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51338916.Pdf UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE Faculté de génie Département de génie mécanique Croissance de matériaux et structures semiconductrices appliqués aux cellules photovoltaïques à très haute concentration par épitaxie par jets chimiques. Thèse de doctorat Spécialité : génie mécanique Bernard PAQUETTE Jury : Richard ARÈS (directeur) Michel GENDRY Simon FAFARD Julien SYLVESTRE Sherbrooke (Québec) Canada Janvier 2015 RÉSUMÉ L’énergie solaire est une source d’énergie renouvenable, peu polluante, disponible univer- sellement et abondante. Elle est donc une solution de choix pour résoudre les problèmes énergétiques et environnementaux de l’humanité. Cependant, les panneaux solaires cou- ramment utilisés pour transformer l’énergie solaire en électricité sont encore trop dis- pendieux pour une utilisation répandue. L’utilisation de lumière concentrée se veut une méthode de réduire les coûts de l’électricité produite, mais cette réduction n’est pas encore atteinte. Ce projet propose d’explorer des matériaux et des structures semiconductrices fabriqués par épitaxie par jets chimiques qui pourraient être utilisés dans des cellules solaires op- timisées pour la très haute concentration. En premier lieu, plusieurs designs de cellules solaires sont simulés avec une approche multiphysique pour identifier des structures per- mettant de minimiser les coûts de l’électricité à travers une maximisation du facteur de concentration. Basé sur ces structures de cellules solaires, plusieurs designs de jonctions tunnels sont simulés et une jonction tunnel standard (GaAs :Te/AlGaAs :C) est choisie. Le GaAs dopé au Te présente un problème de morphologie de surface à haut dopage. Ce problème est étudié et éliminé à travers l’optimisation des conditions de croissance. Dans le cas de l’AlGaAs dopé au C, le niveau de dopage est maximisé à travers l’utilisation d’un précurseur chimique qui n’est pas utilisé en CBE, le TMA. Suite à l’optimisation de ces deux matériaux, des jonctions tunnels avec d’excellentes performances sont crûes. Par la suite, une tentative de croissance de jonction tunnel GaInP/AlGaAs avec des boîtes quantiques en InAs permet d’améliorer le courant tunnel par rapport à une jonction tun- nel sans boîtes, mais sans atteindre des performances satisfaisantes pour l’inclusion dans une cellule solaire. Ensuite, un matériau alternatif pouvant servir de jonction p-n dans les structures de cellules solaires, le GaInAsP, est caractérisé par photoluminescence pour explorer l’effet des paramètres de croissance sur la séparation de phase et l’influence de cette séparation sur les propriétés du matériau. On en découvre qu’une forte séparation de phase induit la présence d’états localisés sous le bandgap qui affecterait les performances d’une cellule solaire. Ensuite, il est démontré que le dopage de type n idéal est le Te alors que celui de type p est au Zn. Cependant, les temps de vie obtenus pour le GaInAsP dopé n ou p sont très bas et donneraient de mauvaises performances de cellules solaires. Ces temps de vie sont néamoins meilleurs que ceux obtenus pour l’AlGaAs, l’alternative au GaInAsP. Mots-clés : Épitaxie par jets chimiques, quaternaire, photovoltaïque, concentration, In- GaAsP, AlGaAs, jonctions tunnels i REMERCIEMENTS Je remercie mon superviseur, Richard Arès, sans qui ce projet n’aurait pas été réalisé. Son ouverture et son enthousiasme ont été un support essentiel. Je voudrais remercier aussi : Jihene Zribi pour son amitié et son aide tout au long de mon doctorat. Éric Breton, sans qui le réacteur d’épitaxie n’aurait pas été fonctionnel. Toute l’équipe de salle blanche, pour leur aide avec la fabrication et la caractérisation. Et finalement, je remercie Mélinda Duplessis pour son support. iii TABLE DES MATIÈRES 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 L’énergie solaire ................................. 1 1.2 Fabrication des cellules ............................. 3 1.2.1 La croissance CBE ........................... 4 1.3Projetderecherche............................... 5 1.3.1 Objectif ................................. 5 1.4 Organisation du document . .......................... 5 2 ETAT DE L’ART 7 2.1 Cellule solaire .................................. 7 2.1.1 Semi-conducteurs ............................ 7 2.1.2 Jonction p-n ............................... 8 2.2 Cellules multijonctions ............................. 13 2.2.1 Concentration .............................. 14 2.2.2 La triple jonction classique ....................... 17 2.3 Jonctions tunnel ................................ 17 2.4 Designs de cellules multijonctions ....................... 20 2.5 Matériaux .................................... 23 2.5.1 AlGaAs ................................. 23 2.5.2 GaInAsP ................................. 26 2.5.3 GaAs :Te ................................ 35 3 MÉTHODES EXPÉRIMENTALES 37 3.1HRXRD..................................... 37 3.2AFM....................................... 41 3.3 Effet Hall .................................... 44 3.4 Photoluminescence ............................... 48 3.5 Photoluminescence résolue en temps ..................... 49 3.6 Croissance CBE ................................. 54 3.6.1 Croissance épitaxiale .......................... 54 3.6.2 CBE ................................... 54 4 DESIGN DE CELLULE 61 4.1 Simulation .................................... 61 4.1.1 Avant-Propos .............................. 61 4.1.2 Novel multijunction solar cell design for low cost, high concentration systems ................................. 62 4.2 Conclusion .................................... 77 5 JONCTIONS TUNNEL 79 5.1 Design de jonction tunnel ........................... 79 v vi TABLE DES MATIÈRES 5.1.1 Cadre théorique ............................. 79 5.1.2 Résultats ................................ 84 5.2GaAsdopéTe.................................. 92 5.2.1 Avant-propos .............................. 92 5.2.2 Inhibition of Te surfactant effect on surface morphology of heavily Te-dopedGaAs............................. 93 5.2.3 Complément ............................... 105 5.3 AlGaAs ..................................... 111 5.3.1 Avant-propos .............................. 111 5.3.2 Optimization of p-doping in AlGaAs grown by CBE using TMA for AlGaAs/GaAs tunnel junctions .................... 112 5.4 Complément d’analyse ............................. 122 5.5 Jonctions tunnel GaInP ............................ 123 5.6 Conclusion .................................... 130 6 GaInAsP 131 6.1 Caractérisation d’états localisés par photoluminescence ........... 131 6.1.1 Avant-propos .............................. 131 6.1.2 Observation of localized states in phase separated GaInAsP grown onGaAs................................. 132 6.2Dopage......................................147 6.2.1 Type p .................................. 147 6.2.2 Type n .................................. 150 6.3 Propriétés des porteurs minoritaires ...................... 155 7 CONCLUSION 159 7.1 Sommaire .................................... 159 7.2 Perspectives ................................... 161 LISTE DES RÉFÉRENCES 163 LISTE DES FIGURES 2.1 Diagramme de bande pour une jonction p-n en GaAs avec des concentra- tions de trous (bord p) et d’électrons (bord n) de 1×1018 cm−3. La ligne pointillée représente le niveau de Fermi. .................... 9 2.2 Jonction de la figure 2.1 avec un voltage appliqué. .............. 10 2.3 Schématisation d’une jonction p-n sous illumination et avec aucun voltage appliqué. Les quasis-niveaux de Fermis sont indiqués par les lignes pointillées. 12 2.4 Courbe J-V typique de cellule solaire. Reprinted with permission from [Bert- ness et al., 1994b]. Copyright 1994, AIP Publishing LLC. .......... 12 2.5 Illustration des différentes sources de résistance dans une cellule solaire multijonction. Reprinted from [Nishioka et al., 2006], with permission from Elsevier. ..................................... 15 2.6 Efficacité d’une cellule triple-jonction GaInP/GaAs/Ge en fonction de la température de la cellule. Figure tirée de [Nishioka et al., 2002] © 2002 IEEE. ...................................... 16 2.7 Diagramme de bande d’une jonction tunnel p+/p++/n++/n+. Le niveau de Fermi est illustré par la ligne pointillée en rouge. ............. 18 2.8 Courbe I-V typique d’une jonction tunnel. .................. 18 2.9 Liste de structures proposées par Spectrolab pour améliorer l’efficacité des cellules solaires multijonctions. Figure tirée de [King et al., 2012]. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ....................... 22 2.10 Énergie libre de Gibbs par mole en fonction de la composition pour un alliage ternaire quelconque. Le cas 1 présente un alliage stable, car la sépa- ration de phase augmente l’énergie libre de Gibbs alors que le cas 2 présente un alliage instable. ............................... 27 2.11 Courbes spinodales pour l’alliage GaxIn1−xAs1−yPy selon les données de [Onabe, 1982]. La ligne noire représente l’accord de maille avec le GaAs et chacun des contours représente un saut de 100°C. .............. 28 2.12 Image TEM d’une couche de GaInAsP montrant une séparation de phase. La structure typique en colonne est visible. Copyright [Ono et Takemi, 2008] 2008 The Japan Society of Applied Physics. ................. 31 2.13 Composition x et y de l’alliage GaxIn1−xAs1−yPy en accord de maille avec le GaAs pour obtenir le bandgap souhaité. .................. 34 2.14 Illustration des coefficients de collage downstep (k-), où l’adatome descend d’une terrasse et s’incorpore au pied de la marche descendante, et upstep (k+), où l’adatome s’incorpore au pied
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