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Wildlife Crime and Other Challenges to Resource System Resilience

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Wildlife Crime and Other Challenges to Resource System Resilience Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations Graduate Program in International Studies Fall 2015 Wildlife Crime and Other Challenges to Resource System Resilience Patricia Anne Raxter Old Dominion University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds Part of the African Studies Commons, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons, and the Natural Resources Management and Policy Commons Recommended Citation Raxter, Patricia A.. "Wildlife Crime and Other Challenges to Resource System Resilience" (2015). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, International Studies, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/8dxn-x142 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds/3 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Program in International Studies at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 1 WILDLIFE CRIME AND OTHER CHALLENGES TO RESOURCE SYSTEM RESILIENCE by Patricia A. Raxter B.A. December 1997, Old Dominion University M.A. May 2007, Old Dominion University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY December 2015 Approved by: ______________________ David C. Earnest (Director) ______________________ Steve A. Yetiv (Member) ______________________ Angelica Huizar (Member) 2 ABSTRACT WILDLIFE CRIME AND OTHER CHALLENGES TO RESOURCE SYSTEM RESILIENCE Patricia A. Raxter Old Dominion University, 2015 Director: Dr. David Earnest Although wildlife crime has exploded in Africa over the past decade —“commercial poaching” now kills an estimated eight percent of the continent’s elephant population each year—some governments have proven more successful than others at protecting wildlife and preserving habitats. To explain this variation, this study examines how the policies of three states (Kenya, Tanzania, and Botswana) have enhanced or undermined the resilience of the continent’s elephant ecosystem. Using the social- ecological system framework, the study illustrates how each state’s changing practices have either exacerbated the stresses wrought by wildlife crime or successfully protected local populations from poaching. The study finds that monocausal explanations cannot explain social-ecological systems outcomes. Cross-level and cross-scale dynamics, including temporal, geospatial, epistemological, and institutional linkages, explain variation in system functionality. These dynamics include colonial policies, governance practices, the international conservation community, and resource use decisions. iii © Copyright, 2015, by Patricia A. Raxter, All Rights Reserved iv For my Dad v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. David Earnest, for his patience, encouragement, support, and considerate and detailed feedback. I would also like to thank Dr. Steve Yetiv for his continuous engagement, interest, and advice, all of which I deeply value. And I would like to thank Dr. Angelica Huizar for her valuable input, encouragement, and kind words. And lastly, I would like to recognize the considerable help and support of Wiebke Lamer, without whom this dissertation would not be complete. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... x Chapter Page 1. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION ............................................ 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 13 Individual Level Factors .................................................................................. 15 Poaching and Relative Wealth .................................................................... 15 Increased Demand ...................................................................................... 18 Community Level Explanations ....................................................................... 20 Conservation Norms .................................................................................... 20 State Level Explanations................................................................................. 25 Weak Governance ....................................................................................... 25 Wildlife and Land Management ................................................................... 28 Transnational Explanations ............................................................................. 32 CITES Trade Ban ........................................................................................ 32 International-Level Explanations ..................................................................... 36 Neo-Liberal Trade Policies .......................................................................... 36 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 42 3. RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................................................... 44 Social-Ecological Systems .............................................................................. 44 Framework for Analysis................................................................................... 46 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................... 54 Measuring SES Outcomes .............................................................................. 56 Measurements and Variables ......................................................................... 60 Resource Units ............................................................................................ 60 Resource Systems ...................................................................................... 63 Users ........................................................................................................... 64 Governance Systems .................................................................................. 65 Why Case Studies .......................................................................................... 66 4. THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM ............................. 76 Interactions ..................................................................................................... 77 Jurisdiction/Geographic Mismatches and Collective Action Implications for Enforcement at the International Level .................................. 80 Challenges to Resource Monitoring across Geographic and Jurisdictional Scales ....................................................................................... 86 Challenges to Funding Conservation across a Geographically Expansive SES ............................................................................................... 89 Cultural Diversity Challenge and Heterogeneity in the SES ............................ 92 vii Chapter Page The Precautionary Principle and CITES’ Failure to Recognize Scale and Level Dynamics ............................................................................ 102 Short Term Gains to Resource Utilization ..................................................... 105 The SES as an Open Access System ........................................................... 108 Roving Bandits in the Open Access African Elephant SES........................... 112 Shifts in Governance and Usage Patterns .................................................... 117 Non-Governmental Organizations and the Management of Wildlife Resources ..................................................................................... 117 Increased Awareness of the Globality of the SES ..................................... 120 New Institutions to Address Segments of the SES .................................... 124 Social-Ecological System Performance ..................................................... 129 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 132 5. KENYA ......................................................................................................... 136 Problem Statement ....................................................................................... 136 The Resource System and Resource Units .................................................. 140 The Social System: Governance System and Resource Users .................... 145 Colonial Era Governance .......................................................................... 146 Land Use Legislation .................................................................................... 148 Post-Colonial Wildlife Management .............................................................. 151 Current Governances Structures .................................................................. 153 Challenges within Governance Authorities.................................................... 157 Wildlife Legislation Failures ....................................................................... 157 Structural Weakness in the KWS .............................................................. 162 Distrust and Criticism of Conservation NGOs ............................................ 164 Resource
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