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The Southern Ocean

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The Southern Ocean The Ice Continent The Antarctic Treaty System At 13.84 million square kilometres, Antarctica is almost A natural The Antarctic Treaty entered into force in 1961. This twice the size of Australia. Less than 0.5 per cent of landmark agreement ensures the peaceful use of Antarctica, Antarctica is ice-free. The icesheet has an average thickness guarantees freedom of scientific research and removes the of approximately 1800 metres and is up to 4800 metres reserve devoted potential for sovereignty disputes among Treaty Parties. thick in the Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT). Antarctica The many countries active in Antarctica meet annually contains some 60 to 70 per cent of the world’s fresh water to peace to discuss issues as diverse as scientific cooperation, and if it were to melt, sea level would rise by approximately tourism and the preservation of historic sites. Some of 70 metres. Antarctica has the highest average elevation of all and science the most important measures adopted under the Treaty the continents, with a mean altitude of approximately 2500 ensure protection of the Antarctic environment. metres. (Australia’s average elevation is only 330 metres.) The AAT also features the highest point of the icesheet The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic (4100 metres) and has recorded the lowest temperature on Treaty was adopted in 1991 and entered into force in 1998. Earth at the Russian station of Vostok (-89.2 °C in 1983). It designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”, prohibits mining and subjects Antarctica’s icesheet and surrounding sea ice have a all activities to prior assessment of their impacts. It also profound influence on the weather, particularly in the provides rules relating to waste disposal, management of Southern Hemisphere. protected areas and the prevention of marine pollution. The dynamic icesheet is fed by snowfall that is highest near the coast. Much of the interior receives only about 50 millimetres (water equivalent), less than half the rainfall Australia’s Interests in the world’s hottest deserts. The accumulated snow in Antarctica compacts to become ice. This accumulation is balanced by Emperor penguin colony, Auster Rookery. Image © Wayne Papps Australia has been leading scientific expeditions to Antarctica the drainage of ice towards the coast, initially at speeds Antarctic Circumpolar Current, separating the continent from since Douglas Mawson’s 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic as low as a few metres per year. Closer to the coast much Ocean Acidification the warm waters to the north. Australia, the last fragment Expedition. Today, Australia’s national interests in Antarctica of the ice drains via large glaciers, which may move at to leave Gondwana, began its northward movement Oceans have taken up about 30 per cent of the man- are to: hundreds of metres per year. Ice is eventually lost as made CO released into the atmosphere, but this uptake from Antarctica approximately 55 million years ago. 2 • preserve our sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic icebergs, which drift into the surrounding ocean and melt. is making the oceans more acidic and threatening the Territory, including our sovereign rights over the Few terrestrial life forms permanently inhabit Antarctica. Earth’s marine ecosystems. The Southern Ocean is an adjacent offshore areas; The Southern Ocean important ‘sink’ for atmospheric CO but, because more Plants (such as mosses, lichens and algae) and 2 • take advantage of the special opportunities Antarctica CO dissolves in cold sea water, it is particularly vulnerable microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) are found Within the easterly Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the 2 offers for scientific research; in ice-free areas. Two species of flowering plants occur Polar Frontal Zone, an oceanic boundary situated around to ocean acidification. Acidification is predicted to alter the • protect the Antarctic environment, having regard to its near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. Tiny animals are 55 °S where cold, dense Antarctic water meets and abundance, diversity and productivity of Antarctic marine special qualities and effects on our region; associated with these plant communities. In contrast, the descends beneath warmer northern waters. The relatively organisms (such as diatoms, foraminifera and pteropods, sea around Antarctica teems with a rich diversity of life – large temperature difference across the Polar Frontal Zone or ‘sea butterflies’) by affecting their physiology, reducing • maintain Antarctica free from strategic and/or political much of which is as yet undescribed. The seals, penguins acts as a barrier to marine organisms. Water temperatures plant productivity, and reducing the ability of plants and confrontation; and other birds characteristic of Antarctica spend most of range from the freezing point of sea water (-1.8 °C) in the animals to form shells from calcium carbonate. Such • be informed about and able to influence developments their lives at sea, only coming ashore to breed and moult. southern parts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to about large-scale ecosystem changes could accelerate global in a region geographically close to Australia; and 2 °C at the Polar Frontal Zone. The Antarctic Circumpolar warming by reducing CO2 uptake by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica was part of the ancient southern super-continent • derive any reasonable economic benefits from the Current is the largest ocean current in the world and of Gondwana, which began to break up about 160 million living and non-living resources of Antarctica (excluding moves a vast amount of heat, salt and carbon dioxide. years ago eventually to form Antarctica, Australia, Africa, Fish Stocks mining and oil drilling). South America and India. The entire super-continent moved Every winter the sea around Antarctica freezes to an Fishing in the Southern Ocean was largely unregulated south and for the last 350 million years Antarctica has been average thickness of about one metre. At its maximum until 1980, resulting in several species being over- near or over the South Geographic Pole. Once the continents in September, some 19 million square kilometres of fished. Fisheries south of 60 °S are now managed under separated, water began to circulate around Antarctica in the ocean is ice covered. The annual formation and melting an international agreement – the Convention on the of this sea ice is one of the greatest seasonal events on Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources the planet, and has a profound influence on the global (CCAMLR). Further north, Australia manages fisheries for oceanic circulation, heat flow between the atmosphere two species in the Australian Exclusive Economic Zones and ocean, and the biology of the Southern Ocean. around Heard Island, McDonald Islands and Macquarie In the spring and summer, after the sea ice breaks up, high Island – Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) and light levels and locally abundant nutrients promote the rapid mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari). Illegal fishing growth of microscopic floating plant cells (phytoplankton), for toothfish is a serious problem for the sustainability which in turn support the rich marine fauna. The most of the fishery, however, actions by Australian patrol abundant animal is the 5 centimetre-long, shrimp-like vessels and regulations established by CCAMLR have Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), whose total population seen the elimination of illegal fishing from the Australian has been estimated to be around 500 million tonnes. Krill Exclusive Economic Zones in the Southern Ocean. Fishing feed on the phytoplankton and often form vast swarms. levels for toothfish and icefish are evaluated annually Krill are important in the diet of a large range of fish, by CCAMLR and the Australian Government, and are considered sustainable in Australia’s management region. A coccolithophore and a diatom from a sample of water taken in the Southern squid, penguins and other seabirds, seals and whales. Ocean. The white horizontal bar at the right of the information bar below the image Aurora Australis, Davis station. Image © Frederique Olivier represents one micron (1,000 of a millimetre). 40° 30° 20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° CAPE TOWN AFRICA N E A MADAGASCAR O C IC Gough Island 40° 30° T 20° 10° (UK) 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° N AFRICA L A CAPE TOWN T N ANTARCTICAMADAGASCAR 50° A EA OC CLAIM AND TREATY BOUNDARIES H O N Gough Island SCALEAT 71° SOUTH T IC R N O 50° I U T O U(UK)T H E C E AN N O N S 0 1000 T S LA T MLR BOUNDARY ANTKilometreARCTICAs I 50° A CCA I Bouvet Island CLAIMPrince EdwardAND IslandTREATY BOUNDARIES N H (Norway) (SA) SCALEATI 71° SOUTH 60° T N U South TSandwichHER IslandsN OCEA D D SO(UK)U N 0 I 1000 60° A E BUENOS AIRESO NTAR A S Islas Sandwich CT N South Georgia MLR BOUNDARY IC Kilometres DelA Sur (ARG) E (UK) C T Crozet Islands 40° S C RE Islas Georgia Bouvet Island A Prince Edward (France)Island O Del Sur (ARG) T I (Norway) Y (SA) N C 60° limit u B Map n South Sandwich4 Islands defin O D E SOUTH (UK) e I A 60° AN d U A BUENOS AIRES TAR N 70° AMERICA Islas Sandwich C N N SouthSouth Georgi Orkneya Islands TIC D • 70° Falkland Islands Del Sur (ARG)SANAE IV A (UK) (UK)(UK) TR Crozet Islands • 40° S NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA E R Islas GeorgiaIslas Orcadas A Y (France) O Islas Malvinas Del SurDel (ARG) Sur (ARG) (Russian Fed) T SYOWA (Japan)Y ( C (ARG) limit un B 6 Kerguelen Islands 1 4 def O 0 (France) E : M SOUTH VICE COMODORO in ° 2 0 ed U S A RIO GALLEGOS
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