DOCSLIB.ORG

Conflict of Interests CMYK

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Recommendations contained on pages 1 & 2 global witness A Conflict of Interests The uncertain future of Burma’s forests A Briefing Document by Global Witness. October 2003 Recommendations 1 RECOMMENDATIONS ● Make all data relating to the importation of timber from Burma publicly available; including volumes, THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY value, and origin. The international community should bear a ● Facilitate a forest sector review and forest value responsibility for guaranteeing the fundamental rights assessment, to determine how to protect and of all the people of Burma. It is essential that the sustainably manage all of Burma’s forests in the best international community encourages the State Peace interests of the people of Burma. This should and Development Council (SPDC) and all insurgent include a forest cover survey and meaningful public groups currently involved in armed conflict to instigate consultation. a nationwide ceasefire as a first step towards peace. ● Assist all ceasefire groups to carry out The SPDC, the National League for Democracy Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (NLD) and other political parties, insurgents and (ESIAs) for all development projects, and any ceasefire groups must engage in a dialogue to bring about commercial activities involving the exploitation of an equitable, long-term solution to the conflicts and to natural resources. Such a process should include effect the transition to civilian rule. The international meaningful public consultation. community should encourage the development of civil ● Help rebuild society at a local level through the society through its participation in the decision making promotion of educational projects including process, and promote transparency and freedom of environmental awareness, encourage the information at all levels. continuation of sustainable resource use and It is also essential that natural resource exploitation, protection, and support grassroots environmental one of the main causes of conflict and environmental initiatives. destruction (both of which undermine the prospect of ● Take unilateral, bilateral or multilateral action to future sustainable developmenta), is adequately addressed. make it illegal to import conflict timber (see page 49) and timber that has been logged, transported or THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY SHOULD: traded illegally and to punish those companies and ● Increase the provision of aid directly to the people of individuals involved.b The country where the timber Burma, following stakeholder consultation, in a way was logged should be clearly labelled; this should that prevents its diversion and that does not include processed wood products. perpetuate military rule and human rights abuse. ● Encourage the United Nations Security Council to ● Provide support for Burmese independent NGOs, recognise conflict resources as natural resources that in the form of technical assistance, to raise their should be banned from international trade. capacity to administer their humanitarian ● Make money earmarked for forest conservation programmes and to manage increasing levels of and rehabilitation projects in China and Thailand foreign funding. contingent upon the cessation of destructive ● Assess objectively the impact of current sanctions, logging practices by Chinese and Thai companies in and of proposed sanctions as they arise, so that other countries. decisions are made from a fully informed standpoint. ● Consider the provision of assistance for planning THE SPDC a demobilisation programme to reduce the size The current situation regarding the exploitation of of the armed forces and other groups of Burma’s forests is inseparable from the wider combatants, when appropriate in the context of political process in Burma. Destructive and future peace initiatives. unsustainable logging, as exemplified by Chinese logging companies operating in Kachin State, is IN RELATION TO THE EQUITABLE AND inextricably linked to many things, including SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BURMA’S conflict, SPDC management FORESTS THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY of internal and foreign relations through the control SHOULD: of access to natural resources, coercive, ● Ensure that timber imported from Burma does not non-transparent and poorly planned ceasefire fund conflict, or lead to human rights abuse or arrangements, and corruption. The large standing increased poverty, and that it is harvested from a army, the dire state of the formal economy, and legal, sustainably managed source and produced in inadequate and inequitable application of forest accordance with Burma’s international obligations. legislation exacerbates the situation. a According to the World Commission on Environment and Development, sustainable development is: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” b A particular consignment should be considered illegal when the timber has been harvested, transported, or traded in violation of relevant laws and regulations. 1 A CONFLICT OF INTERESTS Recommendations IN RELATION TO THE EQUITABLE AND ● Ensure the equitable distribution of the benefits of SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BURMA’S any development project, or commercial activity, FORESTS, THE SPDC SHOULD: involving the exploitation of natural resources in ● Implement the results of the proposed forest sector ceasefire areas. review and forest value assessment, increase ● Give full support and access to grassroots initiatives transparency and accountability. This should that aim to protect the environment, and to other include the cessation of all unsustainable logging sustainable development activities at a community level. practices and logging that is detrimental to the best interests of the peoples of Burma. NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES ● Ensure the formal participation of local The demand for natural resources in China and Thailand communities in the decision-making process has fuelled conflict and environmental destruction in relating to forest conservation and exploitation. Burma. Logging in Burma by Chinese and Thai ● Abide by international environmental commitments companies has provided these companies with a cover including the Convention on International Trade in for cutting timber illegally in their own countries, too. Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Peace, stability, sustainable development, and (CITES). environmental security in Burma are in China and ● Ensure forest related legislation is implemented Thailand’s best interests. China and Thailand should equitably. play a positive future role in national reconciliation in ● Make public the terms relating to the control of Burma, and ensure that the development of their economies is not detrimental to Burma’s people. natural resources in all ceasefire agreements. ● Ratify and adhere to the International Labour CHINA SHOULD: Organisation (ILO) Convention relating to ● Immediately stop logging in Burma pending the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent results of the proposed Forest Value Assessment and Countries (ILO No.169), in particular as this relates ESIAs for all commercial and development projects to the plunder of natural resources. relating to natural resource exploitation. Priority ● Allow free access for community development and should be given to a cessation of activity on the environmental initiatives, particularly in the ethnic N’Mai Hku Project (see page 104). minority areas. ● Stop the importation of logs and processed timber across the China-Burma border. CEASEFIRE GROUPS Ceasefire groups bear a responsibility for ending the THAILAND SHOULD: unsustainable exploitation of forests and other ● Stop the importation of logs and processed timber resources in the areas they control. Widespread forest across the Thai-Burma border. loss, the result of poor management and corruption, is leading to serious environmental and social problems, CHINA AND THAILAND, IN ACCORDANCE WITH and will ultimately undermine development in the THEIR COMMITMENTS MADE IN THE ceasefire areas. SEPTEMBER 2001 FOREST LAW ENFORCEMENT AND GOVERNANCE (FLEG) DECLARATION, IN RELATION TO THE EQUITABLE AND SHOULD: SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BURMA’S ● Play a more proactive role in the Regional Task FORESTS THE CEASEFIRE GROUPS SHOULD: Force on Forest Law Enforcement and Governance ● Consider the suspension of development projects established to advance the objectives of the FLEG and commercial operations that are unsustainable or Declaration. are of questionable economic or social value ● Take immediate action to strengthen bilateral pending the results of the proposed Forest Value collaboration with the Burmese Forestry Assessment and ESIAs for all projects relating to Department, and the forestry administrations of natural resource exploitation. ceasefire groups, to address violations of forest law ● Implement the results of the proposed forest and forest crime, in particular illegal logging, value assessments and ESIAs and ensure associated trade and corruption. meaningful public consultation in the decision- ● Develop mechanisms for the effective exchange making process related to the future extraction of of experience relating to forest protection and forestry, natural resources under their control. This should and information including log and timber import data. include the development of a Forest Policy, ● Encourage the participation of the Burmese which should be made available to the public, and Forestry Department, and the forestry increased transparency
Recommended publications
  • Report on Tourism in Burma March 2011

    Report on Tourism in Burma March 2011

    Report on Tourism in Burma March 2011 Info Birmanie 74, rue Notre Dame des champs 75006 Paris www.info-birmanie.org e-mail : [email protected] 1. Introduction (p.1) 2 . The History of Tourism in Burma (p.2) 3. The issue of tourism in Burma (p.3 to 9) The Reasons for a Call to Boycott Tourism in Burma : Illusions & Realities 4. An Analysis of the Junta’s Economic Supports (p.10 to 14) Revenues Transport Hotels 5 . Accessible Tourist Zones (p.15 to 22) 6. Travel Agencies Ethics (p.23 to 25) The Absence of Ethics Which Agency to Choose? Which Travel Guide to Use? 7. The Official Statistics of Tourism (p.26 to 27) 8. Conclusion (p.28) 9. Practical Advice (p.29) Chronology (p.30 to 33) 1. Introduction ‘Burma will be here for many years, so tell your friends to visit us later. Visiting now is tantamount to condoning the regime.’ The above statement, which dates from 1999, is a famous quote of Aung San Suu Kyi, Laureate of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize and leader of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the main Burmese opposition party. It reminds us that since the call to boycott launched in the mid-90s by the Burmese opponents of the military dictatorship, travelling in Burma remains a moral dilemma that is still relevant fifteen years later. However, some plead in favour of Burmese tourism, forgetting both the opposition’s numerous calls to boycott and the terrible situation in which the Burmese people live. In May 2011, the NLD has published a policy paper that put an end to the call for boycott but calls for responsible and independent tourism in Burma.
  • Myanmar/Burma - Kachin

    Myanmar/Burma - Kachin

    Myanmar/Burma - Kachin minorityrights.org/minorities/kachin/ June 19, 2015 Profile The Kachin encompass a number of ethnic groups speaking almost a dozen distinct languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman linguistic family who inhabit the same region in the northern part of Burma on the border with China, mainly in Kachin State. Strictly speaking, these languages are not necessarily closely related, and the term Kachin at times is used to refer specifically to the largest of the groups (the Kachin or Jingpho/Jinghpaw) or to the whole grouping of Tibeto-Burman speaking minorities in the region, which include the Maru, Lisu, Lashu, etc. The exact Kachin population is unknown due to the absence of reliable census data in Burma for more than 60 years. Most estimates suggest there may in the vicinity of 1 million Kachin in the country. The Kachin, as well as the Chin, are one of Burma’s largest Christian minorities: though once again difficult to assess, it is generally thought that between two-thirds and 90 per cent of Kachin are Christians, with others following animist practices or Buddhists. Historical context It is generally thought that the Kachin gradually moved south from their ancestral land on the Tibetan plateau through Yunnan in southern China to arrive in the northern region of what would become Burma sometime during the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries, making the Kachin relative newcomers. Their position in this borderland part of South-East Asia meant that the Kachin were often outside of the sphere of influence of Burman kings. Their strength was such by the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885 that, while the British were taking Mandalay, the Kachin were getting ready to take advantage of the Burman kingdom’s weakness to attack and take over Mandalay themselves.
  • A Short Outline of the History of the Communist Party of Burma

    A Short Outline of the History of the Communist Party of Burma

    A SHORT OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF .· THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF BURMA I Burma was an independent kingdom before annexation by the British imperialist in 1824. In 1885 British imperialist annexed whole of Burma. Since that time, Burmese people have never given up their fight for regaining their independence. Various armed uprisings and other legal forms of strug­ gle were used by the Burmese people in their fight to regain indep~ndence. In 19~8 the biggest and the broadest anti-British general _strike over-ran the whole country. The workers were on strike, the peasants marched up to Rangoon and all the students deserted their class-room to join the workers and peasants. It was an unprecendented anti-British movement in Burma popularly called in Burmese as "1300th movement". Out of this national and class struggle of the Burmese people and working class emerges the Communist Party of Burma. II The Communist Party of Burma was of!i~ially founded on 15th ~_!l_g~s_b 1939 by _!!nitil)K all MarxisLgr.9J!l!§ in Burma, III From the day of inception, CPB launched an active anti-British struggles up till 1941. It was the core of CPB leadership that led ahti­ British struggles up till the second world war. IV In 1941, after the Hitlerites treacherously attacked the Soviet Union, CPB changed its tactics and directed its blows against the fascists. v In 1942, Burma was invaded by the Japanese fascists. From that time onwards up till 1945, CPB worked unt~ringly to oppose the Japanese fa~ists 1 .
  • Analysis of the FPNCC/Northern Alliance and Myanmar Conflict Dynamics

    Analysis of the FPNCC/Northern Alliance and Myanmar Conflict Dynamics

    Analysis of the FPNCC/Northern Alliance and Myanmar Conflict Dynamics acleddata.com/2018/07/21/analysis-of-the-fpncc-northern-alliance-and-myanmar-conflict-dynamics/ Elliott Bynum July 21, 2018 With the Myanmar military pressuring all ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) to sign the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA), non-signatory EAOs have responded by forming a loose military alliance, called the Northern Alliance, to strengthen their position against the military. As with many alliances in Myanmar’s history, the cohesiveness and long-term viability of the alliance is uncertain. Increased military operations by the Myanmar military against the groups in this alliance, particularly the increased use of remote violence, has resulted in the alliance groups shifting their tactics both politically and militarily. In 2016, four EAOs formed the Northern Alliance. The driver behind the formation of the Northern Alliance was the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) which has been in conflict with the Myanmar military for several decades. From 1994-2011, the KIA had a bilateral ceasefire agreement with the Myanmar military which held. The conflict reignited in 2011 after the KIA rejected the military’s Border Guard Force (BGF) scheme which would have placed the KIA under the control of the military. At the time, the Myanmar military also had increased its presence in the Kachin region to guard the Chinese construction of the Myitsone Hydropower Dam which exacerbated tensions, leading eventually to the start of the current war. The KIA has since sought to strengthen its position by providing training and support to the Arakan Army (AA), the Ta’ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), and the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA).
  • Reform in Myanmar: One Year On

    Reform in Myanmar: One Year On

    Update Briefing Asia Briefing N°136 Jakarta/Brussels, 11 April 2012 Reform in Myanmar: One Year On mar hosts the South East Asia Games in 2013 and takes I. OVERVIEW over the chairmanship of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 2014. One year into the new semi-civilian government, Myanmar has implemented a wide-ranging set of reforms as it em- Reforming the economy is another major issue. While vital barks on a remarkable top-down transition from five dec- and long overdue, there is a risk that making major policy ades of authoritarian rule. In an address to the nation on 1 changes in a context of unreliable data and weak econom- March 2012 marking his first year in office, President Thein ic institutions could create unintended economic shocks. Sein made clear that the goal was to introduce “genuine Given the high levels of impoverishment and vulnerabil- democracy” and that there was still much more to be done. ity, even a relatively minor shock has the potential to have This ambitious agenda includes further democratic reform, a major impact on livelihoods. At a time when expectations healing bitter wounds of the past, rebuilding the economy are running high, and authoritarian controls on the popu- and ensuring the rule of law, as well as respecting ethnic lation have been loosened, there would be a potential for diversity and equality. The changes are real, but the chal- unrest. lenges are complex and numerous. To consolidate and build on what has been achieved and increase the likeli- A third challenge is consolidating peace in ethnic areas.
  • BURMA (MYANMAR) COUNTRY of ORIGIN INFORMATION (COI) REPORT COI Service

    BURMA (MYANMAR) COUNTRY of ORIGIN INFORMATION (COI) REPORT COI Service

    BURMA (MYANMAR) COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION (COI) REPORT COI Service 17 June 2011 BURMA (MYANMAR) 17 JUNE 2011 Contents Preface Latest News EVENTS IN BURMA FROM 16 MAY TO 17 JUNE 2011 Useful news sources for further information REPORTS ON BURMA PUBLISHED OR ACCESSED BETWEEN 16 MAY AND 17 JUNE 2011 Paragraphs Background Information 1. GEOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 1.01 Map ........................................................................................................................ 1.07 2. ECONOMY ................................................................................................................ 2.01 3. HISTORY (INDEPENDENCE (1948) – NOVEMBER 2010) ................................................ 3.01 Constitutional referendum – 2008....................................................................... 3.03 Build up to 2010 elections ................................................................................... 3.05 4. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS (NOVEMBER 2010 – MARCH 2011)....................................... 4.01 November 2010 elections .................................................................................... 4.01 Release of Aung San Suu Kyi ............................................................................. 4.13 Opening of Parliament ......................................................................................... 4.16 5. CONSTITUTION.........................................................................................................
  • Weekly Security Review (27 August – 2 September 2020)

    Weekly Security Review (27 August – 2 September 2020)

    Commercial-In-Confidence Weekly Security Review (27 August – 2 September 2020) Weekly Security Review Safety and Security Highlights for Clients Operating in Myanmar 27 August – 2 September 2020 Page 1 of 27 Commercial-In-Confidence Weekly Security Review (27 August – 2 September 2020) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. 3 Internal Conflict ....................................................................................................................................... 4 Nationwide .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Rakhine State ....................................................................................................................................... 4 Shan State ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Myanmar and the World ......................................................................................................................... 8 Election Watch ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Social and Political Stability ................................................................................................................... 11 Transportation ......................................................................................................................................
  • Aung San Suu Kyi (1945- )

    Aung San Suu Kyi (1945- )

    Aung San Suu Kyi (1945 - ) Major Events in the Life of a Revolutionary Leader All terms appearing in bold are included in the glossary. 1945 On June 19 in Rangoon (now called Yangon), the capital city of Burma (now called Myanmar), Aung San Suu Kyi was born the third child and only daughter to Aung San, national hero and leader of the Burma Independence Army (BIA) and the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL), and Daw Khin Kyi, a nurse at Rangoon General Hospital. Aung San Suu Kyi was born into a country with a complex history of colonial domination that began late in the nineteenth century. After a series of wars between Burma and Great Britain, Burma was conquered by the British and annexed to British India in 1885. At first, the Burmese were afforded few rights and given no political autonomy under the British, but by 1923 Burmese nationals were permitted to hold select government offices. In 1935, the British separated Burma from India, giving the country its own constitution, an elected assembly of Burmese nationals, and some measure of self-governance. In 1941, expansionist ambitions led the Japanese to invade Burma, where they defeated the British and overthrew their colonial administration. While at first the Japanese were welcomed as liberators, under their rule more oppressive policies were instituted than under the British, precipitating resistance from Burmese nationalist groups like the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL). In 1945, Allied forces drove the Japanese out of Burma and Britain resumed control over the country. 1947 Aung San negotiated the full independence of Burma from British control.
  • U.S. Relations with Burma: Key Issues in 2019

    U.S. Relations with Burma: Key Issues in 2019

    Updated May 8, 2019 U.S. Relations with Burma: Key Issues in 2019 In 2018, the 115th Congress was generally critical of the Figure 1. Map of Burma (Myanmar) Trump Administration’s Burma policy, particularly its limited response to atrocities committed by the Burmese military, intensifying conflict with ethnic insurgencies, and rising concerns about political repression and civil rights. In December 2018, Congress passed the Asia Reassurance Initiative Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-409), which prohibits funding for International Military Education and Training (IMET) and Foreign Military Financing (FMF) Program in Burma for fiscal years 2019 through 2023. Major Developments in Burma At the end of 2018, an estimated one million Rohingya, most of whom fled atrocities committed by Burma’s military (Tatmadaw) in late 2017, remained in refugee camps in Bangladesh, unable and unwilling to return to Burma’s Rakhine State given the current policies of the Burmese government. Also in 2018, fighting between Burma’s military and various ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) escalated in Kachin and Shan States, and spread into Chin, Karen (Kayin), and Rakhine States, while efforts to negotiate a nationwide ceasefire stalled. The Rohingya Crises Continue More than 700,000 Sunni Rohingya fled to Bangladesh in late 2017, seeking to escape Tatmadaw forces that destroyed almost 400 Rohingya villages, killed at least 6,700 Rohingya (according to human rights groups and Doctors Without Borders), and sexually assaulted hundreds of Rohingya women and girls. Repatriation under an October 2018 agreement between the two nations is stalled as the Burmese government is unable or unwilling to Source: CRS establish conditions that would allow the voluntary, safe, dignified, and sustainable return of the Rohingya.
  • Violence, Warfare and Politics in Colonial Burma(<Special Issue

    Violence, Warfare and Politics in Colonial Burma(<Special Issue

    State Formation in the Shadow of the Raj: Violence, Warfare Title and Politics in Colonial Burma(<Special Issue>State Formation in Comparative Perspectives) Author(s) Callahan, Mary P. Citation 東南アジア研究 (2002), 39(4): 513-536 Issue Date 2002-03 URL http://hdl.handle.net/2433/53713 Right Type Departmental Bulletin Paper Textversion publisher Kyoto University Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 39, No. 4, March 2002 State Formation in the Shadow of the Raj: Violence, Warfare and Politics in Colonial Burma＊ Mary P. CALLAHAN＊＊ Normally, society is organized for life; the object of Leviathan was to organise it for production. J.S. Furnivall [1939: 124] Abstract This article examines the construction of the colonial security apparatus in Burma, within the broader British colonial project in eastern Asia. During the colonial period, the state in Burma was built by default, as no one in London or India ever mapped out a strategy for establishing governance in this outpost. Instead of sending in legal, commercial or police experts to establish law and order—the preconditions of the all-important commerce— Britain sent the Indian Army, which faced an intensity and landscape of guerilla resistance never anticipated. Early forays into the establishment of law and order increasingly became based on conceptions of the population as enemies to be pacified, rather than subjects to be incorporated into or even ignored by the newly defined political entity. The character of armed administration in colonial Burma had a disproportionate impact on how that popula- tion came to be regarded, treated, legalized and made into subjects of the Raj.
  • Burma's Long Road to Democracy

    Burma's Long Road to Democracy

    UNITED STATES InsTITUTE OF PEACE www.usip.org SPECIAL REPORT 1200 17th Street NW • Washington, DC 20036 • 202.457.1700 • fax 202.429.6063 ABOUT THE REPORT Priscilla Clapp A career officer in the U.S. Foreign Service, Priscilla Clapp served as U.S. chargé d’affaires and chief of mission in Burma (Myanmar) from June 1999 to August 2002. After retiring from the Foreign Service, she has continued to Burma’s Long Road follow events in Burma closely and wrote a paper for the United States Institute of Peace entitled “Building Democracy in Burma,” published on the Institute’s Web site in July 2007 as Working Paper 2. In this Special to Democracy Report, the author draws heavily on her Working Paper to establish the historical context for the Saffron Revolution, explain the persistence of military rule in Burma, Summary and speculate on the country’s prospects for political transition to democracy. For more detail, particularly on • In August and September 2007, nearly twenty years after the 1988 popular uprising the task of building the institutions for stable democracy in Burma, public anger at the government’s economic policies once again spilled in Burma, see Working Paper 2 at www.usip.org. This into the country’s city streets in the form of mass protests. When tens of thousands project was directed by Eugene Martin, and sponsored by of Buddhist monks joined the protests, the military regime reacted with brute force, the Institute’s Center for Conflict Analysis and Prevention. beating, killing, and jailing thousands of people. Although the Saffron Revolution was put down, the regime still faces serious opposition and unrest.
  • Macadamia Market Systems Analysis Shan State, Myanmar ______March 2020

    Macadamia Market Systems Analysis Shan State, Myanmar ______March 2020

    Macadamia Market Systems Analysis Shan State, Myanmar ___________________________________________________________________________________ March 2020 Commissioned by ILO and authored by Jon Keesecker Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Ko Ko Win and Jonathan Bird for their technical inputs to the research and report writing for this study. This document has been produced for the International Labour Organization (ILO) with funding from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) and the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO). The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the consultants and do not necessarily reflect those of the ILO, NORAD, SECO or any other stakeholder. International Labour Organization (ILO) No.1, Kanbe (Thitsar Street) Yankin Township Yangon, Myanmar. Tel: (95-1) 533538/566539 2 Executive Summary Macadamia is among the rarest tree nuts in the world, but global interest is growing quickly. In 2019, global production of macadamia kernel stood at 59,000 MT, or less than 8% of other individual nuts like almond, walnut, cashew or pistachio. However, macadamia production rose 57% between 2009 and 2019, faster than any other tree nut. Sixty-seven percent of output originates in Australia, South Africa and Kenya, but other sources such as China and Vietnam are also increasing cultivation. Imports have swelled, rising 23% between 2007 and 2017 to reach a total of 32,000 MT. Export markets are fairly consolidated. In 2017, the U.S. accounted for 28% of imports, followed by the EU (20%), China (12%) and Japan (10%). Along with rising prices, global supply value for macadamia rose three-fold from $370 million USD in 2008 to $1.14 trillion in 2019.