. Museum, the Veia’s Bridge, the Corno d’Aquilio’s Mount), and links with other Asset identification: the real estate ex- Lessinia’s areas: Alpine huts, hill coun- isting in the area of sq m 154.640 are the tries, woods, etc... In this framework fort, the barracks, the keeper’s house the food and artisan local products of and the buildings for other services; the area has an important value; A general description: the features and morphology of the places are The increase in value program de- well identified by the fortifications velops on different levels: Territorial and catch all the useful elements to level- Monte Tesoro, as a location of the defence; their construction gives remarkable historical and naturalist to the location a new role and iden- interest of the Verona surrounding tity in the territory. If we think about mountains, links with Trentino and the the area with these theories in mind area between Garda and Valpolicella; you can see the essential relation be- Local level- Monte Tesoro is the centre tween the man work and the natural of the network for places of historical, environment, which allows you to im- cultural, environmental interest and of agine the forts as protections for the promotion of productive typical hand- defence of the surrounding landscape icrafts in the Lessinia’s Regional Park. from further changes. The forts’ recovery can no more appear as an isolated Objective and strategies phenomenon and competing with the Although the area is equipped with recovery of other historical structure meaningful places of interest for histo- of recognised and strengthened val- ry, nature, etc..., it has not developed ue, such as churches, villas and/or old an adequate promotional and fruition town centres. Forts should be consid- program of this outstanding herit- ered as integral part of an historical, age. The increase in value of Monte architectural and environmental her- Tesoro is aimed to represent a new itage whose value involves the entire opportunity for the mountain area to territory. develop a balanced socio-economic advancement looking out for the ter- The Program’s Summary ritorial peculiarity. The main points of The increasing of the value of Monte the intervention are: the synergistic Tesoro is inserted in a wider regional increase in value of the Lessinia’s for- context, which sees the enactment of tified heritage, which provides for the the first recovery activities of the de- forts’ salvage and the construction of fensive system composed of the Santa the trenches’ Eco-museum; the crea- Viola Fort and the Lessinia’s trenches. tion of a local network of all the places Moreover, the recovery of Monte Te- of great historical, cultural and envi- soro has to be inserted in an historical, ronmental interest with common pro-

Militage.book.indd 74 20.04.2018 19:18 Monti Lessini (Vero- na), the trenches of Malga Pedocchio integrated into the landscape. ( photo F. Meneghelli)

grams of increase in value and fruition; program can occur both with the the recovery of the fort as place of direct intervention of the Municipal- memory of the First World War in the ity and by using the program agree- Lessinia area and, at the same time as ment, and/or other agreements be- expositive space where to present the tween public and private subjects; territory nature under an historical, ar- Economic sustainability of the plan: chaeological, architectural, cultural, Regarding the economic sustainabil- environmental and landscape point ity of the increase in value program, a of view (fig.3). This place will see the plan of loans has been defined: from introduction of valleys’ traditional lo- European announcements to the re- cal products; the Barracks and the en- gional ones, banks foundations, etc... closed buildings will turn into the re- In 2016, the recovery of the fort has ception, rest stop and services’ setting begun with an expected cost of about for cultural, environmental and free € 1.5 million. The project is expected time tourism, becoming the bench- to be completed by 2017. mark for hiking in the surrounding mountain area. “The Lessinia’s wood”, Recovering Lessinia’s trenches which includes the wide wooded area The Lessinia’s fortifications expand of the mount, will become the envi- on more than 18 km, with 8.000 me- ronmental educational and formation tres or so of trenches, 50.000 me- centre aimed to the research and con- tres of grids, more than 30 pieces servation of biodiversity. of ordnance, hundreds of machine Modalities of the program’s fulfill- gun’s placements, 60/70 cavern ref- ment: the realization of the plan will uges for man and supplies, hundreds be managed by the Municipality of wooden barracks for hosting the together with the Lessinia’s Moun- troops and their officials, and thou- tain Community and the Lessinia’s sands metres of walkways, roads, Regional Park. The fulfilment of the etc... At the beginning of hostili-

Militage.book.indd 75 20.04.2018 19:18 kind of rebuilding artificialities. The salvage interventions of the military buildings should be based on “compatibility and sustainability” criteria in full respect of the context on which we act with the aim of safeguarding all the existent historical and enviro- mental/landscape heritage . The objective of the Lessinia’s fortifications salvage come form the need that the local community can declare itself as part of the values and history of the place, which can be synthetical- ly described as: Santa Viola Fort, aeri- ties, it seemed as the First World War Environmental - Safeguard and inal view. Photo: F. Me- should be a dynamic and fast war crease in value of the landscape and neghelli where only the new war machines environment; would have determined the conflict’s History and memory - Conserva- result. However, it turned into a static tion and recovery of all the con- trench war, just bloody and terrible. crete and intangible proofs; Only anonymous fortifications, -ex Touristic and Educational - Increasing cavated in the ground or in the rock the touristic interest in this place by and delimited by a lot of barbed wire, using cultural and environmental itin- followed the refined military archi- eraries and services, bounded to the tecture. For the Lessinia’s Mountain inter-regional and European reference Community I have elaborated a re- network; covery project of the Malga Pedoc- Local development – Conservation chio’s trenches, under the Erbezzo and development of the manufactur- Municipality. The intervention has ing activities, local topicalities’ promo- occurred only in full respect of the tion, boost of the receptive offer and historical, environmental and land- cultural interest. scape contex of the place. The sol- In conclusion, these examples diers created in the rocky block a grid demonstrate how it is appropriate to of walkways, trenches, tunnels, sta- develop a masterplan, that recognizes tionings for small artillery inside the the historical, architectural and land- caves, etc... To protect themselves scape value of the fortifications built from the snow or rain, the soldiers for the First World War. The master- covered the trenches and their quar- plan should help to define the princi- ters with stone sheets supported by ples of preservation and intervention wooden truss stuck in the rock. That that should indicate the possible uses kind of “signs” which still are in the compatible with the historical-cultural rocky block but that time and nature heritage. The recovery of the defen- have in part ereased, have been rec- sive systems of the First World War ognized and rendered readible in the should be considered an opportunity restoring intervention, avoiding any to foster the development of a larger

Militage.book.indd 76 20.04.2018 19:18 valorisation of the whole territory with a unitary program. In this context, the mountain area can implement a model of sustainable development, which is an opportunity for the population of a new and balanced socio-cultural and economic development.

Bibliography Meneghelli F. 2004. Forte Gisella, un forte per la città, Verona, Cierre Grafi- ca. Meneghelli F. 2006. Le mura e i forti di Verona, Verona, Cierre Grafica. Meneghelli F., Valdinoci M. 2010. Il sistema difensivo della Lessinia, Ori- ongraph. Meneghelli F. 2012. Verona un terri- torio fortificato, Crocetta del Montello (TV),Terraferma edizione.

Militage.book.indd 77 20.04.2018 19:18 Formation of Scenic Place by way of Exploitation of Former Military Exercise Field in Hokkaido Case Study of Biei in Hokkaido, Japan

Riichi MIYAKE Visiting Professor, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Japan

Landscape of Biei Background The Japanese Imperial Army used to possess, all over Japan, a number of military exercise fields, which covered more than several 1,000 ha, but after the World War II, most of them were conceded either to local municipalities or to private sectors as lands for public facilities or agriculture except some ists has originated from such lands which were transferred to the Ground for exclusively military purpose. This Self Defence Force. Biei, which gath- paper aims at the clarification of the ers approximately 1.5 million tourists process of the formation of the mili- a year as the most frequented place tary exercise fields in Meiji and Taisho in Hokkaido, experienced its history in Periods as well as the exploitation of such a process. The fact that the 7th such land after the concession in the Division of the Imperial Army occu- post-war period. pied a great portion of the surface of this town as an exercise field defines Purpose its pre-war flourishment depending Following 3 points are specially in- on military economy and population. tended to be clarified: The systematic development of exercise fields was planned around 1900 • Acquisition and development of when Japan faced the menace of Rus- military exercise fields from the end sia, which led the strategic strength- of the 19t century to the early 20th ening of artillery and cavalry by using century, especially the case of Biei the topography of Biei area. So far no • Planning and design process of research has been accomplished in military facilities such as barracks in terms of military exercise fields in Hok- exercise fields as well as its architec- kaido while the reality of the conces- tural details sion of these military lands after 1945 • Transfer of military exercise fields was scarcely studied. Still, it should to the civilian sectors and immigra- be known that the scenic view of Biei tion of new comers, including return- which attracts a great number of tour- ees from Karafuto (Sakhalin)

Militage.book.indd 78 20.04.2018 19:18 Research Area Location of Biei Biei, in the central zone of Hokkaido, Hokaido is chosen as the research area as this • Biei place is well appreciated as one of the most frequented landscape spots in Japan. The transformation of the former military land to well-tempered agrarian land signifies the existence of a great reserve of natural landscape over undulating topography. This place is around 25km distant from Asahikawa City, where the 7th Division of the Imperial Army stationed.

Methodology fields by themselves, but the surface The research is based on the biblio- was limited to 50-60 ha. It came to ex- graphic survey in archives and librar- ceed 1000 ha only at the beginning of ies such as National Archives of Japan, 1900’s in the period of the Russo-Jap- Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of anese War, which required the Army Foreign Affairs and the National Insti- total but flexible manoeuvre in the tute of Defence Studies as well as top- scale of the battle in the Continent. ographic document survey in the Geo- The surface of the exercise fields can spatial Information Authority of Japan be detected in the Army Statistic Book and so on. Survey on the preserved every year after 1913. Data prior to buildings and other military heritag- this year were scarcely found except in es in the designated area is another 1900, in which the total of the exercise method to have been taken. This field fields all over Japan counted 5,956 survey was done in June-July 2016. ha. After 13 years it was enlarged to 53,763 ha (excluding Korea and Tai- Enlargement of Military Exer- wan), nine times more. In the former cise Fields case it corresponds to 10 % of all the Military exercise fields, unlike drill Army lands while the latter was 25 %. courts, aim at the practise of deploy- The acquisition of exercise lands was ment military force, shooting and shell- thus accelerated in these years. ing in the manner of actual warfare by The Army Statistic Book of 1913 operating troops, from the strategical shows that all the 18 divisions, ex- and tactical point of view, in vast plain cept the Imperial Guard Division, kept or mountainous lands. As the troop is exercise fields up to 8 fields. - Differ obliged to stay there for several days, ence of the surface was extreme as large-scale construction program for the smallest was the 14th Division in logistics including barracks should Takasaki (225 ha) and the largest was be set up. Japanese Mikado Army the 7th Division in Asahikawa (27,282 officially started as the troop of the ha). In fact half of the surface of all the emperor (Mikado) in 1871 with 4 di- exercise fields in Japan belonged to visions which initiated their exercise the 7th Division, situated in Hokkaido,

Militage.book.indd 79 20.04.2018 19:18 which was considered most conven- from Asahikawa, just one day march ient for this kind of military manoeuvre from the military camp in Asahikawa. due to its nature as vast but scarce- A railway station already construct- ly populated uncultivated lands. Biei, ed in 1899 to complete Tokachi Line, among others, was endowed with un- which would connect Asahikawa and dulating topography which enabled Obihiro, allowed good material sup- various types of military operations. ply to this area. In addition, several This made this place extremely suit- rivers flown out from the foot of Tai- able for military exercise. Its surface setsu Mountain, including Biei River, was 6,628 ha, second biggest exercise shaped undulating landform without field after that of Toma which also be- dense forest. The fact that the water longed to the 7th Division, counting quality inspection undergone during 12 % of the total surface of military ex- the preliminary survey proved good ercise field in Japan. As the land was and clean water quality also favoured considered very large, a certain por- the final decision for acquisition. The tion of this field was rented to private selected land of some 5,000 ha cov- enterprises. ered the area which extended from the southern bank of Biei River to Acquisition of Land the municipal border between Biei The process of land acquisition of and Furano. Toward the north-west, Biei was well recorded in the official it formed semi-lunar curve around the documents of the Ministry of Army already cultivated fields. The railway around 1900, which are preserved in (Tokachi Line) which came to stay with- various archives in Japan. The 7th Di- in the northern part of this field was vision, founded in Asahikawa in 1896, considered an obstacle, but, strangely started its facility construction such as enough, the decision of the Division barracks, headquarter building and was “no problem as the frequency of exercise fields in and around this city the train is quite low and even when from 1900. It was decided to transfer the train passes, one have to shoot a land of 5,078 ha in Biei from Hokkai- carefully”. do Prefecture to the Ministry of Army, The memorandum by the 7th Divi- changing its land category from forest sion written on this occasion dictates to military exercise. The reason why that Biei at that time was “a small vil- this area was specially selected was lage with less than 80 households”, that the first acquired exercise field and that “its industry has not yet in Toma, northwest of Asahikawa, had grown up and the people here are still faced obstacles because of densely depressed”. It concluded that the ad- grown trees and sasa bamboos as well vance of the Army would enrich the as by its distorted land form which al- local population. When a military ex- lowed only single-direction shooting ercise was held, approximately 500- and shelling. Since the acquisition of 1000 soldiers gather at once. Biei was Biei was finally approved in 1903, the expected to be a supply base. In fact, Ministry of Army started negotiation the municipality of Biei made efforts with Hokkaido Prefecture at once. to attract the Army by using all its Biei is situated 25 km southward resource in such a way that they re-

Militage.book.indd 80 20.04.2018 19:18 Map of Biei (1917) with Military Exercise Field (red)

turned without compensation all the of 1890’s the necessity of manoeu- lands within the targeted area which vre was acknowledged much bigger had been leased from the Prefecture. than the former period in front of the Besides, the history of exploitation of growing menace of Russia, which tar- this area was very recent. The first set- geted Manchuria and Korea. Clashing tlers entered in this area in 1894, and between the two powers was already after 6 years, in 1900, the municipality unavoidable. In order to prepare for of Biei was established with 455 in- the war against Russia, Hokkaido was habitants and 110 households (in Biei considered the most suitable exercise Centre). These figures do not contra- place for artillery and cavalry. Wide dict the memorandum of the 7th Di- and undulating lands would allow flex- vision. The railway station had been ible operation for these disciplines. already inaugurated in the previous After the start of Mikado’s Army at year, but the road connecting Asahika- the beginning of Meiji Period, newly wa was so primitive that carriages got established Japanese cavalry pursued easily stuck in mud in rainy days. completely different direction from The document for the acquisition of the traditional equestrian samurais, 1903 dictated that the 7th Division ex- whose tactics had been based on in- pected, in future, enlargement of the dependent actions. Systematic train- exercise field by adding some 1,500 ing was initiated by the French mili- ha. It was in 1912 when the Army ob- tary mission dispatched to Japan in tained 1,384 ha in the form of retuned 1870’s. Their contribution to Japanese leased land from the Prefecture. This Army was enormous as they trans- volume was kept until the end of the ferred various systems including the World War II. military organization, facility planning, fortification and production of arms. Cavalry and horse stud administration Facility Planning for Exercise were also initiated in 1870’s so as to Fields and Priority Given to implement the construction of stables Biei and covered riding grounds. The first Military exercise fields require specific generation of this military branch was facility planning. In Biei’s case, its pur- regularly sent to France in 1880’s and pose was rather specialized in compar- 1890’s. The role of General Yoshifuru ison with other exercise fields in the Akiyama (1859-1930), above all, was main land of Japan. Towards the end crucial. He was dispatched to Saint-

Militage.book.indd 81 20.04.2018 19:18 Cyr between 1887 and 1891 as captain in the central district of Biei, integrat- in cavalry and mastered contemporary ed into the actual townscape around French cavalry tactics and logistics. At the railway station. The investigation the dawn of the Russo-Japanese War of the existing old official documents, (1904-05), he was appointed as com- however, enables the reconstruction mander of the 1st Cavalry Brigade to of the full image of such barracks at be sent to Manchuria. Akiyama’s idea that time. They are not situated with- was to utilize Hokkaido, the climate of in the exercise field, but in a separat- which is similar to Russia, for the train- ed site in the town neighbouring Biei ing of cavalry. In 1902, the 7th Cavalry River. This site for the barracks was to Regiment was thus established within be independently arranged near the the 7th Division, based in Asahikawa. station for the convenience of logis- Recruiting good cavalry soldiers was tics. A land of 14 ha was accordingly not difficult in Hokkaido as a large donated to the Ministry of Army by a number of farmers in Hokkaido were landlord for this purpose in 1906. Fol- accustomed to ride horse as they lowing this donation procedure, the cultivated vast agricultural lands with facility department of the 7th Division horse and other animals. The topo- started the planning and the design graphic conditions of Biei were ideal of the buildings. Capacity to receive for the training of cavalry. an infantry regiment and an artillery or Still the construction of the facilities a cavalry regiment (this makes 2 reg- in such exercise fields had to wait for iments in total) as well as the good the end of the Russo-Japanese War access to the station was the basic as the 7th Division was mobilized to requirement. The plan shows the ex- Manchuria, which did not allow them istence of 2 rows of 6 barracks in the to pour their energy to the construc- front yard, a row of 6 stables (64 hors- tion of new facilities in Biei. It was only es) and a stable for officers (36 hors- 2 years after the end of the war that es) in the back yard, and the regiment the construction was started. headquarter near the main gate as well as 3 kitchens and 3 bathrooms Planning of Barracks to the south. This compound unfold- For the camping of the soldiers in an ed across from the town hall and the exercise field, barracks are needed elementary school beyond a street. to accommodate at least one reg- Referring to other exercise fields in Townscape of Biei “History of Biei Vil- iment for several days. Today only a Japan, the pattern of 12 barracks and lage” 1917 few buildings of that period are left 6+1 stables seems to the standard. Hirosaki University team, which investigated Yamadano Exercise Field for the 8th Division in Aomori Prefecture, has reported the existence of a row of 12 barracks and 6+1 stables. Such was the case in Narashino Exercise Field of the 1st Division in Chiba Prefecture. One barrack corresponds to the size of a company in a rectangular plan of

Militage.book.indd 82 20.04.2018 19:18 Barracks at Fuji Su- sono Military Exer- cise Field, photos of 1930’s

4 ken x 40 ken (1 ken = 1.8m) with the buttress was to be seen. The same surface of 162 tsubo (536 m²), capa- type of wooden structure is found in ble of housing approximately 120-150 Yamadano (8th Division) and Fuji Su- soldiers. In fact, in 1903 the capacity sono (1st Division). of an infantry company was fixed 136 The building plan belongs to the soldiers in peacetime. As a regiment central corridor type. A corridor of 1 consisted of 12 companies (or 3 bat- ken width with earth floor is laid in the talions) in Japan, 2 rows of 6 barracks centre while both sides of the corridor equal the size of a regiment. On the are raised floors as soldiers’ sleeping other hand, a cavalry regiment around place with the depth of 1.5 ken. The 1900 consisted of 5 companies with entrance is situated in the middle of 800 soldiers with nearly the same the building as well as on the gable number of horses. The capacity of sta- walls of both extremities. The stables bles in Biei (420 horses) satisfied only follow the same system, but one sin- the half of this number. Drawings such gle stable counts 184 tsubo (608 m²) as plan, elevation, section and detail or a rectangular plan of 5 ken x 37 ken, for the facilities of several exercise comprising separate stalls for 64 hors- fields are preserved at the National es. The stable for officers is smaller as Institute of Defence Studies in Tokyo. it takes in only 36 horses. A kitchen of Those of Maebashi, for instance, show 38 tsubo (126 m²) and a bathroom of clearly the basic idea for the planning 20 tsubo (66 m²) are installed outside although the length of the barrack for the service of 2 barracks. Toilets is shorter than Biei. This project was are separately set up next to each bar- executed in 1922 for the purpose of rack. 2 headquarter buildings, one (4 the repair and consolidation for the x 25 ken) for regiment another (4 x 20 old buildings erected in the middle of ken) for battalions, are located in front 1900’s. of these barracks, leading to the main The barrack building is of a simple entrance. wooden post and beam structure with a long rectangular plan. Roofing was Standardization and Excep- a wooden truss system with a triangu- tion lar section. It was designed with only The survey of the actual buildings as functional goals and without any orna- well as the official documents reveals ment. Some barracks in the mainland that the planning of the above-men- had wooden buttress to support the tioned buildings is subject to standard- main structure, but in Biei’s case no ization. In fact, the appropriate surface

Militage.book.indd 83 20.04.2018 19:18 per person was clearly defined by mil- sector against the instruction from itary rank. For instance, the space for Tokyo in order to obtain cash which a soldier must be 2.2 m², a non-com- should be used for paying for the ex- missioned officer 3.5 m², an officer tra cost caused by the specific treat- 4.5 m², and a company commander ment for cold and harsh climate. That 9 m². For the stable, the size for a is one of the reasons why the “genu- horse stall should be 1.7 x 3 m². Such ine” pattern for the military barracks specification was given by the Minis- in the exercise field was well realized. try of Army in Tokyo and conveyed to each Division, which then interpreted Relation with the French Bar- this standard according to their local rack Model condition such as climate, topography Japanese Mikado’s Army received and the availability of materials. What benefits from the French military sys- are crucial factors to define the size tem from the early period of its histo- and the capacity of the facility is the ry. Not only military organization, but nature of manoeuvre and the type of also facility planning owed much to military branch. If the exercise fields the French model formulated in the were specially destined to the artillery course of the 19th century. In terms of or the cavalry, the size of stable should the military exercise fields, the early be big enough, but even in Biei, the textbook on this topic was the trans- number of stables was not enough to lation of the French one entitled “In- answer the need of one whole cavalry struction pratique sur le service de l’in- regiment. fanterie en campagne” (1876), from The facility construction in the exer- which Japanese Army develop its own cise fields started systematically just system by adding specific subjects. after the Russo-Japanese War. Biei and The textbook “Field Exercise Instruc- Yamadano belong to this boom. The tion (Yagai Enshu Kiten)” of 1882 was increased number of facilities became thus acknowledged as the fundamen- a financial burden to the Ministry of tal for field exercise. In 1889, 5 years Army, which finally made a decision to before the First Sino-Japanese War, a allow exceptions by manipulating the new manual for manoeuvre was edit- standard. This war brought about tem- ed by reference to European “grand porary construction of numerous hos- manoeuvre”. From 1892 onward pitals and even prisoner-of-war camps Grand Manoeuvre was to be carried in various places in Japan. When the out every year except in the war time war was over, most of them came to under the supervision of the emperor be no longer necessary. In order to (mikado) himself by each division in economize the construction cost, the alteration. Still, no grand manoeuvre Ministry of Army gave the permission was held in Biei until the end of the to use these temporary facilities to World War II. be relocated to the exercise fields so The comparison between the French as to be used as barracks and other exercise fields and the Japanese ones buildings. Still, in the case of the 7th is very suggestive. Although the num- Division, they sold off the dismantled ber of exercise fields exceeding 5,000 pieces of such facilities to the private ha is quite limited, those found in

Militage.book.indd 84 20.04.2018 19:18 Old Barracks for Co- etquidan Military Ex- ercise Fields, exterior and interior, date unknown

Hokkaido share similar characteristics There is a clear distinction between with the exception of the fact that the military camp and the exercise Japanese buildings are totally made field. The former signifies the perma- of wood. In France the wooden bar- nent base of the military troop, mainly racks appeared only at the dawn of situated in a city (casernement), while the World War I with sophisticated the latter is a temporary place for the structural system for rapid construc- purpose of exercise, situated in a rural tion while in Japan Army’s construc- or mountainous area (baraquement). tion depended on wooden structures Referring to the manual used by the from the beginning. However, its plan- French officers in the second half of ning system shows a certain reference the 19th century, the troop rather used to the French precursors. For instance, to bivouac-camp within the exercise Coetquidan Camp near Rennes, in field. In such a case, battalion is the Bretagne, provides a good example. unit for the operation. Each battalion Stretched over the site of 5,200 ha, must bivouac-camp by company ei- this camp contains a built-up com- ther in double column or in single file. pound with barracks of the same type, During the Second Empire, one can which date back to 1870’s. The build- recognize the construction introduced ing complex is represented by 2 rows so as to construct barracks in the man- of 7 barracks and 6 stables behind ner of bivouac-camping. The manner them. The structure is of masonry with of bivouac was, accordingly, well suc- rough stones, covered by timber truss ceeded to the layout of the barracks, roofing. Old pictures reveal explicitly which represented the spatial organi- both exterior and interior views, which zation by company in double column show the same tendency with those of Therefore, French military camps Biei. evolved from the old caserne-like closed type layout to the double col-

Old Barracks for Co- etquidan Military Exercise Fields, Site Plan (left), Aerial View (right), date unknown

Militage.book.indd 85 20.04.2018 19:18 umn type layout in the course of the Accordingly, the military exercise second half of the 19th century. Actu- field of Biei, which counted 6,798 ha ally only a few military exercise fields in 1945, was decided to be transferred in France maintain this double column to Hokkaido Prefecture. In Biei, anoth- type because they were subject to er national land, the Imperial Estate frequent alteration and construction (goryochi) for Forestry, was also trans- from the beginning of the 20th cen- ferred to Hokkaido with its surface of tury. Japanese barracks in the exercise 2,716 ha. Adding other lands of 2716 fields just referred to the French mod- ha, more than 10,000 ha were as- el toward the end of the 19th century signed for receiving the returnees for and maintained its planning system future exploitation. until 1920’s. The first immigrants of 56 households reached this area from Tokyo Reuse of Military Fields after and Nagoya in August 1945, as these the World War II cities were fiercely devastated by the At the end of the Pacific War, 6 mil- air raids. After that, returned military lion Japanese, both military and ci- personnel, returnees from abroad and vilian, were supposed to return back the affected by the air raid arrived from abroad. 8 million people within one group by another at Biei, where Japan lost their home because of the they were assigned these unexploited air raids by the Americans. In addition, lands by the municipality. 0.5 million military personnel staying The statistics between 1945 and within Japan had to find home due to 1975 says that 755 households with the dissolution of the Imperial Army some 2400 people immigrated to Biei and Navy. To ensure home and occu- and were given lands. Among them, pation was the most urgent issue for 446 households (1,417 people) set- the new post-war government, which tled within the boundary of the former declared 3 months after the end of the military exercise fields. After 30 years war in 1945 “Emergency Exploitation approximately 4,500 ha was cultivat- Program” in order to provide home ed, but 462 households (61 %) were and food by cultivating unused land, obliged to leave from Biei. improving the damaged lands and re- claiming the sea or lakes. This program Returnees from Karafuto expected the agricultural exploitation (Sakhalin) of 15,400 km², which corresponds to Before the end of the war, Karafuto 4 % of the total surface of Japan, as (Sakhalin) was a northern territory of well as the provision of 1 million hous- Japan, but the Soviet occupation in ing units. Among the total surface of 1945 forced all the Japanese citizens 2,668 km² which used to belong to the living in Karafuto to be sent back to Army and the Navy, 1,858 km² (69.6 Japan. It is said that approximately %) were to be used for this purpose. 100,000 people escaped from Karafu- Exercise fields, which were situated in to when Soviets started invasion in non-urban and less populated areas, August 1945, but as soon as the whole had a priority for this change of land island was conquered, the communi- category. cation with Hokkaido was completely

Militage.book.indd 86 20.04.2018 19:18 Actuality of Former Barracks in Biei, Bar- rack (left), Stable (right)

shut down until the Allied came to local government for the purpose of conclude an agreement for post-war encouraging the construction of their clean-up procedure. The number of own houses helped them to move to these refugees during the Soviet inva- their new home in the farm lands. By sion time is not exactly dictated. On 1960 most of the colonists had left the contrary, the returnees who were from these temporary housing units, sent back to Japan systematically from but still some families kept the life in the end of 1946 were well listed and the former barrack even up to now. followed up in detail. In 13 year until One barrack among 12 and one stable 1959, the total number of these re- among 7 are still used as housing units turnees raised up to 311,452. Among and warehouse. them 279,356 (90 %) landed Hakod- It should be noted that some bar- ate, a port city on the south edge of racks were relocated to the surround- Hokkaido. 35 % of them had neither ing area where they were assembled relative nor acquaintance in Hokkaido, and rebuilt as an elementary school. but they had to find place to be- ac It was very common all over Japan to commodated. Approximately 45,000 use former military facilities as school households or 170,000 people decid- buildings because of the lack of facil- ed to stay within Hokkaido and scat- ities caused by the rapid growth of tered to various “emergency exploita- birth rate after the war. Such was the tion lands” all over Hokkaido. Those case in Biei. The peak of the popula- who reached Biei were exactly such tion was in 1960 with the population returnees. In fact, in Biei, nearly 80 % of 21,743, which is 41 % higher than of the immigrants were from Karafuto. that of 1940. Since then the popu- How did such new colonists settle lation curve has declined gradually within the local community? At first, down to 10,370 (2016). they were received by the municipal office upon arrival, and then assigned Scenic Landscape for Agricul- the former military barracks, which ture were used as temporary asylum for Today, Biei is internationally appreciat- receiving these returnees. Although ed as a place of beautiful scenic land- these buildings belonged to the mu- scape. It should be known that half of nicipality, the rent was free. The immi- its agricultural lands used to belong to grant divided the building by adding the Army as a military exercise field. It partitions, raising floors and putting was exploited and cultivated only after entrance door, so as to transform the the World War II. This means that the former barrack into a kind of a row returnees from Karafuto have been house. The financial assistance by the the main players for creating such sce-

Militage.book.indd 87 20.04.2018 19:18 nic agricultural landscape. The differ- 19th century despite its harsh cli- ence from other cases in Japan is the mate. The establishment of military fact that these new immigrant farmers exercise fields in this norther territory possessed rather big pieces of land. was symbolic as the area around Biei The average surface in 1955 was 7.4 was endowed with ideal topographic ha / household. In the course of time, conditions for the training of the sol- small land owners tended to leave diers, especially for cavalry. The fact from Biei, so that the average surface that such vast lands were left “vacant” of the agricultural field per household without densely grown forest until the came to be increased in the later peri- end of the World War II has contribut- od up to 27.6 ha. To cover such wide ed a lot to create extensive agricultural agricultural fields, mechanization by fields for the returnees from Karafuto way of tractors and other machines (Sakhalin). The chronological under- was introduced in an early period. The standing of such landscape as contin- undulating topography, which used to uous history since the end of the 19th be the characteristics of the military century gives us different interpreta- exercise field, has made the agricul- tion of the military lands in reference tural landscape much more dynamic to the Japanese modern context. and grandiose. Both land use and facility planning Besides this scenic landscape, other aspects in the last 130 years are well touristic resources were gradually de- interrelated, suggesting radical trans- veloped in Biei since 1950’s. Following formation of the given lands as well as the discovery of Shirogane Hot Spring those who utilized them. Comprehen- in 1950 on the foot of Mount Tokachi, sion of land from its hidden historical tourists from Asahikawa and other cit- strata would help to add another so- ies were encouraged to visit this area. cio-cultural meaning on the basis of Establishment of ski slope was anoth- its aesthetic value. The findings in the er factor to attract them. Since early case of Biei are typically representing 1970’s, the reputation of Biei as sce- this approach. nic spot has grown all over Japan, and even in the world, thanks to the campaign of professional photographers and journalists, who picked up the scenery of Biei for various media. Af- ter a quarter of century from the end of the war, the former military lands changed its nature completely due to the efforts by the immigrants, the majority of whom were returnees from Karafuto.

Conclusion Hokkaido was specially exploited to strengthen the industry and the military force in the second half of the

Militage.book.indd 88 20.04.2018 19:18 89

Militage.book.indd 89 20.04.2018 19:18 Traces in the landscape

Hanne Langhoff MORTENSEN Architect in Restoration, Stavanger, Norway

Abstract the event—what is explored and what Everything created by people can be is examined—and the narrative, or the dated in history. Time, and by exten- story of the event. History as a trans- sion history, is the horizon within which mission of the past comprises both people act, think and live. Buildings what once took place and the contem- are capable of outlasting their crea- porary narrative of past events. Literal- tors and their purpose and function ly, you can say that history as a narra- can change from what was originally tive mediates itself, like the building intended. This is the case with all of as an architectural work conveys its the bunkers left over from World War own meaning. II. This paper examines the architec- The inherent characteristic of all bun- tural characteristics and qualities of kers is that of a camouflaged shelter. the bunkers and discusses methods Accordingly, the location and the bun- for approaching the bunkers based on kers have to be considered together case studies. as one. The landscape and the dimin- utive traces of the bunkers create an Keywords: narrative, cultural heritage, important interaction. value, intervention, bunker. The typology of the bunkers should be considered through generations One can think of history as the trans- of standard series (Regelbau), begin- mission of tradition. This transmission ning with series 100. Series 600, the is what the past hands down to future last standard series was introduced generations. Historia, in the word’s in1942, just after the Directive on the original Greek meaning, includes both Construction of The Atlantic Wall was issued. These new bunkers were de- “From a Point of signed to be manned coastal batter- View”, Tungenes lig- ies. The German army, air force and hthouse, Viel Bjerke- navy all actively contributed to the set Andersen. design of the bunkers. In particular, the navy contributed to the design of the bunkers with knowledge obtained from shipbuilding. The Atlantic Wall is defined by all

Militage.book.indd 90 20.04.2018 19:18 the individual bunkers, which togeth- nificantly to the experience on the er create a line. However, at the same coast. They meld into the landscape, time, each bunker is one point on the visitors discover them and they bring line. This relationship between the line unique value to the coastal landscape. and the point creates an interactive Below are descriptions of methods tension. The presence of the coast line for approaching the bunkers. The and the line of the horizon creates a question we must answer is: how to double exposure of the bunker line. use them but at the same preserve In addition, geographical and topo- their cultural value? graphical conditions play a significant role in the composition of the bunkers. 1.“Freeze” the bunker in order to The bunkers and the landscape form preserve its originally intended pur- interference. The outer appearance of pose, so that it can function as a the bunkers is apocalyptic, solid and museum for tourists. Today, many closed in form, in contrast to the land- of the most interesting bunkers are scape that opens towards the horizon in use as museums. However, it is and empty space. both impossible and uninteresting One of the architectural qualities of to reuse all the 15,000 bunkers as the bunker is their monolithic charac- museums. ter, which is manifested through the 2. The Atlantic Wall bunkers can be homogeneous materiality of the con- described in the words of Paul Virilio crete. The dense and massive dimen- as “an aesthetics of disappearance”, sions of the material make the spaces where the bunkers are objects of seem as though they were carved out beauty that will slowly vanish. In The from one mass. The essence of the Lamp of Memory, Ruskin says: [… bunker lies in its texture of solidified that it is again no question of expe- time; a layer of history that cannot diency or feeling whether we shall and will not be recreated. The rough, preserve the buildings of past times raw surfaces create scale, while the or not. We have no right whatever shuttering, uniformed wooden planks to touch them. They are not ours. make a repeating pattern. They belong partly to those who The modern, functionalistic architec- built them, and partly to all the gen- ture of the bunkers has inspired post- erations of mankind who are to fol- war architects such as in Le Corbusier’s low us.] Unité d’habitation in Marseille, where 3. Intervention: Give the bunkers he describes the material as béton new life with a new function. Then it brut, raw concrete. Reyner Banham is important how the intervention of named it “New Brutalism” . The influ- the bunker is carried out. It must be ence of the bunkers on architectural done in a manner that will respect history and their major impact on the and maintain the integrity of the idiom of architecture gives them value bunker and the site. from a cultural heritage perspective. The spacious and textural qualities I have used a diagram to outline the of the bunkers, such as mass and the procedure used for an intervention presence of the past, contribute sig- of a bunker in general. Finding the

Militage.book.indd 91 20.04.2018 19:18 the bunker’s new function, we must define and draw conclusions about the bunker’s architecture, qualities, value in terms of cultural heritage, aesthetic value, floor plan and - sec tions. The bunker’s new function is determined using a range of professional tools. By understanding the cultural-historical context through documentation. This creates a platform of values for further work and preserves important information for future generations. The site analysis serves to clarify the needs of the local area: What functions can create value in the local area? We must understand the resources and qualities of the site and then conclude be determining how to further develop these factors in line with historical qualities. The bunker’s architecture is a defined framework with a given functionality in terms of size, space and aesthetic Hanstholm Fortress, bunker’s new function is the first step qualities. The goal must be to change was part of the Atlan- and we must begin by documenting as little as possible in order to pre- tic Wall, Denmark the historical background of the bun- serve the cultural and historical values. ker, its typology and architecture, Consequently, the planned function the material (reinforced concrete), must accommodate the bunker’s ar- its location in the landscape and the chitecture. evolution of fortifications in general. We must gather background materi- Examples of bunker interven- al from books, texts and photos, and tions: determine the impact of the bun- 1. Case study: Intervention of a bunker on post-war architecture, the art ker that was converted into a diving scene etc. All of this is necessary in school. Northern Europe’s largest order to understand the essence of fortifications from World War II are the historically important traces of located in Hanstholm, Denmark and the bunker, which must be respected comprises approximately 500 bun- when planning new a purpose. The kers. In Hanstholm fortress, there are next step is to perform a site analysis four 38 cm artillery bunkers, with a to identify and clarify the future-ori- floor plan covering about 3000 m2. ented potential of the site, i.e. what Today, one of them is a museum bun- are the needs of the site? Finally, in ker, with parts of it restored plus a order to create the framework for second bunker that is accessible to

Militage.book.indd 92 20.04.2018 19:18 the public. The other two bunkers are not in use they have been filled with sand to prevent people from exploring them. This entails an opportunity for an intervention of one of the 38 cm artillery bunkers that currently has no function, in order to save it from further destruction and thereby preserve the cultural heritage narration in another way than the museum bunkers do. The new function is determined based on several factors, including the location near the sea and ease of access from the nearby tourist town of Hirtshals. The bunker consists of three main parts: the ammunition room, the cannon well and the crew and engineering department. The project will respect the bunker’s main structure. The ble again, pre-existing layers must be Plan view of one of main architectural concept is to cover restored in the bunker, but it is easy the 38 cm guns’s emplacement the cannon well with a cover formed to see what is authentic and what is as a truncated glass cone, where the new. While the new additions to the surface of the roof is cut on an incline. bunker respect its intrinsic value. Sim- The form of the cover is affected by ilar to the method employed by Carlo the sun, so that the inclined roof sur- Scarpa on Castelveccio. face faces the sun and shields it. At The new layer added to the bunker the same time it opens towards the is carried out with respect for its origi- sea, creating a visual connection to nal styling and stories. As little as pos- the element that is the goal of the di- sible is changed in terms of its tactile vers. The part that faces the south is surfaces and the cultural and historical covered with adjustable slats, which traces in the landscape. The main fo- act as shutters and create a stable cus of the project was the conscious indoor climate. The slats cause the preservation of the cultural-historical cover to change character depending narratives and keeping the architec- on where the sun is in the sky. This is tural qualities intact. reflected the time rhythm of the build- 2. Case study: The “From a Point of ing. There are solar cells on the sur- View” bunker, by Viel Bjerkeset An- face of the roof, which contribute to dersen, at Tungenes Lighthouse for warming the pool and the bunker. the European Capital of Culture, Sta- A new layer is added inside the bun- vanger 2008. She transformed a small ker so that it can function as a div- bunker into a private, quiet space for ing school. The bunker is considered contemplation. a skeleton structure, as it has been “From a Point of View” shows how stripped of everything. To make it usa- we can disseminate the bunker’s cul-

Militage.book.indd 93 20.04.2018 19:18 velopment Perspective (ESDP), which evokes the concept of ‘creative management of the architectural heritage’, including contemporary architecture, in an approach to preserving the cultural and architectural heritage” and expresses attachment to “the fact that good quality architecture, by improving the living context and the relationship between citizens and their environment, whether rural or urban, can contribute effectively towards social cohesion and job creation, the promotion of cultural tourism and regional economic development.” Today, the bunkers stand as an abandoned, unused backdrop of ruins in beautiful countryside, ready to be used for a new function, like castles Intervention of a 38 tural heritage and architectural values that once served a purpose as strong cm artillery bunker through a work of art. The bunker’s converted into a di- defences have now become muse- ving school location beside the lighthouse is al- ums. A masterful example of one such ready an established cultural landmark intervention is Castelvecchio in Vero- that attracts visitors. This proves that na, Italy. through intervention and reuse of the When decaying bunkers are activat- bunker and the landscape where it is ed through a new function, the build- situated, both are activated and there- ing and its surroundings are given by given a new life in a respectful and new life, ensuring its survival for future meaningful way for the cultural herit- generations. age site. Bibliography Conclusion: thesis Anthonisen, Bent Bågøe. 1985. Han- Adding a new function to a bunker stholm-Fæstningen. Bollerup Boghan- can harmonise with its cultural-histor- dels Forlag, Ringkøbing, ical value and result in new life and Christensen, Per Thorning. II. 1998. new content to not only the building Verdenskrigs Kulturspor. Miljø- og en- but also its surroundings, thereby in- ergiministeriet, Skov- og Naturstyrels- creasing its value as a cultural heritage en. site because the building is saved. Council Resolution of 12.02.2001 on This is supported by the fact that it architectural quality in urban and rural covers the criteria of the EU Council environments (2001/C 73/04) resolution on architectural quality in Farmer, John. 1987. Battered bun- urban and rural environments, which kers. Architectural Review, 181, Janu- welcomes “the European Spatial De- ary, 60-65.

Militage.book.indd 94 20.04.2018 19:18 Kunstkritikk, Trond Borgen. 2008. On the Edge. Rolf, Rudi. Atlantic Wall Typology. Fortress Books. Rosenberg, John D. 1998. The geni- us of John Ruskin selections from his writhings. University of Virginia Press. Virilio, Paul. 1994. Bunker Archeolo- gy. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Militage.book.indd 95 20.04.2018 19:18 German Underground Defensive Positions at Southwest France

José Manuel PAÑEDA RUIZ Engineer NCO, MA in History from UNED, Spain

Abstract es under the cities, facing the coast, On December 14th 1941, Adolf Hit- some housing artillery, machine guns ler mentioned, for the first, time the or even flamethrowers, while others term Atlantikwall, which was sup- have numerous installations such as posed to defend the European power plant, caserns, etc. coast against the threat of invasion. Other interesting issue of these fortifi- This enormous constructive effort-not cations is the perfect use of camouflage: only in materials but also in person- because of the building into the cliff nel-was realized by means of a series face, most of the batteries were almost of standard structures, which were ap- impossible to identify from the sea. plying as a general rule to almost the In this paper it is shown a rare ty- totality of the locations. The exception pology, among the great numbers to the above mentioned norm was re- of Atlantic Wall constructions; under- flected in those non-standard designs, ground constructions in southwest some of them being unique to one France. This singularity is the one that emplacement. turns out doubly important; firstly, in This paper focuses on the last ones, order to raise awareness, and second- more precisely on one unique design. ly, to preserve it as a unique Heritage. Into this category fall the works which are going to be studied later; all of Key words: Atlantic Wall, underground them have been constructed in what construction, artillery casemate, south- in the German nomenclature is known west France. as Kaverne, cave, or Stollen, tunnels, both of them proper designations. Introduction So it was not surprising that when Ger- On December 14th, 1941, Adolf Hit- man engineers had to strengthen Biar- ler mentioned, for first time the term ritz and Saint-Jean-de-Luz, they spent Atlantikwall which was intended to great efforts in both locations with defend the European coast against elaborated underground designs, a possible invasion from the West1. with the missions of protecting com- On March 23th, the following year, mand post, vital for the operations of in the Führer Directive Number 40, the coastal batteries, or as defensive 1 BAMA RW 4/v. 563 Fol. 23-27. positions. There were many complex-

Militage.book.indd 96 20.04.2018 19:18 he officially called for the creation of ciency in the construction of defenses, the Atlantic Wall. Just a month earlier, this did not happen. With more than Albert Speer succeeded Fritzt Todt, 700 standard designs and many more who died in a mysterious plane crash, models based on local adaptations, it as head of the organization that kept seems that the renowned efficiency its name, the Organization Todt (OT). of the German engineering was be- This conglomerate of administrative ing overcome by a rigid and central- elements, private companies, techni- ized bureaucracy. Another reason are cal experts and force labour received the increasing touristic interest, both the mission to build more than 15,000 for historical reasons and for what is fortifications for the summer of 1943, known with the term of bunker ar- which would be defended by 300,000 chaeology in the rest of Europe, it has men2. The Allied invasion in June in- been created around this fortified line. evitably brought the construction to Knowing that some remarkable ex- a halt, when the objective was almost ceptions like the Normandy area con- reach, with a slightly amount above tinues being ignored by most of the eleven thousand fortifications.3 population, and that it has been put This huge constructive-effort not in value and made known to the great only in material but also in person- public by the productions of the sev- nel-was made by means of a series of enth art, mainly American films.4 standard procedures, which were ap- In addition to the previous introduc- plied as a general rule to almost all the tion, it should not be forgotten that constructions. The exception to this they are remains of threatened his- standard is reflected in those struc- toric heritage. Although built to resist tures that were integrated into the heavily attacks, the step of the time, landscape in a specific location, which the abandonment and especially the is performed then a unique model and demographic expansion are finishing out of the rigid constructive chain. with the constructions of the Atlantic This paper focuses on the last ones Wall. It is easy to visit the beaches for several reasons. The first one is looking for the remains of those for- that to know any fortified system it tifications, but they are slowly suc- should be advisable to identify its de- cumbing to the industrialization and fenses, its typology, which function oblivion. Therefore, it is necessary to played each of them, the evolution, give awareness to those works while as well as the construction techniques. we still have time. However, as it will be seen later, a deep study in the typology of the At- 4 It can be mentioned as more important movies lantic Wall defences is completely out where this defences are shown, The Longest Day, of the scope of this paper. Although filmed in 1962, in some actual locations, as the Lon- gues battery or Pointe du Hoc, however the recon- the German fortification engineers instruction and localization of the defences although tended to create a series of standard quite approximate to the reality, it suffers from historical errors. Another example where the fiction tries models to increase the speed and effi- to recreate this work, it is Saving Private Ryan, 1998. 2 Führerrede zum Ausbau des Atlantik-Wallesam, In this last example, the localization of the landing Op. Abt. (IIa), 3 de octubre de 1942: Bundesarchiv beaches is in Ireland, where they showed defences Abteilung MilitärArchiv (BAMA) RH 2/v. 551. very far to those in fact found the troops that disem- 3 Oberkommando der Wehrmacht. General der barked in the Omaha beach. Pioniere und Festungen. Abt. L (III) Az. 39 (techn).

Militage.book.indd 97 20.04.2018 19:18 in 1922, allowed the establishment of an air base. The bay of St. Jean de Luz, on the other hand, was well protected; it constituted a wide and sure roadstead. Another of the facts that could influence was the maintenance of the commercial relationships with Spain, products so varied as fruits or iron; in fact, this last left the port of Bilbao, arriving in big quantities in the occupied France. As well as to maintain important communication arteries or electric lines of great strategic importance, without forgetting the option of an Allied landing operation in the gulf of Biscay. All these factors can Kaverne tunnel in Underground defensives posi- Biarritz on Chabre help understand the permanency of d’Amour beach tions German troops in the sector, as it was The different positions that are being previously mentioned. described next were deployed by the different sectors included in the First Army. This occupied a coastal area of Biarritz In the heart of Biarritz city, famous 817 kilometres, being under the com- in other times as being a rest centre mand of General Kurt von der Cheval- of the French imperial family, due to lerie whose headquarters was estab- their luxurious spas and palaces, the lished in Bordeaux5. Germans installed several defensive It was of great value for the Ger- positions, to protect their magnificent mans since its defense protected the beaches against the threat of an ene- mouth of the Garonne’s estuary and, my landing. Most of the fortifications with it, the access to the great port of fell into some standardized models, Bordeaux; maybe the occupation of which simplified the build-up of- el German troops until the last days of ements and their installation, as well the war in the sector shows the impor- as the drafts of the blueprints and the tance that the southwest French coast calculations of the costs of the neces- had for them. sary materials. The landscape, which Some of the reasons could be the played an essential role in the German presence of the ports of Bordeaux, defensive program, allowed at the Ein- Bayonne and St. Jean de Luz, of great satzgruppen execute special projects strategic interest. The first one, - be at their own initiative, Sonderzeichen, cause housed a submarine and gun which only remitted to the OT for their boat base; the second, although it approval. was not accessible to great tonnage Inside this classification are the ships, it was well equipped and easily works we will deal next, all of them defensible. Also, in Bayonne, the aer- have been built in what is known as odrome of Parme, which was created Kaverne, cave, or Stollen, tunnels, in 5 (Pañeda, 2009).

Militage.book.indd 98 20.04.2018 19:18 The kaverne tunnels in Biarrits have dozen of rooms excavated in limestone rock

the German nomenclature, both de- of HKAR 12877. In the west of the ob- nominations are correct. servation post, the Ba 39 complex was The first one is located on the built to house the command post of northern side of Biarritz, on Chambre the navy coast artillery in charge of the d’Amour beach. Coded Ba 34 is a posi- defence of that sector. A command tion composed of two gun casemates post type M152 was built here, acces- for 76.2 mm guns and a machine gun sible through a gallery in the tunnel position equipped with an armoured that connected the lighthouse with protection plate. The complex is com- the city. Both positions were endowed pleted with dozen rooms dedicated to with a large number of underground both staff and logistics6. constructions with the mission of pro- This resistance nest is currently on tecting the vital command organs of private hands, so access is not avail- the German units8. able. In Miramar, the occupiers performed Continuing the tour around the city, another important underground work we arrive at the area of the watchtower in March 1943, the last of its kind in Bi- where we have two important points: arritz. With code Ba 41, it is composed Ba 39 and Ba 40. For the construction of two artillery casemates for two Rus- of both, the German engineers had to sian captured mountain guns and an- carry out important excavations, since other position for a machine gun. As virtually all their facilities were under- it is usual in this type of constructions, ground. Ba 40 in the east, was made there is an important display inside through a tunnel in the limestone rock the galleries which presents a double of the city were installed various ele- 7 Heeres Küsten Artillerie Regiment nº 1287. ments of observation and command 8 (Chazettte, 2008). 6 (Sallaberry, 1988).

Militage.book.indd 99 20.04.2018 19:18 whose use could have been as ammunition depots or warehouses; in addition the facility had its engine room and ventilation. Each one of the artillery casemates had small ammunition storerooms; once inside the complex, the construction of the same goes in L shape join- ing without solution of continuity the two gun casemates with the machine gun position. Starting in the casemate I, the outermost one, the width of the corridor remains at 1.4 metres, with a more or less oval profile, with its walls protected by concrete. This narrow aisle ends in a small room, which serves as a link to the machine gun emplace- ment9. Here, as previously mentioned the casemate had an armoured plate, The Kaverne of Mi- entrance to this complex for security which still remains; however the ma- ramar built in 1943, reasons. Biarritz chine gun mounting has disappeared.

Saint Jean de Luz Conclusions The small town of St. Jean de Luz In this paper we have briefly summa- was also densely fortified by German rized those underground defensive troops. As mentioned earlier, the har- complexes belonging to the Atlantic bour of that town, anchored to the Wall built in the southernmost area of bottom of its bay and protected by this defensive line. two dikes, occupied a strategic place As indicated above, the bunker de- for its port infrastructures allowing the signs were standardized in most cases Kriegsmarine to repair their warships to simplify the logistic calculations of that sailed by the Bay of Biscay. To de- both materials and time used in their fend the port, a battery was built into construction. Although in this typolo- the cliff face with access via tunnels gy German engineers had reinforced bored through the rock. On the Pointe concrete in different thicknesses as de Sainte Barbe, coded Ba 51, it is early as 1939, they began to study the one of the most impressive remains possibility of reducing the thickness of its type. Based on two artillery of this material in those rocky sites fa- casemates for 83.5 mm guns, which vorable to the construction of defenc- protected the right flank of the access es10. to the port and another casemate for All the positions studied here were machine gun, which defended the all characterized by a high degree beach, the latter having an armoured of protection both for the weapons, plate for protection of this weapon. 9 (Lippmann, 1993). The tunnel system connected these 10 Fels statt Eisenbeton, 31 de mayo de 1939: Oberkommando des Heeres 34 f 12 (B) AHA/In Fest combat stations with a series of rooms III.

100

Militage.book.indd 100 20.04.2018 19:18 Artillery batteri build on the cliff at Pointe de Sainte Barbe

equipment and personnel housed in- ciones defensivas. AF Editores, Spain. side, since in addition to the concrete Sallaberry, F. 1988. Quand Hitler walls with which they were built, they bêtonnait la cotê Basque. Éditions were located under several metres of Remains of the ca- Harriet, France. semate for 83,5 mm stone and earth, which increased their Saunders, A. 2001. Hitler’s Atlantic guns at Pointe de protection. Wall. Sutton Publishing, London. Sainte Barbe Another common feature is the degree of integration with the surrounding terrain, logically being all underground were practically immune to aerial observation. In the artillery positions of Biarritz and St. Jean de Luz, natural camouflage, together with a site carefully chosen to allow the flank- ing fire, also ensured that its identification from enemy ships was just difficult.

Bibliography Chazette, A. 2008. Atlantikwall: Mythe ou Réalité. Éditions Histoire et Fortifications, France. Lippmann, H. 1993. Die Stützpunkte Ba50 und Ba51 des AW. IBA Informa- tionen 21. Pañeda Ruiz, J.M. 2009. El Muro At- lántico en Aquitania. Baterías y posi-

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Militage.book.indd 101 20.04.2018 19:18 Protecting the Remains of War and Hostility - Recent Discovery of an Important Past

Anne-Karine SANDMO Archaeologist, Head of Department at Troms County, Norway

Recent discovery of an import- II and the Cold War here in Troms? I ant past would like to introduce a personal ap- The visible remains of World War II proach to this topic. and the Cold War are bunkers, prison During the Cold War, the Norwegian camps, gun positions and observation Defense found reuse of many of the posts spread across the landscape. German facilities, and new installations These physical traces were for many were surrounded by secrecy and restric- years of no importance to the cultur- tions on public traffic. It was only when al heritage management and to local the Armed Forces abandoned the fa- communities. The physical remains cilities around 2010 that the cultural posed unpleasant memories of five heritage administration had to decide hard and sad years of the country’s if these installations had any cultural history, and was something most peo- and historical value. In Troms County ple wanted to remove. So why have Council, we established a project in public authorities found it important 2011 to look into this matter. For us in Meløyvaer fort, Hars- tad to protect the traces after World War the administration this turned into an awakening that changed our attitudes and gave us new knowledge. Even though we had realized that Northern Norway had great military strategic significance, it was not until almost all the traces had been demolished that we began to understand what had happened here in the north during World War II and the Cold War. Norway is a long stretched country. I grew up near the southernmost point of Norway, in a small town where everyone knew each other. There we knew who had been on the wrong side during the war (WWII) and who had been fighting for the resistance movement. In the library, we bor-

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Militage.book.indd 102 20.04.2018 19:18 rowed books about the war heroes who fought the Nazis. We knew their names and knew which hardships they had been through. Our heroes were all from our part of Norway, the south, some had even been operating in my hometown. What had happened in the rest of Norway during World War II, we learned little or nothing about in my school. More than ¾ of the country’s war story was left out in the history classes. It was as if the war had only taken place in the far south of the country. When I was 25, I moved to Tromsø, northern Norway, and eventually got work in Troms county municipality. My work led me to work in all the Balsfjord on the morning of No- Adolf-gun, with a bar- the county’s municipalities, and also vember 12th. They remembered the rel diameter of 40,6 cm, Trondenes Fort, across the border with neighboring explosions and tremors of the 29 tall- Harstad communities. I could not help see- boy bombs that were dropped over ing the many military facilities spread the little bay at Håkøya where Tirpitz across the landscape. Some were left lay. More horrifying, they remembered in decay, while others were surround- the screams and hammering by the ed by high fences and in full military crew of Tirpitz who were caught in the use. In many places in North Troms hull after the ship had gone. 971 sail- the military presence would not be so ors lost their lives. Those who lived in visible, only small metal pipes pierc- the area never forgot that they could ing the ground - apparently air ducts not save them. to something below our feet. At the Then I attended a gathering with beginning, I did not think so much colleagues from all over the coun- about all this. From my upbringing, I try, where a colleague who originally had an attitude that everything that came from Finnmark told a little story. reminded us of the war should be As a child, she and her family had to removed. Then I began to listen to leave their home and flee south when those who live here, especially those the German forces pulled out of Finn- who had experienced the war in the mark and North Troms setting fire to north. their farm and the village. As an adult, Just outside Tromsø are the remains she had only one single physical mem- of the Tirpitz battleship, which was ory of the family history in Finnmark sunk in 1944. The locals remembered - a small metal box. The box, which how the children had hidden them- contained important papers and val- selves in basements and under barns uables, had been dug down in the when 32 British bombers came out of ground before they had to flee. They

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Militage.book.indd 103 20.04.2018 19:18 Remains of a German barracks, Trondenes, Harstad

found the box when they returned, their own. In particular, they were but then someone had dug it up and visible in the small town of Storfjord, it was empty. This empty box was all where the occupying power had also that was all that was left to document been very active last part of the war. her family’s history. And I thought Then the Cold War passed, and from about what I have - a 19th-century the beginning of this century, the house built by my great-grandfather, Armed Forces were undergoing a ma- full of objects and papers telling me jor downturn. This also resulted in the about my family history generations abandonment and demolition of the back in time. installations. These stories opened my eyes. I One day in 2011, I received a tele- started listening to other stories and phone from the mayor of Storfjord looking at the many military installa- municipality. The Armed Forces were tions in a new way - in the north there in the process of removing all the trac- had to have been a huge military es of military activity in his municipali- presence during World War II. People ty - what could cultural heritage man- throughout Northern Troms and Finn- agement do to stop it? mark were expelled from their homes. The mayor of Storfjord had under- What happens to a population who stood something that cultural herit- experiences this? age management should have under- What happened was the Cold War. stood a long time ago: An occupant Not long after the German occupation or the country’s own defense forces was over and people in North Troms for that matter moves in in such mag- had started rebuilding their homes, nitude that the population’s living the Norway joined NATO and a new conditions and history are altered for- defense buildup started. The armed ever. Military facilities occupy land, forces upgraded many of the ex-Ger- restrict civilian use and change the man facilities as well as building up impression of the village, they are

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Militage.book.indd 104 20.04.2018 19:18 surrounded with secrecy and restric- tions, and people easily get the feeling that they are not free to move on their own property and live their own lives. But when they go out of use, they are unique sources of the story of how this village belongs in a national and international context, about how individuals’ lives are influenced by international politics and events far beyond the country’s borders. And another important acknowledgment – it is only when you stand in this landscape and see how the facilities lie in the terrain that you understand the massive presence of military, both during the war and peace, and the military strategic thinking behind. And not least - what hardships the of northern Troms and The Riksan- Conflict Landscape, many thousand prisoners of war un- tikvaren were in the process of con- Storfjord derwent in this barren land through serving several plants in Storfjord– un- the dark Arctic winter. til the Armed Forces recently decided This was the beginning of Troms to reuse the area for defense. A new County Council’s commitment to gain cold war seems to be on. an overview of WWII and Cold War Many of the traces of World War II remnants in the county and to pre- and the Cold War have been removed serve a selection of these as sources in the county. But around the munic- of a very important part of Norway’s ipalities, there is growing interest in history. In 2015, Norway celebrated its taking care of their own history. North- 70th anniversary for the liberation, but ern Norway’s military strategic impor- in 2014, we actually celebrated both tance is no longer a secret. But the the 200th anniversary of our constitu- most important thing is that the peo- tion and the liberation of Troms and ple of the communities in the north Finnmark. Finally, the stories came have made visible their place in the in- from the evacuation of Finnmark and ternational game through World War North Troms, and of tens of thousands II and the Cold War. of prisoners of war and the slave workers who were living under inhu- mane conditions in the country. The Riksantikvaren has conserved parts of the state-of-the-art cold war facility in the county - Meløyvær Fortress. Troms County Council agreed with the national government about the conservation of an area in the mountains

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Militage.book.indd 105 20.04.2018 19:18 Beyond the Bunker: Challenges and Confronta- tions in Cold War Heritage Summary

John SCHOFIELD Archaeologist, Head of Department in Archaeology, University of York

John Schofield is a well-known mem- eral universities in Britain and Finland. ber of the ICOMOS scientific committee on Fortifications and Military Beyond the Bunker, Challeng- Heritage, ICOFORT, and he is respon- es and Confrontations in Cold sible for its Charter on Fortifications. War Heritage Professor Schofield works at the Uni- Schofield started by defining some versity of York where he is Head of conceptions which are common to our Department in Archaeology, Director science: of the Cultural Heritage Management Archaeology is a way of looking at MA programme, and Director of the the past; a suite of methods and ideas Centre for Applied Heritage Studies. developed over some 250 years. US National Security He was previously an archaeologist Heritage is the way we think about Agency listening sta- with English Heritage, where among tion on the top of Teu- the past and manage cultural resourc- felsberg, a man-made other tasks he was Head of Military es. Heritage is a process, not a thing. hill, Berlin, 1971 Programmes. He also teaches at sev- Historic environment is the past all around us. There are no gaps: buildings, archaeological remains, the changing landscape - ancient and modern.

Schofield maintained that archaeological fieldwork can create an arena for dialogue. In specific application, archaeological fieldwork can interface with residents in impacted spaces and include memories of their Cold War experiences. These stories in turn can add a human dimension and contribute to changing and completing the history of the affected country during this period.

Schofield also raised the question:

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Militage.book.indd 106 20.04.2018 19:18 Heritage without Pro- tection: Nuclear bunker, York, England

Should we attribute heritage values to Cold War sites now, rather than in 30 year’s time? Schofield suggested that in the future, different points of view and perspectives would probably be able to supply more complete and diverse sources. To illustrate this point, Schofield showed pictures of three military sites in Berlin (Ger- many), Nevada (USA) and York (UK), none of which have legal protection as heritage sites. His conclusion was that cultural heritage is more about the present and the future than about the past. Cultural heritage is just as much about people as about places; and not all cultural heritage sites need legal protection to survive.

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Militage.book.indd 107 20.04.2018 19:18 Northern Security and Russia after the Cold War Summary

Kristina SPOHR Professor of International History, London School of Economics and Political Science

Kristina Spohr is an Associate Pro- won the London School of Econom- fessor at the London School of Eco- ics’ Excellence in Education Award, a nomics Department of International distinction that recognizes her for her History. Professor Spohr’s areas of contributions in teaching and depart- scholarship include Germany’s interna- mental leadership. tional history after 1945 and the Cold War, and she has written extensively Northern Security and Russia in this field. She is the author of sev- after the Cold War eral books and articles, including The Spohr’s presentation focused on the Global Chancellor: Helmut Schmidt Arctic and mapping the global bal- and the Reshaping of the Internation- ance of power. Focusing on the arctic al Order (2016), and Germany and the space after the ice melts, Spohr identi- Baltic Question After the Cold War fied the possibility for many new activ- (2004). In 2016 she edited Transcend- As ice melts, new ities such as seagoing transport, trade routes will be availab- ing the Cold War together with David and tourism, as well as the exploitation le in the Arctic Ocean Reynolds. In the same year, she also of natural resources such as fish, oil, gas and minerals, etc. These types of activities will be encouraged by economic motives, but beyond economic opportunity, Russia has started reo- pening and rehabilitating older military bases along the coast, and they have begun building new ones. One can already begin to predict disagree- ments about sovereignty over territories and control of trade routes in the Artic region. Today, Russia has a fleet of 30 ice-breakers, while Norway has one, Sweden seven, Denmark four, and Canada six. Thus, Spohr gloomily concluded that it is obvious that Rus- sia has prepared itself to take control over future sea routes in the Arctic.

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Militage.book.indd 108 20.04.2018 19:18 Resources in the Arc- tic. From: Nordregio

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Militage.book.indd 109 20.04.2018 19:18 Exploring the unknown – Estonian military heritage of 20th century Official stand, problems and prospects

Robert TREUFELDT Art Historian, Freelance Construction and Conservation Consultant, Estonia

20th century. In 2006–2014, no new military structures were designated as objects of preservation. By 2014, approx 3000 structures were studied, but only few of them were military structures. In 2013, different programmes of giving more recognition to military structures of the 20th century were launched (in view of ca 30 prospective monuments). The final results would be clear by 2018.

Key words: Estonia, 19th century, 20th century, evaluation of military structures, evaluation of prospective officially listed heritage

Military flour storage Abstract 20th century heritage in Estonia is es- for barracks of Impe- rial Russian infantry In 1988, the first military structure timated to cover the objects erected and artillery. 1885. of the 20th century was taken under in the period from 1871 to 1991 as City of Tallinn. Pho- protection in Estonia. In 2006, a pro- it embraces the social, technical and to: Robert Treufeldt, gramme was commenced in respect military turn that took place in these 2017 of the architecture of value from the years. Railway reached Estonia and the newly adopted legislation concerning civil rights gave the people Concrete base with the freedom to move in the 1860s. anchor bolts for 12- inch gun of Imperial The population migrated to the fac- Russian coastal bat- tories established in urban areas and tery. 1916. Sääre, the centuries’ long rural way of living Peninsula of Sõrve, broke down rapidly. Island of Saaremaa, Southwest Estonia. Rebuilding the Fort of Kalarand in Photo: Kristel Valk, Tallinn is considered to mark the turn 2006 in military structures. The main build-

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Militage.book.indd 110 20.04.2018 19:18 Barracks for Esto- nian Infantry near the Headquarter of 1st Division. 1927. City of Rakvere, Northeast Estonia. Photo: Ro- bert Treueldt, 2009

ings of the fort, unique in Estonian mil- Observation bunker itary architecture were erected during in the Estonian artillery proving ground. 1820–1840 following the polygonal 1939. Kaber-neeme, system. In 1869 the artillery power of Jõelähtme munici- the fort were dropped and the main pality, North Estonia. buildings were reconstructed as bar- Photo: Robert Treu- feldt, 2010 racks. The period from 1871 to 1991 is divided into Russian (1871–1918), German I (1915–1918), Estoni- an Republic (1918–1940), Soviet I crete thin shell structures in the world (1918–1919), Soviet II (1939–1941), and still remains a showpiece of the Estonian resistance (1940–1991), Estonian built heritage of global sig- German II (1941–1944) and Soviet nificance. Today, a department of the III (1944–1991) periods. The present Estonian Maritime Museum is located period covering the restored Estoni- there. an Republic (since 1991) is not yet a The majority of the 20th century Es- research object. tonian military heritage was listed dur- For the first time in Estonia, a mili- ing the 1990s. The new sites were not tary structure of the 20th century was studied thoroughly nor was their com- listed already during the Soviet occu- plexity assessed. Therefore the listed pation in 1988, a seaplane hangar of sites from the 1990s differ regionally, Imperial Russian navy designed and typologically as well as chronological- erected by Danish specialists 1916– ly. They are mainly divided between 1918. It was one of the first large con- 6 regions: North-East, Tartu and its

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Militage.book.indd 111 20.04.2018 19:18 Built as a lighthouse, This difference is explained due to the but during the war- different persons involved in the pro- time turned into the central fire control to- cess – both these who carried out the wer of Estonian coas- inventory of the heritage and who for- tal artillery. 1939. Lub- malised the heritage into listed mon- ja, Viimsi municipality, uments. North Estonia. Photo: Robert Treufeldt, 2013 The majority of monuments are either Russian or Soviet heritage. It was not only numerous, but also the awareness of such objects during the Soviet occupations was widespread as it did not contain that much grudging elements to the Soviet regime than the heritage from the Estonian Repub- lic or German occupations. A lot of military heritage has been destroyed after Estonia restored its surroundings, Tallinn and its surround- independence, mainly from the Sovi- ings, North-West, islands of Hiiumaa et 3rd occupation period. The main and Saaremaa in the West. reasons are ignorance and disregard, Twin 180-mm gun Burial grounds, battlefields and me- although the Soviet occupations are tower in the Soviet coastal battery guar- morials are scattered rather evenly considered the biggest atrocities in ding the Gulf of Fin- across Estonia. Military monuments 20th century Estonia. The main rea- land. Island of Osmus- with more direct warfare functions are sons for destruction are ignorance saar, North-west Esto- located almost exclusively in Tallinn concerning the nature of these struc- nia. Built 1940, finally armed 1941. Photo: and Hiiumaa regions; in other regions tures but also shortcomings in the bu- Robert Treufeldt, 2013 there are in maximum 5 such sites. reaucracy. Destroying such structure is not a deliberate act, but demolishing is often seen as improving the environment through liquidating ruins. The destroyed heritage includes technically and militarily remarkable objects, such as Kikepera long-range radar base, Pääsküla air defence command centre (alternate centre for the whole North-Western part of the So- viet Union that included up to 5-sto- ried underground bunkers) and Tinu underground medium-range ballistic missile base. Tartu long-range bombers airbase and large-calibre railway gun positions on the Pakri peninsula are currently under the threat of destruction. All these structures were/are unique in

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Militage.book.indd 112 20.04.2018 19:18 Underground bunker of Estonian anti-Soviet resistance, hidden in the forest. Built 1944, destroyed in the battle 1945, restored 2010, set in fire 2016, now under reconstruction. En- nuksemäe, Raas-silla Village, Viljandi municipality, South Es- tonia. Photo: Bruno Jänes, 2011

Estonia, but in terms of the former So- 45 military structures were consid- viet Union they represent more com- ered, but no concrete suggestions mon solutions. concerning their future were put for- One case brought along a major ward. Nonetheless, the number 45 is change into how 20th century her- a frightfully small share of Estonian itage is perceived. A special shop 20th century military heritage and it located in the centre of Tallinn was should be rather 45 000. This doesn’t erected in 1983 for Western tourists mean that they all are valuable, but where only hard currency was used. this covers the number of structures Local people were even prohibited to that should be investigated to find out visit the shop on their own. The build- valuable sites among them. ing was planned to be demolished in During 2006–2014 no military herit- 2005, but was listed as a monument age was listed in Estonia. Since 2014, in 2006. three new military structures have The pro private ownership stance of been listed in Estonia – although re- the new government brought along a complaint concerning the decision to list this building as a monument and in 2010, with a court decision, it was del- isted. The possible demolition of the building led to establishing a research German station in the programme of 20th century architec- small island for Würzburg ture and its values. anti-aircraft radar, part Altogether 3000 structures were of the Kammhuber Line. 1942. Island of Naissaar, considered by 2014, but the share North Estonia. Photo: of military ones was very small. Only Robert Treufeldt, 2011

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Militage.book.indd 113 20.04.2018 19:18 Soviet Navy testing ground for the mag- netic fields and noise of the vessels. 1950s. Hara, Kuusalu municipality, North Estonia. Photo: Robert Treu- feldt, 2016

spective recommendation was made our knowledge and the state of play already in 2008. The recommendation concerning the actual military herit- was not the result of the abovemen- age. A similar project covering the tioned programme, but was filed by whole of Estonia was launched in the municipality (City of Tallinn) where 2014, but due to a small budget and these structures are located. only a half-year duration it ended with 114 potential sites were selected an interim report. from a large bulk to be listed as mon- A new programme was designed uments, involving bureaucratically a in 2016 lasting for a year and having rather complicated process. None of a budget of approximately 8.5 big- these structures were military ones. ger than the previous one. The pro- Therefore a new programme was gramme should end in 2018 and it launched in 2013 that included a small is aimed at investigating the whole pilot project. 20th century military heritage. This is This project aimed at investigating of course not realistic, but one of the all military structures of the land front outputs based on the collected data of the Peter the Great Naval Fortress is to list approx 30 new military mon- (1916–1917) located in one municipal- uments. ity (Rae municipality close to Tallinn, Considering the history of Estonia, 207 km2, 15 000 inhabitants). Official- these prospective monuments of dif- ly there are two military monuments ferent periods should be divided as in the municipality; the investigation follows – about 25% from the Russian process resulted in information of period, 35% from the Estonian peri- about 120 military structures. od, 10% from the German occupa- This showed the difference between tion period and 30% from the Soviet

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Militage.book.indd 114 20.04.2018 19:18 Soviet nuclear warhead storage for long-range antiaircraft missiles. 1970s. Türisalu, Harku municipality, North- west Estonia. Photo: Robert Treufeldt, 2014

occupation periods. It’s a pity that such an unambitious objective has been set up – actually 300 instead of 30 monuments of the 20th century Estonian military heritage should be involved. Nonetheless, this is an important step to increase the awareness of military heritage in Estonia, based on sufficient investigation and judicially waterproof arguments. Although the National Heritage Board has stated that no further military heritage will be listed, hope remains that the current project will someday be prolonged.

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Militage.book.indd 115 20.04.2018 19:18 The Values of Coastal Military Heritage in Kin- men and Its Conservation

Yi-Jen TSENG, Professor, National Quemoy University, Taiwan Hsin-Ying HUANG, Professor, National Quemoy University, Taiwan Sheng-Fa HSU, Professor, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

Abstract and human-drive destructions are The island of Kinmen, formerly known directly threatening the existence of as Quemoy, was made famous dur- these military heritage sites. ing the Cold War as the scene of the Kinmen’s militarized northern coast Quemoy Crisis and as a base, from is the best representative of the Cold which the Nationalist Chinese resist- War history. Its values can be found ed the invasion by Communist Chi- in these military facilities and fortifi- nese forces. Kinmen’s northern coast cations, which form layers of coastal is directly across from mainland China defensive lines. This paper aims to and the island was where the Battle present the characters of these mili- of Guningtou unfolded in 1949. Since tary facilities, to explain the concepts then, it has been a point of confron- of the coastal defensive strategies, to tation between the Communist Army discuss the possibilities of community (People’s Liberation Army, or PLA) development through the conserva- and the Nationalist Army (Republic tion of military heritage, and to sug- of China Army, or ROC Army). In or- gest the future of Kinmen’s military der to prevent the PLA from landing, heritage. the authorities constructed densely-concentrated coastal fortifications, Keywords: Cold War, Quemoy Crisis, which consists pillboxes, bunkers and Fortification,S tronghold, Reuse barracks, as well as other facilities on the beaches and estuaries, in line with Introduction the local landscape and terrain. After Kinmen is Taiwan’s largest offshore 43 years of military control, and the island. It is located along the south- martial law was finally lifted in 1992, ern coast of China’s Fujian Province these defence mechanisms phased and has a total area of 150 square out and many gradually crumbled kilometres. At low tide, it is only 1.8 away. Although in recent years the kilometres away from the nearest Chi- government has turned some of the nese-controlled island. Large num- fortifications into tourist attractions, bers of immigrants gradually habit- many have not been properly pre- uated the island since the beginning served or protected. Environmental the 10th century. Because of Kinmen’s and economy changes and natural special geographical location at the

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Militage.book.indd 116 20.04.2018 19:18 The Map shows the Defence Strong- holds of the Kinmen Northern Coast

mouth of both Xiamen and Quanzhou nist army continued to shell Kinmen bays, it is a strategic location that ships in attempts to destroy its defences. sailing along China’s coast must pass One such attempt, the 823 Artillery through, and a place where soldiers Bombardment, so named because have had to contend for hundreds of it started on August 23 1958, lasted years. In the 16th century the Ming until October 6. More than 440,000 Empire established Kinmen Town and shells landed on Kinmen; the devas- five coastal fortifications for defence tating casualties and intense bom- against pirates. The 17th century saw bardment caused the incident to be- Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) use the come known as the Second Taiwan island as a base in his attempt to fight Strait Crisis or the Quemoy Crisis2. the Qing Reign and to restore the Kinmen became the first line of- de Ming Empire. Despite continuous war- fence against Communism and an im- fare, Kinmen has maintained a good portant part of the policy of contain- relationship with the Chinese main- ment during the Cold War. This led to land, both culturally and economically continual military construction on the for a thousand years. island and 43 years of martial law. However, as civil war raged in Chi- As to the island Kinmen lies close to na Mainland, and the Nationalist the Chinese mainland, a battle took Government (ROC) led by Chiang place in Guningtou when the Com- Kai-shek retreated to Taiwan in 1949, munist army tried to took over the Kinmen became the front line in the island in 1949. This battle secured battle raging between China and the Nationalist government, and Taiwan. The Korean War erupted on held the USA’s First Island Chain. Af- June 25 1950, and U.S. President terwards, the coastal line of Kinmen Truman deployed the Seventh Fleet was strongly fortificated by pillboxes, into the Taiwan Strait to keep the bunkers, trenches, tunnels, and forts. area neutral, to prevent hostilities The distance between them could from spreading, and to protect the be as close as 360 meters. To effec- ROC regime in Taiwan1. The Commu- tively defence the coast line, the lo-

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Militage.book.indd 117 20.04.2018 19:18 Rail Obstacles (left)

Costal Fortification W003 (right)

cations of these facilities was set at Coastal military heritage river mouths, sandbanks, and high Because of its proximity to mainland grounds, and the planning of them China, most of Kinmen is within the were hidden underground, or fit in range of the PLA artillery. In order to the local landscape. A variety design prevent the PLA from landing and of these fortifications was designed causing damage with shelling, the according to the landscape, the func- ROC army used the natural terrain and tion of weapons, and the strategies granite plates to construct multi-level of defence. These defence facilities military fortifications, as well as under- show an unique value of a military ground tunnels and facilities. A major- landscape, in which a perfection of ity of military camps and troops were military strategies, and a symbiosis hidden inside these secret tunnels. between human and the nature can Kinmen Islands (Kinmen and Lieyu) be discovered. face China’s coast on three sides: east, After decades of military control, north, and west. The slopes on the martial law was finally lifted in 1992. northern coast are gentle at low tide. Recent years have seen relations im- In order to prevent landing operation prove and peaceful developments on during high tide, a plan was set to fill both sides of the Strait. The number Kinmen’s coast with military fortifica- of troops gradually lessened due to tions that kept tight control over the force reductions at every level of the coastline. ROC army. Large numbers of military facilities were either abandoned or Coastal Defence Strategies sealed off. Falling out of use, they are The then strategies in coastal defence shadows of their former selves. Only are to “stop the enemy at sea and an- facilities under Kinmen National Park nihilate them on the shore”, and all Services (KNP) jurisdiction or taken coastal lines of defence needed to be over by the Kinmen County Govern- able to “annihilate the enemy within ment were turned into tourist loca- 200 meters3”. Therefore, coastal de- tions; however a majority of the for- fences relied on a variety of defensive tification were not preserved and are structures and weapons such as “rail gradually eroding away. These military obstacles” (spiked steel rail anchored heritage sites from the Cold War time into a concrete base), landmines, sisal could have become an important en- (and other plants), barbed wire, bro- vironmental and cultural resources for ken glass, and a variety of firearms. Kinmen. They were placed where the oppo-

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Militage.book.indd 118 20.04.2018 19:18 Stronghold that sits on a protrusion (left)

Fort W011 fits in the costal terrian (right)

nent was most likely to land, in order Coastal military fortifications were to form a zone of denial and to max- designed in consideration of the sur- imize effect. These obstacles and de- rounding landscape and terrain, such fensive facilities are divided into five as differences in height, rocks, and lines of defence. cliffs. Considerations of crossfire from The first line of defence was rail ob- the different strongholds and the ef- stacles, located in the intertidal zone, fective ranges of different weapons where the civilians also used to farm were taken into consideration in the oysters for centuries. These obsta- design of the various pillboxes and cles were constructed by anchoring a gun slits. Vegetation was planted next spiked steel rail into a concrete base to artificial structures and the tops of below. The obstacles form a defen- buildings were covered with soil to sive barricade, one to four lines deep blend in with the surrounding envi- depending on the characteristics of ronment, thus creating concealed and the intertidal zone and the terrain; underground fortifications. These con- this prevents ships and landing crafts cealed military bases were all capable from taking advantage of high tide to of storing food, water, and ammuni- approach the shore. This is followed tion. The natural terrain, artificial ob- by a wire fence on the beaches, destructions, and weapons combined to signed to keep the enemy out; these form a dense and formidable coastal fences completely surround the en- defence. campments. The third line of defence was formed by the numerous landmin- Selecting locations for coastal es planted outside of the camps, on defences the beaches, and even on the rocks. Coastal defences need to be solid The fourth line was the trenches dug battle stations that can be self-sup- outside of the camps and surrounding porting. Therefore, they were built walls. Inside, thorny vegetation such on key locations in order to con- as sisal and thistles were planted, or trol the enemy’s lines of approach5. broken glass was affixed to the surface These locations were strategically of rocks. The local terrain and surface located in order to form solid central features were used to prevent the en- fortifications. Several major beach- emy from climbing to approach. The heads were selected as independ- final line of defence is made up of ma- ent fortifications to control the high chine guns, artillery, and other weap- ground, monitor movement on the ons4. ocean, and delay the enemy in the

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Militage.book.indd 119 20.04.2018 19:18 Locations on the sandy coastline or at mouths of rivers In order to prevent the enemy from landing on gently-sloping sandy coasts and rivers with wide mouths, and to further prevent them from following rivers inland, the army built military strongholds on these poten- tially vulnerable locations. With the wide fields of view afforded by coastal land, pillboxes and bunkers were built from which soldiers can fully survey their surroundings and enjoy a wider Fort W007 that is de- event of an attack6. The collective field of fire. Nearby facilities can also signed and built to purpose of these fortifications is to cover each with crossfire to prevent take the advantage of the lanscape block, deter, and prevent the enemy the enemy from being active on the from advancing — to act as the front broad beaches. Since beaches have of island defence7. Therefore, coast- little natural terrain that can be utilized al defences on Kinmen must take for the construction of military fortifi- into account tactical considerations cations, coastal pillboxes built during and make the most effective use of the 1980s have all been reconstruct- their locations. ed with modern reinforced concrete. Bunkers have thick reinforced con- The high ground crete walls and reinforced concrete The high ground acts as a vantage floors thicker than 60 centimetres; si- point from which to survey the sur- sal and turf have been planted to act roundings clearly and take strategic as camouflage, and the buildings are command. Although Kinmen’s coast surrounded by landmines and trench- is mostly made up of beaches, there es for defence. are still plenty of places that have elevated terrain. Guningtou is one Locations on coastal protru- such area. The cliffs of Beishan (North sions Mountain) are approximately ten me- Kinmen’s coast has many bay mouths, tres above the sea. The vertical height forming the region’s bays and protrud- and dangerous terrain make for eas- ing reefs. These protrusions extend ily defensible coastal terrain. The deep into the bays and are connect- Communist and Nationalist armies ed to land at only one place. From a clashed here in 1949 over three days, military point of view, they have great with the defending Nationalist army fields of view and can easily control successfully repelling the attackers8. the surrounding area with firepower. Ever since then, the military has con- Therefore, all of these protrusions on structed an extensive array of coastal the coast have barracks, bunkers or fortifications on every vantage point pillboxes built on them. They act as and coastal hilltop to closely monitor important bases from which firearms the surrounding ocean and coast. can lay down fields of fire. Fortifica-

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Militage.book.indd 120 20.04.2018 19:18 Barracks were demolished so as to returned the land for the civilians

Pillbox whose foundation are ruined by the tide

tions remain hidden and safe because and the nature of weapons. For ex- the majority make use of coastal gran- ample, for platoons and squads the ite reefs and blend into the surround- emphasis is on creating safe defenc- ing terrain. Pillboxes are also intercon- es using fortifications and the -envi nected to each other underground ronment, in the shape of trenches, fortifications via underground tunnels. ridges, and pile walls. The pillboxes or bunkers are equipped with nests Blending into the natural envi- and slits for machine guns or rifles; ronment tanks, or 90 mm and 57 mm guns are In order to achieve effective camou- housed behind walls for anti-ship fire flage, many coastal fortifications- uti cover; and foxholes for surveillance. lize their surrounding terrain and nat- The distribution of personnel and ural vegetation. They are built from weapons also differs according to local granite and reinforced concrete, the goals and firepower aims. Squads and covered with earth and vegeta- that only provide firepower support tion such as sisal, bougainvillea and occupy smaller areas and mainly as- Australian pine so as to blend into sist neighbouring fortifications; ones the coastal terrain and reefs. These that crewed by platoons and compa- military fortifications coexist with nies to provide artillery fire occupy their surroundings. Gun slits face the larger spaces, and are equipped with ocean and the backs of structures are heavy artillery such as direct fire, in- inaccessible slopes and reefs. Living direct fire and high-angle indirect fire quarters are enclosed within concave howitzers. terrain or concealed underground and The fortifications on the north coast, in tunnels, ensuring a high level of se- for example, were earthen forts at the curity. beginning of 1949. They were civilian residences fortified quickly with rocks, Planning and spatial configu- wood planks, bricks, and clay in order 9 ration of coastal defensive for- to defend against the invading PLA . Afterwards, defences were great- tifications Coastal defences are crewed by ly strengthened by utilizing under- battalions/companies or platoons/ ground construction. The Fort W002, squads, based on their location. built in 1960, was a large coastal camp Combating quarters have different with an area of nearly four hectares. spatial characteristics due to the dif- Tunnels connected coastal pillboxes ferent troop sizes, military layouts or bunkers to one another and the

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Militage.book.indd 121 20.04.2018 19:18 Oil painting showing the 1949 confrontation in the Fort W013

Daily life in a fortification is drew in the Fort W027 as de- monstration

majority of buildings were housed un- winds in winter; water also invades the derground. The renovation summary site at high tide. The camp was rebuilt for the site stated, in 1984 using reinforced concrete, “The renovation of the base was or- creating stronger wall and floor struc- dered by the commanding officer in tures. Gun slits were redesigned so order to heighten combat readiness they could control the sea and beach- and ensure that the necessary fortifi- head with artillery fire, and support cations are constructed and integrat- neighbouring bases with supporting ed into the existing tunnels, to form fire. an encompassing defence system Coastal defensives such as these and in order to be able to support were the front line of defence against friendly units and halt the enemy on a PLA landing. In addition to defence all fronts”10 concerns such as firepower, these Although the structures were rein- spaces needed to meet the basic forced in the later years, fortifications needs of officers and soldiers. Bas- subjected to erosion by tide water, es needed to be stocked with things rain, and wind are still easily dam- such as ammunition and food in or- aged. The majority of the coastal forti- der to hold off an attacking enemy. fications that still stand are those ren- These were known as the six reserves ovated with reinforced concrete from and seven defences. The six reserves 1983 to 1984. The 1984 renovation included stockpiling water, sand, oil, summary of the Fort W011, located food, munitions, and medical sup- on the sandy banks of a river mouth, plies; the seven defences required stated, the space to be safe from fire, poison, “The defensive capabilities of the assault, shelling, missiles, NBC (nu- original base were inadequate. Gun clear-biological-chemical), and air as- slits were too small, which meant ar- sault. The combating quarter of a fort tillery could not achieve maximum ef- may be entirely underground, entirely fect; facilities were poor and inconven- above ground, or half-above, half-be- ient, and failed to allow for integrated low ground. This includes artillery fighting. Therefore, the base has been emplacements, machine gun nests, ordered rebuilt.”11 ordnance keeps, ammunition depots, The W011 is located at an estuary. trenches, and pillboxes; living quar- Its low-lying position means the base ters include political warfare rooms, accumulates water easily and can be barracks, kitchen, bathing facilities, buried in sand blown in by northern and warehouses 7. Forts also have out-

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Militage.book.indd 122 20.04.2018 19:18 door fields/spaces for assembly and Government or Kinmen National Park training. These facilities and spaces Services, or undergone regeneration create strongholds for resistance with and converted into public institutions, lasting combat effectiveness, and can memorials, sightseeing/tourism at- engage independently or become de- tractions, etc. As of 2015, the military fensive positions. has handed 181 of the original 512 military facilities back to the public3 Current state of military heri- and are continuing to review sites to tage sites and their regenera- determine which should be returned tion out of absence of military necessity. At its peak, there were more than Only a portion of the dense jungle 100,000 troops were stationed on of coastal fortifications is currently Kinmen, in order to strengthen the is- crewed due to the overall reduction in land’s fortifications and counter-attack troop numbers and the modernization capabilities. On the eve of the August of weapons and strategic thinking. A 23, 1958 artillery attack, the army had number of facilities have been handed stationed six infantry divisions, eight over to coastal patrol units. Many sites artillery battalions, five anti-aircraft have been shut down and the camps battalions, and three tank battalions12, abandoned. as well as army engineers, special forces, and units from the navy, air force, Current status of fortifications and intelligence under the Kinmen handed back to the citizenry Defense Command. Strategic areas As mentioned earlier, coastal fortifi- were all placed under military control, cations exist on important and stra- and troops were stationed throughout tegic locations and are hidden from the island. view near the shore, reefs, and the After 43 years of military control, the surrounding environment. Kinmen is end of the Cold War signalled a thaw- located in the subtropical zone, and ing of cross-strait relations and the is- the changing of the seasons and the land was handed back to the public in weather greatly affects its climate and 1992. After this point, the number of vegetation. In the spring and summer Kinmen troops gradually decreased months, trees, weeds, and vines grow over year. When the Three Little Links rapidly; if a site is not managed prop- were agreed to in 2001, the garrison erly, it will be covered in vegetation was downsized even further. Before within a short time. If the growth is not martial law was lifted, the number of cleared within a few years, the camp soldiers on the island was approxi- will deteriorate and break down rapid- mately 60,000; it was downsized to ly. In the winter, strong north-easterly 20,000 after the agreement. In 2015, winds and tidal ranges of up to six me- numbers were further reduced to only tres will quickly destroy front line for- 4,000 troops. The original military tifications that are not properly main- camps and fortifications have largely tained. They become covered in sand, been abolished and the land hand- or are destroyed by tides. ed back to citizens. They have been After the return of coastal fortifica- transferred to the Kinmen County tions, their treatment can be divided

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Militage.book.indd 123 20.04.2018 19:18 into the following three categories. is being dredged away. Many forti- First, all above-ground structures are fications along the coast have been demolished and handed back to the destroyed because their foundations public. Once a piece of land is desig- have crumbled. The reinforced con- nated to be handed back, in the case crete foundations of the rail obstacles of all private lands forcibly occupied in the intertidal zone are also gradual- by the army during the war to build ly being destroyed. camps, the army must demolish all above-ground structures before hand- Regeneration of the fortifica- ing the land back, assuming the own- tions ers do not want them. This includes The regeneration of coastal fortifica- burying all underground fortifications tions mainly focuses on reusing them and tunnels. But for some sites, such in sightseeing, recreational, or com- as W002, above-ground structures memorative capacities, or convert- were demolished while underground ing them into public spaces. Since structures were preserved. Second and coastal fortifications are situated on for the most common cases, sites are dangerous terrain that offers good abandoned without maintenance. This views, they can be transformed into is the result of a lack of funding or plan- exhibition halls or recreation sites, ning, and includes sites handed back from which visitors can enjoy the to the Kinmen County Government, ocean and learn about history with Township Offices, or the KNP. This has information on and pictures of these resulted in sites left to stand idle, lack- old battlefields. The Kinmen County ing proper maintenance, or becoming Government and the KNP have both damaged, as in the example of the planned to build coastal bicycle trails W001 stronghold. Third, sites are re- that link together coastal fortifications generated with proper planning and and specific natural landmarks to be- receive better management and prop- come a new tourist attraction. er maintenance. These sites are then The Fort W013 was one of the main open to visitors, such as E017, W013, battlefields in the Battle of Guningtou, and W016, which are under KNP juris- 1949. Its artillery emplacements and diction. living quarters are still well preserved. Many of the idle sites under the sec- The site has been tidied up and now ond category have not been properly tells the story of the 1949 battle with maintained after being handed back. oil paintings based upon accounts A majority of them are being over- from veterans, narrating to visitors the run by trees, weeds, and vines, and memories of a horrific battle. Safety the camp structures are deteriorating equipment and toilets, necessary for quickly. China has been dredging sig- tourists, have been added. nificantly in recent years and has even The Fort W016 is a large camp pri- built an international airport. All of this marily based inside tunnels and is lo- has affected fortifications and struc- cated to the back of the Guningtou tures along the Kinmen coast. Land War Museum. Tunnels connect the is crumbling into the ocean and the various coastal pillboxes, artillery em- coastline is shrinking because sand placements, barracks, and conference

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Militage.book.indd 124 20.04.2018 19:18 rooms (political warfare rooms). There W027 and W029 are situated on the are several dozen ventilation holes return flight path for migratory- win above the tunnels. The regeneration ter birds (including cormorants) and project has taken into account the have the potential to become great traffic flow from the Guningtou War bird-watching sites. The E005 site has Museum, and links the two sites to- been regenerated and converted into gether in order to completely preserve a community activity centre. their original military characteristics. A picture of Chiang Kai-shek inspecting On the maintenance of mili- Kinmen hangs in the original confer- tary heritage ence room in memory of the island’s Defences along the coast developed importance as a former battlefield13. In unique characteristics in order to con- addition, pictorial maps of the W016’s form to the local terrain. No two forti- original gun slits have been preserved fications along the Kinmen coast share so visitors can look through them and the same spatial configuration. Spatial see mainland China. planning was done based on the char- Walking out of the tunnels, visitors acteristics of each specific location can appreciate the defensive charac- and tactical requirements, in order to teristics of coastal fortifications with maximize their ability to control the wide fields of view, and pay tribute to beach and the sea as well as to defend the two armies who clashed here in each position. Coastal fortifications 1949. retain specific characteristics repre- The Fort L036 is situated strategi- sentative of the defensive thinking cally on the northern coast of Lieyu prevalent during the era of cross-strait Island and faces Xiamen City on the confrontation, and their structures are Chinese coast. In order to control the testaments to modern military engi- beaches and maintain command over neering. Such sites should be viewed the sea, the site has 20 gun slits, 10 as exhibits representative of the Cold for rifles and 10 for machine guns. War era; their high degree of histori- The top of the building houses a cal and commemorative value makes lookout station and many temporary them worthy of preservation. gun slits14. Regeneration of the site However, the armed forces have has focused on reproducing the daily been drastically reduced in recent life and living environment of its mili- years and the sites given back to the tary days. Statues of soldiers in action public have been largely overlooked. have been placed in the barracks, Even though they are memorials to grain warehouse, armoury, and out- the Cold War, this lack of appreciation door drill ground so visitors can better highlights how much more work Kin- understand daily life for the soldiers. men needs to do in order to protect its In addition to static exhibitions on military heritage. Witnesses to cross- the history, spatial arrangement, and strait military conflicts and confronta- living conditions of the coastal mili- tion, as well as records of the unique tary facilities, there are plans to con- military culture during Kinmen’s mar- vert some sites with good views into tial law era, are also gradually disap- bird-watching spaces. For example, pearing with the shuttering of military

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Militage.book.indd 125 20.04.2018 19:18 camps. There is an urgent need to Strengthening preservation consider what actions to take in order and records of intangible assets to prevent this military heritage from Coastal fortifications have always been disappearing completely. on the front line of Taiwan’s defence against its opponent, and have more Proper understanding of the stories to tell than the military camps value of military heritage behind them. For example, some for- The people of Kinmen have suffered tifications along the northern coast fell decades of military control, and were into disuse because all of the troops forced to sacrifice many of their free- stationed there were killed; some suf- doms. This has included severe in- fered tragic accidental deaths. In the fringement of property rights, such past, other than the tensions of war as not receiving compensation when and harrowing military tales, there has someone was killed or when property been a lack of records and research was destroyed by artillery fire, as well into how the construction of camps as the military took private buildings and the planning of coastal fortifica- and land for their own use. After mar- tions reflect operational thinking for tial law was lifted, many of the elderly front line fortifications. This has led look back on these times as a neg- to a lack of basic information about ative, dark, and miserable period of the original designs for sites that have history and wish to destroy the sites been renovated and opened to the that invoke painful memories. This public; stories of the troops stationed mentality is the greatest obstacle to there are not readily available either. In preservation of Kinmen’s military her- order to preserve these sites, it is ad- itage. vantageous to strengthen the preser- From a world history point of view, vation and presentation of intangible the Cold War is an important part of assets in coastal fortifications by -col human history. The dark heritage here lecting historical data, recording oral preserves memories of a controversial histories, and analysing documents. time. Each site has its own story to tell. This will help highlight the value of the The aim of re-examining and preserv- fortifications as part of the military her- ing this legacy is not to stir up painful itage, and help them to act as tools for memories, but to help future gener- on-the-spot historical education. ations get a better understanding of the brutalities of war and the pain and Protection of the coastal envi- suffering their elders went through, so ronment that the mistakes of the past are never Coastal fortifications are surrounded repeated again. True understanding of by trees, vegetation, and buried land- the meaning behind military heritage mines to prevent the enemy from pen- means that this dark heritage can be etrating the borders. Many such fortifi- transformed into tools for positive edu- cations monitor the ocean using high cation, and symbols of humanity’s uni- vantage points or have low gun slits, so versal quest for peaceful coexistence. that artillery can be utilized with a high

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Militage.book.indd 126 20.04.2018 19:18 level of secrecy. However, since the be- nic areas. It is currently common prac- ginning of the 21st century, China has tice to preserve the remaining space started massive construction projects and structures, while minimizing the in its coastal cities. Much of the sand amount of new structures built, in or- and soil needed for these projects was der to protect a site’s original appear- dredged up illegally from the ocean ance. But the lack of systematic histor- floor; this has affected Kinmen’s shores ical data means that the site’s record as well. The destruction of coastal forti- of history, construction, and utilization fications due to tidal erosion is speed- cannot be properly presented to the ing up. The Kinmen coastline was de- public. A majority of facilities are pre- mined in 2012 and the dense growths sented as mere shells, and this makes of Australian pine and sisal have dis- it hard for visitors to truly appreciate appeared. Although other trees and the original coastal fortifications and vegetation have been planted, the their significance. coastline still lacks the proper amount Proper regeneration planning should of plant cover and soil to guard against include research into the site’s histo- erosion from the tides. ry and documents, which are used in In order to preserve the military her- turn as the basis for exhibition materi- itage, the relevant institutions should als such as descriptions of the original carry out proper maintenance (such as weapons and structures. This will en- reinforcement or repair) of structures sure that military camps are exhibited severely damaged by the receding alongside their corresponding weap- coastline and tidal waves, and con- ons and histories. The basic principle tinue to plant trees to combat further of reuse is to respect the structure, erosion. Strengthening the coastal original space, and authenticity of the environment and ecological manage- military heritage site. If a site lacks ment not only helps in the recovery quality context and historical interpre- of coastal vegetation, but also reduc- tations, the regeneration will become es damage to coastal encampments boring and lack depth. On the other and pillboxes. Proactive investigation hand, with excessive transformation, a and maintenance combined with for- space will lack a sense of history; new ward-thinking planning is necessary to structures improperly constructed will preserve such sites. also damage overall integrity and authenticity. Proper regeneration planning Take the case of the Lieyu Township and management L18 fortification site. The local govern- Coastal fortifications offer good views ment turned the facility into a recre- and are situated in unique terrain or ational site and devised its planning geological environments. They have from an entirely tourist attraction point a high degree of regeneration po- of view. Too many new structures and tential, and government departments facilities were added, which deprived have steadily singled them out to be the coastal fortifications of their sense converted into recreational and sce- of secrecy, oneness with the environ-

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Militage.book.indd 127 20.04.2018 19:18 ment, and authenticity. A lack of mili- much emphasis on restoring tangible tary and historical research damages a assets. There is a lack of both basic site’s military and operational history. research and information on individ- Therefore, planning should be based ual military, structural, and oral his- on the construction of basic historical tories. Too much emphasis on tourist materials, respect for actual history, requirements will lead to too many and a focus on education to avoid ex- new structures and reduce historical cessive or incorrect usage of sites. authenticity. In the face of threats to the coastal environment, recognition Conclusion of the coastal fortifications collectively During the Cold War, Kinmen played as a single cultural heritage site ought an important role in monitoring ac- to be considered. This opens them tivities along China’s south-eastern up to existing laws and protections coast and helped prevent the spread under Taiwan’s Cultural Heritage Pres- of Communism to the Pacific island ervation Act, and makes it possible to chains. In the face of overwhelming take proactive measures to halt further military force, Kinmen used the very damage. On a values-first basis, coop- rock it is made of - granite - to con- eration between NGOs, communities, struct a large number of underground governments, and academic institu- fortifications. In line with President tions will make it possible to devote Chiang Kai-shek’s directive of “con- more resources towards research and serving the fighting force under the conservation, and move toward sus- ground to unleash the firepower on tainable protection and development. the ground”, each base used the surrounding terrain and landscape to References create protection and develop under- [1] Ball, Simon J., The Cold War: An ground facilities. The densely pop- International History, 1947-1991. Ar- ulated pillboxes and barracks along nold: London, 2001. the Kinmen coast were the front line [2] Liu, Lee-hsuan., (ed.). The 1958 of coastal defence. They are emblem- Quemoy Crisis: An Oral History. atic of multi-level operational thinking Armed Force Museum: Taipei, 2009. during the Cold War, and retain a high (In Chinese) level of military and historical value. [ 3 ] http://www.kmdn.gov. Now, these sites have lost their orig- tw/1117/1271/1274/37739 inal functionality. Revitalizing, reusing, [4] Tseng, Yi-Jen., Military Sites Con- and preserving them through tourism servation and Regeneration in Taiwan, requires taking pains to preserve their Sustainable Regeneration of Former authenticity. The value of coastal mil- Military Sites. Routledge: London, itary heritage must be demonstrated 2016. by maintaining its structure, form, de- [5] Zheng, You-liang., A Brief Introduc- sign, function, environment, historical tion to the Management of Coastal documents, and other intangible cul- Fortifications. Cited in 2016 Call for tural assets. Obviously, current conser- Kinmen to Apply for World Heritage vation and regeneration planning for Status Project, Kinmen, 2016. Unpub- coastal fortifications have placed too lished Manuscript. (In Chinese)

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Militage.book.indd 128 20.04.2018 19:18 [6] Ding, Miao., A Study of Kinmen and Matsu’s Strategic Value and De- fense Programs, Chinese Navy, IX (8). Taipei, September 1955. (In Chinese) [7] Chen, Yun-Ju., The Study of Off- shore Defense Post at Nangan, Mat- su, In Period of Military Confrontation Between China and Taiwan. Depart- ment of Architecture, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Master’s Thesis, Taipei, 2010. (In Chi- nese) [8] Lee, Fujing., The Battle of Guning- tou: The People’s Perspective. Rice Paddy Publishing House: Taipei, 1999. (In Chinese) [9] Guan, An-bang., Causes and Ef- fects of the Battle of Guningtou, Army Bimonthly, 507. Ministry of National Defense: Taipei, 2009. (In Chinese) [10] Stronghold 103 Renovation Sum- mary. [11] Stronghold W-011 Renovation Summary, Army 7th Infantry Battalion Ban Chao Unit -- Ban Chao Unit, Kin- men Defense Command, 1984. [12] Military Affairs Bureau., Ministry of National Defense (editors), The Sea Battle of 823, National Army Military History Series, Vol. 4. Military Affairs Bureau, Ministry of National Defense: Taipei, 1998. (In Chinese) [13]http://www.kmnp.gov.tw/ct/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1322&Itemid=315 [14]http://www.kmnp.gov.tw/ct/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=910&Itemid=6

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Militage.book.indd 129 20.04.2018 19:18 The cultural reuse of the military site of Zsam- bek, former Soviet Air Defence Battalion near Budapest (Hungary)

István VARGA Architect-Conservator, National Institute and Army Museum Budapest, Hungary

The Soviet Army occupied Hungary in cultural function was developed, main- 1945, as part of the final attack against ly pushed ahead by enthusiast people the nazi German Reich. As we all know, and with minimal financial investment. the Soviets didn’t leave our country, On this 70 ha-s area at Zsambek, - but stayed for the next 46 years and ca. 20 km-s distance from the capital built up their own headquarters and city - was established a middle-range military sites, which were organized missile battalion, which was part of and managed completely separated the Soviet-Hungarian Ground Based from those of the Hungarian Army. In Air Defence System around Budapest, some cases, new and isolated small active from 1960 till 1992. The system towns had been built for the officers consisted of mixed SAM units, includ- and higher ranked experts, allowing ing the “NYEVA” (short-range mis- just the minimally needed contacts siles), the “VOLHOV” (middle-range between the Soviets and the Hungar- missiles) and the “VEGA” (long-range ian population. That was because the missiles) weapons. Soviet’s being here was more to pre- After a period of decay, the state vent or defeat a possible upraisal of owned land was given in the use of the occupied nations (as it happened the Zsambek Regional Tourist Office, in 1956), than to defend the socialist a non-profit organization set up by block from an eventual western attack. governmental and local authorities, After the withdrawal of the Soviet and – step by step - was shared into troops and their military equipment in two parts: a unique site for open air 1992, most of the sites used by them theatre and an open air military muse- –from large areas in the forests to a um – both open and active till today. lot of bad quality caserns and block of flats – were given back to the Hungari- The Museum of Air Defence an State. Only a few of these could be The Museum at Zsambek opened its used by the Hungarian army, so most doors to the visitors on 22 September of them were (and some still are) wait- 2006, with the help of the Ministry of ing for demolishing or maybe a new Defence and of the Military History In- function. stitute and Museum. The case of the special site in Zsam- The special Branch of Service Mu- bek is the only case, where a complex seum, the first of its kind in Hungary,

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Militage.book.indd 130 20.04.2018 19:18 is designed to illustrate the histo- air defence missile battalions which ry of Hungarian air defence through were capable of destroying enemy the equipment on display and also targets within the range of 500 0 m-s by other methods. The several hec- and 257 km-s, at altitudes within the tares area of the Air Defence Missile range of 200 m-s to 4000 m-s. Beside Battalion which used to be based not the weapons of the same type coming far from Budapest made it possible from the Hungarian Army, a large num- for the sizeable air defence assets to ber of additional technical equipment be exhibited. The change of regime, can also be found in the collection of the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the museum. The historic monument our NATO accession necessitated the includes the area of the former air transformation of our defence forces. defence battalion so visitors can see During this period battalions were the fortifications and other construc- disbanded, garrisons were replaced tions of a military installation of this and a lot of equipment was withdrawn kind from the second half of the 20th forms service, which could only be century including the command post, saved from decay by the establish- the sites of the two reconnaissance ra- ment of the Museum. dars, the sites of the six missile launch The Battalion at Zsambek was finally pads, the immediate reaction missile disbanded in 1992 and its abandoned shelters and other buildings and struc- area with its natural and historic assets tures. By now, 32 pieces of historic drew the attention of the Regional armed equipment are installed and Tourism Association. presented to the visitors. Many years after the first theatre The area, where the Museum was performances on the - then - aban- established, was the fighting area of doned site, upon the recommenda- the Air Defence Battalion. We can find tion of artists from all over the country here the main stages (command and and also local enthousiasts, it became control point), the centre of the bat- a protected historic monument in talion; two reconnaissance points for 2005, the first of that kind, and now it the RECCE equipment; six launcher is a 20th century memorial place, as a area for missiles and supplementary special element of the Hungarian for- parts. In the first part of the Museum tifications. In the line of our historical the standard technology of the period monuments it represents the fort of between 1977 and 1997 can be seen. modern times after our earth castles, In the radar-park of the Museum vis- medieval castles and 19th century for- itors can see the P-18, the P-19, the tresses. P-37 and the P-40 radars as well as Air defence missiles can be classified artillery pieces and missiles used by according to their effective ranges as the army air defence troops. A wide very short range (up to 5km), short range of equipment can be found range (5-30km), medium range (30- here including the V-750 training mis- 150km) and long range (over 150km). sile complete with a launch pad and From the 1960s to the mid-1990s the a transporter-loader vehicle, a UV system serving the defence of the air- cabin, the STRELA-10 missile system, space of Budapest consisted of mixed the ZSU-57/2 self-propelled gun, the

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Militage.book.indd 131 20.04.2018 19:18 ductions of various companies from Hungary and East Europe, the organizers became the local producer of their own performances. By now, on the site there are several open stages with mobil technical equipment, and aslo some closed stages in the large bunkers of the movable missiles, which forms now halls with 100 sqms stage and auditorium for over 150 persons. Till today, organizers collaborated with hundreds of artists from Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraina, Moldavia, Albania, Mongolia, Italy and Romania. Beside the internationally invited performances and on site built-up theatre performances, the Festival - with two persons professional staff backed by many enthousiast amateur collaborators - organizes concerts, workshops, Plan for new Cultural VOLHOV, KRUG, KUB, VEGA and exhibitions and conferences for (but Activities in the Dis- NEVA missile systems and a lot more not only for) professional, mainly missed Military Site of Zsámbék assets that played a determining role experimental theatre. Amongst the in the air defence of the abovemen- outstanding collaborating personal- tioned period. ities we can find Maia Morgensten, Beatrice Bleont, Silviu Purcarete, Ar- The Theatre Festival and Cul- pad Shilling and other directors of tural Base of Zsambek the young generation, staging their The festival of Zsambek was born experimental research works in Zsam- back in 1985, when Iren Matyas and bek. her partner artists first time invited The philosophy of Zsambeki Festival avant-garde theatre performances lays on the principle “fuori le mure”: to the open air places of this lovely theatre in the inspiring environments small town situated among the hills for the performances, in the under- around Budapest. In 1995, when the ground bunkers and open air plat- coming public overgrow the parks forms for launching missiles. In 2004, and sites in the town, the small - but the Festival was project leader in a already international - Festival moved European Cultura 2000 program. to the neglected military site of the And here I personally, but in the former Soviet Ground Based Air De- name of the organizers, I want to fence and started to use the strange express our gratitude towards the military elements – bunkers, launch- Norwegian people, because some ing pads and buildings - as their open projects were partly financed by the air stage. Inviting numberless pro- Norway Grant.

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Militage.book.indd 132 20.04.2018 19:18 Nature Park Finally I have to mention the third element of the Cultural Base of Zsam- bek, which could be a Nature Park. The protecting area and one third of the 70 hectars military site is still not used, and should be cleaned and re- furbished to be a lovely natural forest area for the general public. But this project yet has not the needed background. The main danger to this cultural site, by now, is the interest of investors: the site is very suitable for new hotels and recreation camps. As a final conclusion, we can say that the use of the Zsambek Military Site is a unique, but also characteristic result of the human and social forces active during the transitional period of Hun- gary, when upraising public interest, the off-spring of local enthusiasm and the lack of private investments made possible to create this exceptional Cultural Experiment.

See more: www.zsambekinyariszinhaz. hu and www.legvedelmimuzeum.hu

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