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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Los Angeles UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Diminished Hopes: The United States and the United Nations During the Truman Years A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Melvin Stanton Lebe 2012 © Copyright by Melvin Stanton Lebe 2012 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Diminished Hopes: The United States and the United Nations During the Truman Years By Melvin Stanton Lebe Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2012 Professor Geoffrey Robinson, Co-Chair Professor Jessica Wang, Co-Chair ii This dissertation explores the relationship between the United States and the newly founded United Nations during the presidency of Harry S. Truman. Research for this dissertation consisted primarily of the examination of official documents collected and published by the U.S. Government Printing Office in the series entitled Foreign Relations of the United States, as well as the examination of documents found at the United Nations Archive, New York, New York, the Truman Library, Independence, Missouri, and the U.S. National Archive, College Park, Maryland, as well as on various websites. Additional research consisted of the examination of news articles and opinion pieces published in selected newspapers during the relevant period. This study found that throughout the Truman presidency the United States maintained an internationalist posture of engagement vis-à-vis the United Nations, but that, under the pressure of the Cold War, the kind of internationalism embodied in U.S. policy at the UN changed from a cooperative, optimistic, Wilsonian internationalism as written into the UN Charter to a much more hard-headed, nationalistic, combative internationalism. In the process, the U.S. government backed various policies which undercut certain underlying UN principles, such as universality of membership and unanimity of “Great Power” permanent members in the Security Council, and as a result weakened the United Nations. Throughout the period the United States enjoyed substantial majority support in the UN Security Council and General Assembly, but in order to maintain that support American policy had to take into consideration, and at various times was modified by, the attitudes of allies and other governments of various middle-level and neutralist powers. American attitudes, both within government and among the public, changed iii over the course of Truman’s presidency, from initial optimism to considerable disappointment, but at no time during Truman’s presidency did the U.S. government or the American public desire to give up on the United Nations. iv The dissertation of Melvin Stanton Lebe is approved. Edward A. Alpers Joan Waugh Jonathan Zasloff Geoffrey Robinson, Committee Co-Chair Jessica Wang, Committee Co-Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2012 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page Copyright Page Abstract of the Dissertation ii Committee Page v Table of Contents vi Table of Abbreviations vii Vita viii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 31 Chapter 2 82 Chapter 3 137 Chapter 4 198 Chapter 5 266 Conclusion 352 Bibliography 359 vi TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS CIA Central Intelligence Agency EAM National Liberation Front NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NSC National Security Council PPS Policy Planning Staff PRC People’s Republic of China ROK Republic of Korea UN United Nations UNCFI United Nations Commission for Indonesia UNCOK United Nations Commission on Korea UNTCOK United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea USI United States of Indonesia POW Prisoner of War vii VITA 1957 B.S., Accounting University of California, Los Angeles 1960 L.L.B., Law University of California, Los Angeles, School of Law 2004 M.A., History University of California, Los Angeles viii DIMINISHED HOPES: THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED NATIONS DURING THE TRUMAN YEARS INTRODUCTION In the waning days of the Second World War the Allies met in San Francisco to draft a charter for a new United Nations Organization. The war was almost won, and the United Nations embodied hopes for world peace. U.S. Government officials shared that hope and enthusiastically supported the creation of the UN.1 Thirteen days before the planned opening of the San Francisco conference in April 1945 Franklin Roosevelt died and was replaced as president by Harry S. Truman. On the very day Truman took his oath of office, he responded without hesitation to press enquiries by stating that the conference would go forward as scheduled—his first decision as president. He later wrote that “it was of supreme importance that we build an organization to help keep the future peace of the world.”2 1 That enthusiasm, however, was not shared by all observers. See, for example, Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: the End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2009), 6-10; George Kennan, an important foreign policy expert of the era, certainly was not enthusiastic—see George F. Kennan, Memoir, 1925-1950 (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1967), 219-220; notwithstanding Truman’s enthusiasm he was aware, even before the San Francisco conference, of serious problems with the Soviet Union. Secretary of State Stettinius reported to Truman that he proposed to advise the Soviet government that the United States was “determined to proceed with the plans for the world organization, no matter what difficulties or differences may arise in regard to other matters,” but that the dispute over the formation of a Polish government “will cast a serious doubt upon our unity of purpose in regard to post-war collaboration.” Truman authorized Stettinius to so advise the Soviet government. “Memorandum for the President,” April 23, 1945; PSF: Subject File, 1940-1953; PSF: Subject File, Foreign Affairs, Russia: General: 1945-1948 [1 of 4]; Truman Papers, Truman Library. 2 Harry S. Truman, Memoirs of Harry S. Truman: Years of Decisions (New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1955; Da Capo Press paperback edition, 1955), 9. 1 The creation of the United Nations, which was soon to follow, marked a critical juncture in American history. Having refused to join the League of Nations after the First World War and chosen instead a path of relative isolationism, the United States was now proudly and enthusiastically about to become a founding member of the United Nations. The relationship between the United States and the United Nations during its crucial formative years poses important questions for the historian: How in fact would the U.S. government interact with the UN and its member states? How would different elements of the U.S. government—the State Department and its various bureaus and officers, the military establishment, the diplomatic mission at the UN, and the President himself, compete for authority and control of U.S. policy at the UN? What effect would U.S. policy have on the new organization and, conversely, what effect would the United Nations and its various member states have on U.S. policy? How long would the new American commitment to internationalism last and what sort of internationalism would it turn out to be? Finally, would the new international organization prove capable of limiting international violence? This work explores those questions. It is an account of the relationship between the United States and the United Nations during the Truman presidency— the first seven years of the United Nation’s existence – a subject on which the historical literature has been oddly silent. I focus here on what I take to be the main purpose of the United Nations, as the historical actors viewed it at the time: the preservation of international peace. This is not to say that other purposes of the UN were and are not of great importance; but I do argue that the U.S. policy- makers involved in helping to create the UN, in “managing” U.S. entry into that body, and in shaping U.S. policy towards the new United Nations all viewed avoidance of a third world war as the chief raison d’être for the new organization. With that in mind, I examine five case 2 studies that were critically important to the success or failure of the United Nations’ mission to preserve international peace: Chapter 1 considers the issues of UN membership and voting rights, beginning in January 1946 when the Soviet Union nominated a client state, Albania, for membership. Membership issues as well as disputes about Soviet reliance on the veto continued throughout Truman’s presidency. Chapter 2 looks at trouble-spots in Iran and Greece. In January 1946 Iran brought to the Security Council the refusal of the Soviet Union to remove its military forces from Iran, which removal was finally accomplished through UN diplomacy by the end of May 1946. In February 1946 the Soviet Union brought to the Security Council the presence of the British army in Greece fighting on the side of the rightist government against leftist insurgents. The United Nations continued its involvement with the civil war in Greece until December 1951. Chapter 3 examines the war of independence in Indonesia, beginning with a Ukrainian request for Security Council action regarding British troops fighting against nationalist forces in Indonesia. UN involvement with the fighting there continued until Indonesian independence in December 1949. Chapter 4 addresses “nation-building” efforts in Korea. After the breakdown of U.S.-Soviet efforts to impose a UN trusteeship on Korea, the U.S. government turned to nation-building in South Korea, and in September 1947 the United States brought to the General Assembly the issue of independence for Korea. Finally, Chapter 5 deals with war on the Korean peninsula, when the Security Council met on June 25, 1950 at U.S. request after an all-out invasion from North Korea into South Korea. The issue of the Korean War continued in the United Nations throughout (and after) the remainder of the Truman presidency.
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