ERT cover 33-3 23/4/09 10:57 Page 1

CONTENTS THEME: Holistic Gospel E

Holistic Gospel in a Developing Society: Biblical, Theological V A

and Historical Backgrounds N G

JAMES NKANSAH-OBREMPONG E L

page 196 I C

Holistic Gospel in a Developing Society: Some Biblical, A L

Historical and Ethical Considerations R E

JUSTIN THACKER V I page 213 E W Holistic Mission Revisited: Theological insights O

from F AVID OLDÁN T D A. R H

page 221 E O

Evangelicals and Catholics Together? Issues and Prospects for L O

Dialogue and Common Witness in Lowland Philippines G TIMOTEO GENER Y

page 228 V O Articles and book reviews reflecting Worship—the Source and Standard of L U

ROLF HILLE M global evangelical theology for the purpose page 246 E

3 of discerning the obedience of faith 3

The Predestination Principle: A Bible Study , JOHN BOYKIN N O

page 262 3 ,

Book Reviews J u l page 270 y 2 0 0 9

Volume 33 No. 3 July 2009 Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 33 • Number 2 • April 2009 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ERT (2008) 33:2, 99

ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 33 No. 2 April 2009 Editorial: Life Work and Witness

Copyright © 2009 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission IN THIS ISSUE WE plunge into the public compassion and Christian love to peo- world and examine how some aspects ple in need.’ of our faith and practice are related. Finally, coming back to our source Editor The first article (responding to an ear- and heart, Lee Wanak (The Philip- David Parker lier paper on the topic) focuses on work pines) draws our attention to an out- itself, and shows how it has an escha- standing feature of ’ ministry— tological significance as it anticipates and one that might be a useful one to Committee the new creation. Then Timoteo Gener bear in mind in this context—the care- (The Philippines) asks about the role of ful use of questions. Wanak suggests The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission theology in the public arena, examin- that by asking thought provoking ques- Dr Justin Thacker, Chairman ing some ideas from David Tracy, and tions, Jesus sought to transform the searching for a truly transformationist assumptions of his first century listen- Editorial Policy Christian perspective on public cul- ers with the idea of introducing a new The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the ture. Finally for this section, we set of kingdom values. authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor become very practical and follow We conclude with a longer than or the Publisher. Samuel Jayakumar (India) as he looks usual book review section, headed off at the situation in his country, where by a review article by eval- poverty is rule rather than the excep- uating an ambitious project to under- Manuscripts, reports and communications tion. His burden to understand how the stand ; this is followed should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, Christian gospel can transform society up by another issuing a radical call to 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia and empower the poor. evangelicals to be ‘good news people.’ We cannot escape the challenge to Other reviews take up the usual wide The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or develop a truly transformational mis- range of issues that pour from the presses, including in particular Early book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. sion, so our fourth article is rather African and its legacy, Please send clear copies of details to the above address. pointed. Daniel Salinas (Paraguay) Jewish evangelism, Latin American looks ahead to the next big evangelical theology and post-modernism. We wel- Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] meeting, Lasuanne III Cape Town, come suggestions of books and review- http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/tc/ 2010, and enquiries whether this will ers, especially from the Majority world, be an opportunity for authentic as we do articles. Contact the editor for engagement with these realities and more information. cause ‘evangelicals around the world to incarnate the Kingdom’s values with David Parker, Editor

Typeset by Toucan Design, 25 Southernhay East, Exeter EX1 1NS and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2009) 33:2, 100-nnn article 101

ferson Davis has also written on work shared in common in these works, both Niggle’s Leaf and Holland’s Opus: in the new creation, though his con- of which draw substantially on Molt- cerns are not with the connection mann’s eschatological vision. Without Reflections on the Theological between our current work and the new disputing the many virtues of an escha- creation but rather with the ongoing tologically-grounded theology of work, Significance of Work presence of work within the new cre- I do have some fundamental concerns. ation itself.3 First, it seems that both Volf and Cos- Though I will ultimately argue for den assume an overstated discontinu- retaining a more traditional view of ity between old and new creations Richard Langer work grounded in vocation and in the when discussing traditional views of ‘old’ creation, I will also argue that work. KEYWORDS: Theology of work, call- Recently, Darrell Cosden has devel- Volf, Cosden and others are right in This overstatement may serve to ing, new creation, eschatological con- oped a theology of work which contin- seeing an eschatological significance blind them to the possibility that tradi- tinuity, duty ues and amplifies much of Volf’s in our work. Unfortunately, I believe tional views of work might also find a thought, particularly his emphasis on that eschatological significance is connection between our work in the the importance of the new creation in found in a different place and pointed in present age and the new creation. In FIRST published his our understanding of work.2 John Jef- the opposite direction. To illustrate other words, I do not believe that ground-breaking book, Work in the this difference, I will appeal to two sto- affirming eschatological significance Spirit, in 1991. It garnered immediate ries: a short story by J.R.R. Tolkein in our work requires a theology of work and well-deserved attention both Douglas Schuurman, Vocation: Discerning Our Callings in Life (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, entitled ‘Leaf by Niggle’ and a story grounded in the new creation. Simi- because of the intrinsic importance of 2004), R. Paul Stevens, The Other Six Days told in a movie entitled ‘Mr. Holland’s larly, I believe there is a tendency to work for Christian life and practice, but (Grand Rapids: Eerdmanns1999). In addition Opus.’ The first story is set in an overstate the eschatological signifi- also because he attempted a sea to these works (and those by Cosden men- explicitly eschatological context and is cance of work at the expense of its pro- change in our theological thinking tioned below) which attempt extended theo- used to examine alternative possibili- tological significance. I do not believe about work. He presented a Christian logical reflection on work, there are countless ties for understanding the eschatologi- that the mere fact that there is escha- theology of work grounded in eschatol- books addressing practical issues related to work and the Christian faith, theological cal significance of work. The second tological meaning to our work entails ogy and pneumatology rather than in reflections on capitalism and free markets, story is used to probe more deeply into that the eschatological meaning is pri- notions of vocation and original cre- business ethics from a Christian perspective, the significance of work as it is tradi- mary. ation. His work also became the lead- Christian wisdom for business leadership, and tionally understood. Together they ing edge of a budding genre of theolog- books discussing ‘business as mission’. These build a case for an eschatologically 1 1. Eschatology and continuity ical reflection on work. works often contain chapters laying theologi- broadened, but ultimately traditional, cal foundations for work with varying degrees Volf begins his discussion of work and understanding of human work. of success. the new creation by identifying a fun- 1 Some recent representative works include: 2 See Darrell Cosden, A Theology of Work: damental bifurcation in Christian David H. Jensen, Responsive Labor: A Theology Work and the New Creation (Eugene, Oregon: eschatology: of Work (Louisville: Westminster Press, Wipf & Stock, 2004) and Darrell Cosden, The I Volf’s ‘Work in the Spirit’ 2006), Armand Larive, After Sunday: A Theol- Heavenly Good of Earthly Work (Carlise: Pater- I will use Volf’s Work in the Spirit as the Christian theologians have held ogy of Work (New York: Continuum, 2004), noster Press, 2006) framework for discussing the new the- two basic positions on the eschato- ologies of work, making additional logical future of the world. Some comments to Cosden’s work as appro- stressed radical discontinuity Dr. Richard Langer, PhD (University of California, Riverside), is an Associate Professor in the Biblical priate. Much of the theological core is between present and future orders, Studies and Theology Department at Talbot School of Theology (Biola University) and an ordained minister believing in the complete destruc- in the Evangelical Free Church of America. He served for over twenty years as a pastor at Evangelical tion of the present world at the end Free Church in Redlands, California. His current teaching and writing is focused on the integration of theology across academic disciplines and within everyday life. He is the author of ‘Humans, Commodities, and Humans 3 John Jefferson Davis, ‘Will There Be New of the ages and creation of a fully in a Sense,’ in Philosophia Christi, May-June 2008; and ‘Emerging Church: Abiding or Departing?’ and ‘The Work in the New Creation?,’ Evangelical new world. Others postulated the Faith Once For All Delivered to the Saints’ (Proclamation!) Review of Theology 31, no. 3 (2007) continuity between the two, believ- 102 author article 103

ing that the present world will be tion may find eschatological signifi- The outcome of his line of reasoning rhetorical flourish. The discontinuity transformed into the new heaven cance in human work by its effect on is that the only work which has true he describes is indeed radical. Not only and the new earth. Two radically human souls, but there is no direct sig- significance is work that endures is the new creation made ex nihilo, it is different follow from nificance because the work itself is not through to the eschaton. Though we apparently devoid of any shaping influ- these two basic eschatological enduring. may do our work ‘protologically’ (in ence from the present creation. models.4 At first blush, Volf’s understanding the old or present creation) our work’s Cosden has a similar view of ‘anni- Christians, it seems, come in two of discontinuity and annihilation might real validation only comes eschatolog- hilationists’. They are said to affirm sorts: one sort stresses what Volf calls appear mistaken because many people ically (in the new creation). And conti- ‘God’s punishment of creation will lead ‘radical discontinuity’ between present who believe in the annihilation of the nuity, for Volf, seems to include an to its total destruction and replace- and future orders, the other sort postu- old creation would also believe in the ontological element—the very prod- ment with a new earth that God will lates continuity between present and significance of work and cultural ucts of human work endure and make “out of nothing,” as he did the future. Regarding work, the result of involvement. Volf, however, argues become the building blocks of the new original creation.’11 Such radical dis- embracing discontinuity is to make that there is an important confusion creation. We may not make the new continuity means our ideas, objects human work ‘devoid of direct ultimate hidden in such a combination of beliefs. creation directly, but our work is inte- and accomplishments are entirely left significance,’ because the annihilation He admits that it is ‘logically compati- grated into the new creation by God’s behind as we move forward into the 9 of the old creation entails the annihila- ble’ to affirm annihilation and social act of transformation. new creation. This is a result, presum- tion of human work in the old creation. and cultural involvement, but he To capture the significance of this ably, of an understanding of annihila- The new creation arrives ex nihilo— argues that embracing both is theologi- Volf suggest we ask ourselves tion which Volf describes as follows: 6 ‘whether all those unappreciated small totally disjunctively from the old cre- cally inconsistent. belief in eschatological annihila- and great Van Goghs in various fields ation. This is because ‘under the presup- tion…is not consonant with the of human activity would not draw inspi- In contrast, those who affirm conti- position that the world is not intrinsi- belief in the goodness of creation: ration and strength from the belief that nuity believe that the old creation will cally good, the only theologically plau- what God will annihilate must their noble efforts are not lost, that be ‘transformed’ into the new creation sible for cultural involve- either be so bad that it is not possi- everything good, true, and beautiful and our works will be transformed with ment would be that such involvement ble to be redeemed or so insignifi- they create is valued by God and will be it. New creation is not creation ex diminishes the suffering of the body cant that it is not worth being nihilo, but rather a transformation of and contributes to the good of the appreciated by human beings in the 7 10 redeemed. It is hard to believe in the old into something new—transfor- soul.’ So, for example, Bach might new creation.’ Though I am sympathetic to much the intrinsic value and goodness of matio mundi rather than annihilatio compose music on annihilationist pre- of what he says, a false dichotomy something that God will completely mundi. Because the old is continuous suppositions, but his desire for people reverberates throughout Volf’s discus- annihilate. And without a theologi- with the new, but transformed, our to take pleasure in the music itself sion. He suggests that Christians cally grounded belief in the intrin- work has enduring value. It survives, could not be theologically motivated: affirm an eschatology of either ‘radical sic value and goodness of creation, in some meaningful sense, the escha- He would have no theological rea- discontinuity’ or else of ‘continuity.’ positive cultural involvement hangs tological transformation. Not only are son for this important way of loving 12 The presence of the modifier ‘radical’ theologically in the air. human persons redeemed, but also the others. This problem would not in one case and its absence in the other But is it necessary for continuity work of their hands. arise, however, if Bach believed in is noteworthy. Why not compare radi- and discontinuity to be formulated in In the absence of such continuity, the intrinsic goodness of creation. cal discontinuity to radical continuity? such absolute terms? Similarly, is it Volf finds ‘human work and its results And he could do this only if he Or better yet, why not simply compare proper to understand annihilation and are eschatologically insignificant.’5 He believed in the eschatological continuity and discontinuity and leave transformation as disjunctive oppo- notes that those who affirm annihila- transformation rather than destruc- the radicals to their Parisian cafes? It sites? If so, I wonder who it is who tion.8 is clear that ‘radical’ is not merely actually affirms annihilation. Presum- 4 Miroslav Volf, Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work (New York: Oxford Univer- 6 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 90 sity Press, 1991), 89. 7 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 91 9 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 92 11 Cosden, Heavenly Good, 112. 5 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 90 8 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 91 10 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 92 12 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 90-91 104 author article 105 ably Volf is referring to the Lutheran the old and new creations. Rather, it bodies, wonderful though they are, simply inadequate for describing the theologians cited by Berkouwer who would seem that the very nature of the do not take away the continuity: it eschatological transformation ‘favor the concept of annihilation of the eschatological transformation is both is we who shall be raised, and it is between old and new creations. present cosmos and of a complete dis- continuous and discontinuous, such we who shall always be with the continuity between old earth and that the exact same object undergoing Lord. Those raised with Christ will 2. Eschatological significance of 13 the eschatological transformation will new.’ But surely such theologians not be a totally new set of human work still affirm a continuity between the sometimes be described in terms of dis- beings but the people of God who resurrection body and the present continuity and at other times in terms have lived on this earth.17 But Volf and Cosden are not concerned 14 about eschatological continuity and body. The differences between the of continuity. Furthermore, some aspects of the discontinuity in general, but rather the resurrection body and the earthly body Consider Paul’s observation that transformation between old and new eschatological continuity or disconti- are substantial, but no one denies the ‘the earthly tent we live in will be are best not reduced to either a point of nuity of our work. They are seeking the continuity even if its exact nature hard destroyed’ and that we will receive ‘a continuity or a point of discontinuity. heavenly home not made by human significance intrinsic to our work, and to specify. Perhaps Volf’s understand- Paul’s use of metaphors such as the hands and which is eternal in the heav- argue that it is found in the continuity ing of annihilation and radical disconti- death of a seed before it comes to life ens.’15 Paul expresses the fundamental of our work between old and new cre- nuity is somewhat too radical. can best be understood as neither con- discontinuity between the resurrection ations. Volf points down two tracks in From a biblical perspective, the tinuity nor discontinuity but rather as body and the temporal body by a refer- order to understand this relationship. relationship between old and new can marvel or a mystery. This entire sec- ence to an annihilation metaphor. And First, he leans on Hoekema to sug- be described either by metaphors of tion is marked by a sort of grasping at it should be noted that destruction in gest hints of this sort of thinking which transformation or annihilation. Or to metaphors which are discarded almost this passage is referred to using terms can be found in Scripture. He notices put it more precisely, in biblical lan- as soon as they come to hand. He almost identical to those which that Paul believes a man can ‘build speaks of sowing seed, then of differ- guage old and new creations are describe the final conflagration in 2 upon Christ, the foundation, with gold ent kinds of flesh, then of different described by a set of metaphors rather Peter 3. But Paul also feels compelled or silver, so that his work will remain sorts of heavenly bodies, and finally of than a single metaphor. This is not to use the language of transformation in the consummation and he will bearing the image of dust and bearing because some objects are continuous when describing the resurrection body, receive a reward (1 Cor. 3:14).’ Sec- the image of heaven. It seems that any and others are discontinuous between using metaphors of waking and sleep- ondly, the Book of Revelation mentions single metaphor is inadequate to sus- ing, putting on (in the sense of cloth- works which will follow the believers tain the scope of Paul’s thought. At the ing) and the promise that ‘we shall all in the consummation (Rev. 14:13). And 13 Anthony Hoekema, The Bible and the 16 end of metaphors is a mystery which be changed.’ This change is promised finally, in the description of the new Future (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), cit- still remains. without explicit reference to a preced- Jerusalem, it is said that kings will ing Berkhouwer, Studies in Dogmatics—the In summary, then, the eschatologi- Return of Christ, 220, n. 18. See also Louis ing destruction. bring their glory into the new cal transformation is discontinuous Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 737. Hoekema aptly summarizes the Jerusalem (Rev 21:24, 26). This last is and continuous at the same time. Anni- 14 Volf cites Stott’s summary of the Lau- combination of continuity and disconti- also a theme that Cosden takes up in hilation is an apt description for the sanne Consultation. Some affirmed ‘disconti- nuity that marks the resurrection his discussion of Revelation 21 and nuity based on the destructive nature of God’s discontinuous aspects of the eschato- transformation: 22.18 judgment and the newness of the new cre- logical transformation without thereby Previously we pointed out that But each of these examples is prob- ation. Others believe that just as after the new asserting that continuity has no place. birth we are not a different person but the there will be both continutiy and lematic if appealed to as support for Furthermore, single metaphors are same person remade, so the universe is going discontinuity between the present the continuity of the products of our to experiences a new birth.’ But Stott goes on body and the resurrection body. work between the old and new cre- to say ‘We all believe that about our bodies, for The differences between our pre- the principle of continuity is evident in the res- 17 Hoekema, Bible & Future, 280. Hoekema ations. Beginning with the glory of the urrected body of Jesus.’ See John Stott, ‘Evan- sent bodies and our resurrection is explicit in affirming both continuity and dis- kings, it is not at all clear that this gelism and Social Responsibility,’ in Let the continuity (see The Bible and the Future, 38- refers ‘some continuity between the Earth Hear His Voice: Lausanne Occasional 39). Volf seems to read the both/and position Papers (Lausanne Committee for World Evan- 15 2 Cor. 5:1 as a denial of annihilation rather than simply gelization, Grand Rapids: 1982), 41. 16 1 Cor. 15:20, 53, 52. as an affirmation of transformation. 18 Cosden, Heavenly Good, 72-77. 106 author article 107 culture of the present world and that of deeds but rather worshiped the beast the world to come, this home as a thin gruel. My work is aggregated into the world to come.’19 Revelation 21 pic- and received his mark. Volf himself whole will be integrated. the entire accomplishments of human tures the kings of the Gentile nations comments that he understands this c) Work and its perceived results history. Together, humanity has made entering the new Jerusalem and passage not to refer to the products of define in part the structure of human earth into a habitable human home. thereby submitting themselves and work (which seems to be what beings’ personality, their identity. Human beings have invented and used their kingdoms to the sovereignty of Hoekema has in mind) but rather to the Since resurrection will be not a nega- the wheel. But my work is vanishingly Christ. It is not unlike the twenty-four effect our works have on the shape of tion but an affirmation of human small painted on such a vast canvas. elders in Revelation 4 casting their our personality.20 earthly identity, earthly work will have This may be a good account of the cos- crowns before the throne of God. What Finally, regarding Hoekema’s con- an influence on resurrected personal- mic and eschatological significance of the highest representatives of the peo- tention that 2 Corinthians chapter 3 ity. Rondet rightly asks whether Gut- human work, but it is a very poor ple of God begin in Revelation 4 is com- refers to the continuity of work after tenberg in a glorified state would be account of the existential significance pleted in Revelation 21 by Gentile the consummation, it should be noted Gutenberg apart from any eschatologi- of human work. I remember spending kings making a similar acknowledge- that this context is very narrowly cal relation to the discovery that made an entire summer unable to find a job ment. There is no particular reason to focused on the work of spiritual min- him famous. and struggling with intolerably long believe the works of these Gentile kings istry. What endures are the products of Cosden is sensible to similar con- days and gnawing feelings of depres- enter the new Jerusalem intact. his work in the form of transformed siderations. As he discusses the New sion. It would hardly have made me Similarly, the statement in Revela- lives built into God’s building—a Jerusalem, he comments that the apoc- feel better to remind myself that I was tion 14 reassuring the saints that they metaphor for the church. The work alyptic vision ‘suggests that God is nonetheless human, and human beings can rest from their works because itself is not enduring; Paul’s preaching pleased to gather up, transform, and had invented the wheel. ‘their deeds follow them,’ provides will not be repeated in heaven. Paul include not just his “pure” creation, but There may very well be eschatolog- scant warrant for a belief in the conti- also looks forward to receiving an also the genuine additions to the cre- ical significance to the invention of the nuity of the products of our works. The eschatological reward, but again, this ated reality that we have brought about wheel, but it is of little existential sig- context of this statement is as follows: through creation-transforming nificance to the individual human per- is different than his work. 22 ‘I heard a voice from heaven saying, Volf himself offers some additional actions.’ He also encourages us to son. I would argue that a well-formed think of the ‘Write this: Blessed are the dead who considerations regarding how our theology of work must be able to give a die in the Lord from now on.’ ‘Blessed work continues into the new creation.21 cumulative nature and impact of good account of work’s profound exis- indeed,’ says the Spirit, ‘that they may Specifically, he suggests: our work on this earth and on the tential significance. Perhaps there are rest from their labors for their deeds a) We contribute our small portion whole of humanity. Think about hints of an eschatological meaning for will follow them!’’. to the whole of human knowledge, and how different our world would be the individual person in Volf’s This clearly attaches to preceding upon this the next generation stands to had someone not invented the reminder that work helps shape my paragraph describing the endurance of see farther and do more. Even if our wheel. God’s judgment about the resurrection personality, but why is the saints and their willingness to keep work itself does not survive, it may ‘goodness’ or otherwise of the that more significant than more tradi- the commandments in the face of per- make another work possible which wheel we invented does not apply tional values of human work such as secution. They are to have confidence does survive. only to the ‘original’ wheel. It loving my neighbor or earning divine that ‘their deeds will follow them’ in b) Human work leaves an imprint on involves a judgment of all that has rewards? Does it matter so much that the sense of having confidence that the natural and social environments and resulted from there being wheels— my personality comes through intact to judgments spoken against those who creates a home for human beings with- all that we have built upon, and the new creation? Our work may con- received the mark of the beast will not 23 out which they could not exist…Even from, and with, this invention. tinue into the eschaton, but as apply to them. Their deeds of faithful if every single human product through- I cannot speak for others, but this described by Volf and Cosden, it seems obedience will follow them in the form to be of little real significance for the out history will not be integrated into level of continuity of the ‘products’ or of protection from judgment which ‘results’ of our work seems like pretty individual worker. befalls those who did not do faithful

20 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 97-98. 22 Cosden, Heavenly Good, 75. 3. Other Concerns 19 Hoekema, Bible and the Future, 74. 21 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 96. 23 Cosden, Heavenly Good, 115 I have three other concerns about 108 author article 109 grounding a theology of work in the reform would be a distinctively proto- ence to his commands and by steward- logical basis for a pneumatological new creation. The first of these is char- logical task.26 ship of his gifts to us.29 By our work we understanding of work.30 acteristic of both Volf and Cosden, the b) Volf rejects as naïve the notion share in God’s work, becoming chan- I do not find his reading of spiritual second two concerns attach specifi- that an adequate theology of work can nels of both special and common grace: gifts to be biblically grounded enough cally to Volf. be built on induction from biblical pas- of special grace as we proclaim the to carry the theological weight 27 a) Both Volf and Cosden focus their sages, but there must be a middle Gospel and build up the church, and of required of it. There is a comparatively discussions of the traditional view of ground between such a simplistic the- common grace as we turn the seed narrow biblical usage of this phrase work on Lutheran notions of work and ology by concordance and an authentic which God provides the sower into that should be honored in our theology. calling.24 Of particular importance is biblical theology. I believe Scripture bread which can sustain the eater. This This point is raised by Hardy in his the strand of Lutheran thought that provides more theological ore than Volf is barely scratching the surface of bib- review of Volf’s book and I think affirms the fixity of calling. This is an mines. Clearly such a theology is com- lical material related to work. Hardy’s response is still quite to the artifact of Luther’s exegesis of 1 plicated by the dramatic changes in the Since Volf does not set out to do a point.31 Corinthians 7:20 as well as his sense of social structure surrounding work biblical theology of work, this criticism I also reject his understanding of parallelism between our spiritual and which have taken place since biblical may seem irrelevant. But what does the work of non-Christians as being ‘in external call (since the spiritual call is times. However, the nature of creation pertain to Volf’s concerns is that these the Spirit.’ Without going into the singular and irrevocable, our external itself and the necessities of human life threads of biblical teaching are all details of his argument, let me simply call must be as well). Volf notes that are largely unchanged. strongly rooted in the old rather than observe that I am far more inclined to the combination of these factors con- The work of gathering and eating is the new creation. There is very little understand secular gifts and talents to tributes to a stagnating conservatism intrinsic to our creaturely existence which points us forward out of this age be divine endowments extended as and blinds one to important modern and appointed by God himself. Human into the next. At the very least, such part of common grace rather than to try concerns about the social structures of beings are still made in the image of a biblical considerations go a long way to force them into the category of spir- towards explaining historical pre-occu- work which often contribute to degrad- God who is a worker. The biblical God itual gifts. In general, it seems mis- pations with a protological rather than ing and alienating forms of work. finds pleasure in work, unlike the gods leading to describe the work of non- eschatological perspectives on work. But this Lutheran reading of calling of ancient Greek and Babylonian liter- Christians as ‘done in the Spirit’. c) Volf makes a specific effort to is unfortunate, at least in an American ature. Biblically, work elevates Volf seeks support for this notion connect his theology of work in the context, because Calvin’s understand- humans by making us more god-like from Basil of Caesarea who states that new creation with the work of the ing of calling as mediated by the Puri- rather than less god-like. We imitate creation possesses ‘no power, no moti- Spirit. He accomplishes this primarily tans has been far more influential. God by working for the pleasure of vation, or ingenuity needed for work by associating human work with Calvin was suspicious of human social ‘doing well something that is well that it did not receive from the Spirit of 28 ‘charisms’ or spiritual gifts. To him, structures. His understanding of worth doing’. God.’ From this, Volf infers that there the gifts are the Spirit’s empowerment human depravity implied that the Work is also a context where we is an important sense in which all for our various vocations: social structures that created one’s show our fidelity to God both by obedi- human work is done ‘in the power of Lebenstand could be corrupted by sin If we must understand specific the Spirit.’32 Certainly there is a sense and might stand in need of redemption. 26 Williams makes this point in a response to function and task of a Christian in in which this is true, but do we really Our divine calling might be to change some of Volf’s early work. See Stephen N. the church and in the world charis- want to call this an important sense? our social setting, not accept it.25 Once Williams, ‘The Partition of Love and Hope: matically, then everyday work can- All human work ultimately depends on again, it should be noted, that such Eschatology and Social Responsibility,’ Trans- not be an exception. The Spirit of formation 7, no. 3 (1990), 24-27. God calls, endows, and empowers 27 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 77, and Lee Hardy, Christians to work in their various 30 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 113. review of Work in the Spirit: Toward a New vocations. The charismatic nature 24 See Volf, Work in the Spirit, 105-110 and Theology of Work, Calvin Theological Journal 31 See Hardy, 195-196. Volf’s response to Cosden, Heavenly Good, 38-45. 28, no. 1 (1993), 192. of all Christian activity is the theo- Hardy’s criticisms on the issue of spiritual 25 Lee Hardy, The Fabric of This World 28 This expression is borrowed from Dorothy gifts is found in, Miroslav Volf, ‘Eschaton, Cre- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 1990). See espe- Sayers, or Chaos?, reissue ed. (Man- ation, and Social Ethics,’ Calvin Theological cially his discussion of reforming fallen struc- chester, New Hampshire: Sophia Institute, 29 In this context I am thinking both of spir- Journal 30, no. 1 (1995), 138-143 tures, 63-67. 1995), 63. itual gifts and of human talents in general. 32 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 118. 110 author article 111 divine power, but nonetheless many tells of a man named Niggle whose pas- through the rain, the Driver arrived to places. Finally, Niggle is called on to human works are sinful and vicious. If sion and purpose was to paint. Specifi- take him on his journey. The painting the higher mountains but Parish stays the sense one makes of ‘in the power of cally, he wanted to paint a picture of a would have to be left undone. behind to await his wife. the Spirit’ is so broad as to encompass tree—or more properly of a leaf, that As the reader quickly becomes The final narration informs us what all human work including Nazi death drew him onward to a tree, and then to aware, this Driver is taking him on his became of Niggle’s actual painting in camps, surely this sense is not impor- an entire landscape. The vision was so final journey—by Tolkein’s eschatol- the original world. Because of its size, tant but rather hopelessly broad. compelling, he forgot about all his ogy one that includes a trip through it proved useful as a large piece of can- other pictures or else incorporated Purgatory and then gradually on to his vas to cover a hole in Parish’s roof after them into the ever-growing tree and vision of the eternal state. For our pre- Niggle departed on his journey. A cor- II Eschatology and the landscape he was painting on his ever- sent concerns, however, this aspect of ner of the painting tore off: a spray of significance of work growing canvas. his eschatology is relatively unimpor- leaves and a mountain-peak. A sympa- So must we reject the eschatological He also had a nearby neighbor, a tant. After his initial season of hard thetic passer-by took a fancy to it, significance of work? I think not. I man named Parish, who was lame and labor (what I would deem to be his framed it and put it in a local museum. believe there is an eschatological sig- had a sickly wife. Niggle was often metaphorical purgatory), Niggle is But the museum burned down and the nificance to our work, but it is not called upon to help Parish when his leg released to another land. In fact, his painting with it and Niggle was directly grounded in the new creation. was particularly bad or his wife was release comes early in part because in ‘entirely forgotten in his own country.’ Furthermore, though our work has an particularly ill. This was always some- life he had exhibited a willingness to do This story is provocative because of important eschatological element, it is what irritating to Niggle since it took his duty to neighbor without expecting how it portrays the connection not necessarily more important than him away from his picture, but there a reward. between eschatology and the meaning the traditional (protological) signifi- was nothing to be done. He had to do The new land is a sort of foothills of of our work. Niggle was clearly driven cance of work. his duty. And of course there were heaven and as he wanders through it, by what could be called an eschatolog- I would like to advance my case by countless other distractions which he suddenly rounds a corner and before ical vision. He saw something, but that means of two thought experiments kept delaying his progress. And loom- him stands the Tree, his Tree. And it is which he saw was of the next world not regarding the significance of human ing ominously in the background of this finished. Tolkein describes the this world. His labor in this world was work. The first of these two fictional story is the long journey that Niggle moment as follows: to paint his eschatological Tree, but knew he would have to take, but for not to plant it. In other words, the prod- examples will help us understand the He gazed at the Tree, and slowly he which he was always reluctant to pre- uct of his labor was a painting not a eschatological connection between lifted his arms and opened them pare. tree and not a forest. human work and the new creation. We wide. ‘It’s a gift!’ he said. He was He often castigated himself for not In the new creation, his painting will discover that there is a connection, referring to his art, and also to the but it points in the opposite direction of being ‘strong-minded’ enough to resist was not cleansed of its imperfections the other calls of life and focus fully on result; but he was using the word and purified through a transforming what Volf and Cosden suggest. The quite literally. second example will move us back to his painting. He was worried he would and preserving act of God. It was not the protological significance of work not be able to complete it before he had He proceeds to admire the Tree in completed and hung in a new creation and argue that work can be meaningful to depart for his long journey. Just as all its beauty, noticing leaves he had art gallery. The final end of his paint- even in the absence of direct eschato- he was getting a sense of urgency labored over in life as well as leaves ing was, simply put, annihilation. It logical connections. about his painting, Parish’s wife took that were only buds in his mind and was turned into a tarp and the only part ill and Niggle was called upon to ride other leaves that ‘might have budded if that was kept as a painting was ulti- his bike through the rain to call a doc- only he had had the time.’ And there mately burned in a fire. The destiny of 1. Niggle’s Leaf tor. Niggle knew this might mean he were birds flying to and fro, and an his protological work was to be annihi- J.R.R. Tolkein wrote a provocative couldn’t finish his painting, but Parish entire forest around the Tree and lated, not to be transformed. short story entitled Leaf by Niggle.33 It couldn’t ride a bike and there was noth- mountains beyond. It may be that I am constraining ing to be done. He had to go. And, of As the story unfolds, Niggle is ulti- Volf’s notion of continuity too nar- 33 J. R. R. Tolkein, ‘Leaf by Niggle,’ in Tree course, the delay proved tragic. By the mately reunited with Parish in this for- rowly. Perhaps the connection and Leaf (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, time he had recovered from the cold he est and they work the land together between painting and forest is a con- 1989) contracted while riding his bike making it into the most beautiful of tinuous one—allowing for an episode 112 author article 113 of divine transformation in-between. work is found by making something in dom in the present world, thereby mak- short fosters a longing for the sweet- But then it would seem that Bach’s this world which anticipates the next, ing this world—at least for a ness of our vision fulfilled. The joyful music could undergo a similar trans- even though it may not participate in moment—glimmer with the light of the anticipation of the future and the heart- formation and come out on the other the next. Volf seems to argue that for next. Tolkein captures the significance felt mourning of the present are both side not as music but as a waterfall or work to be meaningful it must actually of such anticipatory work beautifully authentic Christian emotions in this a moonlit glade. When the transforma- participate in the new creation—it when he recounts the interaction fallen world. Creation’s groaning is not tions are so discontinuous, the lan- must be eschatologically durable.34 He between Parish and the ‘shepherd’ to be silenced until the new creation guage of annihilation and the language wants to bring objects of the old cre- who comes to take Niggle on to the comes—the groans keep us awake, of transformation become one. I can’t ation forward into the new creation. I heavenly mountains. Parish asks him watchful and working. imagine Bach’s work being intrinsi- would argue that it is more proper to the name of the country that Niggle and The fact that our work is anticipa- cally meaningful on one set of assump- understand our work as an attempt to he have been living in; the shepherd tory relative to the new creation rather tions but not on the other. What is bring visions of the new creation back- tells him it is called ‘Niggle’s Picture’. than participatory also protects us ruled out is a radical discontinuity ward into the present state. Parish is amazed that Niggle had con- from the dangers of misguided utopic which makes the new creation entirely Our protological work does not have ceived of this beautiful place and mar- visions—one of the most disconcerting disjunctive from the old—not haunted a participatory relationship with the vels that Niggle was so clever, and aspects of 20th century history. As as it were by the ghosts of paintings new creation but rather an anticipatory asks why Niggle never told him of all Francis Bridger comments: and symphonies from a distant land. relationship. We know that the day is this. The shepherd reminds Parish of Paradoxically, the fact that it is But there is no reason annihilation coming when these visions will receive the picture that Niggle was always God who will bring about a new must destroy all connection. their true fulfillment, but that is a dis- working on back in the country from order of creation at the End and As was pointed out earlier, this sort tant day. We have need of tangible which they came: that we are merely erecting sign- of radical disjunction seems to be ruled reminders lest we forget our calling as ‘But it did not look like this then, posts to that future need not act as out by more clear cases of continuity we labor in our temporal context. not real,’ said Parish. a disincentive. Rather it frees us such as the resurrection body, the In this sense, anticipatory work is from the burden of ethical and tech- preservation of personal identity, the sacramental—creating visible ‘No, it was only a glimpse then,’ said the man; ‘but you might have nological autonomy and makes it memory of martyrdom, the twelve reminders of invisible realities. The clear that human claims to sover- tribes of Israel and the twelve Apostles Lord’s Supper is a visible reminder of caught the glimpse, if you had ever thought it worthwhile to try.’ eignty are relative. The knowledge whose names are inscribed on the foun- the death of Christ which we celebrate that it is God’s world, that our dations of the new Jerusalem, and ‘until he comes.’ It is a retrospective Our anticipatory work is a procla- efforts are not directed toward the countless other reminders that there reminder of what Christ has done. Our mation of the kingdom for those who construction of an ideal utopia but was a creation that proceeded the new work is analogous though different; it have ears to hear and eyes to glimpse. that we are under God, building creation. is (or can be understood as) a prospec- Though many do not think it is worth bridgeheads of the kingdom serves But obviously there is a connection tive anticipation of what Christ will do. the while to try to glimpse the coming to humble us and to bring us to the between his painting and the new cre- In order for our work to succeed on Kingdom, those of us who eagerly place of ethical obedience.35 ation. As Tolkein tells the story, the these terms, it need not be eschatolog- await it are called to grant seekers of So in these many ways and more reader is teased with the thought of ically durable. It can pass away having that Kingdom the best glimpse we can there is a profound connection between Niggle having painted that part of the fulfilled its purpose if it creates an offer. And our glimpses also fulfill a eschatology and our work. But I would new creation into being. On the other authentic anticipation of Christ’s king- purpose by keeping us actively longing argue that none of these connections hand, the new creation explicitly con- for the next world and the transforma- trumps the priority of the protological tained much that Niggle never con- tion of our anticipatory paintings into aspects of our work. Tolkein seems to ceived of but only ‘could have con- 34 This is not to say that Volf is blind to an glorified reality. And it should be added share this doubt because as much as ceived if he had had the time.’ It would anticipatory relationship between our work that it is not only our successful work seem the eschatological fulfillment of and the new creation (see Work in the Spirit, but also our failures that helps us cul- 80). Rather, it seems that whatever meaning his vision was a joint venture between derives from this anticipatory relationship is tivate a longing anticipation for what is 35 Cited in Christopher Wright, The Mission Niggle and God. negligible compared to the meaning that to come. of God (Downers Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity The meaning and significance of comes from participation in the new creation. The bitterness of our vision fallen Press, 2006), 411. 114 author article 115 the story praises the anticipatory work gifted student tempts him to leave his let us assume he is an earnest Christ- with his life choices. His family, his in Niggle’s painting, it is clear that the mundane life and chase his dream. And ian—at least as earnest as Niggle. On work, his community were all part of Voices in his story that represent God’s of course, in the midst of these trials, this assumption, is Holland’s Opus sig- his calling in a sense that is very famil- evaluation of Niggle’s work are much the opus in neglected. nificant? I would argue that Holland’s iar to us from Luther. These things less concerned with his eschatological However, a variety of circum- Opus is indeed significant, but his pri- constituted his Lebenstand. It was a vision than with his protological duty. stances conspire to make help Mr. Hol- mary opus was not his musical score kind of life that was imposed on him by He is commended for being faithful land realize the life he has is best but rather his students. His work was the providence of God—and vocation, to serve Parish in the most mundane of embraced and his dream is best left not deemed worthwhile because of its as William Perkins puts it, simply is ‘a ways—and having done so without the simmering on the back burner. He does musical merit, but rather because of kind of life imposed on man.’ expectation of reward. He is com- his duty, and his symphonic master- the way he served his students, loved The most central feature of a voca- mended for having left his painting and piece remains incomplete and unper- his wife and son, and ultimately the tion is not that it is freely chosen, but gone to get the doctor in the rain on formed. Unperformed, that is, until the sort of character he formed within him- rather that it is divinely given. It may behalf of Parish’s wife, even though he day he retires and unbeknownst to him self. And furthermore, by the stan- come in an explicit, verbal fashion to a knew his time was short. Niggle even an orchestra of his former students is dards of the New Testament, he has a person walking along the Damascus guessed she wasn’t all that sick, and assembled and together they play—as clearer warrant for claiming to have Road, or it may come through the indeed events proved she was not, but best they can, his opus—which has done good works than if he had written strong current of providential circum- he went nonetheless. He is com- only been completed as best he can. a work that surpassed Mozart in musi- stances, channeled by God-given gifts mended, in effect, for his refusal to let The movie plays with predictable cal quality, but in so doing had and abilities, directed by the opening his eschatological vision trump his pro- pathos—but there is a point to this neglected his other duties. Mr. Hol- and closing of sluices of both divine tological duty. story, a point most germane to our pre- land, when pressed, chose the better and human origin, and bounded by the sent discussion. In contrast to Leaf by portion. banks of God’s revealed Word. Niggle, the opus by Holland is not dri- This does not mean music is bad, or But the method matters little. The 2. Holland’s Opus ven by an eschatological vision but insignificant. Indeed, I would argue point is to understand the divine origin My second example develops the rather a protological one. Mr. Holland, that there are times and situations in of the call and to answer it as if it truly importance of protological duties even as portrayed in the movie, does not which it might very well be appropriate is divine. In so doing, human freedom more directly. The movie Mr. Holland’s have a vision of the new creation that to place a higher emphasis on music. finds its expression not in libertarian Opus tells the story of a musician who he is trying to express through his art. However, those situations were not acts of choosing but rather in worship- dreams of writing a brilliant orchestral He is simply trying to write music for Holland’s situation. He was married, ful submission to the divine will. And composition. However, the realities of this world which he finds lovely and and therefore had an abiding duty to often, the connection between such life press in upon him and he decides to hopes others will as well. And at the love and be faithful to his wife. He had works and the eschaton is not medi- take a position as a high school music end, the opus is completed not by being a son, therefore he had a duty to love ated by the objects of the work but teacher. He continues to work on his purified by divine transformation and and provide for him—doubly so in light rather by the persons of the work—the ‘opus’, but the challenges of balancing brought forward into the new creation. of his disability. He was a teacher, and God who assigned it, the person who school, family life, and dealing with a Rather, its final expression comes in therefore he had a duty to teach, train did it, and the people for whom it was son who happens to be born deaf ren- the here and now—at the hands of less and shape his students to the best of done. Work’s significance, both proto- ders progress on his opus ponderously than skilled high-school caliber musi- his ability. logically and eschatologically, is slow. His love and concern for his stu- cians. Holland’s Opus differs from Nig- This was his situation and such deeply rooted in its relational element. dents also weighs heavily on his heart. gle’s Leaf exactly at the point eschato- were his circumstances. They were not Work given to man is a divine trust— He loves to see students flourish and logical fulfillment. Niggle’s Leaf had a necessarily chosen by him. In fact, if work done for God is our act of wor- succeed and he often finds himself future in the eschaton, Holland’s Opus we assume he was a Christian we ship. believing in students who no longer did not. But does that mean Holland’s might also assume he would view these believe in themselves. Budget cuts Opus was insignificant? circumstances as providentially thrust make teaching even more difficult, I think not. upon him by God. God was, in effect, Conclusion frustrations mount with his son’s dis- Though Holland’s theological senti- posing him a question by his life cir- Looming in the background of the dis- ablility, and finally an attractive and ments are not laid bare in this movie, cumstances which he was to answer cussions of both Niggle and Holland is 116 author article 117 our understanding of the term ‘duty’. cally but relationally. It expresses and ‘They both laughed. Laughed—the mon good, having mediated the grace Some concluding remarks on this topic nourishes a cherished relationship. Mountains rang with it!’ of God to others, and having bound one would be in order. ‘Duty’ is a term that Niggle joins Holland in finding Doing one’s duty, properly under- to God and to one’s fellow workers in once was clearly used as a term of meaning in doing his duty. He is bound stood, can be the celebration of a rela- friendship and love. Faithfulness to praise, often highest praise, for human to Parish because he is his neighbor, tionship. It need not be an arid task protological duties is significant and conduct. In more recent years, its con- and one has a duty toward one’s neigh- which serves only an instrumental pur- meaningful merely by benefits accrued notation has become dominated by a bor. What is interesting in Tolkein’s pose or no purpose at all. In fact, doing in the present world, though the seeds sense of irksomeness. Duty has always rendering of neighborly duty is that the one’s duty may one day bask in escha- of our duties may also flower in the been other than one’s free choice but it relationship which was begun in the tological glory, having served the com- next. has not always been contrary to it. old creation by faithful works of duty is Choosing to do one’s duty has often culminated in the new creation by an been counted a great and noble thing. authentic bond of friendship. This It seems, however, because of the friendship expresses itself in shared enlightenment desire to do away with work for a common goal which ulti- the shadows of God in our moral rea- mately created a place of healing in the soning, and perhaps because of Kant’s new creation. In fact, it was such a aptitude for accomplishing this desire, good place of healing that the heavenly duty was stripped of a personal ele- Voices which portray God in this story ment and reduced to the product of arid found it extremely useful for helping and impersonal rational argument. others.36 Duty was abstracted from persons and In the new creation their shared disconnected from relationship. It labor served the common good. The became connected to raw authority— story closes with a delightful anecdote either the authority of rational thought in which the heavenly voices discuss or the authority of a person who, the naming of this place, a naming almost by definition, one did not have a which has become necessary because relationship with—the king, the of its constant use by fellow heavenly teacher, the civil authority. travelers in need of a place to help com- The roots of biblical duty, however, plete their healing. are profoundly personal. They are ‘I think we should give the region a almost always rooted in a covenant name. What do you propose?’ relationship, nourished by love, sus- tained by commitment, and expressed ‘The Porter settled that some time by meaningful work to accomplish a ago,’ said the second Voice. ‘Train jointly shared purpose. In the biblical for Niggle’s Parish by the bay: he context, when God calls us to do some- has shouted that message for a thing, it is our duty to do it because of long time now. Niggle’s Parish. I the relationship in which we stand. We sent a message to both of them to are bound to him in covenant and he is tell them.’ bound to us. Doing our duty is not ‘What did they say?’ merely an abstract response to author- ity but rather a way of sustaining and 36 Tolkein’s eschatological transformation fulfilling a covenant relationship. Our is gradual and phased, not sudden and com- work finds meaning, in this sense, nei- prehensive. Heaven involves a progressive ther protologically nor eschatologi- healing. ERT (2009) 33:2, 118-n article 119

Tracy explicitly aligns his general sists of at least three publics: society, With/Beyond Tracy: Re-visioning method of correlation(s) with H. R. academy, and church.7 The theocentric Niebuhr’s model of cultural transfor- basis is critical to his understanding of Public Theology mation.5 For another, Tracy is a pivotal theology’s public role. theologian who takes seriously the For theology dares to speak of all question of the relationship between reality—persons, history, self, Timoteo D. Gener Christian faith and the public sphere.6 all—in relationship to the whole of I will begin by discussing Tracy’s reality. That whole is believed in… notion of public theology, including its KEYWORDS: Culture, theological Here I am presuming that Tracy serves as God. And theology—precisely as method, revised correlation, conversa- as a vital conversation partner.3 For correlational methodology, theological theologos—attempts to speak this tion, missiological, transformation, one, his revised correlational method bases, and social strategy. From a syn- word about God in fidelity to the experience and reason. envisions a full spectrum of dialogical chronic presentation, I will add a demands and the disciplines of the possibilities in conversation with pub- diachronic rendering of Tracy’s theo- three publics, not one: of church, lic culture. As such, it appears to be a logical journey. From here, I will move academy, and the wider society.8 THIS STUDY EXPLORES David Tracy’s useful method for mission and dialogue on to offer an appreciation (with) and Because of the very nature of funda- approach to public theology with theol- with culture and society.4 Incidentally, critique of (beyond) Tracy’s proposals. mental questions it asks and because ogy of culture as background to the of the nature of the reality of God upon 1 topic. More specifically, writing as a ing theology as such would be an interesting I Tracy’s Model of Public which theology reflects, theology must theologian from the Philippines, I seek subject worth exploring for a future study. One develop public, not private, criteria and Theology: An Overview 9 to develop a basic understanding of wonders why, for example, Calvin or Barth discourse. Tracy has been writing about ‘public ‘public theology’ for evangelical theo- had not made a point of this. Publicness is tied with pluralism in 3 Various theologians have approached his theology’ for about a quarter of a cen- logical engagement in the country.2 public life. The public realm involves insights from diverse emphases: fundamental tury now. He delineates the public the ‘pluralism of cultural worlds’ both theology, systematics, hermeneutics and character of theology in at least two external and internal. Theologians are rhetorics, philosophy of religion [cf. John P. ways: theology as public discourse and 1 I have explored Tracy’s theology of culture McCarthy, ‘David Tracy’ in A New Handbook of not only dealing with ‘several publics in ‘The Catholic Imagination in a Theology of Christian Theologians, Donald W. Musser and as revisionist/correlationist theology. external to the self but to several inter- Culture: A Conversation with David Tracy on Joseph L. Price (eds.) (Nashville: Abingdon, nalized publics in one’s own reflections Theology of Culture’ (Unpublished PhD Dis- 1996), 468.] As an evangelical, I am inter- 1. Theology as public discourse on authentic existence.’10 Theology’s sertation, Center for Advanced Theological ested in engaging his public theology from a public nature directly relates to theolo- Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Tracy maintains theology to be a public ‘missiological’ angle. gians’ public role as well as to the Pasadena, California, June 2003). For a sum- 4 Tracy’s correlational model of doing theol- form of discourse or a discipline inform- ‘publics’ (reference groups) to whom mary of Tracy’s theology, see Gaspar Mar- ogy has been a congenial partner to the prac- ing public discourse rooted in a radically they speak.11 Theology engages the tinez’s Confronting the Mystery of God: Politi- tice of theological inculturation in the Philip- monotheistic claim and affirmed within cal, Liberation, and Public Theologies (New pines. See Jose de Mesa, In Solidarity with the a modern, pluralistic (United States) York, London: Continuum, 2001), 152-215. Culture (Quezon City, Philippines: Maryhill 2 Robert McElroy credits Martin Marty for School of Theology, 1987), 1-42, esp., 20-21, setting. This pluralistic context con- 7 Tracy, Analogical Imagination: Christian coining the term ‘public theology’ in 1974. See 40-41. See also Stephen Bevans, Models of Theology and the Culture of Pluralism (New McElroy, The Search for an American Public Contextual Theology (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991) York: Crossroad, 1981), xi; ‘Theology as Pub- Theology (New York: Paulist Press, 1989), 4. 81-96; Lode Wostyn and Jose de Mesa, Doing 5 Tracy, et al., ‘Theological Reflection on lic Discourse,’ The Christian Century, March This emphasis on ‘public theology’ in classify- Theology (Quezon City: Claretian, 1991). Local Religious Leadership,’ in Parish, Priest, 1975, 280; ‘The Role of Theology in Public and People: New Leadership for the Local Church Life: Some Reflections,’ Word & World 4:3 (Chicago: Thomas More Press, 1981), 150- (1984), 230-32. Timoteo D. Gener is Associate Professor of Theology at Asian Theological Seminary and at the 158. 8 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public Graduate School of Theology-Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. He holds a PhD from Fuller Theological 6 For a summary of Tracy’s theology as pub- Life,” 231. Seminary and a M.Phil from the Institute of Christian Studies, Toronto, Canada. This is an extended version lic theology, see Gaspar Martinez, Confronting 9 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, xi. of the paper delivered by the author at the Annual Conference of the Evangelical Theological Society the Mystery of God, 152-215. See also Gener, 10 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 4. November 17, 2006. “The Catholic Imagination,” Chapters 2, 5. 11 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 4. 120 author article 121 claims of the three publics.12 alternatively, criteria of intelligibility ments his previous proposal by submit- sity and in the wider culture and not Tracy further explains that theology or credibility) and (b) criteria of appro- ting three sets of criteria: the simply within the churches.22 ‘speaks from and to three publics.’ As priateness for Christian texts (or Chris- hermeneutical notion of truth as mani- 15 public discourse, theology does not tian identity). The first grounds the festation, criteria of reasonable coher- 2. Revisionist Theology simply speak from a social location; it meaningfulness, meaning, and truth- ence, and the ethical-political crite- also speaks to that location.13 It draws fulness of cognitive claims in a philo- ria.19 In so doing, Tracy modifies his Public theology is also revisionist theol- from a social locus as it shares a cer- sophical reflection on lived experience notion of transcendental (metaphysi- ogy (or revised correlational theology) tain consensus about what counts as or the self as self, ‘mediated through cal) reflection proper to theological which in its three forms (fundamental, public discourse, what needs to be various disciplines such as art, history, reflection. First, truth as manifestation systematic, or practical), seeks to ‘ren- addressed, how claims are warranted cultural analysis, human scientific (or what he calls the analogical imagi- der public the resources of theology for and advanced. But it also names God, analysis, and philosophical analysis.’16 nation) remains the foundation of pos- the overlapping publics of the church, speaks of God, and addresses God’s This is a way of honoring the integrity sibility for public conversation as well the academy, and distinct pastoral, cul- concerns to that location (and implic- as for the method of correlation. Sec- tural, and political praxis move- of contemporary experience (of plural- 23 itly, to the other publics). ism) in theological reflection. ond, reasonable coherence means a ments.’ Hence, to render its One finds Tracy, therefore, moving The second criteria searches for an ‘more flexible but no less rational cri- resources for public transformation beyond a pluralistic description toward adequate theory of interpretation to teria for the rough coherence of what through correlation and conversation discernment to norm theological ‘show how (the theologians’) present truths-as-manifestations we may is theology’s distinct role in public life. reflection. The following remark is typ- categories are appropriate understand- hermeneutically learn from revelation In assuming this role, its distinction ical: ‘To affirm pluralism responsibly ings of the Christian understanding of with what we otherwise know as rea- lies in adding a third public from which it draws from and speaks to: not just must include an affirmation of truth existence.’17 This is determined by sonable from science and all other uses and public criteria for that affirma- referring to the ‘meanings involved of reason.’20 Finally, the ethical-politi- the academy and the general culture, 14 but also the church, understood as a tion.’ This leads aptly to Tracy’s either explicitly or implicitly in the sig- cal criteria as pragmatics combine with community of moral and religious notion of criteria. nificant texts, actions, gestures, and the truth as manifestation (hermeneu- In Blessed Rage for Order, Tracy inquiry and commitment.24 As a mod- symbols of the entire Christian tradi- tic) to reflect the interrelation of theory identifies two major criteria for funda- ern discipline, however, it speaks to tion.’18 and praxis, revelation and salvation. mental or public theology: (a) criteria the academy (as a discipline of liberal More recently, in recognition of the Summing up, public theology of adequacy to human experience (or art) and, through its academic work, to post-modern situation, Tracy supple- strongly repudiates the notion that the- ology is simply a self-expression of the the general culture as well.25 church’s own self-understanding. The- Because of the prominence of con- 12 Here he combines the analyses of histori- ology ought not to remain exclusively versation, public theology is correla- ans, as well as culture and sociological theo- 15 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order: The New Plu- in the church. ‘[T]he church when tional theology. In Tracy’s words, ‘a rists like Martin Marty, Peter Berger and ralism in Theology (Chicago: University of correlational model of theology seems Thomas Luckmann, Clifford Geertz, Stephen Chicago Press, 1975, 1996), 64-87; also ‘On faithful to its own self-understanding 21 Toulmin, Gregory Baum, Van Harvey, and Jür- Reading the Scriptures Theologically,’ in The- is not a sect.’ It has responsibilities to gen Habermas (Analogical Imagination, xii, 1- ology and Dialogue. Bruce Marshall (ed.) the wider culture. Consequently, it 6, 31-40) (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, belongs as much in a modern univer- 22 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public 13 E.g. Tracy, Analogical Imagination, xi; 1989), 36-37. Life,’ 230. ‘The Role of Theology in Public Life,’ 230. 16 Gerald M. Boodoo, Development and Con- 23 Tracy, ‘Revisionist Practical Theology 14 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, xi. In doing solidation: The Use of Theological Method in the and the Meaning of Public Discourse,’ Pastoral this, Tracy was, in effect, proposing some Works of David Tracy (Ph.D. Dissertation, 19 Tracy, ‘The Uneasy Alliance Reconceived: Psychology 26 (1977), 83. boundary-markers for doing theology in con- Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Catholic Theological Method, Modernity, and 24 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public temporary life. Cf. Gareth Jones who says that Theology, 1991) 112. Postmodernity,’ Theological Studies 50 (1989), Life,’ 230. from a rhetorical point of view, Tracy’s Blessed 17 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order, 72; cited by 561. 25 Tracy, ‘Afterword: Theology, Public Dis- Rage for Order seeks to ‘halt the ‘postmod- Boodoo, Development and Consolidation, 114- 20 Tracy, ‘The Uneasy Alliance Recon- course, and the American Tradition,’ in ernist slide’ [Critical Theology: Questions of 115. ceived,’ 566. Michael J. Lacey, ed., Religion and the Twenti- Truth and Method (New York: Paragon House, 18 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order, 72. cited by 21 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public eth Century American Intellectual Life (Cam- 1995) 115. Boodoo, Development and Consolidation, 115. Life,’ 230. bridge University Press, 1989) 193-203. 122 author article 123 the best available for an understanding qualifier ‘mutually critical’ signals the becomes (hermeneutical) conversation message (that which drives theology to of the possible function of theology in self-critical theological stance, as well for Tracy, mainly ‘rhetorical and not be truly public) ultimately resides in the public realm.’26 This model ‘not as the attendant risks involved in the ontological, unpredictable and yet the nature of God as God as revealed in merely allows but demands that theol- interpretive process. Hence, Tracy urgent,’ and not dependent on a sys- Jesus Christ, the God to whom Chris- ogy enter into serious conversation insists that his method is a revised cor- tematic philosophical framework.33 In tians bear witness. From this Christian with all others in the public realm.’27 relational method—a revised form of fact, Webb says, one can view Tracy’s self-understanding, Tracy claims that Theology in the correlational model Tillich’s correlation.30 proposal as one that ‘depends on a faith in the ‘all pervasive reality of God’ involves Correlational theology as public dis- tropical strategy of analogy in rhetoric: disclosed in Jesus Christ leads to ‘fun- the attempt to establish, in both course allies with a rhetorical model for both the similarity and the difference of damental trust in and loyalty to the theory and practice, mutually criti- theological discourse.31 From this angle, the other must be recognized at the world in all its ambiguity’ even to ‘the cal correlations between two sets of one can say that Tracy employs reason same time. From that recognition, true church as… primary mediator of the 36 interpretation: an interpretation of rhetorically, that is, reason as commu- dialogical—mutually critical interac- gift of God in Christ.’ the Christian tradition and an inter- nication. It follows that he is not con- tion—can take place.’34 Ambiguity pertains to the mixture of pretation of contemporary experi- cerned with theoretical certainty but Correlation translates into conver- good and evil, light and darkness, ence.28 rather, to advance the conversation sation as a public strategy. The ‘con- which does not exempt members of the 32 versation’ suggests that Christian the- church. In John’s Gospel and the It is not correlation in the mode of with its many dialogue partners. ology does not have special prerogative Johannine epistles, one discerns a Paul Tillich, which is a one-way move- Thus, Webb advances that correlation to the recognition of truth. The classic Christian ambivalence in relating to ment from existential questions to manifestations of meaning and truth go the world expressed in both profound Christian answers. Rather, it is a both- beyond the confines of theology and trust in and loyalty to the world that way, self-critical approach to theology. Introduction to Its Traditions and Tasks. Edited the church.35 This ‘conversation’ is an God created, and real distrust in that There are two principal sources for by Robert King and Peter Hodgson (Philadel- imperative for critical (social) collabo- world expressed in denunciation, even doing theology (the Christian tradition phia: Fortress, 1982, 1985), 36). ration and search for truth in the pub- flight from it.37 It is amidst the radical and contemporary experience) and the 30 For a different reading of Tillich’s method, see Timoteo Gener, ‘Transformational Corre- lic realm. contingency and ambiguity of all life goal is to critically correlate them for lation: A Reformational Perspective on Cul- that the Word enables and commands transformative theory and practice. tural Theological Method in Conversation with work for the world and the neighbor.38 Mutual criticism and correction David Tracy’s and Paul Tillich’s Correlational 3. Inner Theological Reasons This Christological understanding is a between Christian tradition and con- Approach,’ in That the World May Believe: From scriptural grounds, how does Essays on Mission and Unity in Honour of key theme in Tracy’s constructive pro- temporary experience follows from the Tracy support his model of public the- posals: Jesus as the Christ, ‘the deci- fact of finitude and contingency.29 The George Vandervelde. M. Goheen and M. O’Gara (eds.) (Lanham, MD: University Press of ology that emphasizes the intrinsic sive Word-event of divine self-manifes- America, 2006) 29-43. role of three publics (academy, church, tation.’39 The intrinsic connection 31 Most notably in Tracy, Plurality and Ambi- society) in theological reflection? As between the manifestory christic 26 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public guity: Hermeneutics, Religion, Hope (San Fran- we have seen, Tracy qualifies that the Life,’ 234. vision and cultural valuation lies cisco: Harper & Row, 1987). Those who universalizing impetus of the Christian 27 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public explicitly adopt a rhetorical theological model thickly on the nature of Jesus Christ as Life,’ 235. with affinities to Tracy’s approach, include Logos, not just Kerygma. 28 Tracy, ‘The Role of Theology in Public Stephen Webb, Refiguring Theology: The Life,’ 235, my emphases. Rhetoric of Karl Barth (Albany: SUNY, 1991), 29 ‘There is no innocent interpretation, no and Don Compier, What is Rhetorical Theology? 33 Webb, Refiguring Theology, 177. unambiguous tradition, no history-less, sub- Textual Practice and Public Discourse (Harris- 34 Webb, Refiguring Theology, 177. 36 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 47, 49-50. ject-less interpreter, no abstract, general situ- burg, PA: TPI, 1999). 35 Werner Jeanrond, ‘Correlational Theology 37 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 48. ation, no method to guarantee certainty. There 32 Metaphysics and transcendental argu- and the Chicago School,’ Introduction to Chris- 38 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 48. is only the risk of theological interpretation ments receive a temporary, pragmatic useful- tian Theology: Contemporary North American 39 Tracy, ‘A Theological View of Philosophy: itself… and sharing that interpretation with ness. This rhetorical grounding has relevance Perspectives. Edited by Roger Badham. Revelation and Reason,’ in The Question of the wider theological community for their crit- to the charge of foundationalism in Tracy. See (Louisville: WJKP, 1998), 142. Hence, Jean- Christian Philosophy Today. Edited by F. J. icism and their appropriation’ (Tracy, ‘Theo- Webb, Refiguring Theology, 176-177, also 179 rond’s remarks: ‘Only a public theology can be Ambrosio (New York: Fordham University logical Method,’ in Christian Theology: An n.4. really correlational’ (142) Press, 1999), 148. 124 author article 125

4. Publicness and particularities comprehensive notion of reason… and toward an evangelical appreciation especially for systematic theology. To open up the public realm for the thereby of religion’s own relationship and critique of his theology. The reason I wrote Plurality and 44 resources of churches, Tracy invokes to that more comprehensive role.’ As a dialogical theologian, Tracy’s Ambiguity is simply because the the need not only for argument but also This comprehensive notion of reason, thinking has evolved and is evolving sense of both plurality and of ambi- 48 conversation in shaping public life. In allied with the criteria for genuine con- through continuing conversations. guity, namely, the sense of post- other words, for particular traditions to versation, Tracy finds congenial to Consider the following retrospective modernity, became even stronger participate in public, the public realm appreciating the disclosive and trans- remarks, which summarize in a self- for me, and I felt obliged, ethically has to be reconfigured to include both formative truths of concrete classics of critical way the thrust of his major pub- almost, to try to clarify that for 45 argument and conversation.40 This art and religion. lications. myself in relationship to what remains a fundamentally bears the notion that publicness is Precisely as conversation, the inter- Blessed Rage for Order is straight- hermeneutical theology. And then inherently dialogical, grounded in the action between reference groups is forwardly modern theology, with Dialogue with the Other is an notion that human action is ‘intrinsi- shared, shareable, public. Precisely as much I would wish to defend, espe- attempt to say that what is called cally interactive and communicative.’41 the result of conversation, the disclo- cially things like the reflections on sure-transformation is a public candi- for now is the relationship to the Here Tracy substantially adopts limit language and the demand for 49 date for possible consensus in the pub- other and the different. Habermas’ general criteria for argu- publicness of theology. However, I lic realm.46 Contrary to narrativist and ment for publicness: ‘criteria of intelli- now see not only the weaknesses of For Tracy, modernity has made postliberal focus on Christian identity, gibility (coherence), truth (warrants- some of my own formulations in ‘great strides’ which still needs it is the effect that remains public, not defending but it has also ‘grave evidence), right (moral integrity) and Blessed Rage for Order, but of the 42 the origin of the Christian classics. defects’ which were not sufficiently equality (mutual reciprocity).’ But modern project itself, of which that These (culture-transforming) effects reflected in his earlier work, Blessed Tracy insists argument should be com- book is representative. I already are a distillation of the disclosive and Rage for Order (henceforth, BRO).50 He plemented by, if not subsumed under, had certain hesitations when I transformative shareable possibilities, distinguishes the ‘straightforwardly the model of (hermeneutic) conversa- started The Analogical Imagination. which comes through conversation. In modern theology’ of BRO from the ‘fun- tion. Thus Tracy reconfigures Haber- That is why I developed the notion this regard, every classic needs contin- damentally hermeneutical theology’ mas’ criteria as ‘de facto conditions of of the classic, which is the major possibility for the presence or absence uing conversation by the wider com- started in Analogical Imagination 47 innovation in the first part of that 43 munity constituted by its effects. (henceforth, AI). Hermeneutics is pre- of both argument and conversation.’ book. So in a sense the turn there, It follows that conversation with the sent in BRO but subsumed in the mod- more than in Blessed Rage for Order, ern project. In AI hermeneutics (or religious classics of culture does not II. Public Theology, is to a hermeneutical understanding mean abandoning the general criteria hermeneutical theology) becomes the Modernity, Postmodernity: of theology. Hermeneutics is in project, not modern theology. His suc- for publicness. It does mean that pre- Blessed Rage, but only as part of vailing selective (technicized, instru- Tracy’s Theological Journey, ceeding works after AI draw from the this larger modern project. As in ‘sense of postmodernity’ but his per- mental) rationality of Western culture Self-Criticisms The Analogical Imagination has to be abandoned in favor of ‘a more spective remains fundamentally Here we present Tracy’s account of his hermeneutics becomes the project, hermeneutical.51 theological journey. We contrast this section as diachronic (historical) com- 40 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 123. pared to the preceding synchronic (the- 48 On this see Todd Breyfogle, Thomas Lev- 49 Breyfogle and Levergood, ‘Conversation 41 Tracy, ‘Public Theology, Hope, and the matic) account. The succeeding sec- ergood, ‘Conversation with David Tracy,’ with David Tracy,’ 301. Mass Media: Can the Muses Still Inspire?’ in tions following this account point Cross Currents 44 (Fall, 1994), 293-94, 301. 50 One of these defects not reflected in BRO God and Globalization Volume 1, Edited by Max See also Tracy, ‘On Reading the Scriptures entail ‘the separation between theory and Stackhouse (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press Theologically,’ 35-68, esp., 58-60; ‘The practice, and in the case of theology, between International, 2000), 235. Uneasy Alliance Reconceived, 548-570; ‘God, theological theories and spiritual practices’ 42 Tracy, ‘Public Theology, Hope, and the 44 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 120. Dialogue, and Solidarity: A Theologian’s (Breyfogle and Levergood, ‘Conversation with Mass Media, 235. 45 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 123. Refrain,’ How My Mind Has Changed, edited by David Tracy, 294). 43 Tracy, ‘Public Theology, Hope, and the 46 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 124. James M. Wall & David Heim (Grand Rapids: 51 See Gaspar Martinez, Confronting the Mys- Mass Media, 235. 47 Tracy, Analogical Imagination, 125. Eerdmans, 1991). tery of God, 178. 126 author article 127

What in modernity needs ‘defense’ ceeding sections would show, this III. A Reformational include theology as public discourse, and what are its ‘grave defects’? First, seems related to the valuing of com- Evangelical Response God in public, religion, plurality and Tracy articulates a basic summary and prehensive reason in shaping public ambiguity, correlation, conversation, With very few exceptions, evangelical defense of what he calls ‘modern life. rhetoric, which are discussed in the interaction with Tracy’s (and Tillich’s) truths.’ Strongly dialogical in his thinking, context of modern and postmodern cul- correlational theology has often been Tracy very rarely lays down what he tural shifts. The truth, indeed (as earlier secu- indirect.58 What I attempt to do here is rejects.54 But these denunciations can To keep the practical balance larization theologies were not provide a personal assessment of wrong to argue) the theological be found in his recent identification of between the kerygmatic and the apolo- Tracy’s public theology from a Refor- truth of modernity, still needs modernity’s fatal defects. Tracy calls getic, or the creational/doxological mational evangelical standpoint.59 defense, including theological attention to three great separations of with the diaconic dimensions of the defense. For beyond a discredited modern Western culture: ‘(1) the sepa- faith, evangelicals would do well to myth of progress and against a ration of feeling and thought; (2) the 1. With Tracy. wrestle with these concepts: to deal wholesale Weberian pessimism lie separation of form and content; and (3) I note my own evangelical appreciation with them as talking points, to work the modern truths which Habermas the separation of theory and practice.’55 of Tracy in relation to public theology. around them or to reconfigure them.61 I and many other moderns have All these are peculiarly modern divi- have some difficulty with Tracy’s pro- striven to defend: the reality of rea- sions especially considering the differ- a) Key Concepts. posals, as the next section would son as communication; the hopes describe. As an evangelical, I would ence in the outlook of the ancients and Crucial to Tracy’s presentation are key alive in all the new countermove- prefer to add to Tracy’s cluster of key the medievals. What originally were terms that could serve as handles or ments to a dominant techno-eco- terms: the centrality of mission, Scrip- helpful distinctions in pre-modernity building blocks for a foundational, nomic realm; the drive to a ture, the Church and its practices.62 But became in modernity unbridgeable sep- even an ecumenical, public theology. It Jamesian cultural pluralism and a 56 overall, we are indebted to Tracy for arations. These separations lead is not surprising then that Reformed genuine political democracy undi- having opened a new field of theologi- Tracy to doubt whether Western moder- ethicist Max Stackhouse relies on vorced from economic democracy. nity, with its techno-economic culture cal reflection for conversation and Tracy’s language and concepts in The liberating power of all that is and impoverished notion of reason, can deepening. advancing a basic understanding of occurring in the Eastern and heal itself.57 public theology.60 The key concepts Central and elsewhere In the following major section, we b) A Critical Social Perspective. shows the power of that drive to will probe if Tracy’s public theological Tracy challenges us in a fundamental modern democracy and pluralism.52 project is still vulnerable to the ‘sepa- way to think Christianly about plural- Notice especially Tracy’s carefully 58 Cf. Ray Anderson, The Shape of Practical rations,’ which he rejects. But it would Theology (Downers Grove: IVP, 2001) Chap- ism and public life. Nowadays, it is worded claim about the reality of rea- be wise first to recall what evangeli- ters 2-4. Here Anderson dialogues with Don more or less established that social dif- son: it is reason as communication. As cals could learn from him toward a pub- Browning whose revised correlational method ferentiation is integral to the reality of we have seen above, this points to the lic theology in this new millennium. in practical theology heavily borrows from (often neglected) role of the rhetorical Tracy. Also, Orlando Costas’ hermeneutical (hermeneutical) model in Tracy’s the- proposals in Liberating News (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989); and Clark Pinnock’s ology.53 Apparently for him, as suc- Track- ing the Maze (New York: Harper and Row, 54 William Placher recognizes this disposi- 1991). 61 Cf. Don Browning’s suggestion that tion as an asset and a liability, Unapologetic 59 The Reformational stance is a sub-tradi- Tracy’s critical correlational approach ‘com- 52 Tracy, ‘Literary Theory and Return of the Theology (Louisville, KY: W/KJP, 1989), 155. tion within the Reformed faith. It is a bines the best of the cultural-linguistic and the Forms for Naming and Thinking God in Theol- 55 Tracy, ‘Traditions of Spiritual Practice Reformed strain associated with the Dutch apologetic approaches’ (A Fundamental Practi- ogy, Journal of Religion (1994), 304. and the Practice of Theology,’ Theology Today Calvinism of Abraham Kuyper, Herman cal Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1991) 53 Aside from Webb, Refiguring Theology, 55 (Jl 1998): 235. Dooyeweerd, and others like Al Wolters, 45. 176-77; see also Don Compier, What is Rhetor- 56 Tracy, ‘Traditions of Spiritual Practice’, and Nicholas Wolsterstorff. 62 To put it another way, theological method ical Theology?. Among others, the Yale postlib- 235-236. 60 Max Stackhouse, ‘Public Theology and should be about biblical (missional) discern- erals (Lindbeck, Frei, Placher) often miss this 57 Tracy, ‘Literary Theory and Return of the Ethical Judgment,’ Theology Today 54 (July ment within a consciously Trinitarian frame of in their evaluation and criticism of Tracy. Forms,’ 304-5. 1997) 165-79. reference. 128 author article 129 pluralism.63 Yet more than two decades As a definition that engages ‘plurality non-theological disciplines? So too and tradition) differ in their own dis- ago, Tracy was already alerting theolo- and ambiguity’ both in the churches for the biblical scholars of the tinctive criteria and modes of analysis. gians to engage this societal differenti- and the wider society, Tracy advances Church… They interpret their For Tracy, mutually correlating these ation more consciously as public theo- the idea that theology articulates Bibles so that Christian fidelity bipolar sources leads to relatively ade- logical agenda.64 The different publics ‘mutually critical correlations between does not require joining the Flat quate theology in the polis. address and elicit different theological the meaning and truth of an interpreta- Earth Society. So it is misleading to Tracy’s understanding of two polar orientations and interests. Tracy’s tion of the Christian fact and the mean- use exclusively one-directional sources, two poles of experience and insights on theology and its ‘publics’ ing and truth of an interpretation of the metaphors. It’s true that, instead of tradition leads to major difficulties. engage this facet of contemporary pub- contemporary situation.’67 As we have making the world of the Bible fit First, while Tracy clarifies the ‘full lic life. seen, this is grounded in the co-affir- into our world, we ought to fit our spectrum of possibilities’ allowed in 71 More foundationally, Tracy has sig- mation of church and world in God’s world into its world. But in some his method of correlation, it is notice- naled the need for social theory in the- creation. Strongly dialogical and call- respects, even in many respects; able that his structural polarity leads 69 ological engagement.65 I find intriguing ing for active solidarity with the not all. to a hermeneutical imbalance. It tilts parallels to this need for critical social oppressed, Tracy also wishes to disso- toward human experience. “Direct’ perspective among evangelical theolo- ciate his approach from theological experience, the ‘realized’ experience, 2. Difficulties. the ‘immediate experience of the self gians. Evangelical Calvinist philoso- elitism: ‘the belief that only a learned I note two primary areas of difficulties as self,’ the ‘primordial experience of phers Richard Mouw and Sander Grif- elite can read these [religious] texts 68 I have with Tracy’s theology: its expe- the self,’ all encounter a fundamental fioen have called on evangelicals to properly.’ riential foundationalism and its under- dimension of basic faith which serves engage the fact of pluralism(s) with a Evangelicals do not seem to have standing of the public realm as the as the requisite foundation for any sub- particular Christian social theory.66 much of a problem warding off a kind of pernicious elitism, but co-affirming the realm of reason. Both are actually vari- sequent interpretations. Accordingly ations on a single theme: theology as a every religious expression assumes c) Reconceiving Theology. church and world as a theological stance is theologically suspect. There public discourse. this experiential dimension and pro- 72 In an increasingly pluralistic and is however, a recurring dissatisfaction ceeds from it.’ highly differentiated public culture, with unidirectional theologies as in the a) Theology, Experience and how does one view what is theological? following imploration from Nicholas Tradition. To structuralize the co-affirmation of emy of Religion LXI/4 (1993) 684ff. As Stell Wolsterstorff. creatively points out, on this point Tracy I am all for Church Theology. But is the church and the world in theological stands on similar footing with George Lind- 63 Michael Welker, “Is Theology in Public the relation of the Church theolo- method and to preclude unilateral beck. (679-703). Discourse Possible Outside Communities of gian to the non-theological disci- interpretations, Tracy proposes the 71 Tracy, ‘Foundations of Practical Theol- Faith?” in Religion, Pluralism, and Public Life: plines exclusively that of melting bipolar, dialectical relationship ogy,’ 63 (my emphases): It ranges ‘from Abraham Kuyper’s Legacy for the Twenty-First between experience and tradition. claims of identity (between meaning and truth Century. Edited by Luis Lugo (Grand Rapids: down gold taken from the Human experience serves as an inde- of the Christian fact and the contemporary sit- Eerdmans, 2000), 119. Egyptians? Isn’t some of the statu- pendent theological source, distinct uation) through claims for similarities-in-differ- 64 Neo-Calvinist philosopher and theologian ary of the Egyptians quite as OK as ence (analogies) or complementarities to of an earlier generation, Abraham Kuyper was it is? Does it all reek of idolatry? from the ‘inner-theological’ demands claims of pure confrontation or non-identity. of tradition.70 Both sources (experience a towering figure who has also reflected Isn’t there something for the Any option is logically possible in principle.’ deeply on these questions. For a brief intro- Church theologian to learn from the 72 Stell, ‘Hermeneutics in Theology and the duction on Kuyper, with recommended read- Theology of Hermeneutics,’ 684-5. Cf. Blessed ings, see Richard Mouw, ‘Abraham Kuyper: A 69 Nicholas Wolterstorff, What New Haven Rage for Order, 103: ‘We misunderstand the Man for This Season,’ , and Grand Rapids Have to Say to Each Other function of religious language if we claim that October 26, 1998. 67 Tracy, ‘The Foundations of Practical The- (Grand Rapids: Calvin College and Calvin The- it causes (presents) our general confidence or 65 Tracy, ‘Public Theology, Hope, and the ology,’ in Practical Theology: The Emerging ological Seminary, 1993) 45-46. trust in the meaningfulness of existence. We Mass Media,’ 235 Field in Theology, Church, and World. Don 70 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order, 44-5; The understand such language correctly only 66 Richard Mouw and Sander Griffioen, Plu- Browning (ed.) (New York: Harper & Row, Analogical Imagination, 88. Cf. Stephen Stell, when we recognize that the use of religious ralism & Horizons (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 62. ‘Hermeneutics in Theology and the Theology language is an effect (a re-presentation) of an 1993). 68 Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity, 104. of Hermeneutics,’ Journal of the American Acad- already present basic confidence or trust.’ 130 author article 131

Secondly, and related to the first, as reasonable.’77 In effect, Tracy, iden- b) Comprehensive Reason, (contra Habermas),85 he has not soft- the assumed polarity of sources corre- tifies genuine publicness with general Pluralism and the Public Realm. ened his appeal to a universal public. sponds to a similar structuring of sub- philosophical argument, thereby It is intriguing that in spite of his By appealing to a (universal) public stantive issues. The specificities ‘undercut[ting] the ability of Christians strong awareness of plurality and discourse (with Habermas), Tracy (thickness) of religious belief are to employ the specific resources of ambiguity, Tracy still looks to shared grounds Christianity in the broader tra- assumed to be developed by conscious their traditions to engage in public con- ditions of Western culture.86 In this 78 rationality as the solution to the reflection upon pre-theoretical, inex- versations.’ Along similar lines, if extravagance of pluralism. Using way, this universal public assumes a 73 both theological sources are deemed pressible experience. For instance, in Habermas’ critical social analyses, he public realm of commonly held equal, as Tracy seems to suggest, ‘this 87 cognitively re-presenting these experi- believes in retrieving comprehensive assumptions. Consistent with such may lead to the attenuation of theol- ences, Tracy ‘employs language like reason (as opposed to selective, instru- direction, Tracy accords primary sta- ogy’s own recourse, God’s self-disclo- ‘liberation,’ ‘emancipation,’ ‘whole- mentalist rationality) to revitalize the- tus to human rationality as a categori- sure in Jesus Christ.’79 ness,’ ‘salvation,’ to articulate the con- ology and public life. Underlying this is cal tribunal, which adjudicates the One sees, therefore, a flattening or viction elicited and empowered by that Tracy’s assumption that public life is claims of both experience (Culture) 74 homogenizing of Christian specificity experience itself.’ These experiential and tradition (Faith).88 What tends to in public discourse. This is noticeable the realm of reason and (public) theo- terms, however, are not abstract as be ignored, however, is how potentially even in Tracy’s other definition of the- logical discourse has to rely on public they receive their concreteness from a stifling this (over)reliance on reason is ology as ‘interpretation of religion.’80 meaning to contribute to a shared tradition with its particular historical to a pluralistic conversation. As The same can be said with his non-reli- rational consensus. Tracy takes for events, experiences, and personages.75 gious (supposedly universal or thin) granted that the means of assessing Richard Bernstein notes, It leads us then to say that Tracy’s notion of ‘public(s).’ It is homogeniz- universal claims should be through It is the appeal to something like framework resort to the valuing (and ing, as it has not allowed the particu- public modern criteria for argument the idea of rational consensus that borrowing) of non-religious criteria larities of ecclesial communities and and conversation. Indeed, the global has always been used to block, sti- (‘public modes of argument’ in funda- the academic community to clear statement that all theology is public fle, or rule out ‘revolutionary’ turns mental theology) over against the pub- expression over against the media and discourse ‘depends on what he refers in the conversation. To speak of the 76 lic appeal of systematic theology. It is other publics.81 Also, limiting the to as the ordinary or normal meaning of argumentative redemption of valid- the modes of argument of fundamental publics to three ‘does not sufficiently public, namely, that it appeals to all ity claims through the appropriate theology (not systematic theology) illuminate either theology’s relations people on grounds that any reasonable level of discourse is either poten- that seek ‘to provide arguments that to other ‘societal subsystems,’ such as person would accept.’83 Henceforth, all reasonable persons whether ‘reli- education, the family, and the judicial [i]n any and every case, the funda- giously involved’ or not, can recognize system or the effects of the market and mental ethical commitment of the media subsystems on academic theol- theologian qua theologian remains 85 Tracy, On Naming the Present: God, ogy, the church, and other subsystems to that community of scientific Hermeneutics, and Church (Maryknoll: Orbis; 73 This inexpressible experience being ‘the 82 London: SCM, 1994). and publics.’ inquiry whose province logically eruption of a power become self-manifestation 86 Tracy, ‘Theology, Critical Social Theory, from and by the whole’ (The Analogical Imagi- includes whatever issue is under and the Public Realm,’ in Habermas, Moder- nation, 685). Cf. quoted in Stell, ‘Hermeneu- investigation.84 nity, and Public Theology. Edited by Don S. 77 Tracy, The Analogical Imagination, 57. tics in Theology…’ 685. Even if the later Tracy (especially of Browning and Francis Schüssler Fiorenza 74 Tracy, The Analogical Imagination, 173; 78 Ronald Thiemann, Constructing a Public (New York: Crossroad, 1992) 19; cf. Owen quoted in Stell, ‘Hermeneutics in Theology…’ Theology (Westminster: WKJP, 1991), 21. Plurality and Ambiguity) names the pre- Thomas, ‘Public Theology and Counter-Public 685. 79 Hans Schwarz, Method and Context as sent as postmodern not late-modern Spheres,’ 461-62; also William Placher, ‘Revi- 75 Stell, ‘Hermeneutics in Theology…’ 685 Problems for Contemporary Theology (Lewis- sionist and Postliberal Theologies,’ 411-12. 76 Francis Schüssler Fiorenza, ‘The Relation ton, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), 26. 87 Tracy, ‘Theology, Critical Social Theory, Between Fundamental and Systematic Theol- 80 Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity, 85. and the Public Realm,’ 19. ogy,’ Irish Theological Quarterly (1996) 142- 81 Welker, ‘Is Theology in Public Discourse 83 Owen C. Thomas, ‘Public Theology and 88 cf. Frans Josef van Beeck, God Encoun- 144; also Linell Cady, Religion, Theology and Possible Outside Communities of Faith?’ 119. Counter-Public Spheres,’ Harvard Theological tered: A Contemporary Catholic Systematic The- American Public Life (Albany, NY: SUNY, 82 Welker, ‘Is Theology in Public Discourse Review, 85:4 (1992) 456. ology, Volume 2/1 (Collegeville, MN: The 1993), 33-37. Possible Outside Communities of Faith?’ 119. 84 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order, 7. Liturgical Press, 1989) 270. 132 author article 133

tially stifling or sheer bluff.89 to confirm Bernstein’s claim against of a culture-transforming public theol- transformational stance, he was in In a way, Tracy’s appeal to public- such a consensus. According to recent ogy that appropriates Tracy’s key effect venturing into a theology of cul- ness can lead to unilateral movement historical studies, advanced bureau- insights. This facilitates a reorienta- ture. Consequently, echoing Niebuhr, in conversation, as it tends to deflect cracies of the late capitalist modern tion of Tracy’s hermeneutical theology he imagines a variety of ‘dialogical pos- any effective cultural critique that state fail to function for the well being toward the concrete urgency and chal- sibilities’ between Christian faith and might be made by Christian faith and of various groups. On the contrary, var- lenge of the gospel and culture secular culture: the continuum ranging 95 theology. Thus, speaking of Tracy’s ious oppositional, counter-public encounter. In a way this accords with from identity to confrontation. But fundamental criticism of liberation the- spheres have emerged in response to the pioneering notion of public theol- Tracy does not explicitly link public ology as uncritically supernaturalist the failure of the late capitalist, wel- ogy by Martin Marty and reiterated by theology with theology of culture. and neoorthodox on the basis of (an fare state. This development of opposi- Roman Catholic theologian Robert Instead, for him, fundamental theology assumed) shared commitment toward tional public spheres is neither a mat- McElroy: ‘a self-consciously religious is intentionally public theology.97 Here ter of Habermas’ idea of the formation effort to form and mold American cul- ‘a basic secular faith,’90 Christine we discern a secularistic bias in Tracy, of ‘deception-free consensuses ture and politics so that they conform Gudorf asserts one that Christine Gudorf (among oth- through rational speech,’ nor a matter more fully with God’s plan of salva- ers) has previously identified and The problem with Tracy’s ‘basic 96 of mass movement of the dispossessed. tion.’ rightly criticized.98 secular faith’ is precisely that it is These autonomous mass movements First, taking the cue from Tracy, I not ‘shared by all those committed Moving beyond Tracy, instead of sit- are actually the ones who institute a intend to elaborate on a theology of uating public theology within funda- to the contemporary struggle for plurality of public spheres, signaling public life configured missiologically. liberation….. For Tracy, this west- mental theology, it seems more fruitful ‘the emergence of a new political This combines a biblical theology of to view public theology as a theology of ern European intellectual tradition theme under the late capitalist, welfare public culture supported with a social American culture viewed transforma- is normative… Yet much of the state conditions.’92 By upholding theory that recognizes the fact of dif- tionally. And in terms of orienting world, including most Latin Habermas as the social theorist of the ferentiation. Second, I will outline a framework, one could view theology of Americans, has never experienced public sphere,93 Tracy tends toward a theological method that reconfigures public culture as a moment within mis- the Enlightenment or significant homogenizing notion of the public that the apologetic function of correlation, siology: the study of the Christian degrees of secularity. Tracy writes may vitiate his concern not to overlook within a Trinitarian understanding of movement, of the missionary activity of of judging and evaluating plural- the voices of excluded others, includ- theology and ministry. Finally, I will ism, but his perspective on the con- the church in all its dimensions, in dif- ing those who are (unavoidable) vic- build on Tracy’s claim that theology is 99 94 ferent times and places. The interpre- temporary situation ignores the tims of modern public discourses. possible outside of the churches’ majority of the world.91 domain. This insight is critical to tive framework for this missiology does not rely on criteria determined by Theologies from the Majority World III. Beyond Tracy: enable the church to fruitfully engage pose a major challenge to ‘shared, Transformationist Public culture in an ongoing mission and dia- rational consensus.’ But this challenge logue. Theology 97 Stell, Hermeneutics and the Holy Spirit, is not just from the field of Christian In what follows I will sketch elements 216. theology. Recent social science tends 1. Culture-Transforming 98 Gudorf, ‘’s Use of Theology of Public Life. Scripture,’13. Peter Berger, in an earlier 92 John Keane, Public Life and Late Capital- essay, airs a similar criticism, see ‘Secular 89 Richard Bernstein, Philosophical Profiles: ism: Toward a Socialist Theory of Democracy When Tracy aligned his theological Theology and the Rejection of the Supernat- Essays in a Pragmatic Mode (Cambridge: Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, method with Niebuhr’s ‘Christ and cul- ural: Reflections on Recent Trends,’ Theologi- Press, 1986) 80, quoted by Owen Thomas 1984) 29, quoted by Thomas, ‘Public Theology ture’ models, affirming especially the cal Studies 38 (1977) 39-56. ‘Public Theology and Counter-Public and Counter-Public Spheres,’ 460. 99 Lecture Notes: Introduction to Missiology, Spheres,’ 463. 93 Tracy, ‘Public Theology, Hope and the Maryhill School of Theology, Quezon City, 90 The reference is to Blessed Rage for Order, Mass Media,’ 232-33. 95 Lee Moonjang, ‘Reconfiguring Western Philippines, 1993. In relation to the rest of 245. 94 This suggests a conflict as he tries to hold Theology in Asia,’ Trinity Theological Journal theology, missiology promotes a missionary 91 Christine Gudorf, ‘Liberation Theology’s together Habermas and Foucault’s social 10 (2002): 37-38. theology, or a reordering of the whole of the- Use of Scripture: A Response to First World insights with less kerygmatic-theological inten- 96 McElroy, The Search for an American Pub- ology to be more missionary in its outlook and Critics,’ Interpretation 1987 (January), 13. tion, see Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity, 79. lic Theology, 4. concerns. 134 author article 135 a secular interpretive context but ment to arrive at transformational ment in navigating the complexities of outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost, rather by a transformational theologi- quality.101] cultural life.106 ‘a differentiated, differentiation-pro- cal base: God as creator, reconciler and I will link this later on with a trans- Interestingly, this particular angle tecting experience of community is redeemer of all things. formational correlational approach may enliven public theology because of established’ without dissolving or sus- This does not mean, however, a one- that moves beyond Tracy. its attention to a historical/creational pending the different languages, loyal- way movement of influence or even a Beginning with a vision of human unfolding of differentiated publics and ties and historical customs of peo- 109 polarized relationship between Christ- unity based on creation, public life can plural theologies on the road toward a ples. As the messianic bearer of the ian faith and modern themes. Rather, be viewed as ‘pre-political.’ Seen in fuller understanding of the good news Spirit, Jesus brings to Israel and to all both are engaged in a relationship of this way, public life ‘is more basic than of God’s reign in societies and cultures. peoples justice, compassion, and the reciprocity. I like the way Jacob Klap- politics; it existed long before political This implies that we should be affirm- knowledge of God. In the process, he wijk refers to this two-way influence, institutions were developed and ing, not a singular, monologic public will bring the universal fulfillment of preferring to call it reciprocity of trans- refined.’102 In a very cosmopolitan era, theology but rather (potentially, at the law, the establishment of the right- formation but still upholding the pri- however, a creational underpinning for least) a variety of transformational eousness intended by God, in the city of macy of Scriptural authority for all of public culture might also avail itself of public theologies as well theology of God. The paradox of the Gospel, how- life. ‘an understanding of society as com- various publics. Reference to the sin- ever, is that it is through the cross and gular (public theology), however, resurrection that the Spirit of God will [There are two ways this relationship prising institutions that have their inner coherence and integrity before remains useful especially in identifying realize the righteousness that God is expressed: 110 the sovereign Creator.’103 This also a specific view or motivation (here I commissions in the world. (a) in virtue of the religious principle harks back to the biblical idea of cre- take to be missiological) for the work inherent in the Christian faith it is 107 ation or more precisely, of created of theology. possible to develop Christian philo- In an amazing way, the Scriptures 2. Theology beyond the diversity.104 From a creational perspec- churches. sophical perspectives and insights, tive, culture is woven into the original portray the Spirit of God as the agent of redeeming creation from human sinful- Viewed missiologically, Tracy’s insis- an activity in which insights (origi- creation expressed in various manifes- ness, ‘working to effect a special kind tence that theology is a public dis- nating in philosophy generally) are tations of human cultural activity: of unity and concord.’ The classical course or his insight that theology goes appropriated, critically reinterpret- familial, economic, recreational, eccle- biblical texts include Genesis 1, Joel beyond the confines of the Christian ed, and integrated in the Christian sial, and political.105 To put this in 3:1-5, Luke 4: 16ff, Acts 2. The Spirit churches is crucial. It calls Christians view; Christian philosophical terms, creation works to realize a ‘differentiated unity to the public role of churches as well as has several ‘parts,’ ‘modes’ or (b) the philosophical tradition at of the creaturely, a differentiated unity the public dimensions of Christian the- ‘spheres,’ and understanding them large, in turn, also harbors the poten- of the people of God, as well as a dif- ology. For Tracy, this involves willing- may help us to arrive at moral discern- tial to detach concepts from the ferentiated knowledge of God.’108 In the ness to dialogue with modern Western Christian philosophical heritage, to culture, which is not simply a matter of reinterpret them, and to put them to Christian obligation. The imperative 101 Klapwijk, ‘Epilogue: The Idea of Trans- use in an opposed religious (or ide- 106 Mouw, ‘Some Reflections on Sphere Sov- assumes the indicative, which include 100 formational Philosophy,’ 249. ereignty,’ 104. ological) way of thinking. the gracious reality (of God in public) 102 Parker Palmer, The Company of 107 Max Stackhouse’s view of public theol- Klapwijk invokes critical discern- Strangers (New York: Crossroad, 1981, 1991) ogy, comes closest to what I envision as a mis- as well as the mutuality of relationship 23. siological public theology, even though he between Christianity and modernity. 103 Elaine Storkey, ‘Sphere Sovereignty and never mentions the term missiology or missio- Tracy, however, privileges acade- 100 Jacob Klapwijk, ‘Epilogue: The Idea of the Anglo-American Tradition’ in Religion, logical. See his recent, ‘Public Theology and mic theology in revitalizing public life. Transformational Philosophy,’ in Bringing Pluralism and Public Life, 203. See also, Henry Ethical Judgment,’ Theology Today 54 (July Captivity into Every Thought: Capita Selecta in R. Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture 1997), 167-8. the History of Christian Evaluations of Non- (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1959, 1972, 2001). 108 Michael Welker, ‘… And Also Upon the Christian Philosophy. Jacob Klapwijk, Sander 104 Mouw, ‘Some Reflections on Sphere Sov- Menservants and the Maidservants in Those 109 Welker, ‘And Also Upon the Menser- Griffioen and Gerben Groenewoud (eds.) (Lan- ereignty’ 104. Days Will I Pour Out My Spirit: On Pluralism vants and the Maidservants,’ 60. ham, MD: University Press of America, 1991), 105 Mouw, ‘Some Reflections on Sphere Sov- and the Promise of the Spirit,’ Soundings 78 110 Welker, ‘And Also Upon the Menser- 262. ereignty’ 104. (1995): 58. vants and the Maidservants,’ 62. 136 author article 137

This is where we want to move beyond believer. ‘All other questions—justice, The difference between the classi- call which demands a response.’119 Cul- his contributions. What we need is a liturgy, discipleship—have to be cal/evangelical paradigm of corre- ture and experience may contribute to basic re-visioning of theology that understood through this modern crisis lation and the revised correlation the framework within which we under- structuralizes reciprocity of transfor- of secularistic nonbelief.’112 Misunder- paradigm seems finally to rest on a stand the revelation of God in Jesus mation, where mission and dialogue standing, not suffering, is the primary difference in the doctrine of revela- Christ, but their revelatory value is nei- are intrinsically interrelated, but one problem demanding a solution.113 tion. If there is absolute mutuality ther primary nor even equal to scrip- whose criteria will not be dependent on From a missiological point of view of criticism, then there is parity of tural revelation.120 a secular interpretive context (e.g. reli- then, one wonders if Tracy’s theologi- disclosure. If parity, then the prior- Correlation thus has to be discerned gious studies, philosophy).111 I will now cal method truly bolsters a biblical ity of special revelation (Christ- through the outworking of God’s story develop this more fully to conclude my prophetic vision or undercuts it. We event) is denied. How can this in creation, the Incarnation and the 121 presentation. pose this question because, at a foun- denial not mean an inordinate trust outpouring of the Spirit. It must also dational level, to speak Christianly in the general state of human expe- respect the Scripture’s diverse modes 122 3. Transforming Correlations. (that is, biblically), the practice of the- rience and wisdom, and a corre- of uttering God’s word. In cultural ology finds itself intrinsically con- theological terms, correlation may be Tracy’s hermeneutic does not fully sponding diminution of the unique nected with Christ’s continuing min- 116 linked with the translatability of the deliver what it seeks to achieve: recip- deeds and disclosures of God. istry through the Holy Spirit in the Gospel—Gospel as public truth for all rocal transformation signaled by Correlation should flow from, and be world.114 The route to the universal is peoples and nations. Here culture can mutual criticism and correlations. corroborated by, biblical-theological through the particularity of Christian be seen as that which provides ‘the Human experience serves as the ulti- interrelation. Thus, to make sense of 123 revelation. To pursue this prophetic idiom(s) in which the Gospel speaks.’ mate grounding of religious language non-Christian insights in terms of a lead and avoid uncritical synthesis (and thus, of any Christian theology). with culture (western or otherwise), I Christian perspective (pace Klapwijk), Thus, Christian discourse loses its 119 , “How Does the Bible suggest reconfiguring the correlation correlation has to be discerned through thickness and particularity (God’s Function in the Christian Life?” The Use of the by upholding Scripture as the primary a process of rereading (and reenacting) Bible in Theology: Evangelical Options. Edited action in Christ) in the correlation. 117 source (Scripture) for Christian theol- of the Scripture as God’s people. by Robert Johnston (Atlanta: John Knox Press, This cultural pull also shows itself in Another way to put it is this: while the 1985), 164. Tracy’s valuation of human rationality ogy but with two secondary sources alongside it (tradition and experi- contemporary situation may be viewed 120 For an extended discussion of Tracy’s as the categorical tribunal, which adju- method, see Gener ‘Transformational Correla- ence).115 There is an evangelical suspi- as the situation within which reflection dicates the claims of the two sources. and action take place, it would be tion.’ On the usefulness of Tracy’s theory of It is however a rationality that appeals cion at work here. experiential religion, see my “The Catholic God’s Word which illuminates the Imagination and Popular Religion in Lowland to a consensus-based loyalty to the 118 reflection and guides the action. The Philippines: Missiological Significance of morality of scientific knowledge. This 112 Rebecca Chopp, ‘Practical Theology and Word of God ‘does not come simply as David Tracy’s Theory of Religious Imagina- accommodationist drift may also be Liberation,’ in Formation and Reflection. Edited another source of knowledge about tions” Mission Studies 22 (2005), 25-57. seen in the way Tracy puts action as by Lewis Mudge and James Poling (Philadel- ourselves or the world, but a dynamic 121 A hermeneutical awareness of the bibli- secondary to meaning in the order of phia: Fortress, 1987), 127. cal (Christological) horizon shifts the empha- hermeneutical reflection. 113 Compier, What is Rhetorical Theology?, sis away from the thinking subject to the In this, Tracy’s work as a whole is 19. ‘whole person’ whose life is graced by the vulnerable to the liberationist criticism 114 Ray Anderson, The Shape of Practical empowering ministry of God in Christ. See (Downers Grove: IVP, 2001). Anderson, The Shape of Practical Theology, 17. that he is one with western liberals in Theology 115 Costas, Liberating News, 151. Costas 116 Gabriel Fackre, ‘David Tracy: Evangeli- 122 The story of God’s people and God’s seeing the religious question as cogni- viewed reason not as a source but rather, a cally Considered,’ in Ecumenical Faith in Evan- world is conjoined with the history of Israel tional (the crisis of cognitive claims), medium by which Christians process (evalu- gelical Perspective (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (OT), Jesus Christ, and the church (NT). But or the question of the (secular) non- ate, clarify, receive) the claims of Scripture, 1993) 214. the progression of the story (biblical time-line) tradition (church), and experience. See also 117 William Dyrness, The Earth is God’s: A reflects not only the unfolding differentiation Michael Nazir-Ali, ‘Culture, Conversation, and Theology of American Culture (Maryknoll: and complexity of human life. It also reveals 111 As I see it, this is where Tracy finds its Conversion,’ AD 2000 and Beyond: A Mission Orbis, 1997), 80-1. the diverse forms of God’s speech. fundamental justification for his criteria for Agenda. Chris Sugden and Vinay Samuel (eds.) 118 Cf. Allan Boesak, Farewell to Innocence 123 Fackre, Ecumenical Faith in Evangelical revised correlation. (Oxford: Regnum, 1991) 34. (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1976), 12. Perspective, 213. 138 author ERT (2009) 33:2, 139-n

Correlation could then be construed as IV. Conclusion ‘the interpretation [and incarnation] of I have attempted as an Asian (Filipino) Transforming the Indian Culture of faith in the idiom [as well as structures theologian to engage David Tracy’s and institutions] of its time and approach to public theology from a Poverty and Oppression place’—a familiar practice of the Reformational evangelical perspec- Church in history.124 The Church shares tive. Looking back, for Tracy, theol- the Gospel with the receiving culture in ogy’s public nature directly relates to Samuel Jayakumar a sense of profound identification, and theologians’ public role as well as to a listening heart.125 It will not mean the three ‘publics’ to whom they speak: submission to the ‘other’ nor aggres- church, academy and society. Because KEYWORDS: , inequality, physi- political and religious nationalism, sion against the ‘other.’ Rather, it will of the prominence of conversation, cal disability, governance, mission, post-modern mind set, oppression consist of self-assertion (including ini- public theology for Tracy is correla- new society, modernity, grace, of children, urbanization, neglect of the disabled and others.1 tiatives of transformation) of God’s tional theology. In dialogue with Scripture people, nurtured by real listening.126 Tracy’s approach, I have sketched the Poverty therefore remains a major contours of a missiological public the- challenge for the mission practition- ology that draws from Tracy but criti- THE LAUSANNE FORUM on World Evan- ers. This paper explores some of the cizes him internally. Instead of situat- gelization, which met in Pattya in proven historical approaches to the ing public theology within fundamental 2004, concluded that problems of the Indian poor, the Dalits theology, I have argued for a rethink- The dramatic change in the politi- and the marginalized people groups. ing of public theology as a theology of cal and economic landscape in Lessons are drawn from historical public culture viewed transformation- recent years has raised new chal- models of the group conversions ally. 124 Fackre, Ecumenical Faith in Evangelical lenges in evangelization for the to the gospel of Christ. Historical It is hoped that this study has chal- examples found in the 19th century Perspective, 210. church. The polarization between 125 C. Rene Padilla, Mission Between the lenged evangelical readers to the pub- European Christian mission have east and west makes it imperative Times (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985); Jose lic role of churches as well as to the demonstrated themselves capable of that the church seek God’s direc- de Mesa, In Solidarity with the Culture (Quezon public dimensions of Christian theol- combating the socio-economic prob- City: Maryhill School of Theology, 1987) 27- tion for the appropriate responses ogy with implications not just to North lems of poverty, child labour, oppres- 42. American Christianity but also to the to the present challenges. In the 31 sion of women and physical ailments; 126 Robert Bolton, People Skills (New York: global evangelical churches’ cultural issue groups these new realities Simon and Schuster, 1979). On the notion of were taken into consideration, transforming initiatives, see , and societal commitment to be ‘salt Just Peacemaking (Louisville: WKJP, 1992). and light’ in God’s world. including the HIV pandemic, terror- ism, globalization, the global role of 1 D Claydon (ed.), A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call: Lausanne Occasional Papers media, poverty, persecution of from the 2004 Forum for World Evangelization Christians, fragmented families, (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2006), x.

Dr Samuel Jayakumar holds degrees in philosophy and theology from Osmania University, Andhra Pradesh, and pastoral counselling from Serampore Univeristy. This paper is based on his PhD in Dalit Theology and Mission history from the British Open University through the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, which has also been published by Regnum Press and ISPCK, Delhi (1999). He has lectured in several seminaries and colleges in India, and is currently Professor & Head Department of Mission & Ministry, TAFTEE, Bangalore, India. Associated with both the and the Evangelical Church of India, he has published and edited a number of books and articles in both English and Tamil, including Mission Reader: Historical Models for Wholistic Mission in the Indian Context (2002) and Renewal of Mission in India: A Historical Perspective, (2008) 140 author article 141 and ushered in socio-economic change monthly per capita consumer expendi- deprivation of entitlement.6 resulting in the fearful conse- in the larger society. ture (MPCE) was Rs. 495 in rural areas Robin Grimble defines poverty as quences of poverty which we see in During the 19th century the and Rs. 914 in urban India. Of that, Rs. the scarcity of economic resources or the faces of women, children, and poverty-stricken outcaste communi- 914 in urban India Rs. 400 went for assets that poor rural people can people with disabilities. Poverty ties of South India with the assistance food.3 For the most part the women, access for livelihood sustaining or also brings with it a retardation of of the Christian missionaries devel- children, Dalits, ribals and disabled enhancing purposes. The poor thus knowledge, preventing all human oped spiritual resources to overcome have no hope for economic develop- have first of all limited access to pro- beings from sharing in the increas- their poverty. Their newfound faith in ment and social mobility.4 ductive resources, either privately ing wealth of technological infor- 8 the gospel of Christ provided them Indian poverty is more complex owned or communal. These may mation that is available. identity, dignity and above all hope for than simply income deprivation. include land, water, forests and that For the Archbishop the war on change in the midst of misery. The con- Poverty involves lack of empower- part of biodiversity that forms an poverty and inequality is South gregations that sprang up in the mass ment, knowledge, and opportunity as essential part of many poor people’s ’s most important priority and movement areas became real well as lack of income and assets. It is livelihood systems and strategies. Sec- our greatest challenge. He contends ondly they have few financial assets, koinonia—communities of transforma- contended that poverty can be under- that eradicating poverty is essential to including income from the sale of farm tion. The Scripture translated into stood in relative (proportionate) or consolidate the gains of their new or wild products, or physical goods their vernacular language enriched, absolute terms but is commonly mea- democracy, and it is a precondition for that can be consumed or exchanged.7 affirmed and empowered their lives. sured by level of income or wealth. social justice, peace and security in Similarly, while describing African 9 Although this paper relates to the ‘Income based measures do nothing to their land. This is also true of Asia. Indian poor, references are made to poverty, Archbishop N. Ndungane In the same way, according to Pro- show factors often associated with maintains that poverty is not just low other two thirds world countries espe- poverty such as the prevalence of dis- fessor C.T. Kurian, in India poverty and cially, Africa. income but it is a complex situation inequality are closely related. ease, low life expectancy, inferior involving multidimensional depriva- 5 Even if poverty and inequality are housing and poor education and diet’. tions such as loss human dignity. In the two-thirds world countries such not the same thing, there is nothing I Context of Indian Poverty The deprivations around poverty as India, poverty is not merely a condi- wrong in saying that under certain Indian rural poverty is the greatest are not just about low incomes; tion of lack of income or basic needs, conditions the two can be closely challenge to mission practitioners. The they include loss of human dignity: but is a sense of powerlessness and related. Growth of income over world’s largest number of poor people this is about human suffering. time can affect both poverty and are found in India. While Africa has There is also poverty in terms of inequality, although the precise 200 million poor, India’s poor add up to denial of access to opportunities for manner of this impact cannot be 400 million.2 One out of every three 3 The Times of India, 21 March 2003, 7 advancement. That is particularly determined a priori. Growth can persons in India is poor. India lags 4 The World Food Programme, Food and telling since we live in a world in reduce poverty and inequality; behind the developed countries in Agricultural \Organization and M.S. Swami- which, on the one hand, there are growth can reduce poverty and nathan Research Foundation planed a meet- areas of survival needs such as health, huge material and natural increase inequality; growth can ing on a road map for a hunger free India by resources at our disposal, as well drinking water, food and shelter. 2007. Two questions particularly bothered the increase both inequality and pover- About one million children require experts assembled. The first was: who is hun- as dramatic technological ty.10 schooling. The National Sample Sur- gry? The second, was: what strategies should advances; and yet, on the other vey reveals that the Indian economy is be adopted to overcome hunger. These ques- hand, there are inequalities and tions are seems to funny because already uneven distribution of wealth substantially affected by poverty. In many national level researches have identified 8 Njongonkulu Ndungane, A World with a rupee terms, the all-India average the poor as well as the strategies. Y.K. Alagh, human face: A Voice from Africa, (London: ‘Poverty has Many Lines’, New Indian Express, SPCK, 2003), 20. (April 8, 2003) 6 Coalescing the Unreached for Poverty Reduc- 9 Ndungane, A World with a human face, 20. 5 Robin Grimble, ‘Rural Poverty and Envi- tion: Voices from the Ground, (New Delhi: Inde- 10 C.T.Kurian, ‘Poverty and Inequality’, The 2 Of the one billion population, 320 million ronmental Management: A Framework for pendent Commission for People’s Rights & Hindu, (November 11, 2002). Also, see Andre are officially poor. Soma Basu, ‘War against Understanding’, Transformation, Vol.19, No.2, Development, 2003). Beteille, ‘Poverty and Inequality’, The Hindu, Poverty’, The Hindu, January 28, 2003. (April, 2002), 120-121. 7 Robin Grimble, Rural Poverty, 122. (November 2, 2002) 142 author article 143

So also gender inequalities are com- access to or completion of quality edu- vice to humanity, but for the most part II Christian Mission mon in two-third world countries. Gen- cation.12 Eradication of poverty is merely a business for making money. Envisioning a New Society der based inequality is a major obstacle requires providing access to quality Private clinics are found in abundance, Historically Christian mission in India to escape from poverty. For instance in education. While lack of education per- but they are like petty shops opened on among the poor and outcaste commu- work places such in agricultural sec- petuates poverty, education would every corner to rob the people. nities was the envisioning of a new tors and in unorganised sectors, empower the poor, particularly the Above all, as in Africa so in India, society. This was humanly speaking women are paid lower salaries than women in so many ways. bad governance, corruption, loss of very odd for the missionaries. In reality men. It is noteworthy that women Another important aspect is poverty markets, lack of expertise in disaster farmers are responsible for more than and population. In villages poor people for them it was just hoping against the management (such as flood, earth- 50 per cent of food production world- raise larger families to provide more hope, because the missionary work wide. In two-thirds world countries working hands to supplement the fam- quake etc) as well as erosion in ethical was done in a society that was deeply 15 women produce 60-80 per cent of the ily incomes. They also provide safety values, unending completion, lazi- religious, deeply caste-ridden, the food. As much as 90 per cent of the against early deaths of the siblings.13 ness, lack of ambition, lack of thrift (or lower castes of which were terribly work in the rice fields of Asia is carried However excessive population growth savings) and consumerism are further oppressed. The missionary task was a out by women.11 In the rural India is an unmanageable problem for a causes of poverty.16 battle against sati (burning of widows), women raise livestock, run poultry, country such as India. In such a context the Christian untouchability, child marriage, temple and manage dairy production. Yet Addressing the plight of people who answer should be one of hope. In the prostitution, infanticide, slavery, illit- women are the worst victims of are physically challenged is a signifi- past the two hundred years the perfor- eracy, oppression of women, children, 14 etc. Nevertheless a new society was poverty. Consequently their families, cant part of reducing poverty. It is mance of Christian mission in India taking shape before their very eyes as their men and their children suffer. estimated that the population with dis- was remarkable. Therefore this study the missionaries and the new believers Illiteracy is another situation to be ability in India is over 90 million. Dis- is undertaken to draw lessons from the addressed. Indian National Sample eases such as leprosy, malaria, worked towards it. 19th century missionary work among As the Bishop of Madras, George Survey indicates that the overall rate cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis and the poorest of the poor who are now of illiteracy has risen to 62 percent. In HIV/Aids are major causes of poverty. Spencer wrote in 1845, the missionar- called the Dalits. India poverty affects education and Government hospitals have no drugs to ies and the native pastors who worked vice-versa. Quality education has been treat even ordinary illness, let alone among the poor outcastes regarded established as one of the most impor- the major ones. The private multi-spe- themselves as prophets in the ‘valley of tant pointers to development and an ciality hospitals serve the rich and the dry bones’. They saw that the ‘dry essential requirement for capacity affluent community. The medical pro- bones of these people in the valley of building and the improvement in the fession is no longer considered a ser- 15 About 30 percent of the edibles sold in var- the shadow of death had been shaken quality of life. In spite of increased ious parts of the country are adulterated. The and were coming together by the influ- opportunities of entry to education, the adulterants used include sand, marble chips, ence of the Spirit towards the living Dalits, women, and the physically chal- stones, earth, horse dung powder, bark pow- Head.’17 The missionaries had the bib- 12 K.Venkata Subramanian, Education and der and non-edible colours. Some of the clari- lical vision of the Kingdom of God. Like lenged in the rural areas are continuing Poverty, The Hindu, (December 4, 2001). fied items like soft drinks have been found to the prophets they saw the restoration to be deprived of education. When 13 But one can not be dogmatic about this contain asbestos fiber, which leads to intesti- basic education is available, the poor- view. There are examples show that lower nal cancer. Profit margins are so high in adul- of the glorious kingdom by God him- est are unable to take advantage of it economic decline leads to lower population, teration that some anti-social elements have self. because the direct costs attached to it particularly among the Indian middle class. even taken to the commercial manufacture of For the most part, persons who are quite high. Thus poverty is both a Cf. Bharat Jhunjhunwala, ‘Poverty and Popu- adulterants on a large scale. were involved in the 19th century mis- lation’, The New Indian Express, (October 9, 16 The Indian consumer market is growing sion were more motivated by the cause and an effect of insufficient 2002). rapidly. The Indian masses are targeted by the expansion of the Kingdom of God than 14 According to James Wolfensohn, Presi- consumer markets and the multinational cor- dent of the World Bank efforts to reduce global porations. See S.L. Rao, ‘India’s Rapidly 11 Elizabeth Warham, ‘Feeding the World’, poverty must include the disabled. ‘Efforts to Changing Consumer Markets’, Economics and Developments: The International Development Reduce Global Poverty’, The Hindu, (Decem- Political Weekly, (September 30-October 6, 17 Bishop Spencer, ‘Missionary Clergy in Magazine, Issue 13, First Quarter 2001, 7. ber 3, 2002). 2000). Tinnevelly’, (January 11, 1845). 144 author article 145 by any national or political interest.18 transformation of the whole oppressed rightly observed, ‘for many Indians The Christian communities and con- Christian mission and social transfor- society. In other words the missionar- who were leaders of thought and action gregations established and maintained mation of the poor and oppressed are ies were not universalists, but particu- in the Indian Christianity, their new by the missionaries and native priests always inseparable. The missionaries larists. This approach to change religious confession was a segment of created hope for the poor and the and their native pastors believed that among the poor communities did not the new Spiritual and cultural self- oppressed classes. The gospel the gospel of Christ was not only the necessarily result in either privileging image of their nation’.24 released the poor from centuries of power of God for salvation but also the some people within a caste group or Historically speaking Christian mis- bondage when there had been no power of God for socio-economic and promoting separatism between differ- sion always has been inviting persons escape otherwise from their situation. political liberation.19 ent caste groups, but within a century to Christ, challenging corrupt and evil Christian faith provided the poor with During the 19th century in some people belonging to different castes systems, structures and cultures and the general confidence that life is parts of South India, especially in experienced transformation. They helping individuals and communities to meaningful and that it was possible to Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the together crossed the pollution line and experience the transforming power of change one’s quality of life by one’s 25 native Anglican priests who were also attained the status of respectable God. When we examine 19th century efforts.28 21 converts accepted the gospel of Christ classes in Indian society. missions we see that the gospel of Even so the poor believed in the as an option for social change among Later on Indian Christian leaders Christ provided the missionaries and gospel of Christ because they could see themselves. The missionaries and the such as K.M. Banerjee saw conversion the poor with whom they worked with the changes in the lives of other poor native clergy, including outstanding to Christianity as much related to ‘the a vision of transformation. They persons who have committed their leaders like V.S. Azariah (first Indian prospect (or envisioning) of India’s believed and hoped that their lives and 22 lives to Christ. As the missionary has Anglican Bishop of British India), had regeneration’. Similarly the Madras their circumstances would be changed. remarked that the poor walk by sight Native Christian Association said in its Bishop Stephen Neill, a distinguished a definite understanding of the process and not by faith. of social change. For them social trans- report (1893) that ‘Christianity has mission historian with extensive per- formation came through vital personal wrought miracles in our midst. It has sonal experience, said that ‘things will … seeing their Christian country- religion and vibrant faith.20 lifted many of us from the mire of social not change until men and women begin men free from boils [or rage] of The missionaries focused on the degradation, it has enlightened us, lib- to believe that they can change. The quarrels, happier in their villages, individual poor persons, families, com- erated us from the trammels of super- outcaste Christian saw them change cleaner and neater in their persons munities and caste groups and not stition and custom and has planted in before his very eyes and worked and to all intents and purposes merely on the problem of poverty or us the instincts of a free and noble towards it’.26 Likewise Vinay Samuel more contented if not actually oppression. Their aim was a church humanity’.23 observed, ‘the faith of the poor them- wealthier than themselves, by the among and of the poor and oppressed The report asserted that Christians selves is a significant factor in poverty simplest logical process they con- communities who positively responded have not simply exchanged one creed reduction…. religious faith is also, clude Christianity to be a better to the gospel of Christ, and not the total for another, but ‘have undergone a rad- part of their personal identity, the foun- religion than their own, and ical change of life, a thorough read- dation of their sense of community, and embraced it. Nor is this to be won- justment in standards of Judgment in the basis of their hope.’27 dered at when it is remembered motives and in conduct’ and reminded that they walk by sight not by 18 One example is that the extraordinary 29 three-way programme in India was of cooper- themselves that they ought to be alive 24 Mission and Evangelism in India: A His- faith. ation involving Lutherans and Anglicans and to their responsibilities and thus torical Appraisal, Gurukul, Madras, 30, 31. Moreover, as Vinay Samuel has put drawing support from Germany, Denmark and become ‘a real power for good in this 25 Vinay Samuel, ‘Mission as Transforma- it, transformation of individuals and Great Britain. This reveals the greater con- land.’ As Bishop J.W. Gladstone has tion’, Transformation, Vol.19, No.4, (October society is the will of God for all people cern for the expansion of the Kingdom of God 2002), 244. proved more powerful than the national or 26 Stephen Neill, in D.McGavran (ed), Concil- and especially for the poor. political interests. 21 Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and Chris- iar Evangelical Debate, (Michigan: Eerdmans, 19 V.S. Azariah, Dornakal Diocesan Magazine, tian Conversion,.327. 1979), 321. Vol.Xlll, No.4, (April, 1936), 3-4. 22 R.D. Paul, Chosen Vessels, (Madras: CLS, 27 D.Belshaw, R.Calderisi, and C.Sugden, 28 S.Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and 20 S. Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and 1961), 145ff. Faith in Development: Partnership between the Christian Conversion, 218, 286. Christian Conversion, (Delhi: ISPCK, 1999), 23 The Madras Native Christian Associa- World Bank and the Churches of Africa, (Oxford: 29 J.F.Kearns, ‘Muthalur Mission’, SPG-R, 332-333. tion’, (HF, June 1893). Regnum, 2001), 5-6. (1854), 630. 146 author article 147

Transformation is to enable God’s tion of their villages according to Chris- ness of life rather than face the chal- They accepted them as they were— vision of society to be actualised in tian principles. lenges of it. These ascetics lived off with an unconditional positive regard. all relationships, social, economic Missionaries like Caldwell, alms in abject poverty and want. They lived with them, ate their food and spiritual, so that God’s will Huxtable and Margoschis enabled Although modernity and western and freely interacted with them in may be reflected in human society their villages to be governed by their culture have affected our Indian belief order to give them cultural confi- and his love be experienced by all own traditional elders called headmen systems and cultures, poverty is still dence.34 communities especially the poor.30 but based on Christian principles that regarded as the outward sign of ‘spiri- In some parts of South India the But it is not a counter-cultural they had drawn up. Thus local leader- tuality’ for the swamijis and mahatmas. poor and the oppressed masses had the effort, whereas it is a cross-cultural ship was developed with a view to While these swamijis and mahatmas advantage of living with the European endeavour—that is, it engages with social change among the new converts adopt this type of ‘austere and simple missionary families and being influ- rather than confronts those of other as the people cooperated with the mis- life’, theirs and the message of the enced by their lives. This influence was groups. For instance V.S. Azariah rec- sionaries by accepting them as their priestly class to the masses, the poor to be seen particularly amongst the ognized Christian faith not as a cul- leaders. It was a community living and the oppressed is a little different. people who were living in mission sta- tural contradiction but as a fulfilling of based on biblical principles of equality, They say that they are poor, untouch- tions such as Edayangudi, Nazareth, the imperfect native culture. He was of liberty and fraternity for the all -round able and handicapped because of their Muthaloor, Puthiamputhur, Chris- the opinion that Christianity was a advancement of poor believers.32 karma—retribution of the sins they tianagaram and Sawyerpuram. While refinement of the culture of natives to The gospel of Christ has fascinated have carried with them into this birth! some of these towns had a permanent enable them to live a civilized life, free the poor because it offered the promise The belief in ‘karma janmanthra’ missionary for many decades, others from the negative and oppressive of change and transformation. How- destroys the spirit of enterprise and had a missionary for ten or fifteen aspects of their culture such as igno- ever, first of all the gospel has to deal the inner urge for development and years only. Many of the early mission- rance, illiteracy, spirit worship, with the culture of poverty and oppres- growth. Any belief system that doesn’t aries such as J.L. Irion, A.F. Caem- immorality and other traditional prac- sion in which the poor struggle. liberate the people from the shackles of merer, G.U. Pope, R. Caldwell, J.F. tices.31 poverty and misery, but rather compels Kearns, and J.K. Best lived with their Missionaries attempted to trans- them to accept the sufferings as their families in the midst of the poor Dal- form the declining heathen rural com- III Gospel and fate, need to be jettisoned.33 its.35 The progress the Dalits have munities into a visible koinonia, Chris- Transformation Consequently the 19th century made in every aspect of life could be tian community. Among the mass con- India is known to the world over for its European missionaries who worked attributed to the personal influence of version movement areas of South India ancient culture and belief systems as among the poor and the oppressed the European missionaries: the village congregation is a kind of well as for its poverty. All these ele- communities had to approach the cul- That Christianity should have made koinonia, a fellowship of believers ments are quite inter-related with each ture of poverty and oppression in a new so much progress under such cir- devoted to Scripture and worship. other—so much so that poverty is very way. As Professor Kancha Ilaiah has cumstances must be attributed to While much was similar to pre-conver- much linked with culture and religion. pointed out, the real change among the the personal influence of the sion community life, a Christian village Traditionally, Indian belief systems Indian poor came only after the Christ- numerous European missionaries in South India was a new community have always determined Indians’ ian missionaries began interacting who have laboured in this field, with new responsibilities and privi- lifestyle. For the majority of Indians with them. The missionaries, instead many of them living with their fam- leges. As the poor accepted the mis- life has been one of negation rather of condemning the food habits, dress ilies in the largest of the Christian sionaries as their new leaders, they than affirmation. Rightly or wrongly, code, ritual practices of these masses, were willing to modify the administra- Indian sages chose to renounce the began seeing the people as those cre- ated in the image of God with all the world and run away from all the good- 34 Kancha Ilaiah, ‘Culture of Oppression’, potentials for change and progress. Hindu, (Chennai) February 22, 2003. 30 Vinay Samuel, Mission as Transformation, 35 There were also many CMS missionaries (Oxford: Regnum, 1999), preface. 32 S.Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and such as C.T.E. Rhenius, John Thomas and oth- 31 V.S.Azariah, The Bishop’s letter (1934), 4. Christian Conversion, 223, 280, 309. Stephen 33 M.Ezra Sargunam, ‘Culture as an element ers who lived among the Dalits with their large S.Harper, Azariah and Indian Christianity, Neill, Under Three Flags, 77. S.Harper, Azaiah of Development’, Unpublished Paper, October families, effecting great influence upon the 249f. and Indian Christianity, 246. 13-14, 1999. minds of the local people. 148 author article 149

villages, entirely cut off from the merely a small part of the multifar- arouse them from what they called are worthy of being proclaimed European society, but being ious cares which Mr. Margoschis their spiritual, moral and intellectual with joy as good tidings. Spiritually brought into daily contact with the undertakes for the good of the peo- slumber so that they could gain all- we have abundant knowledge of people. The result has been that ple. In the buildings around us chil- round growth and live an abundant life. the true God, we know how God the religion of the people is more of dren are taught, and the youth of Whenever converts desired only sent His only beloved Son to a subjective nature than it is objec- both sexes are trained in profes- worldly benefits and advantages with- redeem us sinners by his precious tive.36 sional and industrial occupations out making any visible spiritual death; the Holy Spirit is given to us Maybe this is one of the reasons which will make them useful and progress, the opportunities for social to sanctify us. The Church has been why in India the missionaries who orderly members of society; advancement were denied them. The established among us as a house of chose to live in villages were more suc- orphans and children abandoned by missionaries and the native priests salvation; we have the holy sacra- their parents are cared for; the deaf always gave first place to Christian ments whereby we may be united to cessful in effecting group conversion of 41 the natives and subsequent social and dumb are instructed in techni- character formation and Church disci- Christ. change than those who settled in cal arts; the distressed are pline. The missionaries wanted the He goes on to say that, towns or cities, who effected only occa- relieved. No one can come to this means of social advancement to be We have the different means of sional individual conversions. oasis in the desert and be a witness used to develop what they called deep grace whereby we may obtain grace Since the method adopted by the of all this, and watch the content- spirituality and consistent character from God, we have the Word of God missionaries suited the feudal system, ment and happiness bearing on which is a result of spiritual transfor- for being acquainted with His holy it was a means of social change as well every face, and the order that mation. The missionaries looked for will; in short we have everything as a source of rapid growth in the num- reigns throughout, without being signs of faith, confidence and hope in that is necessary to enable us to ber of converts among the poor and filled with admiration for the man Christ as well as giving and sharing, secure a happy life in eternity. So oppressed communities. The mission- to whose philanthropic, whole- family fidelity, honesty and steward- also, we have several temporal aries reshaped their villages into hearted and self-sacrificing labours ship as the pointers to character blessings. We have schools estab- model Christian settlements with the these results are due, and whose change.40 lished amongst us for the cultiva- cooperation of government authorities. genius pervades the whole.38 The village Christians often con- tion of our knowledge. There are Since, for the most part, it was at the Another newspaper, the Eastern fessed that because of Christianity dispensaries in various places initiative of the missionaries that the Star, reported that there were a num- they enjoyed privileges which the non- where the sick can receive help. government provided facilities such as ber of other villages regarded as having Christian villages did not. They con- We have pecuniary assistance in a post offices, railways, road transport, become oases through the efforts of the tended that it was the gospel which variety of ways. In short, we have telecommunications, dispensaries, missionaries and native priests, such enabled them to progress in knowl- various means of progressing in educational institutions, and clean edge, and in what the missionaries knowledge, in civilization and in as a South Indian town, Kudangulam, 42 drinking water, these should be the head station of the Radhapuram called civilization and social status. worldly circumstances. treated as the contribution of the mis- mission district, and by the efforts of Thus a South Indian native Christian The native Christians were aware of 37 sionaries. On one occasion the Dis- the native priest, S.S. Daniel.39 How- leader D. Periyanayagam observed the awakening and progress that trict Collector remarked that Christian ever, for the most part, being some- that, Christianity had brought to them. The villages were an oasis in the desert. what paternalistic, the missionaries We as Christians enjoy several native priest acknowledged that peo- Hence the English newspaper, the provided all these facilities and oppor- blessings and privileges, spiritual Madras Mail reported, tunities not for the mere social and temporal which heathens But, after all, this institution is advancement of their converts but to around us do not have, and which 41 D. Periyanayagam, ‘A Sermon Preached on the Occasion of the SPG Bicentenary Festi- val’, SPG-R, (1901), 1-2. Cf. ‘The Rt. Rev. Father in God, Henry, by the Divine permis- 36 A. Margoschis, Tinnevelli Mission, 49. 38 Madras Mail, (October 22, 1892), 40 S.Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and sion the Lord Bishop of Madras’, (Madras: 37 A.F. Caemmarer, Caldwell, Margoschis 39 Edward Pillai, Eastern Star, (November 4, Christian Conversion, 249-270. Cf.Makonen Addison Press, 1901), Pamphlet in SPG-R, and a few others reshaped their villages into 1895), quoted by S.S.Daniel, ‘Radhapuram Getu, ‘Measuring Transformation’, Transfor- (1901), 1. self-sufficient model Christian towns. Report’, SPG-R, (1897), 2. mation, Vol.19, No.2, (April 2002), 95-96. 42 Periyanayagam, ‘Sermon’, 1. 150 author article 151 ple who once sat in darkness and doing turing in Fort William College he said IV Vernacular Scripture not only from possessing the Vedas, but the works of darkness have now come that, ‘I may say, indeed, that their man- Empowers the Poor also banned from hearing the Vedas to the light and have put on the armour ners, customs, habits and sentiment being read. Now they were given In their scholarly and Christian of light. People who were once were are so obvious to me as if I am myself a Vetham, the Bible, to possess and use 46 endeavour, the missionaries produced ‘slaves to sin and Satan’ have became native.’ That is the way he could by themselves for their edification. Bibles, Prayer Books and other litera- the children of God and are trying to effect transformation throughout the They came to be considered by them- ture in Tamil.48 For the Protestant mis- live a holy life. People who once acted state of Bengal with the help of the selves and the people around as People sionaries the Bible was central to ‘as beasts and were barbarous and British government. of the Vedas, the Scripture. Yet the Christian faith. Consequently from the addicted to cruel actions’ have now Carey’s approach was clearly Brahmins and the caste Hindus, who beginning they gave themselves to the been made children of God and are pro- reflected in his stated missionary pur- had always boasted of the Vedas, had translation of Scriptures into the ver- gressing in civilization.43 Social scien- poses. They are: (a) churches should no such popular designation. Genera- nacular. Being influenced by the intel- tists such as Lila Krishnan believe that be run by Indians for Indians; (b) no tions have passed; the Dalit Christians lectual currents of the period, espe- while negative religious beliefs are a overseas control to be imposed on the of South India still regard themselves cially Empiricism and Enlightenment, hindrance to social change, positive Indian churches which were to main- as people of the Scriptures. The Scrip- they were also interested in studying beliefs ‘nurture the idea of working in tain fraternal relations with foreign tures have thus given them a particular church bodies; (c) to esteem and treat the religions and cultures of the order to improve the quality of worldly identity, which thus far is claimed by Indians as equals; (d) Serampore Mis- world.49 life’.44 no one else in the region. sion would endeavour to develop Among the languages spoken in Similarly in other parts of India, the Bible study in the vernacular was a Indian leadership.47 India, Tamil was the first into which missionary approach to culture is note- key feature of the pastoral care offered Carey and other missionaries in dif- the Bible was translated.50 As a result worthy. There are many examples of by the Anglican missionaries, and ferent part of India led the battles the Protestant Christians of South missionaries who lived with the people efforts were made to give scriptural against sati caste, untouchability, child India who were predominantly from and identified with them in order to guidance to suit the oppressive cir- marriage, female infanticide, bonded the outcastes began to regard them- 51 bring about transformation. One exam- cumstances of local people. They agricultural labour, drunkenness and selves as Vethakaramga, the people of ple is William Carey who identified interpreted the Bible in the local con- opium addiction. Also, they recovered the Scripture. It had always been the with the culture and customs of the text. They saw this as essential to the local language, literature and revi- Brahmins and the caste Hindus who effecting transformation. For example, common Bengalis in order to serve talized them. This resulted in renais- 45 had possession of the Hindu scrip- J.F. Kearns taught the book of Exodus, them most effectively. Once while lec- sance in various parts of the country. tures, the Vedas, whereas the out- emphasizing the lesson that God takes Nevertheless most of the missionary castes were for centuries prohibited an interest in the worldly as well as activities had to begin with the trans- 43 Periyanayagam, ‘Sermon’, 5. spiritual prosperity and happiness of lation of the Bible into the vernacular, 44 Lila Krishnan, ‘Has Rural India Changed?’ those who love and adore him as their International Journal of Indian Studies, Vol.3, for the Bible was central to Protestant God. The book of Joshua was taught in No.2, (July-December, 1993), 92,97. Christian faith. 48 The missionaries were motivated by evan- 45 William Carey was born in a small gelical concern and the long tradition of learn- such a way as to demonstrate that even thatched cottage in Paulerspury, a typical ing and scholarship among the Church of Eng- in this life, despite their power and Northamptonshire village in England, August land’s clergy. prosperity, God punishes the wicked 17, 1761, of a weaver’s family. It was in 1793 enced timid and hesitating men and women to 49 However, while the concerns of the colo- heathen; the book of Judges was used to take steps to the evangelizing of the world.’ that Carey went to India. ‘Shoemaker by trade, nial Indologists were political and secular, the illustrate that God protects and Another wrote of him, ‘Taking his life as a missionaries’ concerns were Christian When but scholar, linguist and missionary by God’s blesses his people so long as they con- training,’ William Carey was one of God’s whole, it is not too much to say that he was the the British established political superiority giants in the history of evangelism! One of his greatest and most versatile Christian mission- over all other European rivals in India, they biographers, F. Dealville Walker, wrote of ary sent out in modern times.’ See also tried to establish intellectual superiority Carey: ‘He, with a few contemporaries, was www.wholesomewords.org over all other European countries with regard almost singlehanded in conquering the pre- 46 William Carey, Primitai Orientalis, Vol.lll, to understanding India. A.K. Davidson, Evan- vailing indifference and hostility to missionary (Calcutta: Fort William College, 1802) gelicals and Attitudes, 16-37. 51 R.Caldwell,’Edaiyangudi Report’, (1845), effort; Carey developed a plan for missions, 47 T.V. Philip, ‘William Carey Lecture’, Sen- 50 I.H. Victor, ‘A Brief History of the Bible’, C\IND, Madras, Box 8, 5. H.C.Huxtable, and printed his amazing Enquiry; he influ- ate of Serampore College, Serampore, 1993, 2. ICHR vol.Vlll, No.2, (December, 1984), 106. ‘Sawyerpuram Report’, SPG-R (1856), 2509ff. 152 author article 153 tinue to obey him.52 churches. They are numerous in India the Bible in whatever language always are beginning to realize that without The Bible in vernacular language as well as in Africa. The mushrooming remains the Word of God. Here is the addressing the issue of spirituality, we produces indigenous spirituality for it of churches is an indication of the clue to what has been called the ‘infi- cannot do sustainable development at helps the poor to relate the gospel to transformation that is taking place due nite cultural translatability’ of the all. Whatever we might do, in terms of their culture. This is not only true to the indigenous form of religious Christian faith. This is what creates health, economics etc, fundamentally among various South Asian countries, experience of the marginalized people. change in the perspectives (world- is an issue of spirituality’.57 Bishop J.W. but also in the continent of Africa The Bible in the mother tongues of view) of the poor. The people’s under- Picket made a similar observation after where the ‘next Christendom is emerg- Africa became a time bomb which standing of their god and his relation- a thorough study of mass movements ing’. exploded into the numerous and ship with life-problems are affected to Christ. positively.55 The actual results of the impact of diverse ‘independent’ churches The depressed classes in India are Christian conversion encompassed the message about Jesus often proliferating on the African conti- desperately poor. But their chief eco- the expansion of a world-view. The turned out to be quite different. In nent. But the Independents only nomic need is not financial; it is an missionaries contended that non- specifically religious terms, the sin- exemplify in the extreme what is antidote to the poisonous ideas that Christian societies were in need of have made them incapable of strug- gle most significant feature of this now true also of many of the mis- ‘comprehensive regeneration’ or trans- gling successfully with their environ- coming of a worldwide faith in sion-established churches of formation both in invisible experience ment….. Much more devastating than Jesus was that the Bible became Africa. Far from being the work of and visible change in life. Their physical oppression has been the psy- quite early available in the mother- ‘foreign agents’ promoting an impe- attempt was not completely to change chological oppression inflicted by the tongues of the people who were rialist religion, this mushrooming their traditional cultural customs but Hindu doctrines of karma and rebirth, then learning about Jesus. In areas of churches in fact indicates how at to alter, modify, preserve and build which have taught them that they are a where the acceptance of the mes- home Africans are in the message upon them. The poor and the oppressed degraded, worthless people suffering sage has been most widespread, as about Jesus. In African communities whole heartedly accepted just retribution for sins committed in in tropical Africa, having the Bible Christianity, it is not a Western a vernacular version of Western Chris- earlier lives….The concepts that the in African languages enabled Jesus who reigns, but the Jesus tian culture and values that the mis- Christian Gospel gives them of them- who is powerful to save in the African converts to discover paral- sionaries offered to them along with selves and of God in relation to their African world.54 lels between the biblical world (not the gospel. The natives confessed that sufferings and sins are worth incompa- just in the Old Testament, but also For the most part the Christian faith the new religion has enlarged their rably more to them than any direct in the New Testament) of miracles, has in the course of its expansion ideas, sharpened their intellects, and social or economic service the Church exorcisms, healing and prophecy, developed generally as a vernacular above all taught them to feel they were could offer.58 and their own cultural and religious religion. The poor could directly speak superior to what they originally con- Similarly an Indian Christian 56 world of spirit-beings and supernat- to God in vernacular as well as listen to sidered themselves to be. leader, V. Mangalwadi wrote that, ural forces.53 him directly while God speaks to them Modern development workers con- Poverty is not their main problem. in their own language. This revolution- tend that, as they work with the poor, Also, the Scripture in the vernacu- The lack of hope (for a better ized their understanding of God and they are beginning to see the whole lar is the cause for proliferation of future), lack of faith (in man, gov- issue of poverty as a question of faith denominations and community their relationship to him as their cre- ernment or God) and lack of initia- ator and redeemer. Now they are no and spirituality. It is not socio-econom- more in need of sacred language (San- ics plus spirituality. It is deeply spiri- 52 J.F. Kearns, Puthiamputhur, (1859) 1259. skrit) or sacred person (Brahmin tual and religious issue. Jayakumar Here we must note that the Bible is not used priest). Christian of World Vision wrote that, 57 Jayakumar Christian, ‘Spirituality and as a blunt instrument in the oppression of peo- Unlike Brahminical Hinduism and ‘the more we work with the poor, we Social Transformation among the Poor’, in ple, where as an instrument of liberation. See S.D.Ponraj and John Robb (ed), Transform Your Michael Prior, The Bible and Colonialism: A Islam the refusal of an imposed, the so- World Through Prayer, (Chennai: Mission Edu- Moral Critique, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic called sacred language, has meant that cational Books, 1999). Press, 1997). 55 Jesus 2000. 58 J.W.Picket, Christ’s Way to India’s Heart, 53 Jesus 2000: One Man Above All others have 56 S.Jayakumar, Dalit Consciousness and (Lucknow: Lucknow Publising Co., 1938), Changed the World, (Oxford: Lion, 1989). 54 Jesus 2000. Christian Conversion,.330, 333. 173. 154 author article 155

tive (born out of dehumanizing shall not afflict any widow or orphan. If through his son Jesus Christ. Jesus in among the poor. He promised that the oppression and loss of self-confi- you do afflict them, and they cry out to his first preaching at Nazareth syna- kingdom belongs to them. He said, dence) are paralyzing mental/cul- me, I will surely hear their cry’ Ex. gogue quoting from the book of prophet ‘Blessed are you who are poor, for tural factors which prevent them 22:21-23). The conviction that the God Isaiah, declared: ‘The Spirit of the Lord yours is the kingdom of God’ (Lu. 6:20; from any action towards freedom of Israel was sovereign over all nations is on me, because he has anointed me cf Mt. 5:3). ‘Do not be afraid, little and development.59 and that he was a saving God is to preach the good news to the poor. He flock, for your Father has been pleased Vinay Samuel contends that, ‘it is absolutely central to the Scriptures. has sent me to proclaim freedom for to give you the Kingdom’ (Lu. 12:32). the prisoners and recovery of sight to only the sense of human dignity and Israel’s liberation from slavery is a rev- Those who work among the poor have the blind, to release the oppressed, the self worth conferred on the poor elation of the way this sovereign God to believe that they cannot build the year of the Lord’s favour’ (Lu. 4:18- through the Christian salvation experi- can act on behalf of all nations and all kingdom of God in this world, but God 19). 63 ence and world-view that empowers peoples (Amos 9:7) if they call up on will give it to them. 61 In Mathew 9:35 we find the sum- them to respond proactively to oppor- him in faith as Israel did. The kingdom of God is present real- mary of Jesus’ ministry: ‘Jesus went tunities for material improvement’.60 The Bible refers to people who are ity as well as future hope. The King- socially, economically and religiously through all the towns and villages, dom of God is, as Hans Kung puts it, The foregoing description shows teaching in their synagogues, preach- poor.62 In India the Dalits, tribals, that we need a wholistic understanding ing the good news of the kingdom and Where in accordance with Jesus’ women, children, diseased and dis- of the problem of poverty. A study of healing every disease and sickness’. promise, the poor, the hungry, abled are such people. These people mission history helps us to discover Jesus proclaimed by word and deed those who weep and those who are are branded as outcastes, untouch- the need for such understanding in deliverance from sin and all its conse- downtrodden will finally come into order to serve the poor. ables and un-sightables. Foremost of quences. He saw himself as coming their own; where pain, suffering, 64 all they have no sociable position. Sec- with good news for the world’s trou- and death will have an end. ondly they have no reputable religion. bled and distressed people. This was Jesus invited the poor to come to V Biblical Concern and They are born outside of Hinduism so further made plain from his response to him for rest and refreshment. He said, Transformational Mission that they cannot enter into Hindu tem- the disciples of John the Baptist to ‘Come to me, all you that are weary and In the Bible God always identifies him- ples. Thirdly they are denied dignified whom he indicated that, ‘the blind are carrying heavy burdens, and I will self with the poorest of the poor—the jobs so that they remain economically receive sight, the lame walk, those who give you rest.’ On another occasion he orphans, widows, strangers, and peo- poor. have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, said, ‘I am the door. Whoever enters by ple with no hope. This is very clear The Bible marvellously portrays the dead are raised and the good news me will be saved, and will come in and from the exodus event. ‘I have seen the that the poor and oppressed are not is preached to the poor’ (Mt. 11:5) as go out and find pasture.’ (Mt. 11:28; Jn. affliction of my people who are in deserted by God, but loved by him signs of his messiahship 10:9). Egypt, and have heard their cry Jesus pointed to his healing and life Also, Jesus compels the poor to because of their task masters: I know restoring miracles which are integral come to him. In the parable of the great their sufferings, and I have come down to Christian mission among the poor. feast (Lu. 14:16-24), when those first 61 D.Senior amd C.Stuhlmueller, The Biblical to deliver them…’ (Ex. 3:7-8). After Christian missions were born out of invited did not respond to his invita- Foundations for Missions, (Maryknoll: Orbis this vision that the gospel of Christ liberating them from slavery, he com- Books, 1995), 321. tion, the king commanded his servant would truly become good news to the manded them ‘You shall not wrong a 62 There are six different terms used to refer to go out at once into the streets and stranger or oppress him, for you were to the poor. Rash means persons who are des- poor. As the Father has sent him, so he lanes of the town and bring in the poor, strangers in the land of Egypt. You titute, without money. Dal refers to the social sends us among the poor, the sick, the the crippled, the blind and the lame. status of those who are destitute. Ebyon downtrodden and the marginalized They were to be compelled to come in relates to the needy, those who lack material communities (John 20:21). goods. Ani and Anaw refer to the oppressed, Jesus’ mission is our mission. The 59 V.Mangalwadi, ‘A Theology of Powerin the powerless, those who are impoverished by church as a people of God are called to the Context of Social Development’, TRACI the rich and powerful. Mishken refers to a Journal (April, 1981), 15 dependent person. In Psalm 82:3-4 four of follow the example of the Lord and Sav- 63 J.V.Taylor, ‘My Pilgrimage in Mission’, 60 D.Belshaw, R.Calderisi, and C.Sugden, these terms occur. Santa Ana, Good News for iour Jesus Christ who became poor for IBMR, Vol.17, No.2, (April, 1993), 60. Faith in Development, 6. the Poor, (Geneva: WCC, 1977), 10-11. their sake (2 Cor. 8:9). He lived as one 64 Hans Kung, On Being a Christian, 215. 156 author article 157 so that his house may be filled. The as oppressions, and the change of 14:31). Indeed it is only when we Conclusion 65 parable teaches that we have to compel their social practices. right such injustices that God In this paper we were trying to answer the poor, the oppressed, the tribals, the promises to hear our prayers and the question of how to bring change in marginalized women and the disabled worship (Isaiah 58:1-9). society, especially among the poor and and bring them in. VII Poverty not Part Original 3. Neglect of the poor often flows from the disadvantaged people. We have creation greed. Furthermore, the obsessive drawn some specific lessons from the or careless pursuit of material mission history. We have noted that VI God’s Presence with the We are to be aware of the fact that poverty was not part of God’s original goods is one of the most destruc- the missionaries considered ministry Poor creation. The Oxford Declaration on tive idolatries in human history to the poor and the oppressed was not Jesus Christ is God Immanuel, God Christian Faith and Economics observed (Ephesians 5:5). It distracts indi- an option but an imperative. They with us. He is with the poor and the the following three crucial points about viduals from their duties before served the poor with the vision and oppressed people. Through his incar- God and the poor.66 God, and corrupts personal and hope of bringing change. The poor nation Jesus dwelt among the common social relationships. shared their vision and worked along- 1. Poverty was not part of God’s orig- people (Jn. 1:14). The sinners, the tax side and changes were taking place inal creation, nor will poverty be collectors as well as women and chil- before their eyes. In the past, the part of God’s restored creation dren love him for he loved them first. approach of certain missionaries to the when Christ returns. Involuntary He is the light to those who are in sit- culture in which they worked helped poverty in all its forms and mani- ting in regions of darkness (Mt. 4:15- 66 Chris Sugden and Vinay Samuel (ed), Mis- the poor to overcome poverty and festations is a result of the fall and 16). In his presence those who are sion as Transformation: A Theology of the Whole oppression. We find that this approach mourning will find happiness (Mt. 5:2). its consequences. Today out of Gospel, (Oxford: Regnum, 1999), 335. is still relevant in our time. He identifies himself with the hungry, every five human beings lives in thirsty, naked, prisoners, strangers poverty so extreme that their sur- and the least in the society (Mt. 25:31- vival is daily in doubt. We believe 33, 41-46). As Samuel Escobar points this is offensive and heart breaking out, to God. 2. We understand that the God of the What missionary action needs Bible is one who in mercy extends today is to recover the awareness love to all. At the same time, we that God dwells with the poor and believe that when the poor are has a kind of preference for the oppressed, God is the ‘defender of poor, that there is a biblical teach- the poor’ (Psalm 146:7-9). Again ing about justice to the poor and and again in every part of scripture, oppressed and that we have the the Bible expresses God’s concern example of Jesus himself, of Paul for justice for the poor. Faithful and the primitive church, as well as obedience requires that we share that of being among the poor with God’s concern and act on it. ‘He the efficacy of Agape which is not who oppresses a poor man insults necessarily the efficacy of a given his maker, but he who is kind to the political programme. Missionary needy honours Him’ (Proverbs action also needs to remember from its biblical point and its historical development that the repentance to 65 Samuel Escober, ‘The Gospel and the which Jesus Christ calls us today Poor in’ in Vinay Samuel and Chris Sugden may mean for some men, the open- (ed), Evangelism and the Poor, (Oxford: Reg- ing of their eyes to their condition num, 1987), 106 ERT (2009) 33:2, 158-n article 159

deeply felt than many Western evan- an Australian journalist as ‘the best Will Lausanne III Listen? A Latin gelical Christian leaders here could theological presentation of the con- have expected.’3 Rev. John A. Coleman, gress’.7 At the beginning, Padilla dis- from Australia, a participant at Lau- closed his interest in the ‘wider dimen- American Inquiry sanne I, noted that the papers pre- sions of the gospel’ because they were sented by Padilla and Escobar ‘have intrinsically related to the mission of probably been subject to more com- the church in the world. Nevertheless, ment than all the other papers put there were at least two ideas in J. Daniel Salinas together’.4 Padilla’s presentation that ruffled The few consultations that took KEYWORDS: Evangelical congresses, role in the redaction of the covenant as some feathers, his identification of place after 1974—on the Homogenous cultural Christianity, salvation, evan- well as the attached document on rad- ‘cultural Christianity’ with the ‘Ameri- Unit Principle (1977), Gospel and Cul- can way of life’ with its reliance on gelism, radical discipleship ical discipleship. What René Padilla and Samuel Escobar presented at Lau- ture (1978), Simple Life-Style (1980), technology, and his presentation of the sanne I remains relevant and the and Evangelism and Social Responsi- social dimensions of the gospel. The wheels are turning and unless issues they raised should still be an bility (1982)—reflected the main Regarding the first issue, Padilla direct divine intervention changes important part of theological discus- thrust of their papers. However, after argued that ‘cultural Christianity’ was plans, Lausanne III will take place in sion of the church around the world. 1982 it seems like Padilla and Escobar an adaptation of the gospel to the Cape Town, October 2010. Many This paper reviews their presentations were shunned from the Lausanne ‘spirit of the times’. He presented as preparations are in motion, commit- showing especial emphasis on the movement. They were not on the the dominant version of cultural Chris- tees work hard to keep schedules and issues the church needs to attend to podium at Lausanne II in Manila. tianity the ‘American Way of Life’. For datelines, places booked and speakers today. Padilla noted that there was a conspic- Padilla, the influence of such a form of chosen. Anticipation is high and expec- The presentations of Padilla and uous absence of Latin American speak- ‘cultural Christianity’ caused the 5 tations are being defined. The Lau- Escobar at Lausanne I were regarded ers at Lausanne II. Could it be a reac- gospel in the majority of the countries sanne movement that started in 1974 as causing a ‘significant shift in Chris- tion to their boldness to challenge the of the world to be equated with the has gone through many stages and it is tian thinking,’ a ‘coming of age for ‘success’ preachers of their day? Or ‘American Way of Life’. He defined it good to see it coming back to its origi- evangelicals,’ and a ‘major break- was it a result of an intentional policy as a version of Christianity that pro- nal intention expressed in the Lau- through for evangelicals on questions by the people who led Lausanne Com- jected an image of a successful busi- sanne Covenant. of social ethics and openness in facing mittee for World Evangelism (LCWE) ness and the gospel as a marketing of Those who participated in the first these issues.’2 Another participant from the 1980s? Maybe both. What the formula for happiness but without congress in Switzerland remembered observed that the results of the Latin was in their expositions that caused repentance and commitment. There- that two Latin Americans ‘set the Con- Americans’ speeches ‘were much more the evangelical leaders of the Lau- fore, he said, ‘accepting Christ is the gress alight’1 and also had a prominent sanne movement to have goose bumps? means to reach the ideal of the “good 6 Padilla’s paper was considered by life,” at no cost. The cross has lost its 2 John A. Coleman, ‘Aftermath of Lausanne! 1 Athol Gill, ‘Christian Social Responsibility,’ Evangelism in a Changing World,’ New Life, 28 offense, since it simply points to the in The New Face of Evangelicalism: An Interna- August 1974; Gerald Davis, ‘A Coming of Age 3 Alan Nichols, ‘Plain Speaking on Social sacrifice of Jesus Christ for us, but it is tional Symposium on the Lausanne Covenant, ed. for Evangelicals,’ Church Scene, 1 August Issues…’ New Life, 8 August 1974. not a call to discipleship.’ C. René Padilla (Downers Grove: InterVarsity 1974; Bruce Kaye, ‘Lausanne: An Assess- 4 Coleman, ‘Aftermath of Lausanne! Evange- To find customers for their religious Press, 1976), 91. ment,’ CWN Series, 16 August 1974. lism in a Changing World.’ product, Padilla continued, North 5 C. René Padilla, ‘Presentación,’ Boletín American Christianity relied on tech- Teológico 21, no. 35 (1985), 211. J. Daniel Salinas, (PhD, Trinity International University), is currently the General Secretary of the IFES 6 C. René Padilla, ‘Evangelism and the nology, reducing evangelism to a math- affiliated, Grupos Biblicos Unidos del Paraguay GBUP and a visiting professor to various seminaries in Latin World,’ in Let the Earth Hear His Voice: Inter- ematical calculation: ‘to produce the America. He has published both in Spanish and English various articles and books, including ‘The Beginnings national Congress on World Evangelization Lau- greatest number of Christians at the of the Fraternidad Teológica Latinoamericana: Courage to Grow’ (Journal of Latin American Theology, sanne, Switzerland, ed. J. D. Douglas (Min- 2:1(2007) and ‘The Great Commission in Latin America’, in The Great Commission: Evangelicals and the neapolis: World Wide Publications, 1974), History of World Missions, M. Klauber and S. Manetsch, Scott (B & H Publishing, 2008). 116-46. 7 Kaye, ‘Lausanne.’’ 160 author article 161 least possible cost in the shortest pos- To talk about the social implications salvation of the soul’ making religion of the Congress.’10 It was for sure a sible time’. The most sophisticated of the Gospel, Padilla started with the ‘an escape from present reality,’ caus- speech a lot of people wanted to forget technological resources are used by message’s call to repentance. In order ing a ‘total withdrawal from the prob- but the issues were too important to let this version of ‘cultural Christianity’ to to avoid misunderstandings, Padilla lems of society.’ them fade away. Immediately after efficiently (italics his) propagate its defined repentance as, It was in Jesus’ ministry that Padilla’s presentation several people message of success throughout the … not merely a bad conscience, but included kerygma, diaconia, and including Athol Gill from Australia, world. Padilla identified several prob- a change of attitude, a restructur- Didache where Padilla based his con- John H. Yoder, Samuel Escobar, René lematic characteristics of such Chris- ing of one’s scale of values, a reori- clusion that the New Testament does Padilla, and others decided to convoke tianity. However, the main problem he entation of the whole personality. not separate ‘soteriology and ethics, an open meeting to discuss the topic of mentioned was the reduction of the Repentance is more than a private communion with God and communion radical discipleship. Over 500 people Gospel to a formula for success and the affair between the individual and with one’s neighbor, faith and works.’ gave up their Sunday rest to attend. It equation of the triumph of Christ with God. It is the complete reorienta- Christian commitment unavoidably was an open forum with no hidden obtaining the highest number of ‘con- tion of life in the world-among men- means involvement with the neighbor. agenda. The discussion was candid versions.’ He also said technology con- in response to the work of God in There is no room for ‘eschatologi- and transparent with a noticeable ditioned the message turning it into a Jesus Christ.8 cal paralysis’ nor for ‘social strike.’ absence of North Americans. A docu- man-centered Christianity: ‘It is the ment called A Response to Lausanne We can either takes seriously this There is no place for statistics of religious product of a civilization in was drafted and attached to the final call to repentance or ignore it, accord- ‘how many souls die without Christ which nothing, not even man himself, Covenant. The following day Samuel ing to Padilla. The right choice is the every minute,’ if they do not take escapes technology.’ Furthermore, for Escobar was scheduled to speak at the latter, meaning that we are taking God into account how many of those Padilla such manipulation of the plenary session.11 His was expected to and the world seriously avoiding social who die, die victims of hunger. Gospel inevitably led to slavery to the be the coup de grace on the social quietism. For him, the goal of the There is no place for evangelism world and its powers. involvement issue, building on the gospel ‘is not to take a man out of the that, as it goes by the man who was Those who remember Lausanne I foundation carefully laid by John Stott, world, but to put him into it, no longer assaulted by thieves on the road would probably find in Padilla’s Padilla and Michael Green. as a slave but as a son of God and a from Jerusalem to Jericho, sees in description of ‘cultural Christianity’ a From the opening paragraphs, Esco- member of the body of Christ.’ him only a soul that must be saved frontal critique of what another 9 bar was overtly outspoken about the Another important term for Padilla and ignores the man. speaker at the Congress presented the relationship of evangelism with the was salvation. He defined salvation as At the end, Padilla made two day before: Donald McGavran’s realities of ‘overpopulation, hunger, man’s return to God as well as to his appeals—one to the Christian person, ‘Church Growth’ program. For Padilla, oppression, war, torture, violence, pol- neighbor. To explain this, Padilla another to the church. ‘The first condi- this version of ‘cultural Christianity’ lution, and the extreme forms of wealth described two extremes regarding sal- tion for genuine evangelism is the cru- put at risk the significance of the and poverty’. Escobar expanded gospel. He was not against the growth vation. First, salvation left in the hands cifixion of the evangelist. Without it Padilla’s idea of ‘cultural Christianity’ of the church; instead he was critical of of men when, ‘eschatology is absorbed the Gospel becomes empty talk and by describing two main attitudes of making growth an end of itself. He by the Utopia and the Christian hope evangelism becomes proselytism.’ He drove his point home by asking if ‘the becomes confused with the worldly called the church to take seriously the day is not close when missionary hope proclaimed by Marxism.’ Many mission given to her, ‘the building of a new humanity… a mission that can be strategists employ B. F. Skinner’s might have nodded especially since the 10 Alfred C. Krass, ‘The New Face of Evan- “behavior conditioning” and “Chris- ‘Cold War’ mentality was pervasive. performed only through sacrifice.’ gelicalism: An International Symposium on tianize” the world through the scien- However, when Padilla described the After his presentation, Padilla the Lausanne Covenant (Book Review),’ Occa- tific control of environmental condi- second extreme he might have received ‘became, to the press, the enfant terrible sional Bulletin of Missionary Research 1, no. 1 tions and human genetics.’ Hard words many uneasy looks. Padilla described (1977), 23. to swallow but considering that LCWE it as the concern solely on ‘the future 11 Samuel Escobar, ‘Evangelism and Man’s Search for Freedom, Justice, and Fulfillment,’ championed in the 1980s and 1990s in Let the Earth Hear His Voice, ed. J. D. Dou- the ‘church growth’ agenda, Padilla glas (Minneapolis: World Wide, 1975), 303- was not too far off the mark. 8 Padilla, ‘Evangelism and the World,’ 129. 9 Padilla, ‘Evangelism and the World,’ 131. 18. 162 author article 163 evangelicals. First, the goal of making found a close relationship between the revolution, he was careful about leav- Some Americans at Lausanne Christianity the official ideology of the message and the messenger. For him, ing no doubts that ‘simple liberation remarked that it will be time West and therefore being committed to to ‘emphasize the communication of from human masters is not the freedom enough to listen to such complaints ‘Western ideals’ perhaps as a reaction the message at the expense of the qual- of which the Gospel speaks’. Rather, about evangelical cultural entrap- to Marxism in the East. Second, indif- ities that must characterize the mes- Freedom is subjection to Jesus ment when Latin Americans put ference because for many people the sengers is not a biblical pattern’. It Christ as Lord, deliverance from their own house in order. But that ‘Gospel is a spiritual message that has constituted a betrayal to the very iden- bondage to sin and Satan and con- response is disappointingly eva- nothing to say about social problems’ tity of the message, since ‘spirituality sequently the beginning of new life sive. American evangelicals must and consequently separating the mes- without discipleship in the daily social, under the Law of Christ, life in the learn the importance of social and sage from its ethical demands. economic, and political aspects of life family of the faith where the old political criticism at home, even if To explain his ideas, Escobar is religiosity and not Christianity’. He human master becomes also the the reminder emanates from out- added, challenged the Congress to ‘get rid of new brother in Christ.14 siders who seem most ferocious the false notion that concern for the when leveling criticism at situa- If we put together the growing Yet, he added, ‘the heart which has 16 imbalance of development and social implications of the Gospel and been made free with the freedom of tions other than their own. affluence in the world, with the the social dimensions of witnessing Christ cannot be indifferent to the However, when talking about the past relationship between the comes from false doctrine or lack of human longings for deliverance from Latin Americans, Henry considered ‘Christian’ Western powers and the evangelical conviction’. economic, political or social oppres- ‘confusing’ all their talk about the missionary enterprise to the Third At the end of his paper, Escobar sion.’ church being at the forefront of social- World, we can understand why the became even more explicit, Some people argued that directing economic change because it ‘left suspicion that the whole task of If as evangelicals we rejected the efforts to the social implications of the unsure, however, whether the prospect evangelization in its three dimen- liberal adaptation of the Gospel to Gospel would result in forgetting evan- of present political liberation is an inte- sions is only an ‘imperialistic plot,’ the rationalism of the nineteenth gelism. Escobar disagreed with such a gral facet of the gospel. Nor did they a Western way of manipulating century, we should also reject the statement. The matter was more than clarify how the life and example of people. It would be like selling opi- adaptation of the Gospel to the theological. For him, the social gospel Jesus actually rather than symbolically 17 ate to keep the masses of the Third social conformism or conservatism had a bad theology, but at the same undergirds such a view’. Were not World quiet in the midst of their of the middle class citizen in the time, those with the right theology did Padilla and Escobar explicit enough? misery and suffering.12 powerful West.13 not apply it to social issues. Right on Was the Response unclear? Bishop Jack the money! He could not have been Dain, Executive Chairman of the Con- Escobar was talking from his per- Escobar did not have to wait long for more prophetical. gress, gave a different answer, sonal experience. He heard such mis- responses and questions to his paper. The discussion of Padilla and Esco- conceptions of evangelistic efforts all More than a thousand came in! He I personally recognise that a minor- bar’s presentation was intense for throughout Latin American universi- agreed that many missionaries were ity of people in the congress want- quite a while after the Congress. Carl ties. The identification of evangelicals already involved in meeting the basic ed to go further in the direction of Henry called them ‘self-proclaimed with imperialistic agendas of the north- needs of people around the world but radical discipleship, but I think I champions of radical discipleship’.15 ern rich nations was widely held not he also mentioned that many of them would have to say that I do not Regarding the North Americans’ reac- only by intellectuals. However, Esco- had received pressure to ‘abandon believe the congress was ready to tion to the identification of ‘cultural go further.18 bar’s exhortation seemed to fall on their efforts for the pursuit only of Christianity’ with the ‘American Way deaf ears if we consider the programs numerical growth of congregations’. of Life’, he said, and emphases the LCWE sponsored Another implicit critique of the Church 16 Henry, ‘The Gospel and Society,’ 1364. after Lausanne I. Growth School? If any had the impres- 17 Carl F. H. Henry, Confessions of a Theolo- In agreement with Padilla, Escobar sion Escobar was proposing a political 14 Escobar, ‘Evangelism and Man’s Search,’ gian: An Autobiography (Waco, Tex.: Word 322. Books, 1986), 349. 15 Carl F. H. Henry, ‘The Gospel and Soci- 18 Interviewed by Bruce Kaye, Billy Graham 12 Escobar, ‘Evangelism and Man’s Search,’ 13 Escobar, ‘Evangelism and Man’s Search,’ ety,’ Christianity Today, 13 September 1974, Center Archives, ‘Collection 46,’ Box 32, 304. 317. 1365. Folder 32. 164 author article 165

Hence, it could be said that Padilla Lausanne I was key to the deepening of When we remain apart from one predominant view in Manila 1989 and and Escobar were ahead of the times. the precaution. another, and our only contact with that perhaps helps to explain why It was not that their theology was For example, in spite of the many one another is the lobbing of hand Padilla and Escobar were not asked to wrong. The North American con- presentations at Lausanne I with a grenades across a demilitarized speak to the audience. stituency was not yet ready. They were holistic definition for the mission of the zone, our attitudes inevitably hard- But the issues could not be swept gripped by plain fear of the so-called church—Stott, Padilla, Escobar, en and our mental images of each under the carpet. A request was ‘social gospel’ that swept through Green, among others—for Harold other become stereotyped. But granted at Lausanne II for Brazilian but they forgot, or did Lindsell, Lausanne defined the mission when we meet face to face and lis- Valdir Steuernagel to address the ple- not know, their historical battles were of the church as ‘the evangelization of ten not only to each other’s argu- nary for ten minutes. The main part of not the same as everywhere else. In the world.’22 How did he read, for exam- ments but to the cherished convic- his short discourse called the global Latin America the ‘social gospel’ was ple, section 5 of the Lausanne tions which lie behind the argu- church to take seriously the political never an issue. Although Padilla and Covenant? Lindsell claim that Escobar ments, then we develop towards and social commitment of the Lau- Escobar were clearly evangelical by proposed that the Congress’ partici- one another a new understanding, sanne Covenant. He said, respect and love. This is not to say North American standards, their words pants get involved in ‘the fight for I am afraid that having work main- brought back haunting memories of the that we agreed about everything, social change, in the overturning of the ly with the biblical motive of com- past. History dulled the North Ameri- but that our agreements are far status quo’. Even after several read- passion interpreted through the cans’ hearing and blurred their vision. greater than our residual differ- ings of what Escobar said it is hard to eyes of a liberal idealistic/individu- John Stott mentioned another factor ences.24 see how could Lindsell support his con- alistic ideology we have created a behind the efforts of North American clusion. However, he found a way to However, in spite of the Consulta- tradition of ‘giving a drink to the evangelicals to keep social action at line up Padilla’s presentation with his tion’s clear challenge to ‘call Chris- thirsty’ that does not answer com- bay: the history of the ecumenical assessment. For Lindsell, Padilla tians and churches around the world to pletely neither adequately the movement.19 They saw in the ecumeni- appeared in the Time magazine as an a more costly commitment to the lost, needs of many… compassion must cal side of Christianity a denial of the example of Lausanne taking social the needy and the oppressed’, the dis- be accompanied by another motive, gospel. In the words of Hoekstra, evan- action seriously ‘but not in the way cussion continued unresolved and car- that is justice…the Kingdom’s jus- gelicals felt betrayed by the World 23 that the ecumenical movement does’. ried over to Lausanne II. In the years tice.26 Council of Churches (WCC). It was as if It seemed like the Covenant left the before Manila, the LCWE did not Even though the Manila Manifesto ‘a plane taking them to Jerusalem had question hanging. If it was possible for change the programs. It was like noth- included a clear reference to the been hijacked and was now bound to opposing interpretations, how was the ing had happened. Within the LCWE, 20 prophetic witness of the church Moscow’. He explains that ‘rather resolution supposed to come? The Gottfried Osei-Mensah from Ghana and expressed in the ‘denunciation of all than giving member churches support LCWE together with the World Evan- Saphir Athyal from India were sup- in their worldwide missionary and injustice and oppression, both personal gelical Fellowship sponsored the Inter- porters of including in the mission of evangelistic task, WCC programs have and structural’, for Steuernagel the national Consultation on the Relation- the church evangelism and social too often tended to divert those time had come to put it into practice. ship between Evangelism and Social responsibility together. At the same churches from that task’.21 The meet- However, as he explained, ‘it seems Responsibility in Grand Rapids, Michi- time Leighton Ford and David Hessel- ing in Bangkok less than a year before like we are suffering of a syndrome of gan, United States, June 1982. Stott grave from the United States pushed cautiousness that paralyzes us’. He described the gathering as a ‘demon- for limiting the mission of the church to evangelism alone.25 The latter was the added, 19 John Stott, ed., Making Christ Known: His- stration of the value of international conferences’. How can we keep quiet about mil- toric Mission Documents from the Lausanne lions of abandoned children, degen- Movement, 1974-1989 (Grand Rapids: Eerd- 24 Stott, ed., Making Christ Known: Historic mans, 1996), 169. Mission Documents from the Lausanne Move- erating poverty, immorality, and 20 Harvey T. Hoekstra, The World Council of 22 Harold Lindsell, ‘Lausanne 74: An ment, 1974-1989, 170. exploitation in our cities? How can Churches and the Demise of Evangelism Appraisal,’ Christianity Today, 13 September 25 Gordon Aeschliman, ‘¿Fin de la Tierra o (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1979), 109. 1974, 1328. Fin de Un Movimiento? Temas Críticos Que 21 Hoekstra, The World Council of Churches 23 Lindsell, ‘Lausanne 74: An Appraisal,’ Enfrentan a Lausana II,’ in Documentos Puente 26 Valdir Steuernagel, ‘Preguntas a Lausana and the Demise of Evangelism, 10. 1329. (Quito: 1989). II,’ Boletín Teológico 21, no. 35 (1989), 256. 166 author ERT (2009) 33:2, 167-n

we keep quiet about apartheid, The hope is that this Congress will drug trafficking, destruction of move from the trend of previous gath- Jesus’ Questions nature, and the horrible problem of erings. There are small breezes of external debt? We are using time change.28 It is encouraging to see what and energy for our in-house discus- the Lausanne Theological Working Lee Wanak sions while the world goes straight Group is doing under the leadership of to hell and becomes a hell.27 Chris Wright.29 We pray for the wind of Key words: Enculturated conscious- in modern times. The ancients typi- After two Lausanne Congresses and the Spirit to take us to new dimensions of incarnation and commitment. ness, kingdom principles, transforma- cally believed that sickness, poverty, all the water that has run under the tion, hegemonic assumptions, cogni- and misfortune were the result of bridge, it is not difficult to see that the Lausanne III has a great opportu- tive dissonance, parables. wrong living. Health and wealth were discussion has not brought a clear-cut nity to affect evangelicals around the the reward of the righteous. Holiness solution. Questions are complex espe- world to incarnate the Kingdom’s val- came to be associated with separation cially when trans-cultural factors are ues with compassion and Christian from all that was unclean or impure. involved. Even after more than three love to people in need. The challenge I Enculturated Consciousness Impurity could even come from one’s decades, the issues Padilla and Esco- for Cape Town 2010 is to move from Jesus used questions as a way of coun- parents. Holiness came to mean sepa- bar raised at Lausanne I remain cur- meetings and publications to a solid tering the enculturated consciousness ration rather than seeking unity. The rent. At least in Latin America the sit- plan of action so that the ‘Whole of his day. Enculturated consciousness Jewish view of Gentiles is another uation is worse than in 1974. Poverty Church’ lives out the ‘Whole Gospel’ in is consciousness shaped by culture and example of enculturated conscious- has expanded, violence is rampant, and the ‘Whole World’. traditions absorbed during our forma- ness that Jesus sought to change. In corruption is endemic, while the evan- tive years and to a significant degree it gelical church, in general, has not 28 For example, Lausanne Committee for programs our everyday behaviour. It the modern world we enculturate assumed the challenge of involvement World Evangelization, Holistic Mission. Occa- can have elements closely aligned with stereotypes involving skin colour, in these issues. sional Paper No. 33 (Pattaya, Thailand: 2004). Biblical teaching but also elements class, ethnic group, place of origin, and 29 See the October 2007 and January 2009 that are diametrically opposed to king- gender and use them as markers of issues of Evangelical Review of Theology with dom principles. It often defines who we character and values. We unknowingly the papers from the February 2007 consulta- apply these same stereotypes to our- 27 Steuernagel, ‘Preguntas a Lausana II,’ tion in Limuru, Kenya and the February 2008 are and how we view others and the 257. consultation in Chiang Mai, Thailand. world. It shapes our views of what is selves. good, right and beautiful. It can also be I did not discover some of my Amer- an obstacle to growth, and can margin- ican attitudes until I began working alize whole groups of people. Jesus with tribal minorities in Mindanao. sought to crack conventional thinking Growing up in America, I often heard, and move people toward kingdom ways ‘Work hard and you’ll get ahead,’ but of thinking; from thinking dominated few thought critically about those who by culture to a worldview centred in worked hard and didn’t get ahead. So God. we thought if you’re poor it’s because Examples of enculturated con- you didn’t work hard. Another example sciousness abound both in ancient and of enculturated consciousness in

Dr Lee Wanak is Director of the Doctor of Education program, Asia Graduate School of Theology- Philippines and also Director of the MA-Transformational Urban Leadership program, Asian Theological Seminary, Philippines. Formerly Professor of Intercultural Studies, William Jessup University, California, he holds a PhD in education from Indiana University, and a DMin in missions with a focus on theological education from Denver Seminary. His most recent article in this journal was ‘Learning as the Experience of God’ (28:1, 2004). 168 author article 169

America was manifest destiny—the and Jesus re-socialized his disciples about how they think. He challenged over the one who self-righteously idea that God wanted America to into these new ways. Some cultural the people, ‘Why do you not judge for adheres to the dictates of custom and ‘bless’ the world through its domi- assumptions are just expressions of yourselves what is right?’ (Lk. 12:57). law. In the story of the rich man and nance. local preferences, others are diabolical Why do you rely upon others to deter- Lazarus (Lk. 16:19-31), the conven- I also discovered that there is an and hegemonic. mine right from wrong, Jesus seems to tional understanding of who will go to enculturated consciousness here in the Enculturated consciousness—the ask? Wink understands the develop- heaven is reversed. Philippines. One Bagobo student common assumptions and unques- mental implications of this question: Perhaps it is in the parable of the believed that his people were the ‘true’ tioned rules of Jewish society—func- ‘Such a challenge requires a maturity Good Samaritan (Lk. 10:30-37) that Filipinos. Others had deeply encultur- tioned to oppress and exploit the poor in human beings not easily achieved.’5 Jesus’ transformational teaching is ated views of their place in society. among whom Jesus walked.2 Jesus’ There is a genuine spirituality in most apparent. Jesus does not directly Those who worked the land often shied teaching was situated in the context of examining our enculturated conscious- answer the question, ‘Who is my neigh- away from bringing change saying an agrarian society in which the ruling ness, both in affirming what is good bour?’ Rather, he redirects attention ‘mangooma lang ko’ (I’m just a farmer) aristocracy oppressed the peasants. and confronting what is evil. We can- by asking, ‘Who proved to be neighbour or ‘babaye lang ko’ (I’m just a woman). Conventional wisdom supported the not and should not just put aside our to the man?’6 This is the key to discov- The boundaries of utang na loob (debt of power structure. enculturated patterns, but we should ering Jesus’ transformational inten- gratitude) were seldom questioned and Jesus taught ‘new values, new examine them. Jesus, after all, tions. Jesus invites his listeners to dis- those who held the power felt justified assumptions, new strategies for social remained a Jew. Mature believers can tance themselves from the rules and to use this value to their advantage. and personal transformation.’3 His step back from their culture and them- roles of conventional wisdom. Jesus Jesus sought to transform the way social aim was to instil in his listeners selves and critique from a kingdom consciously and purposefully taught in people thought about God, about life, a ‘transformation of perception,’ a new perspective. A kingdom perspective a manner designed to transform his lis- themselves and the world around way of seeing that would replace a con- allows people to become critical evalu- teners’ enculturated consciousness. If them. By his teaching he sought to sciousness dominated by hegemony of ators and redeemers of their culture. Jesus wanted to simply teach neigh- develop a consciousness based on the conventional wisdom. Hegemonic Transformative learning takes bourliness his main character would kingdom of God. To deal with the assumptions are those that we believe place when there is an internal shift in have been a Jew instead of a Samari- enculturated consciousness of his day our frame of reference. In the story of represent commonsense wisdom and tan. A neighbour is, ‘even one who is as Jesus used probing questions, preg- the prodigal son (Lk. 15:11-32), the that we accept as being in our own much an enemy as the Samaritan is a nant stories, enigmatic parables, as father does not judge his son’s errant 7 interests without realizing that these neighbor.’ well as direct experience in transform- behaviour by conventional standards, same assumptions actually work How do we counter the enculturated ing the enculturated consciousness of but rather compassionately and uncon- against us in the long term by serving consciousness dominant in our the Jewish people. The purpose of this ditionally welcomes him home. In love the interests of those opposed to us.4 churches, schools, and ourselves? article is to focus on Jesus’ questions this old man sets aside his dignity and The kingdom also meant a new way Jesus’ questions challenged people to and their relationship to the ministry of runs to his prodigal son, hugs and of teaching and preaching. Jesus realign their thinking and cultural pat- teaching. kisses him. In the story of the great taught that growth progresses from terns with the kingdom of God, from ‘Jesus demanded that his listeners feast (Lk. 14:16-24), the poor, the crip- worldly thinking to divine wisdom. He part the veil of conventional wisdom to the inside out. He tells a group of Phar- pled, the blind, and the lame—in other isees that they must ‘First clean the used questions and counter questions expose the divine reality that he called words the impure and unholy—are in a variety of situations and settings 1 inside of the cup, so that the outside the kingdom of God,’ to question the invited to dine at a great banquet. Con- throughout the gospels. He was not common assumptions, and to examine may also become clean’ (Mt. 23:25- ventional wisdom would have allowed 26). He challenged people to think just concerned with ‘what to think’ but cultural patterns. The coming of the only the healthy and wealthy to partic- ‘how to think.’ Jesus’ use of questions kingdom meant a new way of thinking ipate. In the story of the Pharisee and 2 Spear, Transformation, 358. the publican (Lk. 18:10-14), it is the 1 Stephen Spear, ‘The Transformation of 3 Walter Wink, Engaging the Powers: Discern- humble sinner who is favoured by God 6 Craig Blomberg, Interpreting the Parables Enculturated Consciousness in the Teachings ment and Resistance in a World of Domination (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, of Jesus’, Journal of Transformative Education 3 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1992), 135. 1990), 231. (2005), 357. 4 Wink, Engaging, 137. 5 Wink, Engaging, 123. 7 Blomberg, Interpreting, 231. 170 author article 171 shows that he was not primarily con- dissonance.9 Mezirow calls this brings tremendous focus and clarity to Sometimes his questions echoed deep cerned that his listeners acquire process perspective transformation, Judas’ actions, ‘Judas, are you betray- disappointment. In Gethsemane he knowledge but rather that they change which usually is triggered by a discon- ing the Son of Man with a kiss?’ (Lk. chided his disciples, ‘Could you men the way they thought; that they be certing dilemma.10 Many of Jesus’ ques- 22:48). ‘Judas, is this really what you not keep watch with me for one hour?’ transformed from ‘a life in the world of tions were designed to begin the want to do?’ (Mt. 26:40). At times his questions conventional wisdom to a life centered process of perspective transformation. Jesus also challenged the temple were deeply biting. Ending his seven in God.’8 Jesus asked a lot questions. We tend to guard in Gethsemane by calling atten- woes sermon he chided the spiritual Many of the people of Jesus’ day spend a great deal of time on procla- tion to their inappropriate actions; ‘Am leaders, ‘You snakes! You brood of were like old wineskins (Lk. 5:36-39), mation and not enough time raising I leading a rebellion, that you have vipers! How will you escape being con- unable to stretch enough to accommo- questions. In order to think Christianly come with swords and clubs?… But demned to hell?’ (Mt. 23:33). date the new wine of his teaching. They we must first raise mind-changing this is your hour when darkness Disappointed over Nicodemus’s were spiritually moribund, unable to questions. Below is a categorization of reigns!’ (Lk. 22:51). Before the feeding lack of spiritual insight, he asked, ‘You expand their thinking and see beyond the kinds of questions Jesus asked. of the four thousand, Jesus asked, are Israel’s teacher, and do you not the norms of their day. The coming of ‘How many loaves do you have?’ understand these things?’ (Jn. 3:10). the kingdom was a hinge point in his- 1 Questions for Focus and ‘Seven,’ they replied, ‘and a few small Nicodemus is confused but Jesus tory yet the hearts and minds of the Clarification fish.”’ (Mt. 15:34). Again at the feeding expected more of him. ‘I have spoken Jews were like old rusty hinges, unable of the five thousand Jesus asked, ‘How Jesus asked many questions to give to you of earthly things and you do not to move. Jesus often used penetrating many loaves do you have? When they focus and clarification—too many for believe; how then will you believe if I questions to provoke thinking. So found out, they said, “Five—and two us to discuss them all. They gave focus speak of heavenly things? (Jn. 3:12). much of what we focus on has to do fish”’ (Mk. 6:38). to the proceeding discussion. Several Disappointed over the spiritual dull- with factual knowledge—memory times he uses the phrase, ‘What do you Jesus uses these events later to ask ness of the people he shouts, ‘Hyp- verses or procedural ‘how to’ patterns. think?’ Or ‘What is the kingdom of God questions on a deeper level. On the ocrites! You know how to interpret the Relatively seldom do we learn to ques- like? What shall I compare it to?’ (Lk. road to Emmaus he enters into the dis- appearance of the earth and the sky. tion our own preunderstandings about cussion asking the disciples, ‘What are 13:18). Jesus challenged the blind men How is it that you don’t know how to ourselves, our world, and our roles in you discussing together as you walk to verbalize their desire. ‘What do you interpret this present time?’ (Lk. demonstrating the kingdom of God. along?’ (Lk. 24:17). In each case Jesus’ want me to do for you?’ (Mt. 20:32). A 12:56). Jesus may have followed a form of question gives focus and clarity to sick woman touched Jesus’ garment He compares the Jews lack of obedi- Socratic questioning. Socrates taught what is to come. seeking healing. At once Jesus realized ence to a builder who built a house on by asking questions and thus drawing that power had gone out from him. He out (Greek, ex duco—to lead out, is the sand. ‘Why do you call me, “Lord, turned around to the crowd and asked, Lord,” and do not do what I say?’ (Lk. root of ‘education’) answers from his ‘Who touched my clothes?’ (Mk. 5:30). 2 Questions from Deep pupils. His overall purpose was to chal- Disappointment 12:46). His words were meant to be This simple question gave focus to an like a foundation in rock, but many lenge conventional thinking and bring Jesus often challenged his disciples to almost imperceptible event. chose to build their lives on sand. Dur- about better understandings. It was the question, not the event evaluate their own dullness and lack of ing his crucifixion Jesus expresses itself, that brought attention to the mir- understanding. After feeding the five deep disappointment over the state of acle and the faith of the now healed thousand and the four thousand Jesus II What Kinds of Questions humankind. ‘For if men do these things woman. Jesus’ final question to Judas chided, ‘Do you still not see or under- when the tree is green, what will hap- Did Jesus Use? stand? Are your hearts hardened?’ pen when it is dry?’ (Lk. 23:31). He is Jesus recognized that developing a new (Mk. 8:17). Jesus questions, at times, order requires intentionally creating a 9 Chet Myers, Teaching Students to Think Crit- had a judgmental tone. When his disci- saying, if people do these things while degree of dis-equilibrium or cognitive ically: A Guide for Faculty of all Disciplines (San ples could not heal an epileptic boy I am with them, what will they do dur- Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1988), 14. ing evil times? 10 Jack Mezirow, Transformation Dimensions Jesus commented, ‘O unbelieving and of Adult Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, perverse generation,… How long 8 Speer, Transformation, 355. 1991). should I put up with you?’ (Mt. 17:17). 172 author article 173

3 Questions Challenging ing, comparing his presence to that of puts in charge of his servants to give ‘Shall I not drink the cup the Father Tradition and Authority being with one’s newly married close them their food allowance at the proper has given me?’ (Jn. 18:11). In other friend. Challenging ethnic and gender Criticizing the religious leaders for time?’ (Lk. 12:42). Unlike the religious words, Peter, don’t you understand, as barriers he simply asks a Samaritan leaders of the day, Jesus’ disciples their spiritual blindness, Jesus asks, Messiah I came for this time of suffer- woman, ‘Will you give me a drink?’ (Jn. were to conduct themselves as a faith- ing? On the road to Emmaus he asks ‘Can a blind man lead a blind man? Will 4:7) and as a result a whole town is ful household manager attending to his the disciples, ‘Did not the Christ have they not both fall into a pit?’ (Lk. 6:39). converted. As he cleansed the temple duties. to suffer these things and then enter Jesus entered into a number of contro- of the moneychangers, he said, ‘Is it his glory?’ (Lk. 24:26). These ques- versies with the Pharisees over appro- not written: “My house will be called a tions were designed by Jesus to guide priate behaviour on the Sabbath. The 4 Questions about his own house of prayer for all nations,” but you the disciples’ thinking regarding his conventional wisdom of the day had Nature and Identity have made it “a den of robbers?”’ (Mk. true identity. So often we make evan- turned the Sabbath into a burden 11:17). Their tradition of money chang- Gauging the disciples’ understanding gelistic proclamations without helping instead of a blessing. During one of ing in the Court of the Gentiles was in of his messiahship Jesus asked, ‘Who people raise the appropriate questions. these Sabbath controversies Jesus contradiction to God’s global kingdom do people say the Son of Man is?’ (Mt. A question approach may receive heals a man and asks the synagogue, purposes. 16:13). ‘Who do you say I am?’ (Mt. grater resonance with people. ‘Which is lawful on the Sabbath: to do In the story of the woman caught in 16:15). This question led to Peter’s good or to do evil, to save life or to kill?’ adultery the Pharisees sought to confession of Jesus as the Messiah. (Mk. 3:4). advance their strict interpretation of After Jesus called himself ‘the Bread of 5 Questions Challenging Values After healing a crippled woman on the Law. Jesus asked the woman, Life coming down from heaven’ (Jn. Regarding materialism Jesus chal- the Sabbath the Pharisees again were ‘Where are they? Has no one con- 6:58), his disciples were disgruntled. lenged his disciples, ‘What good would indignant. Jesus shows their inconsis- demned you?’ (Jn. 8:10) and that day He asked them, ‘Does this offend you? it be for a man if he gains the whole tency saying, ‘Doesn’t each of you on mercy reigned over Law. Jesus, con- What if you see the Son of Man ascend world, yet forfeits his soul?’ (Mt. the Sabbath untie his ox or donkey cerned with the Pharisees twisted to where he was before?’ (Jn. 6:61-62). 16:26). Questions like this challenge from the stall and lead it out to give it understanding of the Law, asks a By asking this question he sets the our fundamental values and help us water?’ (Lk. 12:15). Later he gets rhetorical question, ‘Has not Moses stage for authenticating his claim. realign our thinking and behaviour directly to the point, demanding their given you the law? Yet not one of you After healing the paralytic Jesus said toward kingdom values. response, ‘Is it lawful to heal on the keeps the law’ (Jn. 7:19). He brings to the Pharisees, ‘Which is easier: to Regarding forgiveness Jesus asks, Sabbath or not?’ (Lk. 14:3). The same them to recognize their own say, “Your sins are forgiven” or to say, ‘If a man owns a hundred sheep, and inconsistency is brought out by Jesus’ hypocrisy—so much focus on the law “Get up and walk?”’ (Mt. 9:5). Neither one of them wonders away will he not question, ‘If one of you has a son or an but without following it themselves. is easy to say, but one is more identifi- leave the 99 on the hills and go look for ox that falls into a well on the Sabbath The kingdom required faithful able than the other. This incident con- the one that wondered off?’ (Mt. 18:12, day, will you not immediately pull him workers so Jesus challenged the reli- nected Jesus’ healing ministry as proof Lk 15:4). This parable is applied to two out?’ (Lk. 14:5). gious leaders regarding their failures. of his ability to forgive sin. groups: the powerless, i.e. the ‘little First century Judaism regulated a In the parable of the evil tenants he Jesus questioned the Pharisees who ones,’ and the sinners. Jesus uses the host of religious behaviours with which makes the Pharisees condemn them- said his power was demonic, ‘If Satan common shepherding practice to show Jesus took issue, including fasting, eth- selves for not respecting the owner of drives out Satan, he is divided against the importance of restoration as king- nic and gender barriers, the use of the the vineyard (God the Father himself) himself. How can his kingdom stand?’ dom ministry. The same kind of ques- temple for commercial purposes and and for killing His Son. He asks, (Mt. 12:26). The kingdom of God is dia- tion is asked regarding the parable of other applications of the Law. When ‘Therefore, when the owner of the vine- metrically opposed to the kingdom of the woman who has lost a coin. ‘Does Jesus is asked why he and his disciples yard comes, what will he do to those Satan. To claim the work of God as the she not light a lamp, sweep the house do not fast, he answers with an analogy tenants?’ (Mt. 21:40). work of Satan is blasphemy. Jesus is and search carefully until she finds it?’ embedded in a question: ‘How can the Conversely Jesus’ disciples are to be using simple logic to show their think- (Lk. 15:8). guests of the bridegroom mourn while faithful servants always ready for the ing is self-contradictory. After telling the parable of the Good he is still with them?’ (Mt. 9:15). His Lord’s return. ‘Who then is the faithful After Peter cut off the ear of the Samaritan, Jesus queries, Who was ‘a question is cryptic but thought provok- and wise manager, whom the master high priest’s servant Jesus asks him, neighbour to the man who fell into the 174 author article 175 hands of the robbers?’ (Lk. 10:36). He sinners than all the other Galileans must also be from God. The Pharisees debts. Then he asked Simon the Phar- raises consciousness regarding neigh- because they suffered in this way?’ cannot answer without incriminating isee, ‘Now which of them will love him bourliness but by making a Samaritan (Lk. 13:2). themselves. more?’ (Lk. 7:42). Assuming Simon the hero he challenges Jewish racial Religious values focused more on The Pharisees, trying to trip Jesus understood he would have realized this biases. In the same vein he asks, ‘If being served than on serving. Jesus up with their carefully formulated ‘sinful woman’ was expressing her you love those who love you, what sought to reverse the hierarchical val- questions, ask him if it’s right to pay love to the One who forgave her great reward will you get? Are not even the ues of both Jewish and Gentile soci- taxes to Caesar. A yes or a no answer debt. After the Apostle Peter’s three- tax collectors doing that? And if you eties with his example of servanthood. would have delighted the Pharisees. fold denial the resurrected Jesus asks greet only your brothers, what are you He asks [and answers], ‘Who is To a Jew God was their only king, to him three times, ‘Simon do you love doing more than others? Do not even greater, the one who is at the table or pay a tax to another king is an insult to me?’ (Jn. 21:15-17). The thrice pagans do that?’ (Mt. 5:46-47). Jesus the one who serves?…. But I am God. Jesus shows a coin and asks, repeated question perhaps demon- healed ten lepers but only one, a among you as one who serves’ (Lk. ‘Who’s portrait is on it? And who’s strated Jesus’ full forgiveness of the Samaritan, returns and is profusely 22:27). In applying the parable of the inscription?’ (Mt. 22:20, Mk. 12:13- three-fold denial. thankful. Jesus asked, ‘Were not all sheep and goats, Jesus asks, ‘Then the 17). In so doing he doesn’t answer On counting the cost of discipleship ten cleansed? Where are the other righteous will answer him, ‘Lord, when their question but he recognizes both Jesus uses question parables to chal- nine?’ (Lk. 17:17). Again the focus on did we see you hungry and feed you, or the authority of God and of Caesar. lenge his audience. ‘Suppose one of a foreigner confronts the enculturated thirsty and give you something to This response shaped the thinking of you wants to build a tower. Will he not consciousness of the day. drink?”’ (Mt. 25:37). With this ques- Simon (the Zealot for Jewish indepen- first sit down and estimate the cost…?’ Criticizing the Pharisees for their tion Jesus connects righteousness with dence) who later wrote, ‘fear God, hon- (Lk. 14:28). The same idea is found in emphasis on outward forms of holiness servanthood rather than status. our the king’ (1 Pet. 2:17). his question, ‘Or suppose a king is but harbouring wickedness inside, The Pharisees valued judging oth- about to go to war against another Jesus chides, ‘Did not the one who ers. ‘Why do you look at the speck of king. Will he not first sit down and con- made the outside [of the cup] make the 7 Questions to Activate Faith sider whether he is able…?’ (Lk. sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay and Commitment inside also?’ (Lk. 11:40). The Phar- no attention to the plank in your own 14:31). Talking to his disciples about isees valued outward appearances but eye?’ (Mt. 7:3). Jesus is not saying Jesus tested the faith of the blind and his suffering, he asked, ‘Can you drink neglected inward holiness. Jesus’ don’t make judgments. He is saying we mute, asking first, ‘Do you believe I am of the cup I am going to drink?’ (Mt. question shows the importance of both. cannot make godly judgments unless able to do this?’ (Mt. 9:28). After heal- 20:22). Jesus questioned Peter, ‘Will Their shallow focus affected their we deal with the attitudes, biases and ing the man born blind Jesus asks, ‘Do you really lay down your life for me? I faith. Jesus asked, ‘How can you sins that cloud our own vision. you believe in the Son of Man?’ (Jn. tell you the truth, before the rooster believe if you accept praise from one 9:35). After calming the storm on the crows, you will disown me three another, yet make no effort to obtain Sea of Galilee, Jesus asks his disciples, times!’ (Jn. 13:38). the praise that comes from the only 6 Questions that are Evasive ‘Where is your faith?’ (Lk. 8:25). At the There were massive injustices in God?’ (Jn. 5:44). Jesus sometimes answered questions grave of Lazarus Jesus tells Martha, ‘I ancient Israel—a land dominated by a The Jews believed there was a direct with questions to show the Pharisees am the resurrection and the life. He colonial power, a land where the great correlation between the degree of their own inconsistency. When asked who believes in me… will never die. Do majority were peasants and a few are one’s suffering or blessing and the about the source of his authority Jesus you believe this?’ (Jn. 11:25-26). Each wealthy and powerful. In the story of depth of one’s sin or righteousness. does not answer directly. ‘I will also of these questions activate faith by giv- the persistent widow and the unjust They valued the ‘good life’ because it ask you one question. If you answer me ing focus to God’s work in specific con- judge Jesus asks, ‘And will not God showed the blessing of God. Pilate had I will tell you’ (Mt. 21:24). Jesus then texts. bring about justice for his chosen ones killed some Galileans and used their asks a question to corner the Phar- Jesus was criticized by Simon the who cry out to him day and night?’ (Lk. blood in a pagan sacrifice. Conven- isees. ‘John’s baptism—where did it Pharisee for allowing a ‘sinful woman’ 18:6). He challenges them to persis- tional wisdom probably emphasized come from? Was it from heaven, or to anoint his feet. Jesus told a short tently look to the One who brings jus- something regarding punishment for from men?’ Mt. 21:24). If John’s story of a man who owed a small tice. hidden sin. Thus Jesus asks, ‘Do you authority is from God and he pointed amount and a man who owed ten times In a poor land daily provision is a think that these Galileans were worse people to Jesus, then Jesus’ authority more. The moneylender forgave both test of faith. Jesus reminds his disci- 176 author article 177 ples of their faith experiences, ‘When I his future ministry. ‘Why were you course, the answer to Jesus’ question. so much division among Christian sent you without purse, bag or sandals, searching for me?’ he asked. ‘Didn’t Jesus simultaneously experiences the groups?’ did you lack anything?’ (Lk. 22:35). you know I had to be in my Father’s agony of human suffering and the 4. Laggards: Some people will They answered, ‘No.’ In his Sermon on house?’ (Lk. 2:49). This is not the depth of separation from God as he always prefer old wineskins. It is the Mount (Mt. 6:26-31) Jesus asks a snide remark of a budding teenager. At took on the sin of mankind. unlikely they will embrace the series of probing questions on faith and this event, his first Passover, the new. Focus on people who are provision. twelve-year-old Jesus became a ‘son of interested in bringing kingdom III How do Jesus’ Questions Is not life more important than the law.’ During the Passover the San- changes to their world. ‘What food, and the body more important hedrin was available in the temple to Teach us to Teach? new things would God have us do dialogue with the public and the young for his Kingdom this year?’ than clothes? Who of you by worry- Certainly much has been written on Jesus amazed them with his insights. 5. Deep Issues: Use questions to ing can add a single hour to his life? Jesus’ teaching style. Seminary stu- Jesus is saying his parents should have bring focus and clarification to the Why do you worry about clothes? dents often say they want to teach as known where he was. His query to his deep issues of the Christian life. See how the lilies of the field grow. Jesus did. They usually do not consider parents also demonstrates a growing ‘Why is it that there are some They do not labour or spin. If that the contextual nature of his teaching sense of his own identity, distinguish- areas of our lives and personali- is how God clothes the grass of the style, not realizing that if he were ing between his Father—God, and his ties that we don’t seem to be able field, which is here today and teaching in today’s world with its many father—Joseph. to change?’ tomorrow is thrown into the fire, cultures and people groups, his style Showing his solidarity with the peo- would likely be varied. Nonetheless 6. Disappointment: Jesus used ques- will he not much more clothe you, O ple of the kingdom, Jesus used a rhetor- tions to express deep disappoint- you of little faith? there are some more-or-less universal ical question, ‘Who is my mother and principles we can deduce from a study ment. Though we need to exercise Of course the same message could who are my brothers?’ (Mt. 12:48). He of his questions. care, this kind of question is have been given in a declarative mode answers gesturing to his disciples, meant to be a wake-up call for our but Jesus chose questions to ignite ‘See, my mother and my brothers.’ (Mt. 1. Provoke Kingdom Thinking: A calcified congregations. their own thinking. Faith in this sense 12:49). As many of us have experi- change of thinking and behaviour Habakkuk begins his oracle, ‘How is not blind but rather a reasoned enced, Jesus’ family did not share his often requires penetrating ques- long, O Lord, must I call for help, choice. After seeing the same miracle vision. Jesus’ question reminds us that tions that expose our own shal- but you do not listen?’ twice Jesus seeks to consolidate the we have two families, one biological lowness. Just as Jesus used ques- 7. Challenge Tradition: Jesus used disciples faith. ‘When I broke the five and one spiritual. Our solidarity must tions to provoke kingdom think- questions to challenge tradition loaves for the five thousand, how many ultimately be with our spiritual broth- ing, we need to guide people and authority that ran counter to basketfuls of pieces did you pick up?’ ers and sisters. beyond their enculturated con- kingdom values. Though we “Twelve,” they replied. ‘And when I About to be stoned by the unbeliev- sciousness. A teacher might ask, should choose our battles careful- broke the seven loaves for the four ing Jews, Jesus challenged, ‘I have ‘What are signs of the Kingdom ly we should not shirk from our thousand, how many basketfuls of shown you many great miracles from around our community?’ responsibility by preaching nice pieces did you pick up?’ They the Father. For which of these do you 2. Seek Transformation: Ask ques- homilies. ‘Are our traditions answered, “Seven’” (Mk. 8:19-20). stone me?’ (Jn. 10:32). Jesus had just tions that help move people alienating unbelievers? The Jesus’ questions point them to their claimed that he is one with the Father, toward personal and social trans- younger generation?’ own experiences as a basis for their making himself equal with God. His formation. ‘How might we make 8. Evangelistic Questions: Jesus used faith. question brings to a head his claims. this community look a little more questions as an invitation to He is challenging the Jews, if you don’t like heaven?’ probe his nature and identity. believe my claim, believe the works I 3. Address the ‘Why’ Questions: So Connected with stories this 8 Deeply Penetrating Questions do. much teaching in our churches method is an excellent evangelis- Jesus’ first question as a boy in the The most penetrating question has to do with the ‘what’ and tic tool. ‘If Jesus were here today temple is at first glance curious, but Jesus asked was on the cross, ‘My God, ‘how’ of church culture. Use ques- what would he be like and what eventually deeply insightful for his par- my God, why have you forsaken me?’ tions to get to the ‘why’ issues of would be his message?’ ents. This question sets the stage for (Mt. 27:46). The Gospel itself is, of the Christian life. ‘Why do we find 9. Detractors: We will always have 178 author ERT (2009) 33:2, 179-n

detractors. Questions that are make up their own minds. He nur- evasive may provoke thought and tured their thinking by challeng- Book Review Article eventually win our detractors. ing conventional wisdom and set- ‘That’s a good question. I’m not ting the stage for spiritual Restoring, Reforming, Renewing: sure how to answer. What do you growth. ‘Do you believe that God Accompaniments to The Cambridge Companion to think?’ can change our city? What role do 1 10. Activate Faith: Jesus used ques- you see the church playing to Evangelical Theology tions to activate faith and commit- bring change?’ ment. Jesus wanted people to Amos Yong

THE CCET BEGINS with an introductory cal backgrounds—Reformed, Wes- essay by Timothy Larsen wrestling leyan, Pentecostal, Baptist, etc.—are with and proposing a working defini- registered in the book. tion of ‘evangelical’ for this project; the One way to read the CCET is as a remaining seventeen essays are performative speech act in three keys: divided into two parts: the first on ‘doc- a restorative one oriented to the past, a trines’ has eight essays (on Trinity, reformative one focused on the pre- scripture, Christ, theological anthro- sent, and a renewal one hopeful about pology, justification/atonement, Holy the future. Sometimes one of these Spirit, conversion/sanctification, and keys is out of harmony with the other ecclesiology) while the second on “con- two, but taken together, I suggest they texts” has nine essays (on culture, gen- reflect the opportunities and chal- der, race, the religions, and evangelical lenges of the ongoing task of contem- theology in, respectively, Africa, Asia, porary evangelical theology as a live Britain/Europe, Latin America, and project. Let me explain. North America). The perspectives of eighteen different essayists, including Restoring four women, from a range of evangeli- First, the restorative key should come to no surprise for a book on evangelical theology. Given evangelicalism’s insti- 1 Timothy Larsen and Daniel J. Treier, The tutional emergence from out of the fun- Cambridge Companion to Evangelical Theology damentalist side of the fundamentalist- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). All quotations from this volume will be modernist controversies in the first referenced parenthetically in the text by CCET half of the twentieth century, evangel- and page number. ical theology has always been conserv-

Dr Amos Yong (PhD Boston) is Professor of Systematic Theology at Regent University School of Divinity, Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA. He has published a number of scholarly articles, and other major works including Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the Neighbor, Faith Meets Faith Series (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2008), Theology and Down Syndrome: Reimagining Disability in Late Modernity (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2007), and The Spirit Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and the Possibility of Global Theology (Baker, 2005). [email protected] 180 author article 181 ative as opposed to liberal. My point parts of “doctrine” and “contexts,” this by others in the essays in part I of egy—of appealing to the relationality here is not to nit-pick about the defini- especially when you have admissions the volume, and this itself is notewor- of the trinitarian identity of God—is tion of conservative or liberal, but to in the first part that evangelical doc- thy about how to understand both the itself questioned elsewhere in the vol- simply observe that, as many of the trines are already contextually shaped CCET in particular and the shape of ume (e.g., by Vanhoozer’s query about authors of this book put it, evangelical (e.g., CCET 27, 43) as well as the evangelical theology today in general. whether the turn to relationality itself theology is not first and foremost pro- repeated calls in part two to contextu- is a selling of the evangelical soul to gressive or revisionist, but restora- alize (in non-Western areas) received another master; CCET 34n55). My tionist: looking to retrieve the past, doctrines (usually derived from the Reforming point is that given how volatile this especially the creedal tradition, or the Western traditions)? I’m certainly not In fact, I was pleasantly surprised that issue remains across the spectrum of Reformational one, or the revivalist saying disband with doctrines and for- the efforts to reform evangelical theol- the evangelical theological landscape, one of the eighteenth century, etc.2 As get about contextualization. Rather, I ogy in the CCET were more substan- as well as the predominantly patriar- restorationist in this sense, it makes am complaining about the implicit mes- tive than I had anticipated. For exam- chal character of much of evangelical- sense to look to evangelical theology to sage conveyed in the structure of the ple, Kevin Vanhoozer’s theodramatic ism in the global south, this is indeed a emphasize remaining faithful to the book that part I constitutes the doctri- hermeneutic and theological method reformist stance within the evangelical theological traditions of the past, to nal heart of evangelical theology while takes seriously the narrative aspects context (even if such an option may be restate them, and perhaps even to part II presents its applications, trans- of human understanding, while D. ‘old hat’ in ‘liberal’ circles since the merely repeat them (as would be lations, and vernacularizations. Alter- Stephen Long engages with conversa- age of women’s suffrage!). involved in the recitation of Nicene con- natively, the present arrangement also tions regarding deification and the Much more radical (and easily the fession). This is not to denigrate evan- communicates, at least implicitly that “new perspective on Paul” in his most enjoyable essay in the book for gelical theology but to suggest how part I presents universal truths that essay.3 There are chapters on topics me) is J. Kameron Carter’s discussion such may signal its have been believed by all evangelicals such as culture, gender, race, and reli- of race and theology.4 Carter does not strength. If so, then to find the CCET everywhere and at all times while part gious pluralism that in the previous assume theology always proceeds from repeating, or restating, or attempting II either provides (merely) historical generation were not registered in evan- a core that is then translated into a to restore previous formulations and description or addresses the missional gelical theological reflection. And the racialized (or any other) context (as a dimension of evangelical theology. In perhaps give them life for the present attention to the contextual character of restorationist approach would fact, one of the essayists even suggest time—this is precisely what one would evangelical theology also marks an attempt). Instead, he asks how the that evangelical theology can be under- expect. increasing sensitivity to the reforma- experience of race itself emerges out of stood in terms of a scriptural or gospel And this is what we do find both at tional task of doing theology. and then also informs a theological core (the doctrines) which, as struc- the structural and at other levels. There are two specific essays that I vision—a much more dialectical, and turally unfolded in the volume itself, Structurally, the volume carries on the want to comment on further with maybe even correlational, conception. can then be packaged and presented in tradition of evangelical theology that regard to the reformational thread of More precisely, the essay explores many different ways in various con- has become standard in the last one the CCET. First, Elaine Storkey’s ‘how black folks’ reception of the reli- texts (CCET 215, 218, 222n5). essay at least takes a stand on a dis- gion of their masters represents a hundred-plus years, including the Finally, at the methodological level, puted issue in evangelical theology: on counter-performance of American sequence of doctrinal loci in part I that the more traditional evangelical start- behalf of an egalitarian view of gender evangelicalism itself’ (CCET 178), and contains relatively few surprises. Yet ing point of scriptural reflection is over and against the complementarian argues that ‘Evangelical belief was why divide the volume into the two found in at least a few of essays (e.g., perspective. Her approach is not nec- on theological anthropology, justifica- received by persons of African descent essarily novel, and her specific strat- tion/atonement, and conversion/sanc- “who made Jesus their choice” so as to 2 Thus I am using the ‘restorationist’ motif in tification). This is not to dismiss the a general sense rather than in any kind of spe- proposals presented in these essays, cific sense such as that embraced by the but rather to simply observe this is 3 The choice to assign Long to write on justi- 4 Carter’s new book, Race: A Theological Churches of Christ or Disciples tradition; the fication and atonement is itself a puzzling one Account (Oxford University Press, 2008), is a latter involves a specific scriptural hermeneu- what one would expect in evangelical when he’s been doing creative and important must read for those interested in the future of tic—which may be included in the former, but theological approaches. In fact, it is a work in ecclesiology, theology of culture, and evangelical theology in general and in Christ- not necessarily so. wonder that there is not much more of theology of economics. ian theology in general. 182 author article 183 bear witness to a different, non-tri- Renewing genuinely forward-looking orientation Hence, these restorationist, refor- umphalist Christian reality’ (CCET While Storkey and Carter articulate among evangelical theologians that mationist, and renewal strands of the 190). The genius of Carter’s essay is why and how evangelical theology may, perhaps, get us beyond the con- CCET can be interpreted as represent- that the good news of the evangelion needs to be reformed—i.e., so that servative/liberal (or restorationist/pro- ing the conflicted nature of evangeli- itself is realized only in and through evangelical praxis can be better per- gressivist) dichotomy? calism in general and evangelical the- the Holy Saturday of the black evan- formed—their efforts raise questions Even the ‘dogmaticians’ (used here ology in particular, or they can be seen gelical bodily experience of slavery, about the trajectory of the future of in reference to the authors of the ‘doc- to reflect the pluralism within evangel- 5 icalism which bodes well for its future. lynching, and death. There is much evangelical theology. The CCET recog- trine’ chapters in part I) acknowledge As a pentecostal theologian, I resonate more to think about here regarding nizes not only that evangelicalism is a the unfinished and dynamic nature of Latino/a and Asian approaches to with my evangelical friends and their global phenomenon, but also that there evangelical theological reflection. Are evangelical theology. wrestling with the theological task are a multiplicity of voices under that evangelical serious in saying, ‘The In her essay, Storkey suggests that since my own pentecostal tradition tent, some of which may cause seismic label “evangelical” is the statement of ‘an evangelical theology of gender can also has restorationist, reformationist, shifts in evangelical theological reflec- an ambition—to correspond to the only be developed by unearthing pre- and renewal streams.7 I think each is tion. While this may be of concern to gospel—rather than an achievement. suppositions in all these areas [i.e., the necessary, even if my intuitions are to restorationists, there are some voices Similarly, “God of the gospel” names a doctrines of creation, imago Dei, sin, look ahead even while not neglecting which call for a more dialogical project, not a finished product’ (CCET redemption, ecclesiology, and others]’ 18)? Is the strategy of asking ques- to look left, right, and to the rear before approach (CCET 45), and insist that 8 (CCET 167). Her efforts then proceed making one’s move. ‘for the full truth, all the genuinely tions—in some cases many of them in to sketch, in a very programmatic succession (CCET 101)—merely a sense, what kinds of reforming is insightful voices must be spoken and heard together’ (CCET 49n42). Herein rhetorical ploy or in effect a reflection required for evangelical theology to of a genuine openness, curiosity, and transition from a complementarian to lies the recognition that evangelical- ism should not only be counting the quest to renew evangelical theology in an egalitarian position. Following out anticipation of the time when we shall the logic of Storkey’s and Carter’s numbers in their churches and organi- zations but that evangelical theology no longer see through a glass dimly? If essays would require an equally mas- the latter, then herein are manifest sive rethinking about central Christian should be listening to and even inter- nalizing what is being said. humble approaches to the theological doctrines like christology, the atone- task.6 ment, and soteriology. In fact, these The essays in part II represent the 7 I document some of these in my The Spirit doctrinal categories themselves may initial steps of registering evangelical perspectives from the global south. Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and the not even survive the reformation that 6 Some would be concerned that too much Possibility of Global Theology (Grand Rapids: ensues in (especially) Carter’s train— Part of the result is a willingness to humility betrays instead a loss of conviction; I Baker Academic, 2005). at least not in the same format or struc- entertain ‘new possibilities’ for evan- would suggest instead that it takes boldness 8 An earlier version of this paper was pre- ture as that which the restorationist gelical theology in dialogue with pri- to ask the hard questions of our time. This is sented to the ‘Contesting Evangelicalism’ tradition of evangelical theology would mal traditions (CCET 233); an open- precisely what drives what I have elsewhere panel of the Christian Theological Research probably seek to preserve. ness to the influence of culture and called a theology of quest; see Yong, Spirit- Fellowship (CTRF) at the American Academy society in evangelical theology (CCET Word-Community: Theological Hermeneutics in of Religion, Chicago, Illinois, 1-3 November Trinitarian Perspective (Burlington, VT, and 2008. Thanks to D. Stephen Long, president of 256); and even the courage to risk the Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, and Eugene, OR: CTRF, for the invitation to be a part of this 5 Carter’s discussion of the Holy Saturday cross-fertilization of evangelicalism Wipf & Stock, 2002), esp. ch. 1 panel. motif is different from that of Von Balthasar or across racial, national, linguistic, and Alan Lewis precisely because its dogmatic cultural lines (CCET 271). Will such content is not just merely read from out of the postures of renewal enable the refor- scriptural account but is filled in from out of mation of the doctrinal loci repre- the palpable encounter of black evangelicals with the gospel. Compare, e.g., Lewis’ Between sented in part I of the book as well as Cross and Resurrection: A Theology of Holy Sat- the new performance of their corre- urday (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001). lated practices? Does this represent a ERT (2009) 33:2, 184-n article 185

and even declining in some areas, This book should, as the author hopes, be Books Reviewed Edwards believes that this is not the time “picked up by Christians everywhere who to “tip toe” around, but to step forward wish to be part of the great unfolding Reviewed by David Parker Reviewed by Rob Haskell with confidence, “reclaiming the idea we Christian story” because “the church has Joel Edwards James K. A. Smith are called to a long-term vision for spiri- been “sent out to advice the Kingdom of An Agenda for Change: a global call for Who’s Afraid of Postmodernism? tual and social change.” God, not with a defensive posture but as spiritual and social transformation Edwards, now International Director for servants of transforming good news.” Reviewed by Philip A. Gottschalk the Micah Challenge, has no doubt that Reviewed by James Nkansah-Obrem- Kenneth J. Collins despite all the speculation and opinions pong The Theology of John Wesley: Holy Love that have emerged over the centuries, ERT (2009) 33:2, 185-nnn Thomas C. Oden and the Shape of Grace Jesus is credible in himself, both in the How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind: How Africa Shaped the Christian Reviewed by J. Daniel Salinas claims that he made, and in relation to rediscovering the African seedbed of Mind: rediscovering the African Sharon E. Heaney others in this multi-religious world. So it western Christianity seedbed of western Christianity Contextual Theology for Latin America: is a matter of allowing these claims to be put forward simply, with humility and Reviewed by David Parker Liberation Themes in Evangelical Per- Thomas C. Oden respect for others, and not allowing our spective Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP, 2007 Darrell L Bock and Mitch Glaser (edi- petty problems and programs to interfere. tors) ISBN: 978-0-8308-2875-3 Reviewed by Susannah Clark Hb, pp 204, bibliog. To The Jew First : the case for Jewish This will mean the church will need to re- Pete Wilcox focus itself—with a greater devotion to evangelism in Scripture and History Reviewed by James Nkansah-Obrempong, Living the Dream: Joseph for Today: A the Word, an openness to the way God is Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of Reviewed by Walter McConnell Dramatic Exposition of Genesis 37-50 at work in the world, behaving with Theology, Kenya integrity and developing the art of com- Christopher J. H. Wright Reviewed by David Parker municating this message in appropriate How Africa shaped the Christian Mind is The Mission of God: Unlocking the transcribed by Marylynn Rouse ways, remembering that in today’s world gripping and inspiring book. The title Bible’s Grand Narrative Ministry on my mind: John Newton on Jesus the conversationalist may be a bet- catches the eye of any person with an entering pastoral ministry ter model than some we have relied on in inquisitive mind. The subtitle: the past. Rediscovering the seedbed of western In the second part of the book, the author Christianity is the focus of the book. Oden Book Reviews tackles the term “evangelical” (left, right asserts that the classic Christian mind and centre versions) well aware that it (the Christian intellectual history) was ERT (2009) 33:2, 184-nnn movement in Great Britain and globally. has lost currency with many. But he extensively shaped by the African imagi- It was the subject matter for a series of believes it is possible and necessary to nation—its philosophy, moral insights, seminars around UK in the closing stages An Agenda for Change: a global rehabilitate it as enshrining the heart of ideas, literary works, discipline and scrip- of the author’s directorship of EA UK and call for spiritual and social the Christian gospel in a biblical and tural interpretation. These ideas were transformation the topic for stirring plenary address at Christ-centred manner. first developed or produced on the African the 12th General Assembly of the World soil before they reached the west. Joel Edwards Evangelical Alliance in Pattaya, Thailand, With a renewed conviction about Christ The book is divided into three sections: Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008 October 2008. and his message, the spiritually and socially transformative power of the Introduction; Part One: The African ISBN 978-0-310-28400-0 In fewer than one hundred pages, he Hb pp136 gospel can be unleashed; Christians will Seedbed of Western Christianity: this sec- makes a reasoned, informed and passion- then become known as good citizens in a tion covers chapters 1-5; Part two: Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, ate plea for the credible presentation of needy world that is looking for the reality African Orthodoxy Recovery—which cov- Evangelical Review of Theology Christ in the modern world and for evan- of true faith and practice—precisely ers chapters 6-9. Part two also includes gelicals to be known as the “good news because they incarnate the gospel and put an appendix dealing with the challenges Agenda for Change is the legacy of Joel people” that they should be. Despite the kingdom values ahead of all others, as of early African research and a useful lit- Edwards after two decades of top level fact that the Christian faith (and evangeli- they have so often done in the past to erary chronology of Christianity in Africa leadership in the Evangelical Alliance calism in particular) is under pressure good effect in the first millennium, and a bibliography 186 author article 187 on both African Christianity and theology. work, Theology and Identity. cover Christianity and Islam as Oden Mission to the Jews) whose President, The author, however, does not make any Oden makes a strong case by defending insinuates. His claim that Christianity is Mitch Glaser is co-editor and provides an reference to the bibliography in the text the ‘Africanness’ of the great intellectu- traditional to Africa is perceptive and overall introduction to the volume. There of the book. als like Athanasius, Augustine and must be given serious thought. is an attempt at imposing some order and Oden points out in the Introduction that Cyprian and rejects common notions that Oden raises some critical relationship focus on the diverse material by dividing early African Christian heritage had great these men were not ‘Africans at all, but issues between Christianity and Islam. the book into three parts—biblical, theo- impact on both Christian and world histo- merely Europeans in disguise.’ This may While I agree with him that Christians logical and missiological, with appropri- ry. He states that ‘Africa played a deci- surprise many people but it is important need to study Islam, its history, scrip- ate summaries and outlines; however the sive role in the formation of western cul- to acknowledge the central place Africa tures and doctrines to understand it, I areas are not very well demarked in the ture’ and he claims these ‘Decisive intel- occupies in salvation history and the con- doubt if his suggestion to seek reconcilia- material and the concluding paper bears rather obvious marks of the new millenni- lectual achievements of Christianity were tributions it has made to Christianity in tion of Islam and Christianity through his- um context of the original conferences. explored and understood first in Africa the past and will make in the future. torical insight is possible. There are very Nevertheless it is worthwhile to have before they were recognized in Europe In part two, Oden calls on African critical and fundamental faith issues that available the insights of some well known and a millennium before they found their Christians to recovery African Orthodoxy. are not reconcilable in the two religions. scholars (including Darrell Bock as co- way to North America.’ He suggests that He challenges African Christians to The issues hinge on the foundational editor and contributor, Arthur Glasser, ‘Much intellectual history flowed south to reclaim their classical African past—the truth of the Christian faith. As long as Michel Rydelnik, Craig Blaising and north,’ from Africa to Europe and not the seed of African orthodoxy which, he these differences exit, there will always Walter Kaiser, who also writes the other way round. He demonstrates this argues, expresses apostolic faith and be tensions between Christianity and Foreword) on the important and vexed pattern in the book but calls for further teachings and is buried in the soil of Islam. textual demonstration to affirm his question of Jewish evangelism. Africa; it requires multifaceted, interdisci- This book is stimulating and thought pro- hypothesis. plinary approaches to recover this truth. Part Three dealing with missiology pre- voking. It is a much needed correction to He thinks it will take a generation of dis- sents four chapters with practical infor- In Part One and the chapters that follow, those notions that demean Africa’s intel- ciplined investigation and rigorous lan- mation about methods and programs of Oden develops his thesis by pointing out lectual history and a major contribution guage studies to enable African scholars Jewish evangelism, referring especially to seven critical ways Africa shaped the to world Christianity. It is a book every to study these primary sources since the successes in 19th century and the western mind: (1) developing modern African theologian, biblical scholar, histo- most of these materials are written in between-wars period of the 20th century; western university, (2) maturing Christian rian and church leader must read! exegesis of scripture, (3) shaping early languages other than English. there is also here and elsewhere advice Christian dogma—such as sin and grace, He dares young Africans to rediscover, on strategies (such as the use of messian- ic prophecy) and attitudes that are rele- creation and providence, atonement, reevaluate, and claim the textual riches ERT (2009) 33:2, 187-nnn eschatology, baptism and the life of of Ancient African Christianity which vant to successful Jewish evangelism today. prayer, (4) modeling conciliar patterns of have been ignored by both African and To The Jew First : the case for ecumenical decision-making, (5) stimulat- Western scholars and church leaders and Jewish evangelism in Scripture In the Theological section, there is a use- ing early monasticism, (6) developing to make these materials accessible to the and History ful paper from a Reformed perspective by Neo-Platonism and (7) refining rhetorical African Church. He thinks there is much Richard L. Pratt which offers good and dialectical skills. Other contributions wisdom Christians can learn from these edited by Darrell L Bock and insights explaining why churches from from African Christianity include the early Christians in relation to faith, Mitch Glaser this tradition have been so prominent in preservation of Christian Scriptures, courage, tenacity, suffering, hope and Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2008 the past (although noticeably absent ancestral traditions, and liturgical prac- remarkable intellectual strength. ISBN 978-0-8254-3658-1 today) in the work of Jewish evangelism. tices and he challenges African Christians I find his overall argument in the book Pb pp 347 But the matching paper from the dispen- to value and appreciate their own intellec- thought provoking and stimulating. His Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, sational perspective only discusses why tual history. affirmation of Africa’s intellectual history Evangelical Review of Theology Jewish evangelism is to be a priority, He underscores the importance and the and his claim that ‘African Traditional based on the words ‘to the Jew first’ in need for African scholars to make use of Religion’ must be seen as having both This book consists of papers delivered at Romans 1:16, rather than addressing the early African intellectual patristic oral and written history is interesting and conferences held in the United States in many other questions that arise in rela- heritage for African theology, an issue helpful although most Africans will not 2000 sponsored by Chosen People tion to this tradition. Kwame Bediako has also alluded to in his extend African Traditional Religion to Ministries (formerly American Board of Barry R. Levanthal (a messianic believer) 188 author article 189 focuses on the implications of the holo- tance of hermeneutics is obvious in sever- ERT (2009) 33:2, 189-nnn Mission’, develops Wright’s missional caust for Jewish evangelism. While al places (especially by Blaising), as is hermeneutic. Chapter One urges us to acknowledging the extreme sensitivities the place of messianic prophecy. But per- The Mission of God: Unlocking move beyond searching for a biblical foun- involved, he nonetheless expresses his haps the most common and fundamental the Bible’s Grand Narrative dation for mission, beyond identifying a conviction that ‘Jewish history and theme is the place of Israel and the rela- Christopher J. H. Wright multicultural hermeneutic, beyond con- prophecy alike demonstrate that God is tionship between the Jews and Christians textualizing theology, and beyond post- playing out the great drama of his Sacred in the plan of salvation, particularly as Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, modern hermeneutics. It is not that these Romance on the stage of Jewish suffering’ seen in the Romans 9-11. The view is 2006. approaches lack benefits, but that they do ISBN: 978-1-84474-152-6 and ‘God’s megaphone of pain and suffer- repeated in many ways that the salvation not go far enough. Thus the second chap- Hb, 581 pp., bibliog., indices ing, demonstrated in Israel’s past and of Gentiles is intimately related to the ter suggests that the whole Bible be seen future holocausts, have drawn—and will promise of God to the Jews Reviewed by Walter McConnell, (formerly), as the product of God’s mission. In sum- Singapore Bible College continue to draw—our Jewish people As Walter Kaiser puts it in the mary, ‘[T]he whole Bible renders to us the back into the divine reality.’ story of God’s mission through God’s people Introduction, ‘the so-called Gentile Many books have shown that the basis The Biblical section covers a range of in their engagement with God’s world for the church does not have any grounding if it for mission can and should be derived issues which are relevant for many differ- does not find itself grafted into the roots sake of the whole of God’s creation.’ While from the Bible. While Christopher Wright, ent aspects of the topic. For example, of the patriarchal promises… A church Wright has certainly directed the discus- the Director of the Langham Partnership David L. Turner tackles anti-Semitism by cut off from Israel is a church that merely sion in a positive direction, his hermeneu- International, would agree with this, he showing that the strong words of Jesus in floats in the air with no past, no ground- tic needs further development to be con- would argue that it is not enough. The Matthew 23 offer no basis for a harsh ing, and no promises.’ There is ‘only one vincing, as it is far from clear that the Mission of God articulates his view that negative view of Jews by the Gentile unified plan of redemption that embraces text requires this missional hermeneutic. the Bible not only provides fuel for light- Christian. This is because it is clear that, all who put their trust in Messiah.’ As is evidenced by the different emphases ing and maintaining a vision for mission, when they are set in the context of the Furthermore, as many of the papers of the various approaches to biblical the- but that God’s mission can and should be Hebrew prophets and contemporary emphasise, according to Paul there is a ology, what works well when investigat- used as a hermeneutical ‘key that Jewish religious life, they reflect a ‘vigor- dynamic relationship between the evange- ing certain texts or themes may not prove unlocks the whole grand narrative of the ous intramural dispute between one Jew lisation of Gentiles and the evangelisation as useful when applied to other texts. canon of Scripture.’ His concern is not so and other Jews over the identity of the of Jews for it is only when the full number much with ‘The Biblical Basis of Mission’ In three chapters, Part Two, ‘The God of Jew Jesus.’ of the Gentiles is made up that the Jewish as with ‘The Missional Basis of the Mission’, considers how God makes him- Bock’s chapter examines Acts (especially people will enter into the divine blessing. self known in Israel and in Jesus Christ, Bible’, since the whole text was written key speeches in chapters 2, 3, and 13) Similarly, there is more than a historical and how he confronts idolatry. The exo- to witness to the mission of God. (Even showing that it was not the messianic ful- priority indicated in the words of Paul dus is rightly identified as the great though Wright defines the term, the fre- filment or the atoning work of Christ that which give the book its title—Gentile redemptive event in Israel’s history. But quent use of the adjective ‘missional’ was the focus of early Jewish evangelism mission is dependent on Jewish mission, as Wright shows, God’s choice of Israel could lead to some misunderstanding as but the exaltation of Jesus in the resur- and both Jews and Gentiles together was not intended to benefit them alone its meaning has become very fluid in rection. This approach, which is also make up the people of God. These are but was a means of showing his care for recent popular discussions.) found in the important opening verses of important but sometimes controversial everyone. The chapter on Jesus shows Romans with its stress on what qualifies issues which deserve more examination, This missional reading of Scripture traces that the New Testament identifies him Jesus to be seen as Messiah and the one but whether this book can become a stan- the contours of biblical theology by devel- with Yahweh, describes him as perform- through whom God will dispense his dard text book its sponsors intend is oping the major biblical themes that high- ing the functions of Yahweh, and witness- promised blessings to his people, has the another matter. light God’s mission as revealed from es that he fulfills Yahweh’s mission. potential to open up a fruitful strategy for Genesis through Revelation. Indeed, the While this is an excellent discussion of Jewish evangelism today. book reads largely as an Old Testament Jesus’ person and mission, one wonders Throughout these papers several other theology of mission, showing how the why more space was not given to the cen- important themes are presented including themes first encountered there are devel- trality of the cross in God’s mission. The two covenant theology (Kjaer-Hansen’s oped in the New Testament. chapter on idolatry rightly indicates that concluding paper), as well as replacement The book is divided into four parts and fif- biblical affirmations about God should and parenthetical theology. The impor- teen chapters. Part One, ‘The Bible and guide any discussion of other gods. The 190 author article 191 discussion is nuanced in its recognition sages from the Old and New Testaments. overcome the bumper sticker summaries Smith thinks we would be right to reject that the Bible is far from monolithic in Wright has produced an important book that circulate among Christians. In the rationalist apologetic and commends the way it sometimes describes the gods that deserves to be widely read by mis- Derrida’s case, the bumper sticker sum- a presuppositionalist approach in which as created objects, as demons, or as the sionaries, biblical scholars, pastors and mary is that ‘there is nothing outside the rather than attempting to prove work of human hands. other Christians who desire to understand text,’ where this is taken to mean that Christianity through a misguided appeal Part Three, ‘The People of Mission’, God’s mission and their place in it. By nothing controls the meaning of a text. to reason we instead proclaim the focuses on the people God uses to model developing Old Testament themes about Everything is interpretation. But Smith Christian story in the power of the Spirit. his righteousness and bring his redemp- God and his people, he puts to rest com- argues that although Derrida did teach Finally, Smith arrives at Foucault’s study tion to the world. Thus the blessings mon notions that mission is a New that everything is interpretation, he did of modern institutions and the way in promised to Abraham were intended to Testament phenomenon. While the not deny that there are real things out which they embody the principles at work touch the world, not just Israel. God’s emphasis on Old Testament material pro- there in the world that we bump into, nor in the society at large. Foucault argues, desire to redeem and restore people who vides material that is not available else- did he think that all interpretations were for example, that for the last 300 years have been affected by sin, leads Wright to where, it may limit the use of the book in equally valid. Derrida’s core insight was prison systems have been instances of present the exodus and the Jubilee as missions classrooms unless it is supple- that we cannot appeal to anything that is society and ought not to be compartmen- models of redemption and restoration that mented by readings on missiological uninterpreted. Smith welcomes this talized as if they operated on a different influence what the rest of the Bible teach- themes that are primarily developed in insight and sees Derrida in light of the level. The principle at work in all modern es about these themes. God’s mission is the New Testament. The same emphasis Reformed notion of epistemological bias. institutions and thus in all society is the said to be accomplished through a series however means that the book could be a He further suggests that if everything is principle that power is knowledge. This of covenants through which he extends welcomed addition to a class on biblical interpretation, this should lead us back to does not mean that the two are identical, his concern for humankind and the rest of theology, as it successfully models how scripture as our guide to interpreting the but that they are integrally related. ‘text’ of the world. creation. The section is completed with a key Old Testament themes can be traced Smith highlights the controversy over discussion on the ethics that God’s people into the New Testament. Lyotard is famous for defining postmoder- what Foucault intended to accomplish by should express if they are to take part in nity as ‘incredulity towards meta-narra- his analysis. Did he describe power- his task of mission. tives,’ as a kind of opening salvo against knowledge relations in order to encour- ERT (2009) 33:2, 190-nnn Part Four unites four topics under the modernity. This bumper sticker phrase is age a Nietzschean will to power? Or was usually taken to mean that postmodernity he critiquing the dehumanizing aspects of theme ‘The Arena of Missions’. Though Who’s Afraid of Postmodernism? rarely discussed in this context, Wright is against overarching stories that explain power/knowledge in modern institutions identifies the physical earth as an inte- James K. A. Smith our world. Understood in this way, the in order to bring about change? Smith gral part of God’s mission that should not Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, statement is essentially a denial of the argues that the latter is the case and that be shunted as secondary to the proclama- 2006 legitimacy of worldviews would be inimi- it points to an inherent modernism in tion of the gospel. Rather, he demon- ISBN: 978-0-8010-2918-9 cal to Christian faith. If the Bible is any- Foucault: his critique of modern institu- strates that caring for creation gives us Pb, pp 156, bibliog., index thing, it is an overarching story about the tions is to be placed in the same category an opportunity to express our love and Reviewed by Rob Haskell, Senderis, past, present and future of creation. If big as modern liberalism’s obsession with the obedience to God, to exercise our priestly Washington, USA. stories are out, so is Christianity. freedom of the individual. And yet, argues and kingly role in the earth, and to pro- But Smith points out that for Lyotard a Smith, there is still much we can learn vide a prophetic witness to the world as Although the ideas of Derrida, Lyotard, meta-narrative is a uniquely modern phe- from Foucault, for he has highlighted the we live out biblical teaching on compas- and Foucault—the ‘unholy trinity’ that nomenon. It is not the overarching story importance of power as a formative and sion and justice for all creation. This is founded postmodernism—are often seen in itself that is under criticism by post- disciplinary force and he can help us followed by a discussion of what it means as radically antichristian, James K. A. modernim, but the rationally justified understand the need for spiritual disci- for humans to be made in God’s image, Smith argues that a serious look at what story. The modern fallacy is to think that pline in the formation of Christian charac- the effects of sin upon God’s image, and they said is actually very helpful for those a worldview can be legitimized by appeal ter and community. the way in which this should influence who are seeking to be faithful followers to reason. It follows then, that the A final chapter works out what a church our involvement in mission. The final two of Christ today. Christian meta-narrative is not the that listens to these postmodern insights chapters overview God’s desire for the Smith tells us that in order to understand Biblical panorama itself, but rationalist might look like. Here Smith makes the nations to become his people as wit- the ideas through which postmodernism apologetics in its claim to legitimate the valuable distinction between being post- nessed by a number of important pas- ‘slouched out of Paris’ it is necessary to Christian story by an appeal to reason. modern and being ‘relevant’. The two are 192 author article 193 often confused in outreach parlance, but a Many Evangelicals see postmodernism as calling his system ‘synergistic’, Wesley From the recipient’s standpoint, holiness postmodern approach rejects the pragma- just another wave of relativism without was a blend of Protestant and Catholic is what God desires of her but which, tism implied in attempts to focus church fully understanding the issues that are at emphases. In Collins’ view, Wesley was without love for God, she cannot obtain. life around ‘relevance’. Rather, it pulls stake. Smith had done a tremendous job as Protestant as Calvin with regards to Thus, God gives that love to the respon- towards localization, attention to church of getting the ideas of postmodernism on the need for God to make the first step dent which results in a desire for holi- tradition and a liturgical outlook on life. the table for a wide audience to interact resulting in justification. Yet the Catholic ness. Smith is a philosopher who works hard at with. Even if one might disagree with influence (Wesley’s reading of the staying accessible, effectively mining some of Smith’s applications, his exposi- Eastern and Western Fathers) resulted in such films as Memento, The Little Mermaid tions of Derrida, Lyotard and Foucault his view that ‘entire sanctification’ of The Conjunction of Grace and Whale Rider to expound ideas. But at are very helpful for understanding the which justification was a part, was a times his applications are problematic, or relationship between postmodern thought process. Justification was ‘instantaneous’ The Work of God Co-operant Grace perhaps just underdeveloped. One is left and Christianity. while sanctification was a ‘process’. alone (Responsible) disconcerted at the claim that there can In Collins’ estimation most Wesley schol- Synergism be no rational legitimation of Christianity. ars (as well as detractors) have missed ERT (2009) 33:2, 192-nnn Highlights Highlights I suspect that Smith is not meaning there Wesley’s subtlety. In order to correct this Favor Empowerment are no good reasons to believe the problem he presents two ‘axial themes’ Christian story, but merely that there are The Theology of John Wesley: by which he endeavors to present Receiving Responding no ontologically infallible proofs for Holy Love and the Shape of Wesley’s thought. Both of these axial Instantaneous Process Christianity. But he does not work this Grace themes allow for a more precise under- out very well and I wish he had because Kenneth J. Collins, standing of what Wesley actually intend- Protestant Catholic the uninitiated reader could come away Nashville, Tennessee, USA: Abingdon ed to say, rather than what others have Emphasis Emphasis with the message that there is no reason Press, 2007 interpolated. to prefer one religion or worldview over ISBN: 978-0-687-64633-3 Collins gives diagrams to help readers another, except perhaps by who tells the Pb, pp 423, bibliog, index. understand the ‘conjunctive’ nature of The second half of the axial theme, the better story. This is an important ques- Reviewed by Philip A. Gottschalk, Tyndale Wesley’s thought. He also uses similar Conjunction of Grace, has a much more tion: Can we determine whether one Theological Seminary, Badhoevedorp, The diagrams in subsequent chapters which complicated structure, but shows more worldview is better than another in the Netherlands help clarify ideas in them. intricately how Wesley included various absence of rational legitimation? influences from his own spiritual growth: His application of Foucault is also prob- Dr. Collins’ book The Theology of John his Anglican heritage, that of Reformation lematic. Foucault turns out to be a mod- Wesley is a masterfull and exhaustive The Axial Theme of Wesley’s figures, Moravian, German Pietists, and ernist anyway, so Smith applies his study of Wesley’s thought. As Collins Practical Thelogy his reading of the Eastern and Western insight backwards: although Foucault himself admits, Wesley’s theology was Fathers. Holiness Grace was critical of the use of power for social mainly practical theology, i.e. theology As an illustration of how this conjunction discipline, we Christians can recognize done with a view towards ministering to Holy/Love Free/Cooperant works we will focus only on the issue of that discipline is good thing for spiritual particular situations and individuals. ‘entire sanctification’. From the stand- formation. But this begs for a discussion Thus there is no ‘theology’ of John point of justification a sinner cannot of the nature of power in and outside the Wesley which he himself left. However, The first half of the axial theme is obtain salvation without God’s work. church. Surely, there is much about the Collins has succeeded in drawing togeth- Holiness as Holy Love by which Collins Justification is the work of God alone. power that Foucault describes which the er from Wesley’s pastoral letters, ser- explains how Wesley saw holiness as a However, Wesley saw justification as a church ought to reject; so much so that mons, essays and treatises a comprehen- combination of God’s holiness and love, part of a larger process. God does the one wonders if we ought to accept the sive, full-orbed systematic theology. As as well as the responding sinner’s need work of justifying; the ‘new birth’ is insight at all. Also, is it really appropriate well he has succeeded in presenting for holiness and love. God’s holiness ‘instantaneous’. On the other hand, as to dismiss appeals to the rights of individ- Wesley’s systematic theology with much requires obedience to the law, but with sanctification more ‘broadly under- uals as mere radical modernist individual- more subtlety than his predecessors. through his love he provides a satisfac- stood’, the new birth is a ‘process’ which ism? We run the danger of confusing indi- Collins suggests that rather than simply tion for the penalty of transgressing that requires the respondent’s active involve- vidualism with basic human compassion. identifying Wesley as an ‘Arminian’ and law. ment. 194 author article 195

Through these axial themes then Collins ERT (2009) 33:2, 194-nnn sources. Among the former, she overlooks ground although with a different method- attempts to overcome past oversimplifica- the fact that Roman Catholicism in Latin ology. Another classical dissertation on tions of Wesley’s thought. After having Contextual Theology for Latin America is not only a religion but a cul- the subject is Pius Franz Helfenstein, set up his interpretative framework, America: Liberation Themes in ture. Even non-religious Latin Americans ‘Evangelikale Theologie der Befreidung. Collins then goes on to present a com- Evangelical Perspective would identify themselves as ‘Catholics’. Das Reich Gottes in der Theologie der plete systematic theology of John Wesley. Sharon E. Heaney Roman Catholicism has provided many ‘Fraternidad Teologica Latinoamericana’ He begins with God the Father and pro- elements that shaped the general Latin und der Gägigen Befreiungstheologie, ein ceeds through every area of theology end- Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2008 American ethos and worldview. Vergleich’ (Basel University, 1991). ing with eschatology. In each chapter he Paternoster Theological Monographs Therefore, when talking about Roman However, in spite of these minor details ISBN 13: 978-1-60608-016-0 first attempts to present Wesley’s own Catholicism it should be clearly explained this book is definitely a must in any Pb, pp 330 views from his own works, then he if the reference is to the religious or the library. responds to other interpreters of Wesley Reviewed by J. Daniel Salinas, Paraguay cultural. This distinction is quite hard to attempting to answer their views and understand for those who, like Heaney, explain why his view is preferable; finally Misconceptions about Latin American view Latin America from a distance. Such ERT (2009) 33:2, 195-nnn he attempts to apply Wesley’s thought to evangelical theology are many. But after differentiation would have helped her questions of the 21st century. While the Heaney’s work there is no excuse to explain some elements of Liberation Living the Dream: Joseph for third section of each chapter is interest- plead ignorance. This book fills a huge Theologies which evangelicals criticize Today: A Dramatic Exposition of ing, in some instances his attempts to void in the scholarship and will become a more strongly. Genesis 37-50 compulsory text for everyone with inter- apply Wesley’s ideas to the 21st century Another fact she overlooked is the power- Pete Wilcox seem a bit forced. est in learning about a mostly unknown ful influence of dispensationalism on the side of evangelicalism. Her portray of Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2007 There are only two other potential diffi- majority of evangelicals in Latin America. evangelical theology from Latin America ISBN 978-1-84227-555-9 culties for the reader. First, his axial Many of the theological emphases and as ‘vibrant, biblical, coherent, wholeheart- Pb pp131 themes and explanations are quite com- themes the people Heaney includes in her edly evangelical, and sensitively contextu- Reviewed by Susannah Clark, Evangelical plicated and take some careful reading to book were directly or indirectly aimed at al’ (250) leaves the reader with a longing Alliance UK. understand. Still they do allow Collins the teachings of dispensationalism. For to learn more about the subject matter. example, until the 1970s, hermeneutics room to make his case for Wesley’s sub- Pete Wilcox, Canon Chancellor at Heaney weaves history, cultural analysis, was monochromatic closely following the tle theology. Secondly, for those from out- Lichfield Cathedral, retells the Joseph and theological prowess to present an dispensational school. The theologians side the Wesleyan tradition there may be story as a series of 14 ‘episodes’ or chap- impressive picture of what has happened presented in the book were the first ones just a bit too much internecine jousting. ters broken down into multiple ‘scenes’. south of the Rio Grande in the Christian who broke that spell and defined other Still, it is book well worth reading. His purpose is to re-connect the audience community both Roman Catholic and hermeneutical horizons, an accomplish- Collins’ task is a huge one, but he greatly with the dramatic significance of this well evangelical. ment of vast proportions. Had Heaney succeeds in it. His book is a fresh look at In a creative way, Heaney compares the contrasted the evangelical theology she known narrative. systematic theology in general, not only parallel developments of liberation theolo- introduced with dispensationalism, she Each ‘scene’ commences with the rele- for Wesley scholars or Methodists. It rep- gies and evangelical theology showing the would have had many more reasons to vant Biblical text, before providing expos- resents another approach to most other common context but at the same time the show its relevance. itory comment which seeks to engage the current Evangelical theologies which are important differences between the two. In reader with the story. The content of the generally more reformed in nature. Heaney, who studied at Queens my own research, I found that those University Belfast and teaches Religious commentary varies considerably depend- whom Heaney calls evangelical are con- Studies at an Oxfordshire school, would ing on the passage in question but in gen- sidered liberationists in many religious have benefited from Diememme E. eral the author explores the relationships circles in the North Atlantic countries. I Noelliste’s dissertation ‘The Church and between the characters, their actions and hope her clear and painstaking explana- Human Emancipation: A Critical emotions and seeks to place the events tion removes once and for all those Comparison of Liberation Theology and within the wider context of Genesis and unfounded opinions. the Latin American Theological the rest of the Biblical narrative. In spite of Heaney’s well-done research I Fraternity’ (Northwestern University, The strength of the book, and what found a few lacunae both in content and 1987). Noelliste covers much of the same marks it out as unique, is that far from 196 author article 197 just being a commentary on Joseph, the wider context of the Old Testament and public (it is attractively presented in this publication, and even includes some facsimile author seeks to relate each scene to con- indeed the New with references in partic- excerpts of his own handwriting). But its intense spirituality, profound biblical reflection temporary church life. Themes addressed ular to the story of the Prodigal Son and and honesty make it an document that is certain to be extraordinarily beneficial to all who include adversity, disunity, reconciliation an indication that we can understand read it 250 years later. and forgiveness. Wilcox shows clearly Joseph as a type of Christ. However, there Reviewed by David Parker, Editor Evangelical Review of Theology how God is at work even in times when was room for more references to be made he may seem distant. The author focuses to the wider biblical text and there were on the relationship between divine and times when it would have been helpful if human workings; he notes that reconcilia- the points made had been expanded to tion and forgiveness are often a long allow the reader a deeper engagement process and how God works despite our with the text and its context. imperfections. The need for faithfulness, Living the Dream lends itself very well to patience and perseverance and the impor- being used as a Bible study either for tance of standing firm against tempta- groups or individuals, given that each tions and living with integrity are all chapter of the Joseph story is helpfully emphasized. broken down into manageable ‘episodes’. The book is primarily aimed at the popu- A single chapter of the book could easily lar market as it contains little detailed or be covered in a session. I would not nec- academic study. In his introduction, essarily recommend reading the whole book in one sitting; rather it is well laid Wilcox notes his use of the work of John out for several reflective studies over a Calvin, Claus Westermann, R.S.Wallace, few days or weeks. The great strength of R.T.Kendall, Robert Alter and Walter the book is that it is very readable and Bruggemann. However there are no fur- does not require much, if any, prior ther specific references to these works in knowledge. As an introductory text to the rest of the text. encourage engagement with the story of Throughout the book some attempt is Joseph this is an excellent place to start made to place the story of Joseph in the and I would highly recommend it.

Transcribed by Marylynn Rouse: Ministry on my mind: John Newton on entering pastoral ministry (Stratford-upon-Avon, The John Newton Project: 2008) ISBN 978-0-9559635-0-6 Pb pp30. The John Newton Project is to be congratulated on producing this short booklet which is the private reflections of the notorious slave-trader, John Newton, as he considered a call to the ministry. Converted about ten years earlier, he was approaching his 33rd birthday in 1758, and devoted himself in the weeks leading up to this event to give concentrated prayer, study and self-examination to the challenge. To help with the process he wrote out his thoughts, particularly the results of his study of key biblical passages (including Mark 9:24, 2 Cor. 2:26; Luke 14:28; Heb. 5:4 and 1 Tim 4:16), and the thoughts he had about his faith and commitment, and the nature of the ministry, its requirements and qualifications, and above all the grace he need to respond to the call he felt so strongly. Finally, on his birthday, 4 August, he came to a positive conclusion and made a series of resolutions to give himself by God’s power to this work which would occupy him until his death almost 50 years later. It is a little disconcerting to read such a document—one that was never intended for the ERT cover 33-3 23/4/09 10:57 Page 2

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