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The Pennsylvania State University the Graduate School The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts URBAN POPULATION DYNAMICS IN A PREINDUSTRIAL NEW WORLD CITY: MORBIDITY, MORTALITY, AND IMMIGRATION IN POSTCLASSIC CHOLULA A Dissertation in Anthropology by Meggan M. Bullock Kreger © 2010 Meggan M. Bullock Kreger Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2010 The dissertation of Meggan M. Bullock Kreger was reviewed and approved* by the following: Kenneth Hirth Professor of Anthropology Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee George Milner Professor of Anthropology James W. Wood Professor of Anthropology and Demography Brian Hesse Professor of Anthropology, Jewish Studies, and Ancient Mediterranean Studies Director of the Jewish Studies Program Nina Jablonski Professor of Anthropology Head of the Department of Anthropology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii ABSTRACT It has long been argued that preindustrial cities were unhealthy environments that facilitated the transmission of infectious disease. As a result, Early Modern London and other Old World cities were assumed to have had such high mortality rates that deaths greatly surpassed births, resulting in negative intrinsic population growth. Consequently, preindustrial cities were believed to be ―population sinks‖ dependent on immigration from rural areas to increase in size. While this vision of preindustrial cities has gained widespread acceptance, it has not gone unchallenged, on both theoretical and evidentiary grounds. The current investigation contributes to this debate by examining urban population dynamics in the prehispanic New World urban center of Cholula, Puebla. New World cities differed significantly from those of the Old World, not just in terms of their epidemiological environments, but also in terms of their social, political, and economic organization. A paleodemographic and paleopathological study of 309 Postclassic human skeletons from Cholula was combined with strontium and oxygen isotope analyses in order to characterize morbidity, mortality, and immigration to this prehispanic Mesoamerican city. Several new methodological approaches, including the use of transition analysis, a parametric model of mortality, and a multistate model of health were incorporated into the paleodemographic and paleopathological analyses. Strontium and oxygen isotope studies allowed immigrants in the population to be identified so that their impact on demographic processes in Cholula could be considered. The results of this investigation suggest that the cultural and epidemiological environments of Cholula contributed to the formation of urban demographic patterns in this New World city that differed from those observed in the Old World. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………viii LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………....xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………………...xiii CHAPTER I: CULTURAL EVOLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH………………………1 The Anthropological Debate……………………………………………………………....3 The original affluent society..…………………………………………………......3 The transition to agriculture…………………………………………………….....5 The urban revolution……………………………………………………………....6 Challenges to the Theory……………………………………………………………….....8 The evidence…………………………………………………………………........8 The theoretical foundation…………………………………………………….....10 The Current Investigation………………………………………………………..............13 The Organization of the Current Study………………………………………………......18 CHAPTER II: URBAN POPULATION DYNAMICS IN PREINDUSTRIAL OLD WORLD CITIES……………………………………………………………………………….21 Early Studies of Mortality in Cities……………………………………………………...22 Reconstructing Life and Death Using Parish Records…………………………………..23 Population Dynamics in Preindustrial Old World Cities………………………………...27 Natural Decrease in Early Modern Cities………………………………………………..30 Mortality in Preindustrial Cities………………………………………………………….33 Infant and childhood mortality…………………………………………………...33 Adult mortality…………………………………………………………………...38 Fertility in Preindustrial Cities…………………………………………………………...39 Immigration………………………………………………………………………………40 Living Conditions in Preindustrial Cities………………………………………………..43 What Can We Conclude about Population Dynamics in Preindustrial Cities?.................45 CHAPTER III: THE NEW WORLD CITY OF CHOLULA………………………………47 Geography and Climate………………………………………………………………….48 The Prehistory of Cholula in Brief……………………………………………………….52 The Political and Social Organization of Cholula……………………………………….63 The altepetl…………………………………………………………………….....63 Social organization……………………………………………………………….68 Cholula as a Market Center………………………………………………………………76 Cholula as a Religious Center……………………………………………………………77 Not All Preindustrial Cities are Created Equal…………………………………………..78 Mesoamerican urbanism………………………………………………………....78 Cholula in Comparison to Preindustrial Old World Cities………………………………85 iv Water contamination……………………………………………………………..86 Sewage…………………………………………………………………………...88 Garbage disposal…………………………………………………………………89 Markets…………………………………………………………………………..91 Traders and pilgrims……………………………………………………………..93 CHAPTER IV: THE CHOLULA OSTEOLOGICAL SAMPLE………………………….95 Provenience of the Cholula Osteological Sample………………………………………..96 Preservation Biases……………………………………………………………………..102 Underrepresentation of infants………………………………………………….102 Special mortuary treatments……………………………………………………103 CHAPTER V: RECONSTRUCTING THE PALEODEMOGRAPHY OF CHOLULA..118 A Crash Course in Traditional Paleodemographic Methodology………………………119 Paleodemographic Age-at-Death Distributions………………………………………...121 Age determination in skeletal remains………………………………………….121 Paleodemographic age-at-death distributions and the principle of uniformitarianism……………………………………………………………….123 Reconstructing mortality in skeletal assemblages……………………………...127 Estimating the age-at-death distribution………………………………………..130 Parametric models of mortality…………………………………………………134 The Paleodemography of Cholula……………………………………………………...137 The Siler Model Applied……………………………………………………….............154 Infant and Childhood Mortality………………………………………………………..159 Young Adult Mortality…………………………………………………………………164 Male and Female Mortality……………………………………………………………..167 A Word about Nonstationarity………………………………………………………….171 A Word about Fertility………………………………………………………………….172 CHAPTER VI: A PALEOPATHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CHOLULA……………174 Inherent Problems of Interpreting Pathological Lesions in Skeletal Remains…………175 Sensitivity and specificity………………………………………………………175 The paradoxical nature of skeletal lesions……………………………………...176 Hidden heterogeneity…………………………………………………………..177 Selective mortality……………………………………………………………...177 Responses to the Osteological Paradox………………………………………………...180 Proposed Solutions to the Osteological Paradox……………………………………….182 Pathological Lesions in the Cholula Assemblage………………………………………186 Porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia………………………………………..186 Enamel hypoplasias…………………………………………………………….196 Proliferative lesions…………………………………………………………….204 CHAPTER VII: MIGRATION IN PREHISPANIC MESOAMERICA………………….217 Possible Explanations for Low Mortality in Young Adults…………………………….218 The lack of epidemic diseases…………………………………………………..218 The scale of migration and the demographic characteristics of immigrants…...219 v What is an Immigrant?………………………………………………………………….221 Temporary Immigrants and Visitors to the City………………………………………..223 Pilgrims…………………………………………………………………………223 Merchants and vendors…………………………………………………………226 Rotational labor obligations…………………………………………………….227 Group Migrations……………………………………………………………………….227 Accounts of population origins………………………………………………....228 War and natural disasters……………………………………………………….233 Established colonies…………………………………………………………….234 Ethnic barrios…………………………………………………………………...234 Individual Migrations…………………………………………………………………...238 Political motivations……………………………………………………………239 Marriage………………………………………………………………………...239 Economic factors……………………………………………………………….243 Slavery………………………………………………………………………….245 Migration in old age…………………………………………………………….246 Isotopic evidence of individual migrations……………………………………..246 How would Immigrants have been Received in Cholula?...............................................247 CHAPTER VIII: STRONTIUM AND OXYGEN ISOTOPE ANALYSES………………250 The Study of Migration through Strontium and Oxygen Isotopes……………………..251 Strontium isotopes……………………………………………………………...251 Oxygen isotopes………………………………………………………………..254 Isotopic Studies of Migration in Mesoamerica…………………………………………255 Sampling Procedure…………………………………………………………………….258 Tooth enamel…………………………………………………………………...258 Bone……………………………………………………………………………258 Sampling strategy………………………………………………………………259 Analysis of samples…………………………………………………………….261 Limitations and Confounding Factors………………………………………………….262 Limitations common to both strontium and oxygen isotopes…………………..262 Problems associated with strontium isotope analysis…………………………..264 Problems associated with oxygen isotope analysis……………………………..265 Results of Isotopic Analysis…………………………………………………………….266 Variation in the sample…………………………………………………………266 Variation by tooth type…………………………………………………………271 Identifying local values…………………………………………………………274 What Do the Results Suggest about Immigration to Cholula?…………………………285 The scale of immigration to Postclassic Cholula……………………………….285 Mortuary contexts of potentially nonlocal individuals…………………………286 Characteristics of Possible Immigrants…………………………………………………287 Temporal differences…………………………………………………………...287 The demographic characteristics
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