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Article: Geometric Processing of Remote Sensing Lands and Islands – a Review, Quaternary Int., 241, 3–25, Images: Models, Algorithms and Methods, Int

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Article: Geometric Processing of Remote Sensing Lands and Islands – a Review, Quaternary Int., 241, 3–25, Images: Models, Algorithms and Methods, Int EGU Journal Logos (RGB) Open Access Open Access Open Access Advances in Annales Nonlinear Processes Geosciences Geophysicae in Geophysics Open Access Open Access Natural Hazards Natural Hazards and Earth System and Earth System Sciences Sciences Discussions Open Access Open Access Atmospheric Atmospheric Chemistry Chemistry and Physics and Physics Discussions Open Access Open Access Atmospheric Atmospheric Measurement Measurement Techniques Techniques Discussions Open Access Biogeosciences, 10, 4297–4318, 2013 Open Access www.biogeosciences.net/10/4297/2013/ Biogeosciences doi:10.5194/bg-10-4297-2013 Biogeosciences Discussions © Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Open Access Open Access Climate Climate of the Past of the Past Discussions Short- and long-term thermo-erosion of ice-rich permafrost coasts Open Access in the Laptev Sea region Open Access Earth System Earth System F. Gunther¨ 1, P. P. Overduin1, A. V. Sandakov2, G. Grosse3, and M. N. Grigoriev2 Dynamics Dynamics 1Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany Discussions 2Melnikov Permafrost Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Yakutsk, Russia 3 Open Access Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska, Fairbanks, USA Geoscientific Geoscientific Open Access Correspondence to: F. Gunther¨ ([email protected]) Instrumentation Instrumentation Methods and Methods and Received: 19 January 2013 – Published in Biogeosciences Discuss.: 15 February 2013 Revised: 16 May 2013 – Accepted: 20 May 2013 – Published: 27 June 2013 Data Systems Data Systems Discussions Open Access Open Access Geoscientific Abstract. Permafrost coasts in the Arctic are susceptible between study sites andGeoscientific over time, but also within single to a variety of changing environmental factors all of which coastal transects along the cliff profile. Varying intensities Model Development Model Development currently point to increasing coastal erosion rates and mass of cliff bottom and top erosion are leading to diverse quali- Discussions fluxes of sediment and carbon to the shallow arctic shelf ties of coastal erosion that have different impacts on coastal seas. Rapid erosion along high yedoma coasts composed of mass fluxes. The different extents of Ice Complex permafrost Open Access Open Access Ice Complex permafrost deposits creates impressive coastal degradation within ourHydrology study sites turned and out to influence Hydrology and ice cliffs and inspired research for designing and implement- not only the degree of coupling between TD and TA, and ing change detection studies for a long time, but continuous the magnitude of effectivelyEarth eroded System volumes, but also the Earth System quantitative monitoring and a qualitative inventory of coastal quantity of organic carbon releasedSciences to the shallow Laptev Sciences thermo-erosion for large coastline segments is still lacking. Sea from coastal erosion, which ranged on a long-term from Discussions ± ± Open Access Our goal is to use observations of thermo-erosion along the 88 21 to 800 61 t per km coastline per yearOpen Access and will cor- mainland coast of the Laptev Sea, in eastern Siberia, to un- respond to considerably higher amounts, if recently observed derstand how it depends on coastal geomorphology and the more rapid coastal erosion rates prove to be persistent. Ocean Science Ocean Science relative contributions of water level and atmospheric drivers. Discussions We compared multi-temporal sets of orthorectified satellite imagery from 1965 to 2011 for three segments of coastline 1 Introduction Open Access ranging in length from 73 to 95 km and analyzed thermo- Open Access denudation (TD) along the cliff top and thermo-abrasion Coastal erosion as a physical process along the marginal (TA) along the cliff bottom for two nested time periods: long- Solid Earth arctic shelf seas attracts increasedSolid Earth attention not only in term rates (the past 39–43 yr) and short-term rates (the past periglacial research and marine geosciences (e.g. Brown Discussions 1–4 yr). The Normalized Difference Thermo-erosion Index et al., 2003; Grigoriev and Rachold, 2003; Charkin et al., (NDTI) was used as a proxy to qualitatively describe the rel- 2011; Vasiliev et al., 2011), but also in the public awareness ative proportions of TD and TA. Mean annual erosion rates at Open Access Open Access in terms of rapid responses of coastal erosion due to climate all three sites were higher in recent years (−5.3 ± 1.3 m a−1) warming, leading to landscape instability and increased haz- than over the long-term mean (−2.2 ± 0.1 m a−1). The Ma- The Cryosphere ard exposure (ForbesThe, 2011 ).Cryosphere Because of recently decreasing montov Klyk coast exhibits primarily spatial variations of Discussions sea ice extent (Comiso et al., 2008; Maslanik et al., 2011), thermo-erosion, while intrasite-specific variations caused by larger fetch (Asplin et al., 2012), wave action and storm ac- local relief were strongest at the Buor Khaya coast, where tivity (Jones et al., 2009a), a doubling in the duration of the slowest long-term rates of around −0.5 ± 0.1 m a−1 were the open water season (Overeem et al., 2011), and rising observed. The Oyogos Yar coast showed continuously rapid air, permafrost, and sea water temperatures during the last erosion up to −6.5 ± 0.2 m a−1. In general, variable charac- decades (Romanovsky et al., 2010; Dmitrenko et al., 2011; teristics of coastal thermo-erosion were observed not only AMAP, 2011), erosion of arctic permafrost coasts and land Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 4298 F. Gunther¨ et al.: Coastal thermo-erosion in the Laptev Sea 110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E cluding the ice complex (in Russian “ledovyi kompleks”; -5 00 -100 -1000 0 also called yedoma) and thermokarst (also called alas) de- -200 -5 A r c n posits (e.g. Schirrmeister et al., 2011b). Geomorphologically, t i a yr c O c e im -20 yedoma constitutes hilly uplands and alas low lying basins, a T N N lands ° establishing local differences in elevation, e.g. up to 27 m in ° Is an 5 5 ri e 7 7 Sib ew the Lena Delta (Ulrich et al., 2010). Both types of deposits N 0 -1 East also contain high amounts of ground ice and soil organic car- Laptev Sea Siberian Lygi bon (Schirrmeister et al., 2011a; Strauss et al., 2012), making Terpyai Lyakhov Sea Tumus Islands them generally very vulnerable to carbon mobilization from O 0 Mamontov len -2 D yo mitry Laptev Strait k disturbances (e.g. Grosse et al., 2011), especially in coastal A Klyk Ba Svyatoi n y a a Nos b Len Delta Oyogos settings (Grigoriev et al., 2004; Semiletov et al., 2011). - a O 20 r- l O e Yar n le y Buor n o Thermo-erosion creates coastal cliffs with geomorpholog- yo k Khaya k l Yana owla Tiksi Gulf d nd /" Bay an ical features unique to ice-rich coastlines. Two mass trans- 0 l 1 - w Buor a lo igirk port processes that combine thermal and mechanical forces to Ind a Khaya Yana n e y a N N n ° erode the coastline are thermo-denudation (TD) and thermo- o ° L l a Y 0 0 o Kilometers 7 7 Sakha (Yakutia) Russian Federation m O 0 50 100 200 abrasion (TA) (see Are, 1978, 1988a,b; Dupeyrat et al., 2011, and Fig. 2). TA is defined as the combined mechanical and Fig. 1. Location of the study sites within the Laptev Sea region. thermal effects of impinging wave energy at the shoreline. Analyzed coastline sections are marked as red lines and comprise TD is defined as the combined influence of solar insola- from west to east: Mamontov Klyk, Buor Khaya and Oyogos Yar. tion and heat advection, influencing the energy balance at the ground surface above the water level, and can be con- ceived as periglacial coastal landslides. As an agent of TD, loss are expected to increase. Increased material fluxes in the melt water from ground ice causes water saturation on coastal nearshore zone, including sediment, organic matter, and nu- slopes, enabling gelifluction of blocks and mud stream devel- trients, affect marine ecosystems and primary production in opment. In addition to erosion products resulting from TA, arctic coastal habitats (Wassmann, 2011). The Arctic Ocean TD on coastal cliffs delivers eroded clastic material to the is the most land-dominated ocean basin, because of its large cliff’s bottom edge and to the shore platform. Often, addi- continental catchments (Peterson et al., 2002), where terrige- tional processes such as thermo-niche development and me- neous dissolved organic carbon is mobilized from high lat- chanical failure of ice-wedge polygonal blocks along eroding itude carbon-rich soils and peatlands (Benner et al., 2004). coasts enhance mass transport rates. We adopt the definition Permafrost affected arctic coasts make up approximately of thermo-erosion of the permafrost coast of Are (1988a) as 34 % of the world’s coastlines (Lantuit et al., 2011b), and the combined effects of TD and TA. feature a unique suite of coastal processes with strong sea- Ice Complex coasts have been studied by other re- sonality, cold temperatures, permafrost, and sea ice, found searchers. For instance, Kaplina (1959) describes the accel- nowhere else except Antarctica (Forbes, 2011). In the Laptev eration of coastal erosion in connection with the occurence Sea region, 25 % of the 7500 km long coastline is composed of large ice wedge bodies, leading to a reduction of mate- of very ice-rich permafrost deposits (Grigoriev et al., 2006), rial accruing during undercutting of coastal cliffs through which are highly susceptible to erosion. thermo-niches. Klyuev (1970) carries out repeated surveys In many regions, the coastal zone of the shallow East to quantify thermo-abrasion of the sea bottom. Are et al.
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