The Ice Continent The At 13.84 million square kilometres, is almost A natural The Antarctic Treaty entered into force in 1961. This twice the size of Australia. Less than 0.5 per cent of landmark agreement ensures the peaceful use of Antarctica, Antarctica is ice-free. The icesheet has an average thickness guarantees freedom of scientific research and removes the of approximately 1800 metres and is up to 4800 metres reserve devoted potential for sovereignty disputes among Treaty Parties. thick in the Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT). Antarctica The many countries active in Antarctica meet annually contains some 60 to 70 per cent of the world’s fresh water to peace to discuss issues as diverse as scientific cooperation, and if it were to melt, sea level would rise by approximately tourism and the preservation of historic sites. Some of 70 metres. Antarctica has the highest average elevation of all and science the most important measures adopted under the Treaty the continents, with a mean altitude of approximately 2500 ensure protection of the Antarctic environment. metres. (Australia’s average elevation is only 330 metres.) The AAT also features the highest point of the icesheet The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic (4100 metres) and has recorded the lowest temperature on Treaty was adopted in 1991 and entered into force in 1998. Earth at the Russian station of Vostok (-89.2 °C in 1983). It designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”, prohibits mining and subjects Antarctica’s icesheet and surrounding sea ice have a all activities to prior assessment of their impacts. It also profound influence on the weather, particularly in the provides rules relating to waste disposal, management of Southern Hemisphere. protected areas and the prevention of marine pollution. The dynamic icesheet is fed by snowfall that is highest near the coast. Much of the interior receives only about 50 millimetres (water equivalent), less than half the rainfall Australia’s Interests in the world’s hottest deserts. The accumulated snow in Antarctica compacts to become ice. This accumulation is balanced by Emperor penguin colony, Auster Rookery. Image © Wayne Papps Australia has been leading scientific expeditions to Antarctica the drainage of ice towards the coast, initially at speeds Antarctic Circumpolar Current, separating the continent from since ’s 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic as low as a few metres per year. Closer to the coast much Ocean Acidification the warm waters to the north. Australia, the last fragment Expedition. Today, Australia’s national interests in Antarctica of the ice drains via large glaciers, which may move at to leave Gondwana, began its northward movement Oceans have taken up about 30 per cent of the man- are to: hundreds of metres per year. Ice is eventually lost as made CO released into the atmosphere, but this uptake from Antarctica approximately 55 million years ago. 2 • preserve our sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic icebergs, which drift into the surrounding ocean and melt. is making the oceans more acidic and threatening the Territory, including our sovereign rights over the Few terrestrial life forms permanently inhabit Antarctica. Earth’s marine ecosystems. The is an adjacent offshore areas; The Southern Ocean important ‘sink’ for atmospheric CO but, because more Plants (such as mosses, lichens and algae) and 2 • take advantage of the special opportunities Antarctica CO dissolves in cold sea water, it is particularly vulnerable microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) are found Within the easterly Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the 2 offers for scientific research; in ice-free areas. Two species of flowering plants occur Polar Frontal Zone, an oceanic boundary situated around to ocean acidification. Acidification is predicted to alter the • protect the Antarctic environment, having regard to its near the tip of the . Tiny animals are 55 °S where cold, dense Antarctic water meets and abundance, diversity and productivity of Antarctic marine special qualities and effects on our region; associated with these plant communities. In contrast, the descends beneath warmer northern waters. The relatively organisms (such as diatoms, foraminifera and pteropods, sea around Antarctica teems with a rich diversity of life – large temperature difference across the Polar Frontal Zone or ‘sea butterflies’) by affecting their physiology, reducing • maintain Antarctica free from strategic and/or political much of which is as yet undescribed. The seals, penguins acts as a barrier to marine organisms. Water temperatures plant productivity, and reducing the ability of plants and confrontation; and other birds characteristic of Antarctica spend most of range from the freezing point of sea water (-1.8 °C) in the animals to form shells from calcium carbonate. Such • be informed about and able to influence developments their lives at sea, only coming ashore to breed and moult. southern parts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to about large-scale ecosystem changes could accelerate global in a region geographically close to Australia; and 2 °C at the Polar Frontal Zone. The Antarctic Circumpolar warming by reducing CO2 uptake by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica was part of the ancient southern super-continent • derive any reasonable economic benefits from the Current is the largest ocean current in the world and of Gondwana, which began to break up about 160 million living and non-living resources of Antarctica (excluding moves a vast amount of heat, salt and carbon dioxide. years ago eventually to form Antarctica, Australia, Africa, Fish Stocks mining and oil drilling). South America and India. The entire super-continent moved Every winter the sea around Antarctica freezes to an Fishing in the Southern Ocean was largely unregulated south and for the last 350 million years Antarctica has been average thickness of about one metre. At its maximum until 1980, resulting in several species being over- near or over the South Geographic Pole. Once the continents in September, some 19 million square kilometres of fished. Fisheries south of 60 °S are now managed under separated, water began to circulate around Antarctica in the ocean is ice covered. The annual formation and melting an international agreement – the Convention on the of this sea ice is one of the greatest seasonal events on Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources the planet, and has a profound influence on the global (CCAMLR). Further north, Australia manages fisheries for oceanic circulation, heat flow between the atmosphere two species in the Australian Exclusive Economic Zones and ocean, and the biology of the Southern Ocean. around Heard Island, McDonald Islands and Macquarie In the spring and summer, after the sea ice breaks up, high Island – Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) and light levels and locally abundant nutrients promote the rapid mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari). Illegal fishing growth of microscopic floating plant cells (phytoplankton), for toothfish is a serious problem for the sustainability which in turn support the rich marine fauna. The most of the fishery, however, actions by Australian patrol abundant animal is the 5 centimetre-long, shrimp-like vessels and regulations established by CCAMLR have Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), whose total population seen the elimination of illegal fishing from the Australian has been estimated to be around 500 million tonnes. Krill Exclusive Economic Zones in the Southern Ocean. Fishing feed on the phytoplankton and often form vast swarms. levels for toothfish and icefish are evaluated annually Krill are important in the diet of a large range of fish, by CCAMLR and the Australian Government, and are considered sustainable in Australia’s management region. A coccolithophore and a diatom from a sample of water taken in the Southern squid, penguins and other seabirds, seals and whales. Ocean. The white horizontal bar at the right of the information bar below the image Aurora Australis, Davis station. Image © Frederique Olivier represents one micron (1,000 of a millimetre).

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u CASEY (Aust) 1 n EAST 90°100° c AMUNDSEN-SCOTT 90° 100° l (USA) ANTARCTICA A a McMURDO (USA) WEST MIRNY (Russian Fed) N N i SCOTT(NZ) T m A A ANTARCTICA 80° S e MARIO ZUCCHELLI (Italy) E R d C DUMONT D'URVILLE C S T u (France) O 40° S CASEY (Aust) O IC n 100°110° c N U 5 100° Tl R T A Ra McMURDO (USA) 110° H N E 6 E N i SCOTT(NZ) T mA H A A T P e Y MARIO ZUCCHELLI (Italy) T E 120° RS U A d B S CO 5 DUMONT D'URVILLE C C O O ALBANY 0° S T U U (France) O 4 I T N 7 S O F IC H DA PERTH I R 5 N 110° U C E Y ( T R 60° R T R N S) 6 110° H O E E 130° A O C T C H 120° E Y E A Macquarie Island T 120° P S N (Aust) A A B U N O O Campbell5 Islands O ALBANY C U U 7(NZ) Adelaide I T N Auckland Islands S PERTH F 140° H DA I R (NZ) 6133 Amundsen-ScAottiries C E YAntipodes(6 Islands (NZ) HOBART RN 0°S) 79256165 Buenos 130° O O Bounty Island (NZ) 150° ADELAIDE 92123968 5185 C C Macquarie Island 120° Bouvet Island E EA Town A N (Aust) MELBOURNE 98456e246 6895 256tt4 Chatham Islands id o Cape N CHRISTCHURCHCampbell Islands ela -Sc 160° (NZ) (NZ) Ad39362647 8772en 52986693 130° ds Casey 140° Auckland Islands CANBERRA un ies WELLINGTON (NZ) AUSTRALIA 6133307A25m178 9915 909Air88987 4450 Antipodes Islands (NZ) HOBART os Christchurch n nd 7925633412165 803 8815e 63248035la 1475 3019 Bounty Island (NZ) NEW ZEALAND SYDNEY Bu t Is Commonwealth Bay ve 150° ADELAIDE 52492392 8007 o396u 55309 1400n 5766 2747 'Urville 92123968 5185 B Davis Tow AUCKLAND MELBOURNE pe 9845635292246 60568958660256460917a811 1302 3235 233 2533 Dumont d Chatham Islands C 170° 180° CHRISTCHURCH170° 160° 150° 140° ey 160° (NZ) 3936242642647 651877286745298649486693259 a44s5489519119ch 98 1728 ay C hur B Base 130° tc lth WELLINGTON CCAMLR: Convention on the ConservationCANBERRA of Antarctic MarineAUSTRALIA Living Resources 76961610 4851 26795191 3971 6715ris 4395 31814ea1873831 nd 30725178 9915 90988987 4450 Ch nw Halley mo 53864125 9238 44274777 2503 6837 3966 175138052097 4640 Heard Isla NEW ZEALAND SYDNEY 33412803 8815 63248035 1475 3019 Com rville se 11705257 8996 87019959 3443 2039 2473 483v82is 6923845'U68605398 a Territorial Claims 52492392 8007 39655309 1400 5766 2747 Da id BHobart ont d av AUCKLAND 56604533 9416 44614538 2960 7258 4417 2183426m02558 49414 D63 5752 35292605 8660 60917811 1302 3235 233 2533 Du rth Kerguelen Island The1 northernChilean extent Antarcticaof territorial claims is the wo 170° 180° 170° 160° 150° 140° 53312301 7897 38815273 1458 5788 2771 11125531071ge 30711831 4900 2257 Law Base 42642651 8674 49486259 44548951911998 1728 Ed coastline2 of Antarctica. 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5405 6983 5404 486452415365 17706401 7709 6710 4756 3017 6227 4687 37598319 5269 23303020 53 9231 5904 1397311 2492 35631953go3987 4089 1185 Vernadsky ntia rgia 81736300 1131 60667961 8946 9337 8725 839986038925 52269814 9308 9963 8289 6258 9168 8148 70918699 8830 55246261 3513 7289 8607 219137995739 a 89272875 3292 34395957 5486 7301 5592 484154195411 16766309 7945 6595 4732 2839 6486 4612 39658549 5290 21242842 36093235650 1478639 2307 355S71585 38534eo3051238 378 th G Vice Comodoro 99063996 2753 25764805 6362 8821 6799 538765986173 24266494 9246 6663 5278 2977 7871 4971 52659826 5968 23052980 1922 9911 5099 224222222532 3515 Sou 53302304 7899 38825272 1458 5789 2772 10925541071 30731828 4900 2254 323494236 586 26645305 761 29752346 4805 4841 3273 615545692748 82915280 1438 279a05937 4759 4734 Zhongshan ow 67662344 6763 24464119 2858 6940 3998 152637672502 22202492 6285 2744 1438 1077 5451 968 33346719 2200 18031073 4023 6190 2467 533138821586 73244042 Sy Distances in kilometres – great circle distances 46321708 7480 56057695 2109 3496 1356 282012462402 33044438 3646 4899 2788 3743 2263 3269 3584246 2593 38623742 4142 5425 5947 525037863729 73705621 3586 Terra Nova Bay (Mario Zucchelli) io aia b Cover images: • Sooty albatross, Macquarie Island – Kerry Steinberner • Minke whale off Davis – Frederique Olivier • Jade berg, Davis vicinity – Mikeu Zupanc ram 97353927 2363 44246812 6574 7681 6471 604463256546 29067545 8666 7832 5935 4068 7142 5841 48189282 6454 33434071 1136 9638 6790 25014233535 23792031 5091 5126 Ush ky ds Ma • Emperor penguin pair with chick, Auster Rookery – Frederique Olivier • Krill – AAD • Tunicates, 200 m below the surface of the sea – Martin Riddle/CEAMARCna o ro 87222764 3423 37686303 5405 6983 5404 486452415365 17706401 7709 6710 4756 3017 6227 4687 37598319 5269 23303020 53 9231 5904 1397311 2492 35631953 3987 4089 1185 od • Corals, gorgonians and sponges 800 m below, on the edge of the continental slope – Martin Riddle/CEAMARC • Seal – Christopher R Clarke Ver om e C n 89272875 3292 34395957 5486 7301 5592 484154195411 16766309 7945 6595 4732 2839 6486 4612 39658549 5290 21242842 36093235650 1478639 2307 35571585 385343051238 378 c ha Vi gs on 53302304 7899 38825272 1458 5789 2772 10925541071 30731828 4900 2254 323494236 586 26645305 761 29752346 4805 4841 3273 615545692748 82915280 1438 27905937 4759 4734 Zh Distances in kilometres – great circle distances