Aurora Australis, Davis station. Image © Frederique Olivier Frederique © Image station. Davis Australis, Aurora represents one micron (1,000 of a millimetre). a of (1,000 micron one represents Ocean. The white horizontal bar at the right of the information bar below the image image the below bar information the of right the at bar horizontal white The Ocean. squid, penguins and other seabirds, seals and whales. and seals seabirds, other and penguins squid, considered sustainable in Australia’s management region. management Australia’s in sustainable considered A coccolithophore and a diatom from a sample of water taken in the Southern Southern the in taken water of sample a from diatom a and coccolithophore A Krill are important in the diet of a large range of fish, fish, of range large a of diet the in important are Krill by CCAMLR and the Australian Government, and are are and Government, Australian the and CCAMLR by feed on the phytoplankton and often form vast swarms. swarms. vast form often and phytoplankton the on feed levels for toothfish and icefish are evaluated annually annually evaluated are icefish and toothfish for levels has been estimated to be around 500 million tonnes. Krill Krill tonnes. million 500 around be to estimated been has Exclusive Economic Zones in the Southern Ocean. Fishing Fishing Ocean. Southern the in Zones Economic Exclusive ), whose total population population total whose ), superba Euphausia ( krill Antarctic seen the elimination of illegal fishing from the Australian Australian the from fishing illegal of elimination the seen abundant animal is the 5 centimetre-long, shrimp-like shrimp-like centimetre-long, 5 the is animal abundant vessels and regulations established by CCAMLR have have CCAMLR by established regulations and vessels which in turn support the rich marine fauna. The most most The fauna. marine rich the support turn in which of the fishery, however, actions by Australian patrol patrol Australian by actions however, fishery, the of growth of microscopic floating plant cells (phytoplankton), (phytoplankton), cells plant floating microscopic of growth for toothfish is a serious problem for the sustainability sustainability the for problem serious a is toothfish for light levels and locally abundant nutrients promote the rapid rapid the promote nutrients abundant locally and levels light ). Illegal fishing fishing Illegal ). gunnari (Champsocephalus icefish mackerel In the spring and summer, after the sea ice breaks up, high high up, breaks ice sea the after summer, and spring the In ) and and ) eleginoides (Dissostichus toothfish Patagonian – Island around Heard Island, McDonald Islands and Macquarie Macquarie and Islands McDonald Island, Heard around and ocean, and the biology of the Southern Ocean. Southern the of biology the and ocean, and two species in the Australian Exclusive Economic Zones Zones Economic Exclusive Australian the in species two oceanic circulation, heat flow between the atmosphere atmosphere the between flow heat circulation, oceanic (CCAMLR). Further north, Australia manages fisheries for for fisheries manages Australia north, Further (CCAMLR). the planet, and has a profound influence on the global global the on influence profound a has and planet, the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Resources Living Marine Antarctic of Conservation of this sea ice is one of the greatest seasonal events on on events seasonal greatest the of one is ice sea this of an international agreement – the Convention on the the on Convention the – agreement international an separated, water began to circulate around Antarctica in the the in Antarctica around circulate to began water separated, ocean is ice covered. The annual formation and melting melting and formation annual The covered. ice is ocean fished. Fisheries south of 60 °S are now managed under under managed now are °S 60 of south Fisheries fished. near or over the South Geographic Pole. Once the continents continents the Once Pole. Geographic South the over or near in September, some 19 million square kilometres of of kilometres square million 19 some September, in until 1980, resulting in several species being over- being species several in resulting 1980, until south and for the last 350 million years Antarctica has been been has Antarctica years million 350 last the for and south average thickness of about one metre. At its maximum maximum its At metre. one about of thickness average Fishing in the Southern Ocean was largely unregulated unregulated largely was Ocean Southern the in Fishing South America and India. The entire super-continent moved moved super-continent entire The India. and America South Every winter the sea around Antarctica freezes to an an to freezes Antarctica around sea the winter Every Fish Stocks Fish years ago eventually to form Antarctica, Australia, Africa, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, form to eventually ago years mining and oil drilling). oil and mining moves a vast amount of heat, salt and carbon dioxide. carbon and salt heat, of amount vast a moves of Gondwana, which began to break up about 160 million million 160 about up break to began which Gondwana, of living and non-living resources of Antarctica (excluding (excluding Antarctica of resources non-living and living Current is the largest ocean current in the world and and world the in current ocean largest the is Current Antarctica was part of the ancient southern super-continent super-continent southern ancient the of part was Antarctica derive any reasonable economic benefits from the the from benefits economic reasonable any derive • 2 °C at the Polar Frontal Zone. The Antarctic Circumpolar Circumpolar Antarctic The Zone. Frontal Polar the at °C 2 2 warming by reducing CO reducing by warming uptake by the Southern Ocean. Southern the by uptake in a region geographically close to Australia; and Australia; to close geographically region a in their lives at sea, only coming ashore to breed and moult. and breed to ashore coming only sea, at lives their southern parts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to about about to Current Circumpolar Antarctic the of parts southern large-scale ecosystem changes could accelerate global global accelerate could changes ecosystem large-scale be informed about and able to influence developments developments influence to able and about informed be • and other birds characteristic of Antarctica spend most of of most spend Antarctica of characteristic birds other and range from the freezing point of sea water (-1.8 °C) in the the in °C) (-1.8 water sea of point freezing the from range animals to form shells from calcium carbonate. Such Such carbonate. calcium from shells form to animals much of which is as yet undescribed. The seals, penguins penguins seals, The undescribed. yet as is which of much acts as a barrier to marine organisms. Water temperatures temperatures Water organisms. marine to barrier a as acts confrontation; plant productivity, and reducing the ability of plants and and plants of ability the reducing and productivity, plant sea around Antarctica teems with a rich diversity of life – – life of diversity rich a with teems Antarctica around sea large temperature difference across the Polar Frontal Zone Zone Frontal Polar the across difference temperature large maintain Antarctica free from strategic and/or political political and/or strategic from free Antarctica maintain • or ‘sea butterflies’) by affecting their physiology, reducing reducing physiology, their affecting by butterflies’) ‘sea or associated with these plant communities. In contrast, the the contrast, In communities. plant these with associated descends beneath warmer northern waters. The relatively relatively The waters. northern warmer beneath descends organisms (such as diatoms, foraminifera and pteropods, pteropods, and foraminifera diatoms, as (such organisms special qualities and effects on our region; our on effects and qualities special near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. Tiny animals are are animals Tiny Peninsula. Antarctic the of tip the near 55 °S where cold, dense Antarctic water meets and and meets water Antarctic dense cold, where °S 55 abundance, diversity and productivity of Antarctic marine marine Antarctic of productivity and diversity abundance, protect the Antarctic environment, having regard to its its to regard having environment, Antarctic the protect • in ice-free areas. Two species of flowering plants occur occur plants flowering of species Two areas. ice-free in around situated boundary oceanic an Zone, Frontal Polar to ocean acidification. Acidification is predicted to alter the the alter to predicted is Acidification acidification. ocean to offers for scientific research; scientific for offers microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) are found found are fungi) and bacteria as (such microorganisms 2 the is Current Circumpolar Antarctic easterly the Within CO dissolves in cold sea water, it is particularly vulnerable vulnerable particularly is it water, sea cold in dissolves take advantage of the special opportunities Antarctica Antarctica opportunities special the of advantage take • Plants (such as mosses, lichens and algae) and and algae) and lichens mosses, as (such Plants 2 important ‘sink’ for atmospheric CO atmospheric for ‘sink’ important but, because more more because but, The Southern Ocean Southern The adjacent offshore areas; offshore adjacent Few terrestrial life forms permanently inhabit Antarctica. Antarctica. inhabit permanently forms life terrestrial