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Crp 3 B 1 0 0 View From Moscow View From Moscow ~hL4d~4 I] ANC A View From Moscow In memory of , comrade Chris Hani and all South African comrades who were assassinated or killed in action; and also those who, due to age or illness, never reached home. ANC A View From Moscow Vladimir Shubin Mayibuye History and Literature Series No. 88 MAYIBUYE BOOKS-UWC Published 1999 in South Africa by Mayibuye Books, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa Mayibuye books is the book publishing division of the Mayibuye Centre at the University of the Western Cape. The Mayibuye Centre is a pioneering project helping to recover areas of South African history that have been neglected in the past. It also provides space for cultural creativity and expression in a way that promotes the process of change and reconstruction in a democratic South Africa. The Mayibuye History and Literature Series is part of this project. © Vladimir Shubin All rights reserved ISBN 1-86808-439-6 Cover design, layout and typesetting by jon berndt Design PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA BY THE RUSTICA PRESS, NDABENI, WESTERN CAPE D7131 ' - 1 1 . , CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 7 PART ONE: HARD TIMES (1960-74) AFRICA YEAR 10 BEGINNINGS OFTHE ARMED STRUGGLE 17 RIVONIA 54 THE EXTERNAL MISSION TAKES OVER 62 WANKIE OPERATION 77 "CHRIS'S MEMORANDUM" AND A RETHINK IN MOROGORO 84 EVACUATING THE ARMY TO THE USSR 94 "OPERATION J" AND OTHER ATTEMPTS TO COME HOME 101 REDEFINING THE ROLE OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY 112 CLASS AND COLOUR IN THE STRUGGLE 128 REFERENCES 140 PART TWO: CHANGING BALANCE OF POWER (1974-1985) INDEPENDENCE FOR ANGOLA AND MOZAMBIQUE 158 THE 1976 SOWETO UPRISING 168 DEALING WITH THE EXODUS 171 SOWETO INFLUENCES INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS 178 RE-ORGANISATION OF THE ANC AND SACP 183 THE MAIN TASK: POLITICAL MOBILISATION 192 THE ANC'S GROWING INTERNATIONAL TIES 207 RESISTANCE TO APARTHEID GROWS 211 PROPAGANDA AND INTELLIGENCE GAMES 217 APARTHEID STATE TERRORISM AND POWER DIPLOMACY 228 SACP RELATIONS WITH THE ANC IN THE 1980s 236 THE NKOMATI DRAMA 248 TALKS ABOUT TALKS: THE BEGINNING 264 GORBACHEV, ACCELERATION AND PERESTROIKA 273 THE KABWE CONFERENCE 278 REFERENCES 282 PART THREE : THE ROAD TO POWER (1985-1991) TALKS ABOUTTALKS: CONTINUATION 294 THE USSR STRENGTHENS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ANC 304 PROSPECTS IMPROVE FOR A POLITICAL SETTLEMENT 321 OPERATION VULA 332 UNCERTAINTY CREEPS IN 340 THE HARARE DECLARATION 354 MOSCOW'S APPROACH AFTER 2 FEBRUARY 1990 366 DURR AND DE BEERS 373 END DAYS: MANDELA-VISIT MUDDLES, MILITARY MATTERS ANDTHE DISINTEGRATION OFTHE SOVIET UNION 378 REFERENCES 391 POSTSCRIPT: THE END OR THE BEGINNING? 399 REFERENCES 413 INDEX Ar "The important events ofhistor, should not be shrouded in myths, even though myths are inevitabli part of the spice of political life." (Nelson Mandela, speech at the opening of the University of Cape Town Centre for Russian Studies, 17 August 1994) INTRODUCTION T his book describes the history of the African National Congress of South Africa in the three decades following its banning. There are many myths surrounding the ANC: some harmless, the products of enthusiastic supporters; others malicious, disseminated by those in South Africa and abroad who did their best to prevent the victory of the ANC and still cannot accept that victory as a reality. I strongly believe that the comprehensive history of the ANC should and will be written by South Africans. However, of non-South African historians, it is perhaps Soviet/Russian scholars who are best placed to undertake such a study. This is because of the multi-faceted relationship that developed between Moscow and the South African liberation movement. Inevitably, that relationship occupies a significant place in this book. In writing the book, I have endeavoured always to use primary sources. In the main I have used the following invaluable collections: ANC and South African Communist Party documents in the Historical Papers Archive of the Mayibuye Centre at the University of the Western Cape; documents located at the Centre for Storage of Contemporary Documentation (the former Archive of the Soviet Communist Party); and documents in the Archive of the Soviet AfroAsian Solidarity Committee in Moscow. Then there are those documents, not attributed to archives here, which I have (or had) at my disposal as a result of my personal and professional contact with the ANC. A substantial part of my personal archive was lost in August 1991. Therefore, in some cases, particularly when referring to discussions with South African friends, I have had to rely on my memory. I apologise in advance for any errors that may have resulted from this, and will welcome any amendments and corrections; generally, I am confident of the accuracy of my recollections. This book is intended as an academic text but, because of my long involvement with the South African liberation movement, it has a ANC: A VIEW FROM MOSCOW somewhat personal flavour as well. However, I would be extremely concerned if readers were to imagine that I was the only Soviet contact with the South African liberation movement, or, as one South African paper put it, the "ANC man in Moscow".," Many people were involved. The names of those who dealt directly with the ANC and the SACP at different times from 1960 should be mentioned. Those in the CPSU International Department were: Vitaly Korionov, Petr Manchkha, Yury Ivanov, Vladimir Shemyatenkov, Rostislav Ulyanovsky, Andrei Urnov, Vadim Dudin, Boris Belyakov, Alexei Makarov, Andrei Chuzhakin, and Alexander Pirozhenko. On the Solidarity Committee were: Dmitry Dolidze, Nikolay Bazanov, Alexander Dzassokhov, Valery Zhikharev, Tatyana Kravtsova, Eduard Samoylov, Yury Golovin, and Vyacheslav Tetyokin. Dr Andrei Urnov should be singled out as the person responsible for Soviet relations with the ANC and its allies for almost 25 years. There were other friends of the ANC and its armed wing (whose surnames are not given here): the two Ivans, Fyodor, George, Valery, the two Michaels, and Victor. One can be named in full: Major General Nikolay Vassilyevich Kurushkin, who was a guest of honour at the celebration of the first anniversary of Namibian independence in 1991. Not all of these comrades are still alive. I am convinced that those who remain active in political, diplomatic and academic life, or have been edged out into the business world by the recent stormy events in Moscow, all cherish the memory of the period of co-operation with the freedom fighters from South Africa. I started writing this book a long time ago, but it would probably never have been completed had I not been given a research fellowship by the University of the Western Cape (UWC) in 1993-5. I express my sincere gratitude to the then Rector, Professor Jakes Gerwel; to Professor Robert Davies, Professor Peter Vale, and other colleagues at the UWC Centre for Southern African Studies; as well as to Professor Andr6 Odendaal and the staff of the Mayibuye Centre for History and Culture in South Africa. I am deeply indebted to Brian Bunting and Barry Feinberg, who brought their deep knowledge of the liberation history and their superior editorial skills to the task of making my original text readable. Thanks are also due to Robin Malan and Linda Pithers who formed part of the editorial team. PART ONE HARDTIMES (1960-74) AFRICA YEAR 960 has become known in history as "Africa Year". It was a year in which, one after another, African countries gained independence, while at the two extremes of the continent - Algeria in the North and the countries of Southern Africa - the struggle for liberation was intensifying and developing. During the long fight for Algerian independence in which hundreds of lives were lost daily, the Front of National Liberation (FLN) was, slowly but steadily, tilting the balance of power in its favour. In South Africa the liberation forces were preparing themselves for decisive battles against the apartheid regime, while still hoping to avoid armed conflict and to limit the form of struggle to mass protests. In the summer of 1960 several Soviet-made Ilyushin-14 transport planes landed at the Athens International Airport (at the time also a NATO air base). They were painted combat-grey, with the inscription R~publique du Congo on their fuselages, and they were on their way to Leopoldville (Kinshasa) to support Patrice Lumumba's government. In this way the Soviet Union announced to both friends and foes its active involvement in the anti-colonial and anti-racist struggles in Africa. For me 1960 marked my first acquaintance with Africa, when as a young undergraduate student I experienced for the first time the inferno that is Cairo in the hot season. It was Soviet policy during the sixties to play a more active role in support of liberation struggles; and this was seen specifically in relation to South Africa. In 1960, after a break of more than twenty years, the ruling Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) resumed ties with what were the major opposition forces in South Africa. Two streams were meeting. The first was the energetic (sometimes even unrealistic) new policy of "Khrushchev's Russia", ready to support each and every revolt against imperialist domination in the Afro-Asian world. The second was the South African liberation movement, seeking to establish international contacts and to generate assistance abroad, particularly vital after the banning on 8 April 1960 of the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) (which had split from the ANC a year earlier). The bannings formed part of a wave of repression after the massacres in Sharpeville and Langa on 21 March 1960. Around two AFRICA YEAR thousand leaders and activists of the ANC, the PAC, the South African Congress of Trade Unions (Sactu), the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), the Coloured People's Congress (CPC), the (white) Congress of Democrats (COD) and the (moderate) Liberal Party were detained.
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