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Shen2019.Pdf This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. The tongshi education reform in Chinese research-intensive universities: A case study Qijuan Shen PhD The University of Edinburgh 2018 Declaration I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where states otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. i ii Abstract Since the late 1990s, an educational reform movement has been initiated in many research-intensive universities of mainland China to change their Soviet- style undergraduate curriculum which is described as being overspecialised. The Chinese term tongshi has been used to name the reform, which, in very brief terms, means general and interconnected knowledge. In existing studies, tongshi education is regarded as a Chinese localised version of liberal education which has been mainly anchored in American universities. The tongshi education reform, in this sense, is a part of the worldwide trend of university curriculum transformations where a renewed interest in liberal education has been observed, with a particular emphasis on interdisciplinarity, generic skills and global citizenship to prepare students for the global knowledge economy. After being implemented for more than two decades, there is still a lack of empirical research on the contextual rationale, process and implication of the tongshi education reform. Academic staff members’ and students’ experiences have remained largely unexplored. Moreover, very limited discussion has taken place on the distinctiveness of tongshi education compared to the ongoing reforms of liberal education in other parts of the world. This thesis is based on a case study of the tongshi education reform in a selected Chinese research-intensive university, Zhejiang University. Data were collected in the form of university documentation and from semi- structured interviews with three policymakers, twenty-five teachers and other staff members, and twelve students. Thematic analysis was employed to interpret the data. In addition, phenomenography was utilised to construct a comprehensive conception of tongshi education, drawing on academic staff members’ and students’ perceptions, to contribute to existing discussions on the idea of tongshi education. The study highlights a number of key findings. First, the tongshi education reform is driven by several interweaving factors at institutional, national and iii global levels. The reform at Zhejiang University, while introducing the idea and practice of Western liberal education, is also underpinned by: (i) the institutional aspiration of promoting a shared identity as a comprehensive university among its departments which had been previously separate; (ii) the national government’s policy of building world-class universities; and (iii) the increasing international connection and cooperation on and off the campus. Second, the tongshi education reform has changed not only the curriculum but also the organisational structure and management system. The process of policy development, in which academic staff members and students believed themselves to be inadequately involved, is led by senior institutional administrators. The political authority, especially the University Committee of Chinese Communist Youth League, run by the Communist Party of China, has exerted important influences on tongshi education through its control on student extracurricular activities and residence life. Third, four qualitatively different conceptions of tongshi education were identified from interviews with academic staff members, respectively highlighting: (i) knowledge breadth through developing students’ general understandings of a wide range of subjects; (ii) students’ social responsibility and critical understandings of human history and society; (iii) crossdisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity for the purpose of academic advancement; and (iv) students’ intellectual virtues such as critical thinking, open-mindedness, integrity and self-reflectiveness. The four conceptions reveal the rich meanings of tongshi education beyond the policymakers’ intentions. However, because of problems in teaching practice such as limited resources and oversized classes, there has been some lack of success in achieving the desired learning outcomes and in communicating the value of tongshi education to the student body. Therefore, many students have complained that their learning experience of tongshi education was fragmented and ineffective. Fourth, reviewing within the global context, tongshi education in Chinese research-intensive universities is distinctive from other practices of liberal iv education manifested in the following three dimensions. First, due to a strong political-ideological control by the state, it is challenging to foster critical thinking and democratic citizenship through tongshi education. Second, because the reform has been initiated by and mainly practised in research- intensive universities, tongshi education is, in many cases, confused with intensive academic training for research excellence, while its value in fostering morality and culture is overlooked. Third, the question of how to teach Chinese, Western and other traditions and cultures to promote students’ understanding of cultural diversity and global citizenship, has remained unexamined due to the lack of a shared understanding of tongshi education among different stakeholders within the University. There is still a long way to go for tongshi education in China to promote students’ democratic citizenship and critical thinking on social and cultural topics, because of the relatively strong political control from the state (Law 2013; Law 2006). This case study suggests that there are still some hopes— however fragile—contributed by teachers’ efforts, increasing international communication, and a continuous discussion on the idea of tongshi education and university education. The research calls for more in-depth studies to explore the rationales, strategies and implications of tongshi education in Chinese universities to engender better understandings and practices. v vi Lay summary What and how to teach in universities? This question has been asked in the fast-changing world today where we are confronted with new challenges in the economy, politics, international relationships and sustainable development. Some scholars have observed that, in different parts of the world, a lot of universities have been changing their undergraduate curricula with a renewed interest in liberal education. Liberal education originates in ancient Greece and Rome and has long been practised in many American universities. It seeks to empower students by giving them broad knowledge, transferable skills such as critical thinking, and a strong sense of citizenship for democratic societies. Some research-intensive universities in China started curriculum reforms and introduced a form of liberal education in the late 1990s. The Chinese term tongshi has been used to name the reform, which, in brief terms, means general and interconnected knowledge. In this study I investigate why and how liberal education has been practised in Chinese universities, by looking into one case in detail: the tongshi education reform at Zhejiang University. By analysing policy documents and interviews with different groups of participants—senior administrators, teachers and other staff members, and students—I explore the following four questions. • Why and how was the tongshi education reform initiated at Zhejiang University? The tongshi education reform at Zhejiang University has been led by senior administrative leaders, who determined its goals and strategies. According to their design, a large number of courses covering a wide range of subjects have been added into the students’ timetables. Students have also been allowed more freedom to decide what to learn according to their own interests and plans. The political authority, especially the University Committee of Chinese Communist Youth League, run by the Communist Party of China, has exerted important influences on tongshi education through its strengthened control on students’ activities and residence life out vii of the classroom. In the meantime, teachers and students have reported that they have been inadequately involved in the process of policy making. The tongshi education reform has not only changed the curriculum, but also the organisational structure and management of the University. According to documents and policymakers, there are three reasons for the reform at Zhejiang University. First, the Chinese government encourages
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