......

101 101

with with

the the German German Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah, Haskalah, which which indeed indeed is is our our approach, approach, whereas whereas the the other other

emerged emerged in in the the historiography historiography of of Haskalah. Haskalah. One One stream stream has has identified identified the the beginnings beginnings

Hebrew Hebrew

letters. letters. Two Two main main theories theories on on the the beginning beginning of of modern modern Hebrew Hebrew literature literature have have

certain certain

writer, writer, or or group group of of writers, writers, may may be be said said to to have have started started the the modern modern trends trends in in

and and Jewish Jewish

history history have have debated debated the the criteria criteria for for discerning discerning modernity modernity and and whether whether a a

literature literature is is often often discussed discussed in in this this context. context. Haskalah Haskalah scholars scholars in in both both Hebrew Hebrew literature literature

The The question question of of setting setting a a date date and and place place for for the the beginning beginning of of modern modern Hebrew Hebrew

introduce introduce changes changes in in Jewish Jewish culture culture was was coupled coupled with with loyalty loyalty to to the the Hebrew Hebrew heritage. heritage.

lighteners, lighteners,

who who in in general general were were more more radical-had radical-had one one thing thing in in common: common: their their desire desire to to

ment ment

scale, scale, the the Hebrew Hebrew enlighteners-as enlighteners-as distinguished distinguished from from the the German-Jewish German-Jewish en­

enlighteners enlighteners to to the the more more moderate moderate ones. ones. Regardless Regardless of of their their position position on on the the Enlighten­

Haskalah's Haskalah's facets, facets, factions, factions, and and voices voices were were many, many, and and they they varied varied from from the the extreme extreme

Mendelssohn's Mendelssohn's definition definition of of Judaism Judaism and and its its relations relations to to the the surrounding surrounding culture. culture.

they they

were were united united in in their their aim aim to to enlighten enlighten their their Jewish Jewish brethren brethren and and leaned leaned heavily heavily on on

nents nents did did not not have have a a single, single, unified unified view view on on how how to to implement implement their their goal. goal. Nevertheless, Nevertheless,

ously ously in in a a state state of of formation, formation, this this ideology ideology lacked lacked a a systematized systematized code, code, and and its its propo­

Jewish Jewish philosophy philosophy on on the the other, other, its its ideology ideology may may be be characterized characterized as as eclectic. eclectic. Continu­

original. original. Drawing Drawing from from European European Enlightenment Enlightenment on on the the one one hand hand and and from from medieval medieval

The The ideas ideas and and ideals ideals of of Haskalah Haskalah were were neither neither totally totally innovative innovative nor nor completely completely

decline decline in in the the authority authority of of the the rabbinate. rabbinate.

breakdown breakdown

in in the the structure structure of of the the Kehillah Kehillah (the (the organized organized Jewish Jewish community), community), and and a a

the the wake wake

of of inner inner strife strife within within Jewish Jewish society society resulting resulting from from messianic messianic movements, movements, a a

certainly certainly

also also an an answer answer to to a a great great need need within within the the Jewish Jewish society society for for change. change. It It came came in in

Jewish Jewish

response response to to the the new new spirit spirit generated generated by by the the European European Enlightenment, Enlightenment, yet yet it it was was

European European

scene scene as as a a reaction reaction to to both both external external and and internal internal forces. forces. Undoubtedly, Undoubtedly, it it was was a a

From From a a historical historical perspective, perspective, Haskalah Haskalah can can be be said said to to have have emerged emerged on on the the

Jewish Jewish history history and and started started the the modern modern trends trends in in Hebrew Hebrew letters. letters.

writers. writers.

Through Through their their literary literary endeavor, endeavor, these these writers writers ushered ushered in in the the modern modern era era in in

also also served served

as as an an organ organ that that published published the the literary literary works works produced produced by by its its circle circle of of

concerted concerted

effort effort to to effect effect a a cultural cultural revolution revolution among among Jews Jews in in Germany Germany and and elsewhere. elsewhere. It It

became became the the ideological ideological mouthpiece mouthpiece of of a a literary literary and and cultural cultural movement movement that that beg!!_Q_,a beg!!_Q_,a

just just a a literary literary journal journal patterned patterned after after the the contemporary contemporary morality morality weeklies. weeklies. The The journal journal

erer), erer),

however, however, published published during during the the periods periods 1783-96 1783-96 and and 1808-11, 1808-11, was was more more than than

tion tion

of of an an up-to-date up-to-date monthly monthly journal journal in in the the Hebrew Hebrew language. language. Hame'asef Hame'asef (The (The gath­

a a group group of of aspiring aspiring Hebrew Hebrew writers writers undertook undertook a a new new and and daring daring enterprise: enterprise: the the publica­

people people

and and its its culture culture and and letters letters in in modern modern times. times. It It began began in in Germany Germany in in the the 1780s 1780s as as

Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah Haskalah (Enlightenment) (Enlightenment) marks marks a a turning turning point point in in the the history history of of the the Jewish Jewish

of of the the Hebrew Hebrew journal journal Hame'asef Hame'asef

1783 1783 The The Haskalah Haskalah begins begins in in Germany Germany with with the the founding founding 102 The Haskalah Begins in Germany with the Founding of Hame'asef has found earlier phenomena in Italian Hebrew odological questions regarding some of its own writing. basic tenets. For one, should a literary discussion The latter position, advocated by the literary on Haskalah be based solely on literary grounds, historian and critic Yeruham Fishel Lachover, has or may it also incorporate current trends in Jew­ selected Moshe Hayim Luzzatto (1707-47), an ish social and intellectual history? And second, Italian Hebrew poet, moralist, and kabbalist, as should we distinguish between the two aspects of the starting point of modern Hebrew literature. Hebrew Haskalah, namely, Haskalah as a literary The former, espoused by the literary historian movement and Haskalah as a social and perhaps a Joseph Klausner, has chosen Naphtali Wessely cultural movement? The fact that the two ques­ (1725-1805), a poet, biblical commentator, tions are interconnected, however, especially dur­ grammarian, and one of the leading figures of the ing Haskalah's inception in Germany, does help Hebrew Haskalah in Berlin, as the author who us solve the latter issue for the time being. The signals the beginning of modern Hebrew letters. first question is actually resolved by the prevail­ A third approach suggested by another literary ing practices of ideas continuously flowing from historian, Hayyim Nachmann Shapira, proposed the spheres of social and intellectual histories to the writers and editors of Hame'asef as his choice. literary histories and criticism, and vice versa. Outside the literary spheres, the figure of Moses This interdisciplinary trend in Haskalah scholar­ Mendelssohn (1729-86) has been cited by histo­ ship had been questioned by Avraham Holtz, rians such as Heinrich Graetz as the "father" of who demanded a more literary approach to the the Jewish Enlightenment and the person who study of Haskalah. signals the advent of modern times in the annals The works of social historians Bernard of Jewish history. Indeed, Mendelssohn had a Weinryb, Azriel Shohat, and Jacob Katz, to name seminal influence on these young Hebraists, who a few, have contributed insights to the under­ saw in him a model ofHaskalah. He was thought standing of the Haskalah phenomena. They to exemplify the symbiosis between Judaism and pointed out that certain aspects of modernism, Enlightenment, adhering to both and allegedly manifestations of trends toward secularism in making compromises to none. They recognized Jewish society, and the dawn of the Enlighten­ him as the initiator of a major Hebrew Enlighten­ ment could be found earlier in that century in ment enterprise-namely, the commentary and Jewish circles in Holland and in Italy. Thus they translation of the Hebrew Bible into German­ suggested that the Haskalah began earlier than and as such, a figure to be emulated. had previously been thought. But even if one is to Discussion of modernism is more often than accept the notion that there were several writers no~ relegated to the notion of secularism-that and even rabbis who are said to have heralded the creeping·-change that is said to have affected the Haskalah prior to the German phenomenon, or thinking, Weltanschauung, and behavior of young even that there had been previous phenomena of Jewish intellectuals known as Maskilim (Hebrew secularism, as suggested above, it will be difficult Enlighteners). Both modernism and secularism to argue against the unique thrust of German in our context are still a subject of continuous Haskalah. It emerged as a group and as a move­ scholarly discussion, but are yet to be defined ment in its collective energy, its centrality, and satisfactorily. Nevertheless, the contribution of more important, in its unified effort to dissemi­ the Hebrew journal Hame'asef and its writers to nate the ideology of the Enlightenment. It is in the growth of modern Hebrew literature by pro­ the activities of this group of young Hebraists, moting both modernity and secularism (see be­ consisting of writers, educators, and even rabbis, low), has gained recognition in the past twenty­ that modern Hebrew writing has been reborn and five years, as more scholars continued to produce the new trends of modern Hebrew letters began. critical assessments and analyses ofliterary works This group and its writings represent the be­ published by the Berlin Haskalah. ginning of modernism, which I identify and define Haskalah scholarship has raised several meth- as a strong awareness of the changing times, a

...._ ...._

disciplines. disciplines. secular secular and and The The traditional. traditional. and and conservative conservative the the toward toward slant slant

Jewish Jewish in in both both educated educated as as themselves themselves describe describe a a with with yet yet scene, scene, contemporary contemporary and and new new the the ward ward

to to

eager eager initially initially were were authors authors the the though though even even to­ inclination inclination an an show show definitely definitely journal journal the the of of

sense­ traditional traditional the the in in Torah Torah study study to to formed formed departments departments and and contents contents the the for for plans plans nounced nounced

not not

was was group group the the Obviously, Obviously, groups. groups. in in only only an­ Their Their Judaism. Judaism. toward toward attitude attitude tional) tional)

studied studied be be may may Torah Torah that that dictum dictum the the sources sources tradi­ (namely, (namely, conservative conservative general general a a of of choice choice

Hebraic Hebraic the the from from quoted quoted they they hatorah), hatorah), min min asur asur editors' editors' the the declared declared openly openly It It ideas. ideas. new new many many

(hadash (hadash Torah" Torah" the the by by forbidden forbidden is is "which "which vation vation too too propose propose overtly overtly not not did did and and change change of of laration laration

inno­ this this of of attacks attacks rabbinic rabbinic possible possible any any disarm disarm dec­ a a like like sound sound not not did did statement statement their their Thus Thus

To To striking. striking. is is language language Hebrew Hebrew for for society society this this Judaism. Judaism. tional tional

founding founding and and literature literature Hebrew Hebrew of of center center active active tradi­ to to allegiance allegiance their their declaring declaring and and change change for for

an an

establishing establishing of of concept concept the the on on placed placed Habesor" Habesor" yearning yearning their their at at hinting hinting between between maneuvered maneuvered

"Nahal "Nahal of of authors authors the the that that emphasis emphasis The The editors editors the the Maskilim, Maskilim, moderate moderate the the or or authorities authorities

books. books. Hebrew Hebrew of of rabbinic rabbinic the the of of any any alienate to to not not desire desire their their In In

list list diversified diversified and and impressive impressive an an is is efforts efforts lishing lishing manner. manner. provocative provocative a a in in it it declare declare to to not not caution caution

pub­ these these of of total total sum sum The The centuries. centuries. fourteenth fourteenth their their by by disguised disguised was was it it but but change, change, advocate advocate to to

and and thirteenth thirteenth the the of of Yehiel Yehiel ben ben Asher Asher Rabbi Rabbi desire desire a a by by characterized characterized was was which which predicament, predicament,

to to attributed attributed author author the the which which genre, genre, responsa responsa precarious precarious their their exposed exposed that that statement statement torial torial

the the

in in work work pseudepigraphical pseudepigraphical a a was was This This 1793. 1793. edi­ an an was was It It goals. goals. Enlightenment Enlightenment and and literary literary

in in

spices) spices) of of (Incense (Incense Rosh Rosh Besamim Besamim Berlin's Berlin's Saul Saul and and contents contents its its detailing detailing by by periodical, periodical, monthly monthly

was was book book such such One One books. books. controversial controversial cluding cluding new new the the for for plans plans their their outlined outlined they they it, it, In In ings). ings).

in­

Haskalah, Haskalah, of of production production literary literary the the publish publish tid­ Good Good or or Besor; Besor; brook brook (The (The Habesor" Habesor" "Nahal "Nahal

to to

free free were were thus thus and and authorities authorities community community the the entitled entitled 1783 1783 in in prospectus prospectus a a circulated circulated editors editors

and and

religious religious the the of of independent independent were were Members Members the the Hame'asef, Hame'asef, of of publication publication the the of of advance advance In In

books. books. own own its its disseminate disseminate and and plans plans cultural cultural literary. literary. or or modern modern either either considered considered be be cannot cannot

its its

execute execute to to able able was was literature literature Hebrew Hebrew for for ter ter it it but but 1720s, 1720s, the the in in appeared appeared had had Life), Life), of of Tree Tree

cen­ new new the the Thus Thus printer. printer. established established an an of of press press the the of of fruit fruit (The (The Hayim Hayim Etz Etz Pri Pri periodical, periodical, gious gious

printing printing the the used used and and typesetting typesetting German German and and reli­ A A Musar. Musar. Qohelet Qohelet of of issue issue one one of of contents contents the the

Hebrew Hebrew own own its its had had that that house house publishing publishing a a ded ded republished republished Hame'asef Hame'asef of of editors editors the the 1780s, 1780s, the the in in

foun­ It It enterprising. enterprising. quite quite be be to to proved proved society society later, later, years years thirty thirty that that insignificant insignificant not not is is It It brew. brew.

cultural cultural This This Habesor." Habesor." "Nahal "Nahal prospectus prospectus the the He­ in in periodical periodical modern modern a a of of publication publication the the

with with keeping keeping in in Language, Language, Hebrew Hebrew the the of of Seekers Seekers toward toward step step important important an an signifies signifies periodical periodical the the

the the for for Society Society association, association, new new a a of of formation formation appearance, appearance, brief brief its its of of spite spite In In appeared. appeared. odical odical

the the

with with coupled coupled was was launch launch journal's journal's The The peri­ the the of of issues issues two two only only short-lived; short-lived; was was ever, ever,

language. language. and and grammar grammar on on articles articles how­ endeavor, endeavor, His His century. century. that that in in flourished flourished

as as well well as as prose prose and and poetry poetry of of publishing publishing their their that that weeklies weeklies morality morality the the of of trend trend the the followed followed

in in

manifested manifested is is literature literature and and language language Hebrew Hebrew He He Ecclesiastes). Ecclesiastes). (Moral (Moral Musar Musar Qohelet Qohelet entitled entitled

the the

revive revive to to aspiration aspiration their their time, time, same same the the At At periodical periodical Hebrew Hebrew a a 1755 1755 about about in in publish publish to to

other. other. the the on on events events contemporary contemporary and and education education attempting attempting by by ofHaskalah ofHaskalah budding budding the the initiated initiated

like like subjects subjects secular secular subjects-and subjects-and traditional traditional Mendelssohn Mendelssohn Moses Moses midcentury, midcentury, in in earlier, earlier, years years

hand-ostensibly hand-ostensibly one one the the on on Halakhah Halakhah and and ble ble Thirty Thirty century. century. that that in in Hebrew Hebrew in in published published

Bi­ the the between between vacillate vacillate to to seem seem editors editors The The be be to to periodical periodical first first the the not not was was Hame'asef Hame'asef

books. books. new new about about mation mation society. society. Jewish Jewish in in place place take take to to about about were were

infor­ and and events; events; contemporary contemporary of of news news raphies; raphies; that that changes changes the the to to sensitivities sensitivities their their of of indicative indicative

biog­ education; education; physical physical and and moral moral and and matters), matters), are are that that Maskilim Maskilim these these of of writings writings the the in in signals signals

legal legal (Jewish (Jewish Halakhah Halakhah ethics, ethics, and and knowledge knowledge covert covert subtle, subtle, those those modernism modernism as as identified identified have have

Bible, Bible, language, language, on on articles articles poetry; poetry; I I departments: departments: change. change. for for tools tools establish establish and and ideas ideas disseminate disseminate

major major five five of of

consist consist would would wrote, wrote, they they journal, journal, to to effort effort collaborative collaborative a a and and change, change, effect effect to to desire desire

103 103 Hame'asef Hame'asef of of Founding Founding the the with with Germany Germany in in Begins Begins Haskalah Haskalah The The 104 The Haskalah Begins in Germany with the Founding of Hame'asef

In addition to cultivating the cultural inclina­ both Wessely and Mendelssohn against the at­ tions of Haskalah, the authors of "Nahal Habe­ tacks of their Orthodox rivals. sor" also addressed certain social aspects ofJewish The editors were tenacious in publishing arti­ existence, such as Jews' attitude toward their host cles, fables, poems, and satiric pieces in support of country and its citizens, their aim to become pro­ their Enlightenment agenda. They disseminated ductive citizens of that country, and the like. And their ideology by educating their public through eventually they made an attempt to present an variegated articles on natural sciences, world his­ alternative to the existing structure of the Jewish tory, education, and biographies of meritorious Kehillah by establishing their own modern school personalities. They urged their readers to widen and forming an "enlightened" burial society. their horizons by becoming Maskilim in their Visible manifestations of Enlightenment ap­ world outlook, their conduct, and in their man­ peared in the pages of the journal. Overtly and ners. All in all, the tenor of Haskalah was that of covertly, the editors of Hame'asef endeavored to the Enlightenment: to learn, explore, doubt, promote the ideology of the Enlightenment. question, and probe. Even in traditional topics such as the Bible and The contribution of this group of Haskalah Halakhah, their position was far from traditional. writers to the rebirth of Hebrew language and Engaging in various Haskalah-related controver­ Hebrew culture may be considered in a few major sies, they advocated the positions held by Men­ areas of endeavor, beginning with the use of the delssohn and Wessely in their respective social Hebrew language. In no other realm of their En­ and cultural rifts with the traditionalist rabbis. lightenment enterprise did the Maskilim face as They championed Wessely, for example, not only difficult a task as in the area of language. They as the poet laureate of Haskalah, but also as an had to cope with the existing classical structures, advocate of the modernization of Jewish educa­ forms, and idioms of historical Hebrew that were tion. The editors defended Wessely's position as used continuously prior to the period of the En­ expressed in his pamphlets, Divrei Shalom Ve'emet lightenment in rabbinic responsa, halakhahic (Words of peace and truth; 1782-84). Following writings, philosophical, historical, and gram­ Wessely's dictate, they advocated the introduc­ matical treatises, as well as in belles lettres. tion of modern, secular education in Jewish The Haskalah was innovative in its concept of schools. language and its approach to the use of Hebrew. In a like manner, the editors embraced the First and foremost, writers who were a part of this translation and commentary of the Hebrew Bible movement expressed a strong pride in the project, started by Mendelssohn and known as the Hebrew language and in its aesthetic qualities. Be'ur (The commentary on and translation of the They further emphasized their strong belief in its Pentateu~fi). Advancing the cause of enlightened potential to be used for modern purposes. Thus Judaism as they understood it they supported they undertook to explore the modern linguistic Mendelssohn's stand vis-a-vis the traditionalist capabilities inherent in that ancient language, al­ rabbis in a halakhahic (pertaining to Jewish law) though they still referred to it by the traditional controversy concerning the Jewish custom of term "the holy tongue." early and immediate burial of the dead. The Ger­ In keeping with the prevailing notion of lan­ man authorities demanded a modification of this guage and its effect on thought and morality, the Jewish custom, which the traditionalists could Maskilim rejected Yiddish, which they consid­ not accept. Mendelssohn was summoned by the ered a "corrupted language." Instead, they pre­ Jewish community to intercede on its behalf, and ferred either the "purity" of German as their ver­ in the process he endeavored to prove-using his nacular and literary expression, or the revived typical rhetorical technique of tracing similar form of Hebrew. They rejected the contemporary practices to talmudic sources-that there was rabbinic idiom and its careless use of grammar. nothing wrong with the suggested new burial This rejection, however, was easier said than practices. Thus the editors undertook to defend done. Many of them still resorted to the old rab-

..._ ..._

ature. ature. This This literary literary endeavor endeavor was was expressed expressed selected selected in in the the a a genre genre of of biblical biblical wisdom wisdom writing writing as as a a

drive drive to to revive revive Hebrew Hebrew culture culture and and Hebrew Hebrew classical classical liter­ Hebrew Hebrew genres genres with with a a modern modern slant. slant. He He

Hebrew Hebrew language, language, the the Haskalah Haskalah launched launched a a major major Satanow Satanow who who undertook undertook the the task task of of reviving reviving some some

Simultaneous Simultaneous with with its its effort effort to to revive revive the the surrounding surrounding the the European European literatures. literatures. It It was was Isaac Isaac

ment, ment, toward toward the the end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth taken taken century. century. from from the the classical classical Hebraic Hebraic corpus corpus and and from from

1917) 1917) in in the the latter latter period period of of Hebrew Hebrew Enlighten­ or or revived revived literary literary genres. genres. These These genres genres were were

Sfarim Sfarim (Shalom (Shalom Yaakov Yaakov Abramowitz, Abramowitz, 1835/36- in in its its writers writers experimenting experimenting with with a a variety variety of of new new

It It was was finally finally synthesized synthesized by by Mendele Mendele as as a a Mocher Mocher modern, modern, up-to-date up-to-date literature literature was was manifested manifested

tinued tinued be be felt felt throughout throughout the the to to Haskalah Haskalah period. period. Another Another principal principal characteristic characteristic of of Haskalah Haskalah

brew, brew, talmudic talmudic idiom, idiom, and and medieval medieval usage usage sources. sources. con­

The The linguistic linguistic tension tension between between biblical biblical man man Bialik Bialik He­ as as the the library library of of classical classical Jewish Jewish

Hame'asef Hame'asef posed posed in in the the twentieth twentieth century century by by Hayim Hayim Nach­

obscure obscure words words in in the the Bible Bible were were published published Jewish Jewish publication publication in in project project that that was was to to be be pro­

commentaries commentaries on on the the meaning meaning of of synonyms synonyms and and (1790) (1790) in in Hebrew. Hebrew. It It was was a a modest modest beginning beginning of of a a

their their grammatical grammatical and and biblical biblical studies studies involving involving (1785 (1785 ). ). He He also also published published Aristotle's Aristotle's Ethics Ethics

luminous luminous works works on on Hebrew Hebrew grammar. grammar. Book Book Many Many of of of of Job Job (1799), (1799), and and Passover Passover Haggadot Haggadot

linguistic linguistic aspects aspects of of Hebrew Hebrew and and published published books, books, vo­ such such as as the the Book Book of of Psalms Psalms (1794), (1794), the the

language, language, they they began began to to probe probe the the historical historical very very active active and and in in the the publication publication of of other other traditional traditional

As As part part of of their their concentration concentration on on the the creative creative Hebrew Hebrew Maski!, Maski!, Isaac Isaac Satanow Satanow (17 (17 32-1804), 32-1804), was was

by by the the Maskilim. Maskilim. manuel manuel (also (also published published by by Satanow, Satanow, 1796). 1796). This This

less less of of grammatical grammatical rules, rules, was was severely severely criticized criticized tic tic tome tome of of Immanuel Immanuel Haromi, Haromi, Mahberot Mahberot Im­

linguistic linguistic freedom freedom in in coining coining new new words, words, regard­ ilarly, ilarly, they they republished republished the the inaccessible inaccessible belletris­

a a rhyme rhyme or or for for other other aesthetic aesthetic purposes. purposes. Their Their commentaries commentaries written written by by the the Maskilim. Maskilim. Sim­

vating vating new new forms forms in in Hebrew Hebrew for for the the sheer sheer for for need need the the of of perplexed; perplexed; 1796) 1796) with with new, new, up-to-date up-to-date

paytanim's paytanim's excessive excessive use use of of poetic poetic license license 1795) 1795) in in inno­ and and Maimonides' Maimonides' Moreh Moreh Nevuchim Nevuchim (Guide (Guide

its its style style of of Hebrew. Hebrew. They They could could not not accept accept Judah Judah the the Halevi's Halevi's Hakuzari Hakuzari (by (by Isaac Isaac Satanow, Satanow,

Hebrew Hebrew writers writers rejected rejected the the piyyut piyyut (liturgy) (liturgy) lication lication and and of of medieval medieval philosophical philosophical works, works, such such as as

the the medieval medieval Hebrew Hebrew corpus, corpus, many many of of Another Another these these major major undertaking undertaking was was the the repub­

Reviewing Reviewing some some other other literary literary traditions traditions in in prise prise and and his his followers. followers.

writings. writings. to to polemics polemics in in defense defense of of Mendelssohn's Mendelssohn's enter­

medieval medieval Hebrew Hebrew turn turn for for to to their their nonbelletristic nonbelletristic and and assessment assessment of of the the new new translations, translations, as as well well as as

sure), sure), the the Maskilim's Maskilim's Many Many natural natural pages pages inclination inclination of of was was Hame'asef Hame'asef to to were were devoted devoted to to reviews reviews

philosophy philosophy and and theology theology (as (as autodidacts, autodidacts, published published to to be be his his Introduction Introduction to to the the s;;pture s;;pture El810). El810).

ences. ences. Trained Trained in in the the medieval medieval works works of of Jewish Jewish the the Be'ur. Be'ur. Another Another Maski!, Maski!, Juda Juda Leib Leib Ben-Zeev, Ben-Zeev,

subjects subjects such such as as education, education, history, history, and and project project the the sci­ emanated emanated from from Mendelssohn's Mendelssohn's school school of of

contemporary contemporary issues issues and and modern modern ideas ideas mentaries, mentaries, in in secular secular and and translations translations into into German. German. This This

philosophical philosophical or or linguistic linguistic treatises, treatises, let let alone alone Five Five for for Scrolls, Scrolls, 1807) 1807) with with introductions, introductions, new new com­

the the vocabulary vocabulary and and linguistic linguistic forms forms adequate adequate Euchel, Euchel, for for Mishlei, Mishlei, 1790; 1790; Wolfssohn Wolfssohn and and Brill, Brill, The The

poetry poetry and and in in poetic poetic drama, drama, however, however, tions tions it it lacked lacked of of the the biblical biblical books books (Brill, (Brill, Psalms, Psalms, 1785; 1785;

they they could could employ employ the the biblical biblical idiom idiom chel, chel, in in timely timely and and Aaron Aaron Wolfssohn Wolfssohn published published new new edi­

be be the the epitome epitome of of linguistic linguistic purity. purity. editions editions Although Although of of medieval medieval works. works. Joel Joel Brill, Brill, Isaac Isaac Eu­

use use the the biblical biblical idiom, idiom, which which they they considered considered edition edition of of to to the the latter latter books books of of the the Bible Bible and and new new

These These writers' writers' first first inclination inclination was was tion tion indeed indeed effort effort to to of of the the Maskilim Maskilim emphasized emphasized a a new new

Bible. Bible. terms terms In In of of classical classical writings, writings, the the republica­

other other type type of of euphuism euphuism based based on on the the Maskilim's Maskilim's Hebrew Hebrew publishing publishing house. house.

phuism, phuism, a a high high lofty lofty use use of of Hebrew, Hebrew, for for yet yet Hame'asef Hame'asef an­ and and in in separate separate books books printed printed by by the the

tomed. tomed. Other Other writers writers rejected rejected the the rabbinic rabbinic and and contemporary contemporary eu­ spheres. spheres. It It was was published published in in

binic binic stylistic stylistic practices practices to to which which they they were were number number accus­ of of areas areas of of creativity creativity in in both both the the classical classical

The The Haskalah Haskalah Begins Begins in in Germany Germany with with the the Founding Founding of of Hame'asef Hame'asef 105 105 106 The Haskalah Begins in Germany with the Founding of Hame'asef model and patterned his Mishlei Asaj(Proverbs of erature, Aaron Wolfssohn introduced the dia­ Asaf; 1 789-1802) on this classical form. Emulat­ logues of the dead to Hebrew literature. In his ing the traditional fa\;ade of a published biblical "Sihah Be'eretz Hahayim" (Dialogue in the land text, he added his own commentaries below the of the living; 1 794-97), he enlisted the figures of core text, and ro make things more attractive, he Maimonides and the deceased Mendelssohn to attributed the text to an ancient Levite. Satanow argue with a fanatic rabbi and defend the ideals of also revived the medieval genre of the religious Haskalah. This piece was serialized in Hame'asef disputation and composed a contemporary story, Another Hebrew Maski!, Tuvyah Feder (ca. Divrei Rivot (Words of dispute; ca. 1800), pat­ 1760-1817), used the genre of the dialogue of terned on Hakuzari, which he had published pre­ the dead in his piece, Qol Mehazezim (Voices of the viously. archers; 1853, written in 1813), as an invective As another means of bringing Hebrew litera­ against another Haskalah writer, Menahem Men­ ture up to date, writers of the Hebrew Enlight­ del Lefin (1749-1826), for his translation of enment emulated contemporary European liter­ Mishlei (Proverbs) to allegedly Yiddish-like Ger­ ary genres and modes such as epistolary writing, man. Many other writers also published regular travelogues, utopia, satire, biography, auto­ dialogues and didactic dialogue, which were used biography, and dialogues of the dead. Isaac Eu­ for educational purposes, as was customary at the chel (1756-1804), a prolific writer and editor of time. Hame'asef, is credited with introducing a number Another European literary genre, the trav­ of European literary genres. He was indeed one of elogue, served the Italian Maski! Shmuel Ro­ the literary innovators and a bridge builder be­ manelli ( 175 7 -1814) in depicting Jewish society tween cultures. Following the pattern of Montes­ in Morocco in the 1780s in his Masa Ba'rav (Tra­ quieu's Lettres Persanes, he composed an original vail in an Arab land; 1793). Hame'asef published a epistolary writing entitled "Igrot Meshulam" shorter travelogue by Euchel that described a trip (The letters ofMeshulam; 1790), which was pub­ back to his birthplace in Copenhagen. It was Eu­ lished serially in Hame'asef This is not the only chel who contributed to the modern biography in early modern satiric piece in Haskalah literature, his book-length portrayal of Moses Mendelssohn. but it may be considered uniquely utopian in its This genre, too, served the purpose of Haskalah portrayal of an ideal picture of a Jewish society of because it promoted the figure of the "Jewish the past. Mixing genres was common in European Socrates," as Mendelssohn was called. Other bi­ literature of that century. Similarly, Satanow's ographies of Jewish luminaries, such as Isaac religious disputation piece, Divrei Rivot, men­ Abravanel and Moses Maimonides, were pub­ tioi:ed above, also contains a section with a uto­ lished in Hame'asef, which also serialized Euchel's pian eleriieT1t. In it, the author envisions the righ­ biography. These personalities were selected for a teous and enlightened king helping to build an biographical sketch because their philosophy was ideal Jewish society that, guided by the ideas and thought to have adhered to and supported Haska­ ideals of the Enlightenment, achieves both cul­ lah ideology. Their portrayal, too, served to ex­ tural and social emancipation. emplify the typology of an enlightened and open­ Another Maski!, Saul Berlin (1740-94), minded spiritual leader who is loyal to Jewish also wrote a satiric masterpiece, Ktav Yosher (An tradition. epistle of righteousness; 1795). He wrote it in Resorting to another popular genre, the en­ defense of another Haskalah writer, Naphtali lighteners, some of them following contemporary Wessely, who was engaged in a dispute with tra­ European writers and others in the footsteps of ditional rabbis concerning educational reforms. the best of Jewish tradition, published hundreds This satire contains some of the most bitter and of fables. critical remarks about contemporary Judaism and Needless to say, Hebrew writers also expressed Jews. their creative energy through some other types of Borrowing a popular genre from European lit- writings concurrent with the above; some of them

.._ .._

its its enlighteners. enlighteners. The The days days of of love love

have have passed, passed, MOSHE MOSHE PELLI PELLI

trembling trembling which which came came of] of] on on the the nation nation udea udea and and

style: style: "I "I have have also also tasted tasted the the dregs dregs of of the the cup cup of of (New (New ture ture York: York: Bloch, Bloch, 1941). 1941).

1800 1800 bemoaned bemoaned the the changing changing times times in in his his florid florid 1930); 1930); and and Meyer Meyer Waxman, Waxman, A A History History of of Jewish Jewish Litera­

Shalom Shalom Spiegel, Spiegel, bitter bitter Hebrew Hebrew desperation desperation Reborn Reborn (New (New York: York: at at its its Macmillan, Macmillan, end. end. It It was was Euchel Euchel who who in in

1840 1840 (New (New York: York: Oxford Oxford University University Press, Press, 1987); 1987); pectations pectations upon upon its its foundation foundation 1783, 1783, in in and and a a

Sorkin, Sorkin, The The Transformation Transformation of of German German 1780-

Jewry, Jewry, down down three three years years later. later. There There had had been been great great ex­

naissance naissance to to Renaissance Renaissance (New (New York: York: 1973); 1973); Ktav, Ktav,

David David

resumed resumed its its appearance appearance 1808-9, 1808-9, in in only only to to shut shut

Bralik Bralik Institute, Institute, 1960); 1960); Eisig Eisig Silberschlag, Silberschlag, From From Re­

lived. lived. ceased ceased publication publication 1797 1797 in in Hame'asef Hame'asef and and

David David Shohat, Shohat, Im Im Hilufei Hilufei Tekufot Tekufot [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Jerusalem: (Jerusalem:

Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah Haskalah

in in Germany Germany was was short­

dashah dashah [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Tel (Tel Aviv: Aviv: Massada, Massada, 1967); 1967); Aaron Aaron

ethics. ethics.

yim yim Nachmann Nachmann Shapira, Shapira, To/dot To/dot Hasifrut Hasifrut Haivrit Haivrit Haha­

and and cultures, cultures, science, science, nature, nature, psychology, psychology, and and

Parfitt Parfitt (Chur, (Chur, Switz.: Switz.: Harwood, Harwood, 1994), 1994), 129-42; 129-42; Hay­

on on world world history, history, the the

hisrory hisrory of of

other other

religions religions

cation cation and and Learning, Learning, ed. ed. Glenda Glenda Abramson Abramson and and Tudor Tudor

their their agenda, agenda, and and they they produced produced lengthy lengthy articles articles the the Modern Modern Trends Trends in in Hebrew Hebrew Literarure,"Jewish Literarure,"Jewish Edu­

Jewish Jewish schools. schools. Informal Informal education education was was also also on on Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah Haskalah Literature: Literature: Towards Towards an an Evaluation Evaluation of of

Projects, Projects, 1988); 1988); Pelli, Pelli, "Criteria "Criteria of of Modernism Modernism in in Early Early catechisms catechisms and and numerous numerous textbooks textbooks for for use use in in

Temurah Temurah [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Tel (Tel Aviv: Aviv: University University Publishing Publishing cational cational system. system. Toward Toward this this end, end, they they published published

(Leiden: (Leiden: lah lah 1979), 1979), Brill, Brill, 185, 185, 55; 55; n. n. Pelli, Pelli, Bema'avkei Bema'avkei lum lum and and a a revised revised religious religious teaching teaching into into the the edu­

[Hebrew) [Hebrew) 1783); 1783); (n.p., (n.p., Moshe Moshe Pelli, Pelli, The The

Age Age of of Haska­

advocated advocated introducing introducing a a modern modern secular secular curricu­

Aviv: Aviv: Devir, Devir, 1927, 1927, 1963); 1963); "Nahal "Nahal Habesor," Habesor," Hame'asef Hame'asef

tion, tion, pedagogy, pedagogy, and and curriculum, curriculum, the the Maskilim Maskilim

To/dot To/dot Hasifrut Hasifrut Haivrit Haivrit

Hahadashah Hahadashah [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Tel (Tel

ciety. ciety. In In their their

published published essays essays on on modern modern

educa­

salem: salem: Ahiasaf, Ahiasaf, 1952); 1952); Yeruham Yeruham Fishel Fishel Lachover, Lachover,

the the most most important important tool tool for for changing changing Jewish Jewish so­

riah riah Shel Shel Hasifrut Hasifrut Haivrit Haivrit Hahadashah Hahadashah [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Jeru­

Education Education was was deemed deemed by by the the Haskalah Haskalah to to be be

(New (New York: York: Schocken, Schocken, 1977); 1977); Joseph Joseph Klausner, Klausner, Histo­

acceptable acceptable

their their fellow fellow

German German

enlighteners. enlighteners.

to to

11 11 (1967): (1967): 253-70; 253-70; Jacob Jacob Katz, Katz, Tradition Tradition and and Crisis Crisis

their their Jewish Jewish identity identity could could be be presented presented in in terms terms Modern Modern Hebrew Hebrew Literature," Literature," Literature Literature East East and and West West

Hebrew Hebrew culture culture exemplified exemplified their their perception perception that that ham ham Holtz, Holtz, "Prolegomenon "Prolegomenon ro ro a a Literary Literary Hisrory Hisrory of of

Hame'asef[Hebrew] Hame'asef[Hebrew] 1783-1797, 1783-1797, 1808-1811; 1808-1811; Avra­ German German orientation, orientation, and and their their adherence adherence to to

rael rael Academy Academy of of Sciences Sciences and and Humanities, Humanities, 1979); 1979); Hebrew Hebrew culture. culture. There There was was no no conflict conflict with with their their

mendelssohn mendelssohn Al Al Reka Reka Tekufato Tekufato [Hebrew) [Hebrew) (Jerusalem: (Jerusalem: Is­ attempt attempt revive revive the the people people and and resuscitate resuscitate to to the the

Aviv Aviv University, University, 1986),. 1986),. Meir Meir Gilon, Gilon, Qohelet Qohelet

M;,sar M;,sar

Le­

Revival Revival of of Hebrew Hebrew was was part part of of the the Maskilim's Maskilim's

Ha'itonut Ha'itonut Ha'ivrit Ha'ivrit Bame'ah Bame'ah [Hebrew) [Hebrew) . . Aviv: Aviv: Tel Tel .(I~l .(I~l

were were based based on on contemporary contemporary European standards. standards. European

4 4 no. no. (1987): (1987): 427-69; 427-69; Menuhah Menuhah Gilbo'a, Gilbo'a, Lexicon Lexicon

practical, practical, and and emphasizing emphasizing

aesthetic aesthetic values values that that

Tenu'at Tenu'at Hahaskalah Hahaskalah Begermanyah," Begermanyah," [Hebrew) [Hebrew)

52, 52, Zion Zion

the the mundane, mundane, highlighting highlighting the the utilitarian utilitarian and and

Shmuel Shmuel Feiner, Feiner, "Yitzhak "Yitzhak Euchel-Ha'yazam' Euchel-Ha'yazam' Shel Shel

modem modem Hebrew Hebrew culture culture toward toward the the secular secular and and

Bibliography Bibliography The The major major thrust thrust of of its its activities activities was was reorienting reorienting

were were geared geared toward toward reviving reviving Hebrew Hebrew culture. culture.

The The efforts efforts of of Hebrew Hebrew Haskalah Haskalah in in Germany Germany

found found earlier. earlier. rope. rope.

century, century, although although some some initial initial attempts attempts may may be be Hebrew Hebrew literature literature came came into into being being in in Eastern Eastern Eu­

too, too, emerges emerges in in the the second second half half of of the the nineteenth nineteenth were were continued, continued, however, however, as as other other centers centers of of

(The (The love love of of Zion). Zion). The The Ahavat Ahavat short short Zion Zion story, story, and and this this group's group's initial initial struggle struggle for for Haskalah, Haskalah,

with with the the historical historical novel novel by by Abraham Abraham Mapu, Mapu, and and they they have have gone!" gone!" The The activities activities of of Hame'asef, Hame'asef,

non non that that was was to to appear appear only only years years 1853, 1853, later, later, in in the the children children of of Israel. Israel...... They They have have run run away, away,

biblical biblical epics. epics. The The Hebrew Hebrew novel novel is is a a phenome­ between between it, it, namely namely the the Hebrew Hebrew language} language} and and

wrote wrote allegorical allegorical dramas, dramas, biblical biblical dramas, dramas, and and gone gone are are the the days days of of the the covenant covenant between between me me [or: [or:

The The Haskalah Haskalah Begins Begins in in Germany Germany with with the the Founding Founding of of Hame'asef Hame'asef 107 107