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Gore, D. B., Gibson, J. A. E., & Leishman, M. R. (2020). Human occupation, impacts and environmental management of . Antarctic Science, 32(2), pp. 72-84.

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1 Human occupation, impacts and environmental management of 56 2 57 3 Bunger Hills 58 Q14 DAMIAN B. GORE 1, JOHN A.E. GIBSON2 and MICHELLE R. LEISHMAN3 59 5 60 1Department of Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, 6 227A Rialannah Rd, Mt Nelson, TAS 7007, Australia 61 7 3Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia 62 8 [email protected] 63 9 64 10 65 11 Abstract: The types and distributions of anthropogenic rubbish have been documented at Bunger Hills, 66 fi 12 East . The area has been the site of scienti c research stations from 1958 to the present. 67 13 Rubbish types include deliberately or negligently discarded items (gas cylinders, broken glass), 68 fi 14 abandoned unserviceable equipment (boats, vehicles, scienti c equipment), spills (chemicals, fuel, oil) 69 15 and the slow collapse of old buildings. Some rubbish remained where it was left, while other material 70 16 was redistributed by strong winds. Modern expeditioner training should limit the production of new 71 17 rubbish, while inadvertent wind dispersal of rubbish from old station buildings could be minimized by 72 18 better management of these structures and their surrounds. Buildings and other constructed items 73 19 need ongoing maintenance if they are not to break down and be distributed by wind, or they should 74 20 be removed within a reasonable period. 75 21 Received 26 February 2019, accepted 20 June 2019 76 22 77 23 Key words: anthropogenic impacts, litter, rubbish, wind dispersal 78 24 79 25 80 26 Introduction confounded by continued habitation, which can play 81 27 both positive (e.g. regular clean-ups) and negative 82 28 The presence and operation of scientific stations and (e.g. acceptance of negative environmental impacts due 83 29 bases in Antarctica has impacted the environment, to familiarity) roles. Bunger Hills in 84 30 whether it be through the construction and ultimate (Fig. 1) provides a rare example in which the effects of 85 31 destruction of infrastructure such as buildings, the human habitation in an area can be studied without the 86 32 deliberate or inadvertent dispersal of rubbish, fuel and presence of a permanently occupied base. The area has 87 33 chemicals at and away from the stations or the deliberate been visited over the last 60 years at low levels relative to 88 34 or accidental modification of the environment by other areas of East Antarctica (Table I), with three 89 35 administrators, trades staff, researchers, tourists and scientific stations built between 1956 and 1987 that are 90 36 other visitors. Environmental practices implemented by usually occupied only occasionally. The main periods of 91 37 most modern Antarctic programmes should minimize activity in the Bunger Hills were in the 1950s, when one 92 38 human impacts on the environment, although many of the stations was occupied continually for several years, 93 39 impacts still occur. For example, dispersal of rubbish and in the late 1980s to the early 1990s, when regular 94 40 from field activities (Kiernan & McConnell 2001) and summer visits were made to the area. More recently, the 95 41 the construction and operation of bases during periods of commencement of Australian intracontinental flights has 96 42 strong wind is a common but underreported process, as allowed more frequent but generally short summer visits 97 43 most bases are located on the coast and the strongest by small parties (Table I). The locations of the stations in 98 44 winds blow offshore, carrying debris out to sea. Similarly, Bunger Hills also aid in studying human impacts, in that 99 45 impacts resulting from field-based research activities can none are near the open coast and therefore much of the 100 46 also occur, and these are gaining greater attention rubbish blown away from the stations is retained locally 101 47 (e.g. Kiernan & McConnell 2001,Ayreset al. 2008, on the land. 102 48 O'Neill et al. 2013,Peteret al. 2013, Brooks et al. 2018). In this article, we catalogue substantial periods of human 103 49 Environmental guidelines (directed by the Protocol on visitation and the resultant impacts on the environment. 104 50 Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty; Madrid Our aim is not to identify national programmes that 105 51 Protocol 1991) have been developed by Pertierra et al. might have contributed to any impacts; instead, we strive 106 52 (2013a) to help reduce these impacts to the extent that this to understand the mechanisms by which these impacts 107 53 is practically possible. occur and, through their identification, provide 108 54 Studying the effects of human activities associated with suggestions as to how environmental damage both in the 109 55 Antarctic bases on the natural environment is often Bunger Hills and elsewhere in Antarctica can be reduced. 110

1 Fig. 1 - B/W online, B/W in print 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 147 146 145 144 143 142 141 140 139 138 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 130 129 128 127 126 125 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 112 111 2 AINB GORE B. DAMIAN tal et . i.1. Fig. Station. Oasis-2 = O Base; David Edgeworth = ED Station; Dobrowolski = D January in Edgeworth Base David at recorded measurements azimuth wind three-hourly of rose wind the shows right the lower at inset The text. the in mentioned places and Base David Edgeworth stations, Dobrowolski and Oasis-2 of locations showing ugrHills, Bunger – ac 1986. March 220 219 218 217 216 215 214 213 212 211 210 209 208 207 206 205 204 203 202 201 200 199 198 197 196 195 194 193 192 191 190 189 188 187 186 185 184 183 182 181 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 166 HUMAN IMPACTS IN BUNGER HILLS 3

221 Table I. Visits to Bunger Hills (excluding short stops to refuel aircraft or maintain equipment) until 2017. Other visits were most probably made from 276 – 222 between 1958 and 1975. Visits were up to four months in duration over summer, except for occupation of Oasis Station (1956 1959). 277 Where known, the project number is given. Australian trips since 1986 are available from https://secure3.aad.gov.au/public/projects/. 223 278 224 Years Expedition name Reference 279 225 1946/1947 (US Navy) Byrd (1947) 280 226 1947/1948 Operation Windmill (US Navy) Source unknown 281 227 1956/1959 SAE-Polish Nudel'man (1966) 282 228 1965/1966 SAE Dubrovin & Zalevskii (1969) 283 1976/1977 ANARE Barker (1977) 229 284 1978/1979 Polish Krzeminski & Wisniewski (1985) 230 1985/1986 ANARE Gibson (2000) 285 231 1986/1987 SAE, AAP 13, 97, 120, 126, 189, 276, 354, 449, 457 Klokov et al. (1990), AAD web search 286 232 1987/1988 SAE, AAP Kaup et al. (1993) 287 233 1988/1989 SAE-Polish, AAP 2, 13 Filcek & Zielinski (1990) 288 1989/1998 AAP 49 AAD web search 234 289 1990/1991 SAE-German, AAP 2 Verkulich & Melles (1992), AAD web search 235 1991/1992 RAE-USA Doran et al. (1996) 290 236 1993/1994 RAE-German Melles et al. (1994) 291 237 1995/1996 AAP 926 Gibson (2000), AAD web search 292 238 1998/1999 Polar Logistics M. Sharpe, personal communication 1999 293 1999/2000 ANARE, Polar Logistics Gibson (2000) 239 294 2000/2001 AAP 187, 1222 AAD web search 240 2001/2002 AAP 187, 1222 AAD web search 295 241 2002/2003 AAP 1322 AAD web search 296 242 2004/2005 AAP 2318, 2542 AAD web search 297 243 2005/2006 AAP 1159 AAD web search 298 2006/2007 AAP 1159, 2542, 2741 AAD web search 244 299 2007/2008 AAP 2941 AAD web search 245 2008/2009 AAP 1159 AAD web search 300 246 2009/2010 AAP 1159 AAD web search 301 247 2010/2011 AAP 1159 AAD web search 302 248 2011/2012 AAP 2355 AAD web search 303 2013/2014 AAP 4191 AAD web search 249 304 2015/2016 AAP 4318 AAD web search 250 2016/2017 AAP 4318 AAD web search 305 251 2017/2018 AAP 4318 AAD web search 306 252 307 AAD = Australian Antarctic Division; AAP = Australian Antarctic Program; ANARE = Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions; 253 Polar Logistics = a private company based in the UK, now Antarctic Logistics (https://antarctic-logistics.com); RAE = Russian Antarctic expeditions; 308 254 SAE = Soviet Antarctic expeditions. 309 255 310 256 311 257 Bunger Hills description and occupation history longest known in Antarctica (Gibson et al. 2002). 312 258 Vertebrate biota of Bunger Hills is limited to four bird 313 2 259 Bunger Hills, with an area of 952 km , is the second species - Wilson's storm petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), 314 260 largest ice-free oasis on the coastline of East Antarctica, snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea) and south polar skua 315 261 after Amery Oasis (Fig. 1). The hills are completely (Catharacta maccormicki), which all breed in the area, as 316 262 surrounded by ice: to the east lie the ice sheet and well as occasional visits by Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis 317 263 Remenchus Glacier, to the south Apfel Glacier, to the adeliae). An apparently isolated population of Weddell 318 264 west Scott and Edisto glaciers and to the north seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) occurs in the marine 319 2 265 . Over 400 km of the oasis is taken portion of Bunger Hills (Gibson et al. 2019). Numerous 320 266 up by Cacapon Inlet, an area of marine water isolated species of lichens and mosses have been recorded from 321 267 (at least at the surface) from the by the the area, especially along the southern ice edge alongside 322 268 floating Shackleton Ice Shelf. Bunger Hills sensu stricto Apfel Glacier (Gibson 2000, Gibson et al. 2019). 323 269 consists of a series of rugged but low-relief islands, Bunger Hills was first sighted from a considerable 324 270 nunataks and peninsulas. The largest continuous area of distance by members of the Australasian Antarctic 325 271 land is the southern portion, which is c. 30 km × 20 km Expedition's Western Party in November 1912, who 326 2 272 and has an area of 262 km (Fig. 1). This area contains believed the area to consist of two islands. Heavy 327 273 numerous lakes, including Algae Lake, one of the largest crevassing on the intervening glaciers precluded a 328 274 freshwater lakes in Antarctica (Klokov et al. 1990), and ground visit. The full extent of the ice-free area was first 329 275 an extensive terrestrial drainage system that is the third recognized in January 1947 by members of Operation 330 4 DAMIAN B. GORE et al.

331 386 332 387 333 388 334 389 335 390 336 391 337 392 338 393 339 394 340 395 341 396 342 397 343 398 344 399 345 400 346 401 347 402 348 403 349 404 350 405 351 406 352 407 353 408 354 409 355 410 356 411 Fig. 2 -357 Colour online, Colour in print 412 358 Fig. 2. Top left. Oasis-2 Station (66°16'28.59''S, 100°45'1.40''E). Top right. Part of Dobrowolski Station, surrounded by rubbish 413 359 and stacked equipment. The drum in the foreground was used for open burning (66°16'24.74''S, 100°44'43.28''E). Bottom left. 414 360 The four remaining huts comprising Base (66°15'0.33''S, 100°36'7.45''E). Bottom right. Damaged and rusted 415 361 vezdekhod vehicle (from the rear) at Oasis Station (66°16'23.64''S, 100°44'41.13''E). 416 362 417 363 418 364 419 365 Highjump, and a seaplane landing was made in At the end of 1958, Oasis Station was transferred to the 420 366 the following month. Byrd (1947) described the area as Polish Academy of Sciences for the continuation of 421 367 '…one of the most remarkable regions on earth. A place scientific investigations (Nudel'man 1966). The first 422 368 suitable for life had been found in a universe of death.' A group of Polish expeditioners reached Oasis Station (via 423 369 further short visit was made in January 1948 as part of Mirny) in mid-January 1959, and the official transfer 424 370 Operation Windmill (Alberts & Blodgett 1956). took place on 23 January 1959. The station was 425 371 The next visitors were members of the 1st Soviet renamed Dobrowolski, in honour of the Polish scientist, 426 372 Antarctic Expedition, who explored the area from 22 to Antoni Bøleslaw Dobrowolski, who had wintered 427 373 30 January 1956 (Avysuk et al. 1956, Nudel'man 1966). with Gerlache's Belgian expedition of 1897–1899. 428 374 These initial observations convinced the Soviet Dobrowolski Station was temporarily closed on 429 375 authorities to develop a scientific station in the region, 30 January 1959, with the intention that the party would 430 376 with the aim of determining the conditions that resulted return in the following summer. However, the next official 431 377 in the area being ice-free. The first loads of cargo were Polish expedition did not take place for 20 years. In the 432 378 flown from Mirny from 5 to 13 April 1956, and interim, occasional visits were made by Russian scientists 433 379 construction of the station was completed by the middle from Mirny. A short visit was also made by Australian 434 380 of October. Oasis (transliterated as Oazis or Oasis) Station expeditioners in March 1977, when an inspection of 435 381 (Figs 1 & 2) was inaugurated on 15 October 1956, when it Dobrowolski Station concluded that it was in excellent 436 382 consisted of three wooden buildings. Groups of scientists condition considering its age (Barker 1977). Interest in 437 383 were flown in from Mirny, and the base was continually Polish polar research was rekindled in the mid-1970s, 438 384 occupied until 17 November 1958, when it was closed which led to a group of scientists visiting Dobrowolski 439 385 (Table I). from 18 January to 21 February 1979. The station was 440 HUMAN IMPACTS IN BUNGER HILLS 5

441 reported to be 'in good condition,' even though it 'had not Methods 496 442 been used for 20 years' (Krzeminski & Wisniewski 1985). 497 443 A clean-up of the station environs was made at this time. All Universal Transverse Mercator 1 km grid squares in 498 444 Russian interest in Bunger Hills was renewed during this southern Bunger Hills were traversed on foot during the 499 445 period. Plans were made in 1985 for the construction of a 1995/1996 summer, with c. 60% revisited during January 500 446 new station in Bunger Hills (Shabad 1985), which was 2000. All observed anthropogenic items, vehicular tracks 501 447 built in the 1986/1987 summer and opened in early 1987 and paint marks were recorded, and their locations 502 448 (Filcek & Zielinski 1990). The station, named Oasis-2, noted within 30 m using handheld global positioning 503 449 consists of six wooden and metal-clad buildings situated systems. Items were categorized into 'in situ'or'ex situ' 504 450 near the shore of Algae Lake a few hundred metres to depending on whether the item remained where it had 505 451 the west of Dobrowolski Station. Regular summer visits been placed or formed ('in situ'; e.g. route markers, 506 452 of up to four months in duration were made to the vehicular tracks) or had been transported from elsewhere 507 453 station between 1986/1987 and 1993/1994, with Polish, by wind ('ex situ'; e.g. fibreglass shards, timber 508 454 German and American scientists joining the Russians. fragments). After mapping, as much rubbish as possible 509 455 The initial Australian visit resulted in the development was collected and shipped to Australia for disposal. 510 456 of a research programme in Bunger Hills, and a new Chemicals spilling from rusted drums at Oasis Station 511 457 summer field base, Edgeworth David, was officially were examined for their mineralogy. They were placed 512 458 opened on 8 February 1986. This base consisted of three in plastic Petri dishes, sealed with tape to prevent 513 459 prefabricated fibreglass 'apple' huts and two slightly desiccation or hydration and stored at ambient 514 460 longer 'melon' huts (Fig. 2) close to the shore of temperature until analysis. Samples were hand-milled 515 461 Transkriptsii Gulf. An additional apple hut being under acetone in an agate mortar and pestle to 516 462 transported as a helicopter sling load from MV fine powders before mounting on silicon crystal 517 463 Nella Dan to was dropped low-background holders. Analyses were performed using 518 464 accidentally and smashed somewhere over the ice shelf a Philips PW 1404 X-ray diffractometer using copper 519 465 or Edisto Ice Tongue during the establishment of the Kα radiation from 5° to 85°2θ in 0.05° steps, and with 520 466 base. Aircraft operations during this season created tube power settings of 40 kV and 40 mA. Diffractograms 521 467 small spills of fuel and oil that soaked to 30 cm depth were analysed using PANalytical HighScore+ software 522 468 into the sediment near the huts. Sampling and analyses a v. 2.2.1 with the 2013 International Centre for Diffraction 523 469 decade later (Gore et al. 1999) demonstrated very little Data Powder Diffraction File 2 inorganic mineralogical 524 470 change to the oil and only a little change to the kerosene, database and the FIZ Karlsruhe GmbH Inorganic Crystal 525 471 confirming long-term persistence of both products in the Structure Database. 526 472 sediment. One of the apple huts has since disappeared 527 473 while the base was unoccupied, and the presence of wire 528 474 guy ropes still in the ground and characteristic, bright red Results 529 475 fibreglass shards spread downwind confirm that the hut 530 476 had blown away between 1988 (when Australian explorer Traces of human presence were found throughout 531 477 Dick Smith visited and photographed it) and November southern Bunger Hills (Figs 3–6 & Table SI), with 532 478 1995, when two of the authors (DBG, MRL) visited and impacts identifiable from all phases of habitation of the 533 479 found the hut to be missing. Edgeworth David Base has area. Impacts could be separated into two categories; 534 480 been occupied intermittently by Australian and other in situ, where the material was placed or discarded; or 535 481 visitors since its establishment (Table I), and other short ex situ, where the material had been blown to its recorded 536 482 Australian visits have been made to refuel helicopters or position by strong wind. Items that were located in situ 537 483 fixed-wing aircraft en route between Davis and Casey were in general distributed across the hills. For example, 538 484 stations (Gibson 2000). ground disturbances were widespread, with prominent 539 485 The winds at Bunger Hills are similar to those of other tracks made by vehicles along the valleys connecting 540 486 rocky oases of the East Antarctic coastline (Table II). The Oasis Station, Cacapon Inlet and Transkriptsii Gulf. 541 487 modal wind direction is from the east, and this is also the These and other routes were marked with empty gas 542 -1 488 direction of the greatest recorded wind speed, at 56 m s . cylinders, emplaced as navigation aids in case of poor 543 -1 489 Winds of > 15 m s were recorded on 122 days of the year. visibility from blowing snow. As recently as 1992, 544 490 Measurements recorded at Edgeworth David Base in transport within the hills was in part by Russian steel- 545 491 January–March 1986 (AAD 2018, Gore & Leishman tracked personnel- and cargo-carrying all-terrain vehicles 546 492 2019) and for 18 months in 2000–2001 near White (vezdekhod; Fig. 2) (D. Andersen, personal communication 547 493 Smoke Lake, at the southern margin of Bunger Hills 1999), and therefore tracks could appear between the 548 494 near Apfel Glacier (Fig. 1), were in general agreement station, Transkriptsii Gulf where aircraft land and on 549 495 with the earlier data (Doran et al. 1996). common navigable routes to wherever research had been 550 6 DAMIAN B. GORE et al.

551 Table II. Summary of wind conditions at Oasis Station, November 1956–October 1958. 606 552 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 607 553 608 Average wind speed (m s-1) 6.4 5.2 5.1 10.0 7.6 4.5 7.4 8.6 7.7 5.1 7.7 5.8 6.8 554 609 Maximum wind speed (m s-1)34344056405048494040453456 555 Number of days with wind > 15 m s-1 9 6 9 17 13 7 12 15 13 7 8 6 122 610 556 611 Data from Nudel'man (1966) and Gregorczuk (1980). 557 612 558 613 559 614 560 615 561 616 562 617 563 618 564 619 565 620 566 621 567 622 568 623 569 624 570 625 571 626 572 627 573 628 574 629 575 630 576 631 577 632 578 633 579 634 580 635 581 636 582 637 583 638 584 639 585 640 586 641 587 642 588 643 589 644 590 645 591 646 592 647 593 648 594 649 595 650 596 651 597 652 Fig. 3 -598 Colour online, Colour in print 653 599 Fig. 3. Top left. Oasis/Dobrowolski showing derelict equipment and rubbish (66°16'25.89''S, 100°44'42.02''E). Top right. Glass and 654 600 metal stockpiled in open drums; some have tipped over, spilling their contents (66°16'24.80''S, 100°44'43.81''E). Middle left. 655 601 200 l fuel drums, leaking fuel line and diesel-soaked sediment (66°16'24.38''S, 100°44'55.67''E). Middle right. Engine oil on the 656 602 ground (lens cap = 75 mm diameter) (66°16'24.02''S, 100°44'40.62''E). Bottom left. Rusted drums leaking table salt and sodium 657 603 bicarbonate, which was probably used as washing powder (66°16'25.53''S, 100°44'37.56''E). Bottom right. Derelict buildings 658 604 forming Oasis Station. Canvas sheeting protecting the interior from snow ingress reflects the parlous state of the building 659 605 (66°16'28.67''S, 100°45'0.31''E). 660 HUMAN IMPACTS IN BUNGER HILLS 7

661 716 662 717 663 718 664 719 665 720 666 721 667 722 668 723 669 724 670 725 671 726 672 727 673 728 674 729 675 730 676 731 677 732 678 733 679 734 680 735 681 736 682 737 683 738 684 739 685 740 686 741 687 742 688 743 689 744 690 745 691 746 692 747 693 748 694 749 695 750 696 751 697 752 698 753 699 754 700 755 701 756 702 757 703 758 704 759 705 760 706 761

707 Fig. 4762 - B/W online, B/W in print 708 763 Fig. 4. Distribution of rubbish and impacts in southern Bunger Hills. The inset shows the wind rose recorded at Edgeworth David 709 Base in 1986. Some items were wind dispersed after use off-station, accounting for some light items upwind of human habitation. 764 710 Top. All rubbish and impacts displayed as in situ or ex situ,asdefined in the text. Bottom. Disturbed ground. This map represents 765 711 locations of soft sedimentary substrates along popular navigable routes that have been disturbed by human activities such as 766 712 driving vehicles. D = Dobrowolski Station; ED = Edgeworth David Base; O = Oasis-2 Station. 767 713 768 714 769 715 770 8 DAMIAN B. GORE et al.

771 826 772 827 773 828 774 829 775 830 776 831 777 832 778 833 779 834 780 835 781 836 782 837 783 838 784 839 785 840 786 841 787 842 788 843 789 844 790 845 791 846 792 847 793 848 794 849 795 850 796 851 797 852 798 853 799 854 800 855 801 856 802 857 803 858 804 859 805 860 806 861 807 862 808 863 809 864 810 865 811 866 812 867 813 868 814 869 815 870 816 871 Fig. 5 - B/W online, B/W in print 817 872 818 Fig. 5. Top. Distribution of fuel drums, which are mainly downwind of expedition activities. Bottom. Gas cylinders, which are 873 819 either near to Oasis-2 Station or mark navigable routes foroverland vehicles. D = Dobrowolski Station; ED = Edgeworth David Base; 874 820 O = Oasis-2 Station. 875 821 876 822 877 823 878 824 879 825 880 HUMAN IMPACTS IN BUNGER HILLS 9

881 936 882 937 883 938 884 939 885 940 886 941 887 942 888 943 889 944 890 945 891 946 892 947 893 948 894 949 895 950 896 951 897 952 898 953 899 954 900 955 901 956 902 957 903 958 904 959 905 960 906 961 907 962 908 963 909 964 910 965 911 966 912 967 913 968 914 969 915 970 916 971 917 972 918 973 919 974 920 975 921 976 922 977 923 978 924 979 925 980 926 981

927 Fig. 6982 - B/W online, B/W in print 928 983 Fig. 6. Top. Distribution of paper and plastic. Bottom. Wood and sheeting, including plywood and fibreglass. D = Dobrowolski 929 Station; ED = Edgeworth David Base; O = Oasis-2 Station. 984 930 985 931 986 932 undertaken, such as White Smoke Lake (Figs 1 & 4). hand-digging shallow trenches to route water away from 987 933 Significant disturbance was also recorded in the immediate the huts and areas cleared of boulders for helicopters to land. 988 934 area of Edgeworth David Base, where the flow lines of a Many items were found that had been put in place for 989 935 number of minor streams had been diverted by scientific or logistical purposes. An unserviceable boat 990 10 DAMIAN B. GORE et al.

991 was positioned next to Lake Polest (Figs 1 & 4), and a Discussion 1046 992 shovel had been left nearby where a shoreline had been 1047 993 sampled. Large writing had been painted on rocks in There is a widespread distribution of physical impacts 1048 994 a number of places adjacent to where mumiyo (e.g. by steel-tracked vehicles on soft sediment shorelines) 1049 995 (a proventricular oil ejected by snow petrels as a defence and in situ debris that occurs as a consequence of station 1050 996 mechanism from avian predators) had been sampled for operation (e.g. gas bottles as trail markers), carelessness 1051 997 radiometric dating. An abandoned pluviometer remains (e.g. broken and abandoned boats), laziness (e.g. discarded 1052 998 in the south-west of the hills. wire rope winches) or vandalism (e.g. most of the broken 1053 999 Ex situ debris, including empty fuel drums (Fig. 5), glass, much of which is derived from bottles smashed on 1054 1000 wood, plastic, fibreglass (shards from one of the apple the ground). At least these impacts are immobile, and they 1055 1001 huts from Edgeworth David Base, and a broken are unlikely to occur in modern times as a result of better 1056 1002 fibreglass dinghy at the outlet from Algae Lake; Fig. 6) expeditioner training and attitudes. However, the obvious 1057 1003 and smaller pieces of metal, were distributed mostly in a impacts of national expeditions and scientificresearchat 1058 1004 narrow zone downwind, to the west–north-west of Oasis Bunger Hills are exemplars of what has happened at many 1059 1005 and Dobrowolski stations and Edgeworth David Base. areas studied since the 1957/1958 International Polar Year. 1060 1006 Most of the windblown debris from Oasis and All areas will be affected to a greater or lesser degree, no 1061 1007 Dobrowolski stations travelled along the northern side of matter how stringent the environmental protections set in 1062 1008 Algae Lake and through the narrow gorge that connects place. However, Bunger Hills shows the effects of 1063 1009 Algae Lake to Izvilistaya Inlet, and Transkriptsii Gulf particularly insensitive activity and ineffective protection. 1064 1010 (Figs 1 & 4–6). In contrast, ex situ (windblown) debris is most abundant 1065 1011 Some of the impacts of human habitation in Bunger downwind of the research stations and bases, and it has been 1066 1012 Hills are cryptic because they have soaked into the found kilometres downwind and even on the edge of the 1067 1013 sediment. Fuel spills were apparent at Dobrowolski Edisto Ice Tongue (Fig. 1). The strongest winds and most 1068 1014 Station, Oasis Station and Edgeworth David Base prevalent winds are from the east (Gore & Leishman 1069 1015 during the refuelling or repair of aircraft, vehicles or 2019), causing lighter debris to be blown by the wind from 1070 1016 other equipment. Heavy lubricating oil was found areas of expeditioner operations to their current locations. 1071 1017 ponded on the ground surface at Oasis Station Perhaps of greatest obvious concern is the actual and 1072 1018 (Fig. 3). potential loss of huts. Huts retain their integrity as long 1073 1019 Broken lead-acid vehicle batteries and other chemicals as winds cannot penetrate them, but when strong winds 1074 1020 found around the Oasis-Dobrowolski region (Fig. 3) gain ingress the structures can fail with large-scale 1075 1021 could contaminate Algae Lake with metals, notably iron dispersal of debris from the hut and its contents. 1076 1022 and lead. Hundreds of empty steel fuel drums, gas Conspicuous red fibreglass shards confirm the 1077 1023 cylinders, derelict equipment, shallow soil pits part-filled destruction of one apple hut at Edgeworth David Base, 1078 1024 with human hair, plastic burnt on the soil surface and a but the fate of its contents (if any) are unknown. The 1079 1025 barbeque drum are all sources of inorganic and organic loss of this hut occurred within 10 years of its 1080 1026 contamination of the environment. X-ray diffractometry installation at Edgeworth David Base. Fibreglass huts 1081 1027 of three subsamples of white chemicals leaking from suffer from abrasion by sand and ice on their upwind 1082 1028 12 rusted and split steel drums (Fig. 3)revealedamixture sides, which is particularly pronounced where the 1083 1029 of the minerals - halite (NaCl), trona (sodium hydrogen sediment is sandy. The huts at Edgeworth David Base 1084 1030 bis(carbonate) dihydrate) (Na3(CO3)(HCO3)·2(H2O)) and have upwind edges where the fibreglass has been abraded 1085 1031 sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) - that was probably used as thin. Spindrift (a fine, windblown snow) was observed in 1086 1032 washing powder. early 1996 to gain entry through some of the fibreglass 1087 1033 Pollution of lakes, whether by chemicals or due to apple hut walls, demonstrating how thin they had 1088 1034 capture of rubbish, was not assessed in this study. become from abrasion by blowing sand. Emergency 1089 1035 However, one of the steel-tracked vezdekhod vehicles is fibreglass reinforcement was made to several of these 1090 1036 known to have been driven into Lake Polest. The huts in early 1996, but given how rapidly this erosion 1091 1037 chemical and physical impacts of this event are has occurred (the huts were new in 1985) they should be 1092 1038 unknown; the vehicle was subsequently recovered and checked for maintenance requirements at least every five 1093 1039 restarted, and it is now probably one of the two derelict, years. The same concerns exist for the older huts at Oasis/ 1094 1040 rusted vezdekhod at Oasis Station. Further impacts may Dobrowolski, where emergency repairs made of canvas lie 1095 1041 accrue from a Russian plane dating from the early 1960s in tatters (Fig. 3), confirming the parlous state of the 1096 1042 that lies at a depth of c. 12 m in Algae Lake close to structure. Once these huts disintegrate - and the same 1097 1043 Oasis Station (D. Andersen, personal communication principle holds of field structures anywhere in Antarctica - 1098 1044 1999). then large masses of debris will be available for dispersal by 1099 1045 1100 HUMAN IMPACTS IN BUNGER HILLS 11

1101 strong winds. This needless environmental impact could be found in paints and sealants in buildings in the Arctic 1156 1102 readily prevented by periodic checking and occasional ( et al. 2001) and the indoor and outdoor 1157 1103 maintenance. If checking and maintenance cannot be environments of Antarctic bases (Hale et al. 2008, 1158 1104 undertaken within a reasonable period (e.g. 10 years) that Wild et al. 2015). Older buildings in particular may contain 1159 1105 ensures that damage to the environment should not occur, many of these persistent organic pollutants, and testing also 1160 1106 then the huts should be removed and replaced on an needs to be conducted in order to understand the threat to 1161 1107 as-needed basis by future expeditions. Before the removal of the Antarctic environment that these old structures may pose. 1162 1108 items, consideration should be paid to heritage potential; 1163 1109 however, in our opinion, heritage items should also not be 1164 Conclusions 1110 permitted to create further environmental damage. 1165 1111 Many different types of human impacts have not been 1166 Debris in Bunger Hills was mapped and classified 1112 assessed in this paper, and there is a need for additional 1167 according to whether it was created or discarded in situ, 1113 data describing the impacts of national programmes on 1168 or whether they had been moved by strong winds to 1114 the environment. At Bunger Hills, some of the more 1169 their present positions. Wind-dispersed debris was 1115 important impacts yet to be assessed include species 1170 particularly prevalent downwind from the two stations 1116 invasions, trampling by pedestrians and vehicles and 1171 in the central part of the hills and the one base in the 1117 chemical contaminants. 1172 west. One hut has already been destroyed by strong 1118 Biological invasions of plants and insects have been noted 1173 winds and blown away, and several other huts are 1119 on the sub-Antarctic islands (Frenot et al. 2005, 1174 degraded and in a weakened state. Governments and 1120 Chwedorzewska et al. 2013). Alien species are rarer on the 1175 national Antarctic programmes have obligations under 1121 continent, but algae and fungi have been noted from 1176 the and the charters of many 1122 Schirmacher Oasis, Vestfold Hills and Windmill Islands in 1177 of the national Antarctic programmes to prevent damage 1123 East Antarctica (Frenot et al. 2005), the latter two being 1178 to the environment, and this may entail maintaining 1124 the major ice-free areas to the west and east of Bunger 1179 bases and huts every five years or so, or removing them 1125 Hills, respectively. More recent work has highlighted the 1180 within a reasonable period of their construction or 1126 possibility for faecal pollution and gene transfer from 1181 emplacement. Specific recommendations include: 1127 humans into the terrestrial (Hughes & Nobbs 2004)and 1182 1128 marine (Power et al. 2016,Starket al. 2016) environments, 1. Checking huts, other infrastructure and associated 1183 1129 and this aspect requires further investigation at Bunger material periodically and maintaining them before 1184 1130 Hills. Expeditioners based at Edgeworth David had repair work becomes essential. 1185 1131 previously flown out human faecal matter for disposal at 2. Removing huts, other infrastructure and associated 1186 1132 sea or at Casey Station, but sewage disposal practise at material (including waste dumps and wind-dispersed 1187 1133 Dobrowolski/Oasis is not known. Invasion of alien species, debris) that are no longer required. 1188 1134 such as soil and moss invertebrates, has not yet been assessed. 3. Assessing and monitoring the environment for known 1189 1135 Disturbance of sediments from overland vehicles is (metal, petroleum hydrocarbon) and emerging (e.g. per- 1190 1136 widespread across Bunger Hills. In places where the and poly-fluoroalkyl substances) contaminants and 1191 1137 substrate is rockier, tracks made by vehicles are less remediating if necessary. 1192 1138 distinct, and in areas of soft sediment such as glacial 4. Assessing and monitoring the environment for alien 1193 1139 lake and marine shorelines, the disturbance in places is invasions, comprising either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. 1194 1140 marked. Those areas of soft sediment are, unfortunately, 5. Considering monitoring and enhancing the recovery of 1195 1141 more comfortable to drive on and have formed preferred sediment surfaces from physical disturbance. 1196 1142 routes for vehicles. Given that the subsurface sands have 1197 1143 retained strata from their time of deposition thousands Acknowledgements 1198 1144 of years ago, it is doubtful as to whether recovery is 1199 1145 possible, apart from by infilling of the disturbed surfaces We thank the Australian Antarctic Division for logistical 1200 1146 by windblown sand over time. Fortunately, the stations and financial support under AAP 926, Damian Flynn, 1201 1147 and base in Bunger Hills are far from the centres of plant Belinda Harding, Don Hudspeth and Garry Kuehn for 1202 1148 species richness and abundance (Gibson et al. 2019), and help in the field, Mike Ashelford for helping to draft the 1203 1149 pedestrian traffic has not yet caused much damage to figures and Danielle Toáse and Kevin Hughes for 1204 1150 mossbeds or lichens (cf. Pertierra et al. 2013b). A method reviews of the manuscript. 1205 1151 for assessing the recovery of these sedimentary surfaces 1206 1152 should be considered (cf. O'Neill et al. 2012, 2013). 1207 Author contributions 1153 Chemical contaminants, particularly petroleum 1208 1154 hydrocarbons, have already been noted at Bunger Hills All authors conceived the ideas and conducted fieldwork, 1209 1155 (Gore et al. 1999). Persistent organic pollutants have been data analysis, writing and proofing of the manuscript. 1210 12 DAMIAN B. GORE et al.

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