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Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment of Potential Transportation-Related Bakken and Dilbit Crude Oil Spills in the Delaware Bay Watershed, USA

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Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment of Potential Transportation-Related Bakken and Dilbit Crude Oil Spills in the Delaware Bay Watershed, USA Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Article Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment of Potential Transportation-related Bakken and Dilbit Crude Oil Spills in the Delaware Bay Watershed, USA Ann Hayward Walker 1,*, Clay Stern 2, Debra Scholz 3, Eric Nielsen 4, Frank Csulak 5 and Rich Gaudiosi 6 1 SEA Consulting Group, Cape Charles, VA 23310, USA 2 US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Galloway, NJ 08205, USA; [email protected] 3 SEA Consulting Group, Charleston, SC 29412, USA; [email protected] 4 US Coast Guard (USCG), Sector Delaware Bay, Philadelphia, PA 19147, USA; [email protected] 5 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Emergency Response Division, Highlands, NJ 07732, USA; [email protected] 6 Delaware Bay and River Cooperative, Inc. (DBRC), Lewes, DE 19958, USA; [email protected] * Correspondance: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-757-331-1787 Academic Editor: Merv Fingas Received: 16 January 2016; Accepted: 17 February 2016; Published: 7 March 2016 Abstract: Unconventionally-produced crude oils, i.e., Bakken oil and bitumen diluted for transport and known as dilbit, have become prominent components of the North American petroleum industry. Spills of these oils have occurred during transport from production areas to refineries via pipeline, rail, and barge. Some of their physical and chemical properties are distinct and present new challenges in mitigating spill impacts on people and the environment. This paper describes the adaptation of a qualitative risk assessment process to improve spill preparedness and response decisions for these oils when transported in an estuarine area. The application of this collaborative, interdisciplinary process drew upon a literature review, the local knowledge and experience of a broad set of decision makers, practitioners, and technical experts who developed consensus-based recommendations aimed at improving response to spills of these oils. Two emphasized components of this consensus ecological risk assessment (CERA) concerned risks: (1) to human health and safety and (2) from spilled oil and the associated response actions on endangered species. Participants in the process defined levels of concern associated with Bakken and dilbit oils relative to a set of response actions in freshwater, brackish and saltwater habitats and on resources at risk. Keywords: Bakken; bitumen; dilbit; risk assessment; oil spill; response; preparedness; endangered species; threatened species; consensus; human health 1. Introduction Crude oils produced by unconventional methods in North America have become marketable resources used to meet energy demand in the United States (U.S.) and elsewhere. Unconventional crude oils derive from two sources. In the U.S., hydraulic fracturing technologies have been widely applied to extract oil from shale formations or other typically inaccessible, low-permeability rocks. In Canada, petroleum products have been extracted from “oil sands” or “tar sands” [1]. An oil shale formation is a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing a solid material (kerogen) that converts to liquid oil when heated. Oil shale deposits globally occur in 37 countries; the largest and highest quality oil shale deposits are located in sparsely populated areas of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming [2]. Estimated volumes of these oil reserves have increased steadily over the last six years to 39.9 billion barrels in 2014, which represents an increase of 9.3% over the previous year [3]. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2016, 4, 23; doi:10.3390/jmse4010023 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2016, 4, 23 2 of 26 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2016, 4, 23 2 of 26 TheThe crudecrude oilsoils producedproduced fromfrom oiloil shaleshale formationsformations andand tartar sandssands fieldsfields areare beingbeing transportedtransported byby pipeline,pipeline, rail,rail, bargebarge andand tankertanker toto refineriesrefineries andand marketmarket centerscenters (Figure(Figure1 1).). Crude Crude oil oil with with high high sulfur sulfur contentcontent isis referredreferred toto asas “sour”,“sour”, whilewhile oiloil withwith lowlow sulfursulfur contentcontent isis consideredconsidered “sweet“sweet oil”.oil”. BakkenBakken oiloil isis classifiedclassified asas aa light,light, sweetsweet crudecrude oil,oil, whichwhich isis transportedtransported fromfrom shaleshale formationsformations toto marketmarket byby railrail carscars [[4],4], oftenoften inin asas manymany asas 100100 carscars inin aa singlesingle shipment,shipment, referredreferred toto asas aa unitunit train.train. BitumenBitumen isis aa heavy,heavy, sour sour oil oil derived derived from from oil oil sandsand formationsformations in in Alberta,Alberta, Canada.Canada. ItIt is a mixture of heavy oil, sand, clayclay andand water;water; thenthen separatedseparated fromfrom thethe sandsand andand waterwater inin aa centrifuge.centrifuge. BitumenBitumen isis mixedmixed withwith aboutabout 30%30% ofof diluentsdiluents in in order order to to decrease decrease viscosity viscosity and and facilitate facilitate flow flow during during transportation transportation via via pipeline; pipeline; it isit knownis known as dilutedas diluted bitumen, bitumen, or “dilbit”. or “dilbit”. When When transported transported by rail, by rail, bitumen bitumen is diluted is diluted about about 15% with 15% awith diluent a diluent and then and known then known as “railbit” as “railbit” [5]. [5]. FigureFigure 1.1. Major rail transportation arteriesarteries forfor oiloil acrossacross NorthNorth AmericaAmerica [[4].4]. Recent transportation‐related incidents have resulted in spills of these unconventional crude oils Recent transportation-related incidents have resulted in spills of these unconventional crude oils (Table 1). Bakken and dilbit oils exhibit some properties which present distinct issues for emergency (Table1). Bakken and dilbit oils exhibit some properties which present distinct issues for emergency responders. Bakken oils are highly volatile and soluble in water. Accidents involving unit trains that responders. Bakken oils are highly volatile and soluble in water. Accidents involving unit trains are transporting Bakken oil have led to serious fires and loss of life. Dilbit oil is heavy crude oil. that are transporting Bakken oil have led to serious fires and loss of life. Dilbit oil is heavy crude oil. Compared to medium or light crude oils, it is characterized by exceptionally high density, viscosity, Compared to medium or light crude oils, it is characterized by exceptionally high density, viscosity, and adhesion properties from the bitumen component of the diluted bitumen. For both these crude and adhesion properties from the bitumen component of the diluted bitumen. For both these crude oils, these properties affect weathering behavior (physical and chemical changes of spilled oil from oils, these properties affect weathering behavior (physical and chemical changes of spilled oil from its its initial release over time) in the environment, especially when dilbit is spilled into waterways. initial release over time) in the environment, especially when dilbit is spilled into waterways. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2016, 4, 23 3 of 26 Table 1. Examples of recent transportation-related incidents involving spills of dilbit and Bakken crude oil [6–14]. Description Volume Comments Dilbit Oil ‚ The Kalamazoo River is bordered by marshland and developed Enbridge Energy Partners Limited properties for the approximate Liability Partnership‘s (Enbridge) 30-mile stretch of the 30-inch pipeline ruptured releasing response site its contents, i.e., dilbit (report to the ‚ Variety of tactics to collect the oil: June 2010—Marshall, National Response Center was 19,500 spraying the sediments with Michigan, USA bbls) into a culvert leading to the water, dragging chains through Tallmadge Creek, a tributary of the the sediments, agitating Kalamazoo River. The oil sank to the sediments by hand with a rake, river's bottom and collateral damage and driving back and forth with resulted from recovery tactics. a tracked vehicle to stir up the sediments and release oil trapped in the mud ‚ Approximately 62 homes evacuated ‚ Wetland vegetation, waterfowl ExxonMobil’s 20-inch “Pegasus and various other wildlife Pipeline” ruptured near Mayflower, were impacted Arkansas. Approximately 5000 bbls of ‚ Personnel on Site (250 in March 2013—Mayflower, dilbit (Canadian Wabasca heavy crude Command Post/440 in Field) Arkansas, USA oil from the Athabasca oil sands) ‚ 663 ExxonMobil personnel spilled into the surrounding area and and contractors flowed into Lake Conway. ‚ 23 Vacuum Trucks ‚ 85 Frac tanks ‚ 9593 ft. Hard Boom and 241,290 ft. of Soft Boom Bakken Oil A CSX train carrying Bakken crude oil in a 105-car train, jumped the rails ‚ No fatalities or injuries causing 13-unit cars to derail and some ‚ Fire permitted to burn April 2014—Lynchburg, were damaged. The derailment ‚ Soil and vegetation was coated Virginia, USA sparked a large fire that forced the with crude oil evacuation of six city blocks; 3 cars ‚ 17-mile oil slick in the submerged in the James River, and James River 30,000 gals of oil were released. ‚ 65-mile closure of the Lower Mississippi River for 2 days ‚ Total oil recovered: 95 gals The Tank Barge E2MS 303 collided (2.3 bbls) with the towboat Lindsay Ann ‚ Reports of high concentrations of Erickson on the Lower Mississippi February 2014—Mississippi benzene vapors during River (between Baton Rouge and New River, Louisiana, USA lightering operations Orleans), causing a spill of ‚
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