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Photo by Sina Brod by Photo URBAN
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The urban population refers to people living A Brief History of Khmer Cities could easily produce up to three rice yields inhabitants combine multiple occupations such many of the reservoirs and green spaces that in an urban area, classified as communes According to Khmer architect Vann Molyvann, a year. The ancient style Khmer capital lasted as services and farming. Only 6.68% work in were removed had important drainage func- that match the following “Reclassification of the early Mon-Khmer lived in settlements of until the eventual occupation of the Kingdom agricultural occupations such as crop cultivation, tions for the city. This growth is connected to Urban Area in Cambodia” criteria from 2004 circular earthworks and mound settlements, and then changed its location following or fisheries, and only 1.21% are employed in the socio-economic development in the city, (NIS 2010, p.15): set in circles nearby natural irrigation sources several further foreign invasions. In the 19th craft work such as furniture or food production such as housing projects and attempts to 1. Population density exceeding 200 people/ such as the Mekong River, its tributaries and century, King Ang Duong began to develop (NCDD 2010). Many other people who work build satellite cities, as well as other private km2 ponds. Mound settlements were found at the the settlement that is still Cambodia’s capital in informal sectors, such as street vendors or investments that have contributed to massive 2. Percentage of male employment in agri- area of Chamcar Andong in the Southwest of today. Although the structure of settlement those working in the entertainment industry changes in the urban landscape of Phnom culture below 50 percent contemporary Cambodia, and have been dated shows parallels to ancient Khmer style cities, are not listed in the official census of the RGC. Penh in the past decade. 3. Total population of the commune should back to 180 BC (Bong 2003). These areas show the style of architecture changed significantly The following images show the enormous exceed 2000 artifacts in a variety of strata and it is believed when the French protectorate began (1863- increase in size of the capital. The map also that they have been occupied for more than 1000 1953). At that time Phnom Penh had about demonstrates the considerable decrease and In Cambodia there are 23 provinces and 26 years (Vann 2003, pp.3-4). Circular earthworks 25,000 inhabitants, Udong about 10,000 and removal of water bodies such as lakes, canals cities containing about 14, 073 villages. 19.5% were discovered at locations near present day Battambang around 3,000 (Vann 2003, p.16). and rivers, as well as significant changes to the of the total population lives in urban areas (NIS Siem Reap, Angkor Archaeological Park, Phnom green landscape in all areas. The changes have 2010, p.5). The process of rural areas becom- Penh and Angkor Borei near Takeo. URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN resulted in increased flooding events because ing urban areas is called urbanization. The The Funan Empire was established through PHNOM PENH urbanization rate is calculated based on the Mon-Khmer people and immigrants, who The city of Phnom Penh is the largest urban growing proportion of the urban population brought Brahmanic-Buddhist culture to the agglomeration in the Kingdom of Cambodia compared to rural population. Cambodia’s region in the first century AD. Together they and has increased massively in size over the Male Female urbanization rate of 19.8% is slower than in created urban-like settlements with palaces and past ten years. It is located in the south-central neighboring Thailand (33.6 %) and Laos PDR houses, that were well known to neighboring region of the country at the confluence of the Total Population 6,516,054 6,879,628 (32 %) (NIS 2010, p.26). Chinese and Indian polities. Water management Tonle Sap, Mekong and Bassac rivers. These While Cambodia’s urban centers are develop- systems of the Funan Empire such as the “prek” rivers provide freshwater and river ecosystems Urban Population 1,255,570 1,358,457 ing very fast, the capital Phnom Penh can be that managed the annual cycle of flooding and that are important resources for sustainable described as the primate city of the country, made productive use of water rises, became environmental conditions. Phnom Penh’s area Mean Age at Marriage (years old) 28 26 whereas Siem Reap, Sihanoukville and Bat- characteristic of Khmer settlements and are is approximately 678.46km², which accounts for tambang are smaller, secondary cities. Urban still found today (Vann 2003, p.10). 0.37% of the country’s total area (Phnom Penh Literacy Rate in Phnom Penh (per 97 89 density refers to the number of people inhabit- Present urban areas in the Kingdom of Municipality 2013b). In 2013, Phnom Penh’s 100 persons, aged 15 and over) ing a given urban area. The map here clearly Cambodia are rooted in the ancient Khmer population was estimated to be 1,501,725 shows Phnom Penh as the most populated cities that arose with the establishment of the inhabitants (Phnom Penh Municipality 2013b). Literacy Rate in other urban areas 93 80 urban area in Cambodia. Infrastructure such Angkor Empire in the 9th century. Significant The city includes eight districts/municipalities (per 100 persons, aged 15 and over) as roads and water supply, as well as access are the so-called hydraulic cities of Angkor with 96 communes in total. The district of to education and health facilities have been that were built by Jayavarman II and located Mean Chey has the largest population with Fertility rate of women aged 15-49 2.1 enhanced considerably in order to respond in the Tonle Sap Lake’s basin. These settle- 205,761 people. years urban areas to the needs of ever increasing populations ments included water reservoirs, known as 32.4% of Phnom Penh citizens are aged 0 in these urban areas. Very often this develop- “baray”, that linked water to economic, social to 17, with 60.1% aged 18 to 60 and 8% aged Fertility rate of women aged 15-49 3.3 ment is driven by economic factors and private and religious systems (Vann 2003, p.13). Due over 61 (NCDD 2010). The most common formal years rural areas investors, and thus a pragmatic, though not to the great irrigation system made possible occupation of families living in Phnom Penh always sustainable approach, underlies these by the close proximity to the Tonle Sap Lake is within the service sector, which accounts improvements (STT 2012). basin and the water reservoirs, inhabitants for 57.87%, although 34.24% of the capital’s Cambodian Urban Population at a Glance (NIS 2011)
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Urban131127.indd 98 1/8/14 7:59 AM Urban Density
Data Source: United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA): Reclassification of Urban Areas in Camboidia 2011 http://arunatechnology.com (Aruna Technology Ltd.) Department of Geography (DoG), 2005
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Urban131127.indd 99 1/8/14 7:59 AM Phnom Penh (May 2003)
LEGEND
Water
Shallow water, high sediment content
High density settlement areas
Predominantly industry area (factories, big buildings, construction sotes)
Dense vegetation
Agriculture, mixed use, sparse vegetation
This image was aquired by the landsat 7 satellite in May 2003. The image data is shown as a so-called false colour composite of the channels 7 (shortwave infrared) in red, 5 (near infrared) in green and 3 (green) in blue. This combina- tion of image bands and colours is often used because it makes it easy to differentiate water, vegetation and human settlements with naked eye.
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Urban131127.indd 100 1/8/14 7:59 AM Phnom Penh (May 2003) Phnom Penh (May 2013)
LEGEND
Water
Shallow water, high sediment content
Sandy, barren soils, often indicating barking of earth
High density settlement areas
Predominantly industry area (factories or other buildings)
Dense vegetation
Agriculture, mixed use, sparse vegetation
This image was aquired by the landsat 8 satellite in May 2013. The image data is shown as a so-called false colour composite of the channels 7 (shortwave infrared) in red, 5 (near infrared) in green and 3 (green) in blue. This combina- tion of image bands and colours is often used because it makes it easy to differentiate water, vegetation and human settlements with naked eye.
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Urban131127.indd 101 1/8/14 7:59 AM Beginning in the early 2000s, the pace of Phnom Penh’s Foundation construction sped up tremendously, leading The Royal chronicles state that after the Siamese The Founding Myth of to new aesthetic standards being adopted, invasion of Angkor (1431), King Ponhea Yat Phnom Penh such as those found in neighboring countries (1405-1467) moved eastward to establish a like Vietnam, Thailand and China. It has also new capital in the area of Srey Santhor. When meant the loss of some important heritage the capital flooded, the new King’s palace was According to myth, Phnom Penh was sites, such as the former Phnom Penh tourist constructed around the rivers in Phnom Penh founded in the 15th century. “A rich office on Sisowath Quay (Vann 2003 p.121). in around 1434 and named Krong Chaktomuk. lady named Penh had her house built Phnom Penh’s recent urban development According to Khmer Historian and Linguist Dr. not far from the bank of the river, on has also seen Cambodia follow the worldwide Jean-Michel Filipi, Krong Chaktomuk is the a hillock with a cone-shaped mound trend towards the development of satellite short version of “Krong Chaktomuk Mongkol at its side. One day when the river was cities – metropolitan areas that are located in Sakalkampucheathipadei Sereysanthor Pavara swollen by rainwater, Daun Penh went the vicinity of a large urban area and remains Intapattaborei Rothreachsema Mohanokor”, down to the riverside and saw a big independent with its own infrastructure services. which may be translated as “Capital of the four koki tree swirling in an eddy not far However, most of the so called “satellite cities” arms, happy master of all Cambodia, wealthy, from the bank. She straightaway asked of Phnom Penh are connected to the existing noble town of Indraprastha, frontier of the her neighbors to board their canoes infrastructure of Phnom Penh in most cases Kingdom”. Although in the following centu- and grab the tree. They tied ropes simple city extensions. The RGC has approved ries the kingship moved to the locations of around the trunk and hauled the tree the construction of six satellite cities in the past Longvek and Udong, Phnom Penh remained to shore. As Daun Penh was cleaning ten years including Diamond Island “satellite an important economic location for foreign away the mud which coated the tree, city” in Tonle Bassac commune, Grand Phnom traders due to its location at the confluence of she discovered in a hollow of the trunk Penh International in Sensok, Camko City three rivers: Bassac, Tonle Sap and Mekong. In four bronze statues of the Buddha near Sensok, Boeung Kak Lake in Daun Penh, the early 17th Century, Phnom Penh’s inhabit- and one statue, the latter depicting a a future “satellite city” in Russey Keo district’s ants grew to number 20,000, including 3,000 standing deity holding a stick in one Chroy Chongva commune, and Ly Yong Phat’s Chinese. At this time “a new Chinese system hand and a conch in the other, with “satellite city” along National Road 6. According of weights and measurements entered the his hair tied up in a chignon in the to a real estate market study in 2012, the will Khmer language, as well as a new numerical Vietnamese style. Daun Penh and the of Cambodians to move into these city exten- system borrowed from the Cantonese language” people from the neighborhood were sions was still low due to the lack of amenities (Filipi 2012, p.10). With the new Royal Palace much delighted by this find, and they and the distance to “downtown” Phnom Penh in Phnom Penh, the city again became the ceremoniously brought the statues to (CBRE Cambodia 2012). Many of the “satellite capital of the Kingdom of Cambodia under Daun Penh’s house, where she built a city” projects also floundered in the face of the King Norodom in 1863 and has remained the temporary shelter to keep them. She global recession of the late 2000s. biggest and busiest urban centre until today. then asked the inhabitants to come and help her raise the mound beside her house to the size of a small hill, a phnom” (Filipi 2012, p.8).
(Filipi 2012, p.8) Photo by Rithy Lomor Pich
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Urban131127.indd 102 1/8/14 7:59 AM Architecture in the Capital visible, for example at the Sports Complex in as the as the National Sports Complex, were After independence from the French in 1953, Phnom Penh, was their resemblance to water constructed between 1962 and 1964 by Vann Phnom Penh’s number of inhabitants increased bodies of the Angkor architecture. Another Molyvan, and are currently under threat from rapidly from 364,000 people in 1950 to 760,000 example is the Institute of Foreign Languages being demolished to make way for housing in 1970. The growth in agricultural production (originally meant to be used as a teacher and economic development projects. The and the following economic boom in the 1960s, training college), which is characterized by National Sports Complex features space for lead to investments in the urban sector (Vann cross-ventilation, indirect lighting and good 80,000 spectators with 4,000 seats for guests of 2003). Colonial architecture that led Phnom water management. honor, a sports hall with 6,000 seats, an Olympic Penh to be known as the “Pearl of Asia” in the The period of Cambodia’s prosperity, creativ- size pool with 4,000 seats plus administrative early 20th century is still found in the city today, ity and modernity was disrupted in the period buildings and tennis courts, which were used such as the National Library near Wat Phnom or of war between 1970 and 1975 and under the during the 3rd Southeast Asian Games in Phnom the building of the Foreign Correspondent Club Khmer Rouge policy of forced de-urbanisation, Penh in 1965 (Vann 2003, p.65). (FCC) on the Riverside. The concepts of colonial which led to the emptying of Phnom Penh. In the architecture were expanded upon by inspir- decade of isolation and poverty that followed ing new Khmer architecture after Cambodia’s (1980-1990), the number of city inhabitants The traditional independence. Cambodia illustrated its new again grew slowly but steadily and by 1987 Cambodian house confidence and progress through this “New the city housed 584,000 people (Vann 2003). Khmer” architecture, especially in Phnom Penh As the population of Phnom Penh is set to The traditional Cambodian house featurs (Khmer Architecture Tours 2013). This modern increase further in the coming years, improved a wooden frame with gabled thatch roof, architecture was both innovative and dynamic infrastructure is necessary. Due to the fact that walls of woven bamboo and is raised on in adapting international characteristics. This socio-economic development is mainly driven stilts up to three meters high, wooden innovation can be compared to elements used by private investors and that the conservation staircase, blinds and about three rooms in the Bauhaus style, such as simplification to of heritage sites are not always valued by new including a bed room for the parents, avoid heavily loaded decoration, functional- developments, heritage buildings face the threat living room to receive visitors and one ity to use the available space to its maximum of being demolished. In addition, various public more bedroom. Food is prepared in a and creative minimalism to show the merger open spaces in the city’s centre that once were separate kitchen located near the house of modernity and tradition. The individuality reserved for air circulation and green spaces for and usually behind it. Livestock is kept of the design was accomplished through a leisure for the capital’s citizen and to beautify the below the house. (SCW 2006). Toilet combination of international styles with distinct city, have now been changed to serve private facilities are usually outside, and either Cambodian styles. interests. Major heritage buildings built in the improved or unimproved. Unimproved Famous Khmer architect and Head of Public colonial era and the Golden Age include the refers to a shared pit in the whole in Works and State Architecture during its Golden Institute of Foreign Languages (IFL, 1965-72), an open space or just a simple bucket Age between 1955 and 1970, Vann Molyvann, Central Market (1935), Chaktomuk Conference and improved refers to a pour-flush Photo by Hun Mady had a significant impact on New Khmer ar- Hall (1962), the Council of Development of latrine, ventilated latrine, connected chitecture. Main features of his architectural Cambodia (CDC, 1925) and the Ministry of to a public sewer and septic system. design covered functionality and aesthetics. For Post and Telecommunication and Cambodia example, his buildings were climate friendly, Post Office – Administration (1890), located and used natural air ventilation that flowed in the former French Quarter (Phnom Penh through air passages that were built into the Capital Hall 2010). Other important buildings walls. Another common characteristic of the and public areas that are still widely used for emerging New Khmer architecture that is still leisure activities by Phnom Penh citizens, such
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Urban131127.indd 103 1/8/14 7:59 AM Phnom Penh Walking Map
1 Royal University of Fine Arts (1920s) 2 Old Royal Villa (1900-1910) 3 National Museum (1917-1920s) 4 Round Corner Block (1940s-1960s) 5 Street 19 (colonial, 1960s) 6 Capitol Cinema (architect: Vann Molyvann) 7 Prom Bayon Cinema (1960s) 8 Deco Apartments (1935-1945) 9 Cinema Lux (1938) Ministry of Water Resources (1915-1925) Villa (1915-1925) Forestry Administration (1960s) Apartment Buildings (colonial, 1960s) Central Market (1937) Customs Office (1920s) Villa Hemakcheat Cinema (1950s) Intersection (colonial, 1960s) Hotel International (1900-1910) Wat Ounalom (1442)
Data Source: Khmer Architecture Tours
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Urban131127.indd 104 1/8/14 7:59 AM Drainage System and Waste Water In response to this regular flooding, the RGC The Urban Poor households. A slum household is one or a Management requested foreign donors to begin working While living conditions have generally improved group of individuals living under the same Phnom Penh is located on the alluvial lowland on Phnom Penh’s drainage system in order to development of Phnom Penh, they have not roof in an urban area, lacking one or more of formed by the Mekong River and the Tonle minimize the inundation and damage caused done so equally. A significant population of the following five amenities: durable housing; Sap. The old parts of the city are on a natural by local rainfall. This work began in the early urban poor lack opportunities and remain sufficient living area; access to improved water; levee and many of the new residential areas 2000s and the storm water drainage system highly vulnerable due to a variety of reasons. access to improved sanitation facilities; secure are located in swampy lowlands. When the city is expected to be completed by the end of Many of them live in so-called urban poor set- tenure. Since information on secure tenure is was planned, a water management system was 2015. However, the absence of a centralized tlements, which although not officially defined, not available for most countries, only the first introduced and primarily based on natural sewerage treatment system in Phnom Penh, generally denote communities or areas that four indicators are used to define slum house- sources such as the prekk and beng that were still poses great risks for the health of urban are distinctly poorer than their surroundings, holds (UN Habitat 2008, p.90). The following located in the city For instance the area that dwellers. This has led the RGC to examine the with inferior housing and services. Given the table shows that Laos PDR and Cambodia is nowadays know for its various coffee shops possibility of constructing the first waste water lack of a formal definition, the number of hold the highest prevalence or frequency of and beautiful residential housing, Boeung Keng treatment plant in Phnom Penh as part of its urban poor settlements in Phnom Penh is slum dwellers in urban areas in the Southeast Kang I, was once a lake that contributed to broader sewerage development plan. contested. The Municipality of Phnom Penh Asian region, which does not mean that every the capital’s irrigation system. To support the has identified 516 poor settlements (Phnom urban poor household is automatically a slum development of urban areas in low-lying areas Penh Capital 2012). Many of these are slum household. further away from the riverbanks, protective dikes were developed and spaces between dikes were filled. “At present, the primary flood risk Slum Households to the city is inadequate drainage capacity of (% of total) these artificially raised areas.” (Vann 2003, p.174). 79.3 The construction of outer ring dikes began 80 78.9 in the 1960’s, to protect Phnom Penh City from flooding of neighboring rivers, lakes and 70 swamps. Urban drainage facilities with func- 60 tions of draining storm water and domestic wastewater were improved gradually in line 50 with the development of the city. However, all 45.6 43.7 40.5 of the drainage facilities constructed since the 40 beginning of the 1900’s became dysfunctional due to old age, as well as poor maintenance 30 26 after the 1970’s. As a result, the city suffers from 20 occasional inundation and poor environmental conditions caused by stagnant wastewater in 10 the lowland areas, which cause deterioration of the residents’ living environment and posing 0 serious constraints to social and economic Laos development. Myanmar Vietnam Thailand Cambodia Philippines
Photo by STT Prevalence of Slum Dwellers in South-East Asian Urban Areas (Source: CDRI 2012, p.3)
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Urban131127.indd 105 1/8/14 7:59 AM Eviction and Relocation Hotspots
Over the past two decades some 150,000 With urban development driven by private people, equivalent to over 10% of the city’s cur- interests, civil society actors have worked to rent population, has been displaced (STT 2011). empower urban poor communities and advo- In the same time period, at least 54 relocation cated for more equitable development. In the sites have been established in peri-urban areas prominent case of some 20,000 people facing in the outer Khans (STT 2012b). Residents in eviction from the centrally located Boeung Kak relocation sites typically face more difficult lake, the community successfully mobilised to living conditions, including limited access to prevent the eviction of over 600 families. This employment opportunities, increased costs (e.g. however, is not a common case and most urban water and electricity) and decreased access to poor communities have lost their land. Many services such as health and education. A key areas where these poor communities live suffer challenge facing the urban poor in Phnom flooding, since they are located near lakesides, Penh is tenure insecurity. The RGC’s efforts riversides, or along canals. Many residents also in the land sector focused mainly on rural suffer from food insecurity due to limited liveli- areas, leaving much of Phnom Penh untitled. hoods, and are in significant debt to informal As such, the status of the land in many urban moneylenders. A significant number of the poor settlements remains unknown. The RGC city’s poor are also no longer owners of their commonly claims that the urban poor reside on homes but rent space in the city. Preliminary state public land and are therefore illegitimate research on the living standards of renters residents. A number of high profile cases in suggests they are even poorer than those of the 2000s show how poor communities have (untitled) owners, with renters often paying been denied adjudication under the law and significantly more for basic services such as have subsequently faced eviction (STT 2012c). water and electricity (STT 2013a).
Data Source: Sahmakum Teang Tnaut (STT) 2013, http://teangtnaut.org/ http://arunatechnology.com (Aruna Technology Ltd.) Department of Geography (DoG), 2005
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Urban131127.indd 106 1/8/14 7:59 AM URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN of 10 communes and 62 villages. 25% of the Battambang Walking Map BATTAMBANG overall area is covered by settlements. High Battambang is located about 300 kilometers and medium building density is concentrated northwest of Phnom Penh. Widely known as along both sides of the river, where the old town the “rice bowl” of Cambodia for its fertile soil, center can be found. More recent settlement the province preserves a rural character to this extension since the late 1990s has been less day. Battambang City, the provincial capital, controlled, leading to urban sprawl. 1 Wat Pipetharam covers a territory of 115 square kilometers. As The following walking map, a collabaration 2 Building of the Cantonese Association of 2010, approximately 146,224 (NCDD 2010) of the Battambang Municipality’s masterplan 3 Psar Nath inhabitants populated this urban agglomeration, team and Khmer Architecture Tours, draws 4 Shophouses next to the Chinese Temple making it one of the largest secondary cities attention to interesting architecture sites in 5 Chinese Temple / Chinese Spirit House in the country. The Municipality is comprised Battambang. 6 Corner Building and Villa 7 Street 2 ½: Series of Shop Houses 8 Chinese School (opposite of White Rose Restaurant) 9 Buffalo Alley Battambang Cinema (on Street 2) School Pi Thnou Apartment Building Sangker Cinema and Battambang Warehouse Department of Land Management Wat Damrey Sor Former canal south of Wat Damrey Sor
Data Source: Battambang Municipality – Master Plan Team Psa Nath 1948, National Archive of Cambodia in cooperation with Khmer Architecture Tours
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Urban131127.indd 107 1/8/14 7:59 AM The city as we perceive it today marks the 2. After 1907, the French authorities devised a end of a development process that started first urban plan for Battambang. A regular grid more than 150 years ago, in which Battambang system of well-defined streets was established. underwent rapid urbanization and transformed They built a water canal system, connected the from a small fishing village, stretching along river banks with bridges and constructed basic the banks of the Sangké River, into a modern urban infrastructure. The city began to flourish city and regional hub of major importance in as commercial and urban life was brought by the northwest. new dwellers. 3. A second urban development was created around 1926, envisioning a business and administrative centre. To link Battambang to the capital, a railway was constructed; the city was extended to the west until the new railway 1907 1926 1953 line. A market was built, right in the heart of the city on the location of a previous open air market. The structure, called Phsar Nath, still exists today and is a well-known landmark building of Battambang City. 4. During the Independence Period the urban layout of Battambang was quintupled in size. The city extended towards the north, east and south. A modernization program saw the construction of an airport, public facilities, administrative buildings, factory complexes, schools and a state university among other cultural and public facilities. 5. During the civil war and until the mid-90s, the city changed very little. Although many 1970 1993 2000 Source: Kambuja Monthly Illustrated Review, refugees from neighboring regions, seeking for 15 August 1965, p. 60 employment and shelter, settled in Battambang, Figure ground diagram of Battambang urban development over time expansion was limited to the southeast areas. Illustration by Battambang Municipality Master Plan team 1. In the beginning, Battambang was a very 6. The past two decades brought a massive small town with only one road and not more development leap, caused by the booming than 2500 residents. People built their wooden trade and small-scale business sector as well as houses along the Sangké stream, clustered the growing importance of Battambang as an around docent Buddhist monasteries. The educational and tourism center. Recent urban most prominent building of that time was growth caused the city to fray out along its the residence of the then governor, which edges, thus giving it a somewhat organic shape. was located inside a fort, and is known today as the Old Sala Kaet.
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Urban131127.indd 108 1/8/14 7:59 AM Existing Land-Use Battambang Municipality – 03, 2009
Data Source: Battambang Municipality – Master Plan Team
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Urban131127.indd 109 1/8/14 7:59 AM References
Bong, Sovath. 2003. The Ceramic Chronology of Phnom Penh Capital. 2012. The Phnom Penh Angkor Borei, Takeo Province, Southern Cambodia. Urban Poor Assessment: A Baseline Survey on the Doctoral Thesis in Anthropology. University of Social and Economic Situations and Capacity of Hawaii: Hawaii, USA. Existing Services in Urban Poor Communities. Phnom Penh Capital. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. CDRI. 2012. Cambodia Development Review. Cambodia’s Leading Development Policy Phnom Penh Capital Hall. 2010a. Jewel of Phnom Research Institute. Volume 16, Issue 2, June Penh. Available at:
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