NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS for BUILDING RESILIENCE in TOWNS and CITIES Case Studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion

NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS FOR BUILDING RESILIENCE IN TOWNS AND CITIES Case Studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion

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Asian Development Bank. Nature-based solutions for building resilience in towns and cities: Case studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2016.

1. Climate change resilience. 2. Nature-based adaptations. 3. Greater Mekong Subregion. i. Asian Development Bank.

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Printed on recycled paper Contents

Foreword xi

Message from the Nordic Development Fund xiii

Acknowledgments xv

Climate Change Core Groups Involved in Preparing the Resource Kit xv

Mekong Resource Kit Partner Organizations xvi Cambodia xvi Viet Nam xvi Lao People’s Democratic Republic xvii International Organizations xvii

Introduction 1

I.1 Purpose of This Publication 1

I.2 Trends and Regional Context for the Project 1

I.3 The Greater Mekong Subregion Climate Resilience in Cities Project 3 I.3.1 Economic Corridor Towns 3 I.3.2 Town Climate Change Core Groups as the Engines for Innovation 3 I.3.3 Output 1: Knowledge-Sharing Workshops and Policy Dialogue 5 I.3.4 Output 2: Resource Kit 7

1 Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 9

1.1 Principles for Applying Green Infrastructure to Build Resilience in Mekong Towns 9

1.2 Ten Strategies for Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions to Town Development 12

1.3 Lessons Learned by the Climate Change Core Groups in Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane 15 iv Contents

1.4 Conclusion 18

Bibliography 19

2 Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 21

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Infrastructure Matrix 21

2.3 Water and Flood Management 23 2.3.1 Constructed Wetlands 23 2.3.2 Drainage Corridors 23 2.3.3 Permeable Paving 24 2.3.4 Rainwater Harvesting 25 2.3.5 Stormwater Tree Pits 26 2.3.6 Urban River Terracing 27

2.4 Slope Stabilization 28 2.4.1 Brush Mattress 28 2.4.2 Live Cribwalls 29 2.4.3 Live Fascines 29 2.4.4 Live Fencing 30 2.4.5 Live Staking 31 2.4.6 Log Terracing 32 2.4.7 Palisades 33 2.4.8 Vegetated Gabions 33 2.4.9 Vegetated Geotextiles 34 2.4.10 Vegetated Revetments 36 2.4.11 Vegetated Riprap 36 2.4.12 Vetiver Grass 37

2.5 Pollution Management 38 2.5.1 Bioretention Ponds 38 2.5.2 Bioswales 38 2.5.3 Graywater Recycling 39 2.5.4 Rain Gardens 40

2.6 Energy, Heat, and Greenhouse Gas Management 41 2.6.1 Green Roofs and Walls 41 2.6.2 Solid Waste Management 41 2.6.3 Urban Tree Canopy 45 Contents v

2.7 Case Studies 46 2.7.1 Balephi, Nepal 46 2.7.2 Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam 49 2.7.3 Pasig River, Philippines 51 2.7.4 Putrajaya, Malaysia 53 2.7.5 Seoul, Republic of Korea 56 2.7.6 Sydney, Australia 59 2.7.7 Veracruz, Mexico 62 2.7.8 Case Study Sources 62

2.8 Additional Reading 63

3 Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 65

3.1 Building Resilience through Urban Planning 65 3.1.1 Why Urban Planning? 65 3.1.2 Problems with Current Mekong Urban Planning 66 3.1.3 Objectives of This Chapter 67

3.2 Urban Planning for Resilience: Five Guiding Principles 67 3.2.1 Guiding Principle 1: Protecting, Rehabilitating, and Mimicking Natural Systems 68 3.2.2 Guiding Principle 2: Water Conservation and Wise Management 72 3.2.3 Guiding Principle 3: Energy Conservation and Wise Management to Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels 76 3.2.4 Guiding Principle 4: Sustainable Design in Buildings and Sites 78 3.2.5 Guiding Principle 5: Transit-Oriented Design 82

3.3 Urban Planning for Climate Resilience: Essential Components and Support Systems 85 3.3.1 Building Resilience and Sustainability into the Town Development Vision 85 3.3.2 Building Resilience and Sustainability into the Town Strategy 88 3.3.3 Building Resilience and Sustainability into Local Area Plans 91 3.3.4 Building Resilience and Sustainability into Development Controls 94 3.3.5 Development Review Process 100 3.3.6 Impact Assessment as a Tool in Development Control 101 3.3.7 Indicators of Green Performance (Sustainability and Resilience) 103

3.4 Conclusions 106

3.5 Additional Reading 106 vi Contents

4 Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 109

4.1 Introduction 109

4.2 Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Steps 110

4.3 Impact and Vulnerability Assessment 111 Step 1: Determining the Scope and Target Infrastructure Assets 111 Step 2: Conducting the Baseline Assessment 113 Step 3: Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change on Your System 115 Step 4: Assessing the Capacity to Avoid or Recover from the Impacts 118 Step 5: Scoring and Ranking Vulnerability 119

4.4 Adaptation Planning 121 Step 6: Identifying Adaptation Options to Address Impacts 121 Step 7: Deﬁning the Priority Adaptation Measures 124 Step 8: Preparing the Adaptation Plan and Supporting Measures 128

4.5 Adaptation Implementation and Feedback 129 Step 9: Designing and Constructing Adaptation Measures 129 Step 10: Monitoring, Maintenance, and Repair 130 Step 11: Adaptation Phasing, Adjustment, and Retroﬁtting 132 Step 12: Replicating and Upscaling 132

4.6 Optional Steps and Tools for Large-Scale Plans and Projects 133

4.7 Additional Reading 135

Case Study 1: Building Climate Change Resilience in Battambang, Cambodia 137

5.1 Overview 137

5.2 The Work of the Climate Change Core Group 137

5.3 Case Studies 138 5.3.1 River Embankments 139 5.3.2 Railway and Surrounding Wetland Settlements 139

5.4 Key Conclusions and Lessons Learned 140

5.5 Battambang Core Group Members 141 Contents vii

Case Study 2: Building Climate Change Resilience in Kaysone Phomvihane 143

6.1 Overview 143

6.2 Case Study Site 1: Southern Floodgate and Canal 143

6.3 Case Study Site 2: Savanxay Market 144

6.4 Key Conclusions and Lessons Learned 144

Case Study 3: Building Climate Change Resilience in Dong Ha 147

7.1 Case Study Site 1: The Box Canal and Drainage Basin of Ward 5 147

7.2 Case Study Site 2: The Market-to-Port Zone 148

7.3 Lessons Learned 149

Appendixes 151

Appendix 1: Baseline Assessment Field Report Template 151

Appendix 2: Vulnerability Assessment Field Report Template 154

Appendix 3: Vulnerability Assessment Matrix 155

Appendix 4: Adaptation Planning Matrix 157

Appendix 5: Vulnerability Assessment Scoring Tools 158

Appendix 6: Vulnerability Assessment Report Contents Description 159

Appendix 7: Monitoring and Evaluation Framework 160

Appendix 8: Tools Supporting the Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Process 161

Appendix 9: Approach to Economic Analysis of Adaptation Options 165 A9.1 Introduction 165 A9.2 Methods 166 A9.3 Conclusions 169

Appendix 10: Glossary 170 viii Contents

Tables

1 Total and Urban Populations in the Greater Mekong Subregion, 2010–2030 2 2.1 Green Infrastructure Techniques and Development Needs Matrix 22 2.2 Slope Stabilization Combination Matrix 28 2.3 Solid Waste Management Techniques 42 2.4 Overall Biodiversity, 2003 (Prerestoration) vs 2008 58 3.1 Why Urban Planning and Management is a Good Framework for Promoting Green Infrastructure 66 3.2 Content of the Policy Instrument Supporting the Land-Use Zone Map 95 3.3 Safeguards Dealing with Flooding and Environmental Considerations 97 3.4 Most Common Environmental Topics in Urban Indicator Sets 103 3.5 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development National Level Green Growth Indicators 104 4.1 Guidance for Deﬁning the Scope of the Vulnerability Assessment 113 4.2 Vulnerability Assessment Matrix 116 4.3 Factors to Consider When Assessing Adaptation Capacity 119 4.4 Adaptation Planning Matrix 122 4.5 Adaptation Option Categories and Examples 123 4.6 Four Approaches to Design of Adaptation Measures in Infrastructure 125 4.7 Monitoring and Maintenance Framework 130 A9.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Approaches Presented 169

Figures

I.1 Location of Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane along the Greater Mekong Subregion Economic Corridors 4 I.2 Project Phases and Outputs 5 I.3 Project Workshops 6 I.4 Who Will Find This Publication Useful? 7 2.1 Cross-Section of Components of Permeable Paving 25 2.2 Illustration of a Sophisticated Rainwater Harvesting System and Its Uses 25 2.3 Cross-Section Illustration of the Components of a Stormwater Tree Pit 26 2.4 Cross-Section Illustration of Components Involved in the Use of Vegetated Gabions 34 2.5 Cross-Section Illustration of Vegetated Revetments, Including Components Installed Below and Above the Water Line 36 2.6 Stages of Solid Waste from Extraction through to Emissions and Their Offsets 42 2.7 Stages in the Conversion of Solid Waste to Energy 43 2.8 Illustration of Mulch Around the Base of a Tree 45 2.9 Map and Graph Illustrating Urban Tree Canopy in Cuyahoga, Ohio, United States 45 2.10 Illustration of Bioengineering Components Involved in the Restabilization of the Balephi Landslide Site 47 2.11 Illustration of the Regions And Components Involved in the Construction and Function of the Putrajaya Wetlands 54 2.12 Illustration of the Cheonggyecheon River Restoration Plan 57 2.13 Illustration of Plans to Construct the Homebush Bay Wetlands 60 3.1 Town Master Plan and Zoning System in Battambang, Cambodia 66 3.2 Principles for Building Urban Resilience through Green Infrastructure 67 3.3 The Green Network Concept 68 3.4 Urban Forest Strategy of Melbourne, Australia 68 3.5 Citywide Green Network Plan in Hamburg, Germany 69 Contents ix

3.6 Residential Area before Green Street Redevelopment in Heidelberg, Melbourne, Australia 73 3.7 Schematic Illustration of Situation in Heidelberg, Melbourne, Australia 74 3.8 Vegetation Cover Increase from 1986 to 2007 in Singapore 75 3.9 Watersheds for Rainwater Collection in Singapore 76 3.10 Buildings with Potential for Small Wind Turbines in Central Sydney, Australia 77 3.11 Local Environment Plan and Zoning System in Sydney, Australia 78 3.12 Sustainable Building Design Best Practice in Berkeley, California, United States 80 3.13 Sustainable Design Categories and Guidance by Yarra City Council, Melbourne, Australia 81 3.14 Urban Design for Transit-Oriented Development in Paris, France 83 3.15 Examples of Transit-Oriented Design in Edmonton, Canada 84 3.16 Laneways and Bikeways Provide Excellent Connectivity in Melbourne, Australia 84 3.17 Australian Guidance for Increasing Connectivity and Green Streets in Towns 85 3.18 Essential Ingredients for Mekong Town Planning Frameworks 86 3.19 Concept of the Healthy Connected City Network of Neighborhood Centers and City Connections in Portland, Oregon, United States 89 3.20 Plan Melbourne City Strategy 90 3.21 Bird’s Eye View of Future Greenery System (in 2020) for the Urban Area of Battambang, Cambodia 92 3.22 Aerial Photo of Study Area (left) and Select Site Photos (right) 92 3.23 Local Area Plan of Gisborne Emphasizing Enhancement and Maintenance of Natural Systems 93 3.24 An Indicative Cross-Section Showing How the Drainage Line Is to Be Protected 94 3.25 Zoning Plan in Mildura, Victoria, Australia 96 3.26 Development Application Review Process in Melbourne, Australia 101 3.27 Green Growth Indicators in the Republic of Korea 105 4.1 Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Process 109 4.2 The Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Process 111 4.3 Baseline Assessment Components 114 4.4 Examples of Climate Change Threats 115 4.5 Adaptation Planning Process 121 4.6 Adaptation Implementation and Feedback Process 129 4.7 Components of a Monitoring and Maintenance Plan 131 5.1 Climate Change Hot Spots in Battambang 138 5.2 Kampong Seima Irrigation Canal System 139 A8.1 Economic Assessment of Climate Change Impact and Adaptation 162 A8.2 Geotechnical Survey Data Code 163 A9.1 Selecting the Suitable Economic Approach for Assessing Climate Change Adaptation Options 166

Foreword

Climate-related disasters increasing around the world have led to a sense of alarm. These include extreme weather events such as ﬂoods and typhoons, and slow onset changes such as sea level rise. As a result, irreplaceable losses occur across all sectors of the economy. Affected communities face long-term socioeconomic impacts due to the diversion of scarce economic resources from required development to emergency responses. Nature-based solutions, or green infrastructure, can play a signiﬁcant role by offsetting such losses to a certain degree. Green infrastructure approaches contribute to building resilience by rehabilitation and expansion of natural ecosystems within built areas.

This publication highlights the results of a successful partnership between the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the International Centre for Environmental Management (ICEM) with cofinancing from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF). This was implemented through a technical assistance on climate resilience in cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS).1 ICEM’s demonstrated and widely tested expertise in climate adaptation and mitigation methodology provided the technical basis for the study. Cofinancing from the NDF provided the impetus for capacity building and knowledge sharing of international good practices. This was done through provincial and regional workshops in the three GMS towns specifically selected for the study due to their unique characteristics of riverine and coastal flood vulnerability. These included Battambang (Cambodia) with its large flood- and drought-prone watershed area and the Great Tonle Sap Lake; Kaysone Phomvihane (Lao People’s Democratic Republic) which faces frequent extreme flooding along the Mekong River; and Dong Hoi (Viet Nam), the typhoon-prone coastline city threatened by sea level rise, storm surge, and flash flooding. Thus, learning covered a broad range of climate change-related issues such as the process of assessing climate change impacts and vulnerabilities, recording data, identifying and prioritizing adaptation measures, and preparing and implementing adaptation plans. Institutional mechanisms and technical measures for application and wider replication were identified from the experience gained from the three towns.

A core group of key players involved in climate change adaptation planning was established in each town. This comprised scientists, planners, government officials, nongovernment organizations and women’s unions. A “train the trainers” approach was followed by the core groups to ensure systemic capacity building. This also fostered cross-sector collaboration and citizens’ ownership, which is key to building resilience. The core groups helped to identify adaptation measures including application of alternative technology. These included green

1 ADB. 2012. Greater Mekong Subregion: Climate Resilience in Cities. Manila. https://www.adb.org/projects/46252-001/ main#project-pds xii Foreword

infrastructure measures to complement structural solutions and climate-prooﬁng techniques for ﬂood control and slope stabilization. As a result, comprehensive adaptation plans were prepared for socially inclusive urban climate resilience in each town.

This publication summarizes the rich seven-volume “Resource Kit on Building Resilience and Sustainability in Mekong Towns.”2 It includes the principles of green infrastructure and measures for building resilience; nature-based solutions of special relevance to Mekong towns, grouped into four categories of water and ﬂood management, slope stabilization, and pollution management; the urban planning and management framework required for mainstreaming of green infrastructure, in particular, the role of town master planning and zoning schemes; the process for conducting vulnerability assessment; and includes case studies in building urban resilience in the selected cities.

There is an opportunity for developing member countries to build on this learning and replicate institutional and technical measures within and outside the GMS. Progress in implementing national climate change mitigation and adaptation policies especially in urban areas is limited, largely due to awareness and institutional, technical, and ﬁnancial limitations. A step forward is to advance the process of establishing an adaptation network between cities for city-to-city mentoring. This would also help scale up effective solutions through demonstration impact. Reforms in planning processes to systematically mainstream resilience in infrastructure development may range from the process of preparing and reviewing master plans and zoning schemes, to the design and management of urban infrastructure such as ﬂood gates, drainage and sewerage, ports, markets, roads, and river training.

This publication highlights the need for integrating these principles into infrastructure policy, planning, and design. The value of the strong ownership and institutional commitment toward climate change adaptation and resilience built through the participatory and “hands-on process” has also been demonstrated. There is merit in maintaining this momentum by leveraging partnerships that optimize the competitive advantage of partners. These would extend to outreach in policy shifts, innovations in planning, design, and implementation together with continued training and capacity building.

Bambang Susantono Vice-President for Knowledge Management and Sustainable Development Asian Development Bank

2 ICEM. Resource Kit for Building Resilience and Sustainability in Mekong Towns. http://icem.com.au/portfolio-items/ resource-kit-for-building-resilience-and-sustainability-in-mekong-towns/ Message from the Nordic Development Fund

All over the world, urban populations are growing fast, projected to increase from 54% to 66% of the global population by 2050, with close to 90% of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa.3 That rapid and unplanned growth brings with it great challenges for environmental quality and sustainability—all made more serious by climate change. Cities and towns will need to play a crucial role in addressing those challenges, by mitigating the scale of climate change and reducing vulnerability to its negative effects. Cities are a growing source of greenhouse gas emissions. Low-carbon pathways are essential in reducing the contribution of urban areas to greenhouse gases. Equally important are urban adaptation plans and measures to build resilience to the changes. A foundation strategy for both those imperatives—mitigation and adaptation— is planning and managing urban areas according to ecosystem principles and by emphasizing green infrastructure solutions.

Vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning processes with close engagement of relevant stakeholders, including national and local governments, open the way to the promotion and development of green infrastructure. Vulnerability assessments document past extreme events and bring in climate change projections to determine potential impacts on infrastructure, communities, and areas. Adaptation planning deﬁnes appropriate responses to those impacts. When assessed and planned through a green infrastructure lens, the solutions explore options which bring greater local self-reliance through the use of local materials, labor, and capacities. Bioengineering, and local involvement in design, construction, management, monitoring, and repair are all key ingredients in resilience building, as a complement or alternative to conventional measures.

The financing partnership between the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Nordic Development Fund (NDF), together with the technical capabilities of ICEM–International Centre for Environmental Management, has applied that nature-based approach in identifying climate change vulnerabilities and development of relevant adaptation options in three towns of the Greater Mekong Subregion. Working closely with local government, nongovernment organizations, women’s groups, and professional associations, adaptation measures were defined town-wide by overlaying climate change projections on town plans and zoning schemes, and for specific strategic infrastructure systems such as drainage corridors, river embankments, floodgates, and markets. The experience and lessons from this highly collaborative project are captured in this publication.

As a ﬁnancing institution with a focused mandate on climate change and development, NDF is committed to promoting the adaptation and mitigation agendas of developing countries. Since the launch of the climate mandate, NDF has built a track record of adding value by investing in drivers of climate change mitigation and adaptation in over 20 countries, including the Greater Mekong

3 United Nations. 2014. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision. New York. xiv Message from the Nordic Development Fund

Subregion countries. Nordic countries score consistently high on global urban indices and a large repository exists of functioning Nordic urban solutions and knowledge for sharing through NDF- supported projects such as the one described here. The project provides multidisciplinary measures, tools, and lessons of value to similar towns and cities globally.

This publication rightfully emphasizes the importance of availability and reliability of climate data and of ensuring the availability of skilled human resources as the key aspects in achieving sustainable adaptation options in urban planning. Following the valuable lessons learned from the collaboration between ADB and NDF, a good platform now exists for further work. One relevant mechanism for taking forward such work is the Project Readiness Improvement Fund recently established at the initiative of ADB and NDF. This will help countries strengthen climate adaptation and mitigation components of investment projects, improve project design and procurement readiness, and accelerate implementation. The fund will also be an important enabling factor in achieving the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions of several countries in Asia, thus contributing to relevant, solid, country-owned adaptation and resilience actions. An increased focus on project preparation together with a deepened knowledge and innovation around functioning adaptation options, as well as an enhanced focus on education and long-term capacity building are the best ingredients for further work in addressing increasing urban resilience challenges in a systematic way.

Leena Klossner Vice President and Deputy Managing Director Nordic Development Fund Acknowledgments

This publication summarizes the rich seven- administration officer. The multidisciplinary volume “Resource Kit for Building Resilience country team specialists Virachith and Sustainability in Mekong Towns”, prepared Douangchanh, climate change specialist under TA 8186-REG: Greater Mekong –Lao PDR; Pho Duc Tung, climate change Subregion: Climate Resilience in Cities, funded specialist–Viet Nam; Try Thuon, climate change by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the specialist–Cambodia; Redmond Macnamar, Nordic Development Fund (NDF). urban planner (Hansen Partnership); Mai Ky Vinh, GIS specialist; and Luong Thi Quynh Mai, The technical assistance project was led by training/workshop coordinator. Sonia Chand Sandhu, senior advisor to the ADB Vice-President for Knowledge Management The Resource Kit benefited greatly from and Sustainable Development; and Aldrin the guidance and inputs of Jeremy Warford, Plaza, urban development specialist; supported senior advisor, NDF; Kriangkrai Thitimakorn, by Tadeo Culla, associate social development national programme officer, Sustainable officer and Jake Tio, environment impact Communal Services, Embassy of Sweden, assessment consultant. Bangkok; and Richard Carlos Worden, capacity building team leader, ADAPT Asia-Pacific Special thanks to Florian Steinberg, senior Project, United States Agency for International urban development specialist (retired), Development (USAID)/Regional Development Urban and Water Division of the Southeast Mission for Asia. Asia Department, for initiating the technical assistance; and Sandra Nicoll, country director, Special thanks to the ADB Department Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), of External Relations Publishing team: ADB, for her country level leadership and Anna Sherwood, senior communications engagement; and Cinzia Losenno, senior climate specialist; Keech Hidalgo, associate change specialist (climate change adaptation) communications officer (publishing) for of the Sustainable Development and Climate overall coordination of the publication; Change Department, for peer review during the Rommel Marilla for layout; Tony Victoria, preparation process. associate communications coordinator for graphics and cover design; and Leo Magno, The Resource Kit was prepared by ICEM senior communications officer, for editorial — International Centre for Environmental quality and compliance. Management, led by Jeremy Carew-Reid, international climate change specialist. The multidisciplinary technical team comprised Climate Change Core Groups Involved of Jeremy Sung, climate change specialist in Preparing the Resource Kit and project manager; Luke Taylor, ecosystem specialist and project manager; Penny Beames, The city-specific Climate Change Core Groups, communications specialist; Julia Winter, with multidisciplinary and cross-sector expertise, environmental engineer; and Ha Thi Hoang Lan, tested the vulnerability assessment methods xvi Acknowledgments

that were applied to develop socially inclusive Mekong Resource Kit urban climate resilience adaptation plans in Partner Organizations each town. Their contribution for building stakeholder ownership and diligence toward the Cambodia effectiveness of the “train the trainers” approach Department of Public Works, Provincial is sincerely acknowledged. Department of Environment (PDE), Provincial Department of Public Works and Transport Battambang, Cambodia (PDPWT), Provincial Department of Water Vong Piseth, Sieng Eam Wounzy, Ear Resources and Meteorology (PDOWRAM), Kimchheng, Kem Sokuntheary, Khoeu Sophal, Provincial Department of Urban Planning, Nou Chharvivann, Chea Vong Narith, Mao Sok Construction and Cadastral, Provincial San, Nou Sean, Iv Ngorn, Ya Sophat, Kea Chhun, Technical Unit of Water Supply, Provincial Yan Bophay, Seng Sorath, Phok Sinmary, Song Department of Health, Provincial Red Cross Soeung, Sok Kina, Nou Chamroeun, Thuch Provincial Electricity Transmission Line (EDC), Vannarath, Chheng Sivutha, Nhek In Rotha, Battambang Governors Office, Battambang Tuy Rong, Ty Kim Heng, Pich Leakhena, Kun Municipality Office, Battambang Office Ratanak, Keo Putchenda, Chhoeung Vuthy, of Drainage Systems and Water Pollution Soeung Bora, Yong Tonghan, Chin Vuthy, El Treatment, PDPWT, Battambang Office of Sales, Kim Chorng, Touch Monyroth, Kok Han, Legal Services and EIA, PDE, Battambang Office Horm Heng, Samrith Chhorn, Sourn Sokhen, of Meteorology, PDOWRAM, Battambang Mao Siny, Lim Ymeng, and Carmen Kugele. Office of Agricultural Extension, Provincial Department of Agriculture, Battambang Office Dong Ha, Viet Nam of Municipal Public Works, Battambang Office +RjQJ4XkQ&KtQK1JX\ӉQ4XӕF7XҩQ1JX\ӉQ of Municipal Beauty and Waste Management, 7Kӏ7KX+RjQJ9ăQ7KLӅQ+ӗ6ӻ+LӅQ7UҫQ Battambang Office of Administration and 7UӑQJ&ѭӡQJ1JX\ӉQĈӭF3KѭѫQJ7UҫQ7Kӏ Finance, Battambang Office of Planning and 3KRQJ/DQ1JX\ӉQ;XkQ'ѭѫQJ7UҫQ+ӳX Commune/Sangkat Support, Battambang 7KjQK7UҫQ4XDQJ.KRD/r7KL4XǤQK6D Office of Urban Development, Battambang 7UҫQ9ăQ7KDQK.KXҩW1JӑF0LQK1JX\ӉQ Office of Tourism, Battambang Office of Urban +ӗQJ3KRQJ1JX\ӉQ7KDQKĈӗQJ/r&Kt+ӗQJ Planning, Construction and Land Management, 7UҫQ4XDQJ7ƭQK1JX\ӉQ7Kӏ7KXǤ1JD7UѭѫQJ Battambang Office of Social Affairs and 9ăQ+ѭQJ7UҫQ7Kӏ7K~\+ҵQJ+RjQJ1JӑF Rehabilitation, Aphivath Srey Commune &ҧQKĈRjQ7Kӏ0LQK+ҧLDQG/r7Kӏ7K~\/RDQ Office, Sla Ket Commune Office, O Char Commune Office, Prek Preah Sdech Commune Kaysone Phomvihane, Lao People’s Office, Chamkar Samrong Commune Office, Democratic Republic Ratanak Sangkat Commune Office, Toul Ta Ek Sengthong Vangkeomany, Phavanh Commune Office, Svay Por Commune Office, Bualuanglath, Phouthalom Saysanavongphet, and Kdol Dountiev Commune Office. Phomma Vongphachith, Daovanh Phetphansy, Souvanh Sengchamphone, Vanthong Viet Nam Xayphavong, Khamsy Boulom, Hongkham Agriculture Department–Quang Tri Xayakhom, Oukham Phounprakorn, Peoples Committee, Planning and Financial Bounthalangsy Khammanivong, Sanchone Department–Quang Tri Department of Rural Dysameu, Nuanlahong Inthilath, Ounkham and Agriculture Development, Quang Tri Phiewphachanh, Thoune Saychandy, Lamphan Department of Flood and Storm Damage Sangboutho, Vatthana Pongvilay, Lamkeo Prevention, Planning Department–Quang Souvannalat, Orathai Chansity, and Viengkham Tri Construction Department, Quang Sengsoulichanh. Acknowledgments xvii

Tri Department of Ocean, Islands and Public Works and Transport, Savannakhet Hydrometeorology, Quang Tri Department of Provincial Department of Public Works and Environmental Protection, Dong Ha Department Transport (PDPWT), Housing Urban Planning of Natural Resources and Environment, Dong and Environment Office–PDPWT, Road- Ha Urban Management Department, Dong Ha Bridge Office–PDPWT, Kaysone Phomvihane Peoples Committee, Trieu Phong Department of Urban Development and Administration Finance and Planning, Quang Tri Transportation Office, Kaysone Phomvihane Cabinet Office, Consultancy Company, Department of Kaysone Phomvihane Office of Public Works PPMU of Investment and Construction, Dong and Transport, Kaysone Phomvihane Natural Ha Urban Environmental Center, Dong Ha Resources and Environment Office, Kaysone Department of Economics and Infrastructure, Phomvihane Women’s Union, Meteorology Trieu Phong Department of Natural Resources and Hydrology Division–Savannakhet Natural and Environment, Dong Ha Department of Resources and Environment Department, Planning and Finance, and Technical Appraisal and Kaysone Phomvihane Agriculture and Department–Quang Tri Department of Forestry Office. Transportation. International Organizations Lao People’s Democratic Republic NDF, ADB, ICEM, Swedish International Urban Development Division–Department Development Agency, USAID, and German of Housing and Urban Planning–Ministry of International Development Agency.

Sonia Chand Sandhu Jeremy Carew-Reid Senior Advisor to the Vice-President International Climate Change Specialist for Knowledge Management International Centre for Environmental Management and Sustainable Development Asian Development Bank

Introduction

I.1 Purpose of This Publication three groups, representing towns facing the full range of climate change challenges found in the This publication emphasizes the need to GMS, were the central force in conducting the recognize rehabilitating natural systems with demonstration vulnerability assessment and nature based solutions as key for building adaptation planning work of the project. They sustainability and resilience in urban areas.4 wished to share some of those experiences with It highlights the inextricable link of the two their planning and engineering counterparts in imperatives of resilience and sustainability in other Mekong towns in the form of consolidated town development, as the solutions to one lessons. More detailed lessons learned are satisfy the needs of the other. This publication provided in each of the town story chapters. describes green infrastructure as nature based solutions for resilience to climate change This chapter introduces users to the GMS adaptation for building better and more livable Climate Resilience in Cities technical assistance Mekong towns. It is a compendium of resources, project of the Asian Development Bank (ADB). ideas, and information sourced from around It describes in summary form the Resource Kit for the world, referenced to allow users to follow Building Resilience and Sustainability in Mekong through more deeply on topics of special Towns, which is the main documented outcome interest. It summarizes in case studies the of the project, and how it can guide town experience of three Greater Mekong Subregion planning throughout the GMS.5 It is directed (GMS) towns—Battambang, Dong Ha, and mainly at small and medium-sized Mekong Kaysone Phomvihane. towns but has immediate relevance for any size urban area. The publication provides guidance for wide application of green infrastructure as an alternative and essential adjunct to conventional I.2 Trends and Regional Context town infrastructure and development planning. for the Project This chapter distills some of the lessons learned by the three town climate change The need for Mekong towns to act now in core groups involved in the project—from building resilience and sustainability has never Battambang on the Northwest of Tonle Sap been more urgent. The region is experiencing Lake in Cambodia, Dong Ha on the central rapid urbanization with cities expanding ﬁve coast of Viet Nam, and Kaysone Phomvihane times faster than those in member countries of lying on the Mekong River in Southern Lao the Organisation for Economic Co-operation People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). The and Development (OECD). In the next 50 years,

4 Resilience is the capacity for a socioecological system to absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change and adapt, reorganize, and evolve in ways that improve the sustainability of the system. 5 ADB. 2015. Resource Kit for Building Resilience and Sustainability in Mekong Towns. Prepared by International Centre for Environmental Management (ICEM) for the Asian Development Bank and Nordic Development Fund. Manila (TA 8186-REG). 2 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

urban growth in the GMS is expected primarily from the west, the other from the east—some in small and medium-sized cities and peri- countries of the region also experience severe urban areas along existing and new growth drought. Climate change is projected to corridors. The GMS, consisting of Cambodia, bring more extreme conditions to the region, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and increasing the frequency and severity of climate Yunnan Province of the People’s Republic of and hydrological events. Sea level rise, storm China (PRC), the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, surge, increased flood levels and duration, and and Viet Nam, had a population in 2010 of more extensive and unpredictable droughts about 320 million, of which less than 25% were threaten populations and critical infrastructure urban. By 2030, the GMS urban populations across the GMS.6 are expected to rise by about 60%, but the large cities in the region will only experience a modest In the GMS, urban development is largely driven increase of about 30%. The big population by project-level design which fails to adequately increases will be in the smaller cities and towns consider its functioning in extreme events, (Table 1). area-wide effects and sustainability, and the maintenance of multiple uses of the affected The extensive coastline, riverine and low-lying sites. Climate change is rarely taken into wetland areas, and seasonal variability make the account, a situation which is aggravated by the GMS countries especially vulnerable to storms “language gap” between hydrometeorological and floods. Short and steep watersheds in the agencies and infrastructure developers. The upland areas are also subject to frequent flash information on climate change that is made flooding and landslides. Despite being under available is often of little practical use to the influence of two monsoon seasons—one design engineers and town planners. Even with

Table 1: Total and Urban Populations in the Greater Mekong Subregion, 2010–2030

Urban Population Assuming % Urban for 2020 and 2030 2010 Population 2020 Population 2030 Population Total Urban Urban Total Urban Urban Total Urban Urban Country (million) (%) (million) (million) (%) (million) (million) (%) (million) Cambodia 14.14 21.41 3.03 15.89 27 4.21 17.36 34 5.87 PRC Guangxi 47.19 24.01 11.33 53.17 28 14.64 59.90 32 18.91 Yunnan 44.83 24.00 10.76 50.51 28 13.91 56.91 32 17.97 Lao PDR 6.20 34.45 2.14 7.05 48 3.38 7.75 61 4.70 Myanmar 47.96 35.42 16.99 51.69 44 22.57 54.33 53 28.55 Thailand 69.12 33.48 23.14 72.09 39 27.81 73.32 46 33.62 Viet Nam 87.85 30.79 27.05 99.36 37 36.27 101.48 42 42.59 Total 317.29 94.43 349.75 122.79 371.07 152.21

PRC = People’s Republic of China, Guangxi = Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Lao PDR = Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Yunnan = Yunnan Province. Sources P. Rogers. 2012. Water-Energy Nexus: Sustainable Urbanization in the Greater Mekong Subregion-Balancing Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability. Harvard University. http://southasiainstitute.harvard.edu/ website/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Peter-Rogers-2012-2.pdf; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2011.World Economic and Social Survey 2011. New York: United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/ desa/policy/wess/wess_current/2011wess.pdf; Yunnan and Guangxi projected from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2004. Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Atlas of the Environment (First Edition). Manila.

6 ICEM. 2013. Mekong Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change (ARCC). http://icem.com.au/portfolio-items/ mekong-arcc/?portfolioID=2631 Introduction 3

appropriate spatial information on regular and due to their distinctive climate change extreme climate events, area-wide approaches challenges, their rapidly growing populations to adaptation planning which assess urban and economies, and the large planned ADB infrastructure proposals as systems rather than infrastructure investment programs linked to individual assets are not normal practice in GMS corridor development. They are capitals in urban planning. their respective provinces and important urban centers for national and regional socioeconomic Climate Resilience in Cities, a 1-year technical development (Figure I.1). assistance project in the GMS supported by ADB, was designed to begin to address some of Dong Ha and Kaysone Phomvihane are situated the constraints to building resilience in small and within the East–West Economic Corridor, while medium-sized towns. The project culminated in Battambang sits in the Southern Economic the preparation of this publication by assessing Corridor of the GMS. vulnerability of the three project towns and some of their key infrastructure systems and The three towns are part of a wider body of by involving multidisciplinary core groups to work being undertaken by national governments plan for climate change and help connect with support from ADB, other development planning and infrastructure design to climatic partners, and private sector investors aimed at and site realities. consolidating the economic corridors as the principal focus of regional connectivity and Engineers and planners in Mekong towns economic prosperity: recognize the importance of building ƷɆ Battambang is one of three towns in sustainability and climate resilience in urban Cambodia targeted by ADB’s Southern areas. They understand that to do so will require Economic Corridor Towns Development significant changes to current town planning and Project (SECTDP). Battambang has also development decision-making processes and been identified as a city where several climate practice. What those changes should be and resilience measures will be implemented how to make them remains relatively unexplored under the Pilot Program for Climate in the GMS. This publication, shaped by more Resilience (PPCR);7 than 100 local town planners and engineers from ƷɆ Dong Ha is one of three towns in Viet Nam the three towns, helps fill that gap in knowledge targeted by ADB’s GMS Corridor Towns and practice. Development Project (CTDP); and ƷɆ Kaysone Phomvihane is one of three towns in the Lao PDR participating in the I.3 The Greater Mekong Subregion GMS East–West Economic Corridor Towns Climate Resilience in Cities Project Development Project (EWECTDP).

I.3.1 Economic Corridor Towns I.3.2 Town Climate Change Core Groups as Over the course of a year between 2013 the Engines for Innovation and 2014, ADB, with support from the As the main focus of capacity building and Nordic Development Fund, commissioned action, climate change core groups of 20–40 the International Centre for Environmental municipal and provincial representatives, Management (ICEM) to provide technical technical experts, and nongovernment assistance to Battambang, Dong Ha, and representatives were established in each of the Kaysone Phomvihane to strengthen their target towns to undertake all work associated resilience to climate change. with the technical assistance project. Those core groups were involved in the use of tools to plan The three towns were selected for this and build climate resilience, with the vision to demonstration and capacity building project make future town planning and infrastructure

7 In 2008, the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) was initiated through the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF), under the Climate Investment Funds (CIF). This program builds upon national adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs) to fund technical assistance and investments to support countries’ efforts to integrate climate risk and resilience into core development planning and implementation. Through the PPCR, a country-speciﬁc Strategic Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR) was developed for Cambodia and endorsed by the PPCR Subcommittee in June 2011. The SPCR sets out a road map for developing large-scale investment opportunities as well as capacity strengthening to improve the country’s resilience.

Introduction 5

investments cost-effective and robust by I.3.3.1 Baseline, Impact, and Adaptation considering climate change impacts. Workshops The 4-day baseline, impact, and adaptation Through the project, the core groups applied workshops conducted during December 2013 hands-on vulnerability assessment and and January 2014 were designed to engage adaptation planning tools to assess and rank the municipal and provincial technical experts in an impacts of climate change on specific strategic on-the- job process of assessing the vulnerability infrastructure and areas and to formulate locally of strategic infrastructure and areas to climate appropriate adaptation responses to those change impacts and to identify preliminary impacts. At the town-wide level, they reviewed adaptation measures to address the impacts. spatial master plans and defined climate change hot spots and safeguards. This chapter distills The workshops focused on cross-sector and describes those core group experiences into collaborative and field-based exercises in a set of resources to share with planners from applying and adjusting the climate change similar towns throughout the region. assessment and adaptation planning methodology to local conditions. The The intended outcome of the project was an project team guided workshop participants “enhanced understanding of climate change in assessing the impacts of two or three sites impacts and adaptation options by key and infrastructure systems in the towns and in stakeholders in GMS cities.”8 To achieve this defining relevant adaptation measures. There outcome, the project was organized around two was an initial scoping phase in each town in outputs (Figure I.2): which target sites and infrastructure were ƷɆ Output 1: Knowledge-sharing workshops and identified by local government officers against policy dialogue a set of priority setting criteria, including areas ƷɆ Output 2: Resource Kit for Building Resilience subject to past flooding, infrastructure of and Sustainability in Mekong Towns strategic importance to the town economy, and, if feasible, infrastructure which involved or is I.3.3 Output 1: Knowledge-Sharing planned to involve ADB investments. Workshops and Policy Dialogue Output 1 comprised three rounds of 3–4-day Over the course of this initial round of workshops. Each town conducted the first two workshops, participants used field templates and workshops on baseline and impact assessment workshop criteria and matrices in three steps in and on adaptation planning. The third workshop their assessment of the target sites: was a combined regional event involving the (i) Scoping and baseline assessment three town core groups sharing their experiences (ii) Impact and vulnerability assessment and working together in four languages (iii) Definition and assessment of adaptation simultaneously. options

Figure I.2: Project Phases and Outputs

Phase II: Phase I: Climate change Phase III: Phase IV: Phase V: Scoping and impact and Adaptation Resource kit Resource kit baseline phase vulnerability response production dissemination assesssment

Output 1 Output 2

Source: ADB and ICEM.

8 ADB. 2016. Completion Report: Climate Resilience in Cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Manila. p. 3. 6 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure I.3: Project Workshops and policy adjustments needed to facilitate their implementation. The main strategy for achieving sustainability and resilience in town development is to promote nature based Regional Knowledge-Sharing Workshop adaptation. Volume 2 is a guide to the kinds of green infrastructure measures discussed by the core groups and Volume 3 provides best practice principles and cases from other countries of how green infrastructure is applied systematically within the overall urban planning framework. Battambang Dong Ha Kaysone Phomvihane I.3.3.3 Regional Knowledge-Sharing Workshop The Regional Knowledge-Sharing Workshop Baseline and Baseline and Baseline and was held in July 2014 in Kaysone Phomvihane. impact assessment impact assessment impact assessment It brought together climate change core group members from Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane to Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation ƷɆ synthesize the activities from the core planning planning planning group discussions and the consultations from previous policy dialogue and technical workshops; Source: ADB and ICEM. ƷɆ share findings from climate change impact and vulnerability assessments and adaptation plans developed by the core groups; A guide to the methodology demonstrated by ƷɆ finalize adaptation options and lessons the core groups appears in Chapter 4. learned that apply to the Mekong region for inclusion in the resource kit; I.3.3.2 Adaptation Policy Dialogue ƷɆ develop strategies for building on the The adaptation policy dialogue workshops took work undertaken within the three place in each town between February and April towns, particularly potential adaptation 2014 in which core groups implementation projects in each town; ƷɆ prepared adaptation plans for the target ƷɆ discuss how the outputs from the project (in infrastructure and areas identified in particular the resource kit) can be effectively the baseline, impact, and vulnerability disseminated; and assessment phase; ƷɆ help to build a community or network of local ƷɆ developed climate change hot spot maps and government practitioners on urban climate linked land use zone safeguards for the town change resilience in the GMS. and in more detail for each target site; and ƷɆ defined reforms to the town master plans The workshop included selected representatives and other policies and procedures at the local from donor agencies and international and national level to facilitate adaptation plan development organizations such as ADB, implementation. the Nordic Development Fund, the Swedish International Development Cooperation The overall aim of the project was to support Agency, and the United States Agency for the three core groups in developing practical International Development (USAID).9 tools for integrating climate change into town planning. They focused on defining Thanks to simultaneous translation in all three climate change hot spots and safeguards national languages and English, workshop linked to spatial zones which can be built into participants were able to share experiences the town master plans. They also prepared and results from their vulnerability assessments specific adaptation plans for high priority and adaptation planning work. They were able areas and identified a range of institutional to build on the demonstrations to explore new

9 A separate report on the regional workshop is available at http://icem.com.au/portfolio-items/resilient-citiesregional-worksho p-report/ Introduction 7

ways of promoting green infrastructure as a Figure I.4: Who Will Find This Publication Useful? foundation concept and approach in developing resilience in Mekong towns.

Continued capacity building in local line Decision agencies and in town and infrastructure staff makers was highlighted as a primary need, given that incorporating green infrastructure and Environmental Urban nature-based solutions necessitates retraining assessment planners specialists regional planners, engineers, and developers. Local Furthermore, while participants noted that communities many of the adaptations discussed could be implemented within established local and national budgets, external ﬁ nancial support would be required for some of the larger, more Infrastructure Flood and drought comprehensive adaptation strategies. engineers specialists

I.3.4 Output 2: Resource Kit The resource kit synthesized and built on the work of the three core groups in Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane. Its seven Source: ADB and ICEM. volumes form the basis of the chapters of this publication: 1. Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and The purpose of the resource kit is to provide Resilient Mekong Towns practical tools, advice, and lessons to improve 2. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong urban and infrastructure planning in the GMS Towns to cope with climate change. The kit helps town 3. Urban Planning for Building Resilient planners and infrastructure practitioners to do Mekong Towns the following: 4. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation ƷɆ Identify and incorporate green infrastructure Planning Guide for Building Resilient strategies and measures into development. Mekong Towns ƷɆ Undertake climate impact and vulnerability 5. Case Study 1: Building Urban Resilience in assessments as an essential foundation for Battambang, Cambodia town planning and infrastructure design. 6. Case Study 2: Building Urban Resilience in ƷɆ Regularly review and revise town master Dong Ha, Viet Nam plans and their zoning and development 7. Case Study 3: Building Urban Resilience in control frameworks to build resilience. Kaysone Phomvihane, Lao PDR ƷɆ Prepare local area adaptation plans.

Chapter 1

Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns

1.1 Principles for Applying Green Examples of “green” infrastructure include Infrastructure to Build Resilience green roofs and walls, hard and soft permeable in Mekong Towns surfaces, green streets, urban forestry, green open spaces such as parks, wetlands, and green Green infrastructure10 refers to a strategically drainage corridors. Green infrastructure also planned and managed network of green includes a wide range of green technologies spaces and other environmental features and for adapting and complementing buildings technologies necessary for the sustainability of and infrastructure (such as roads, irrigation any urban area. systems, floodgates, and canals) to be more efficient and to better cope with floods, storms, Green infrastructure uses vegetation, soils, and heat. It covers natural water management and natural processes to manage water, systems, slope stabilization approaches, energy temperature, and air quality to create healthier, conservation measures, and many natural resilient, and beautiful urban environments. materials and techniques. Green infrastructure At the town scale, green infrastructure refers applies or mimics nature to improve the to the patchwork of natural areas that provides performance and resilience of conventional habitat, flood protection, clean air, clean water, “gray” infrastructure and often can replace it food, and recreation. At the local level, green entirely for much cheaper and stronger results infrastructure includes stormwater and drainage that allow for local community monitoring, management systems that mimic nature by maintenance, and multiple uses. soaking up and storing water and to improve its quality. For specific infrastructure systems, most Green infrastructure planning should be importantly, it improves engineering by including the first step in the town spatial planning natural components and bioengineering and development process and should be methods. At all scales, green infrastructure closely coordinated with planning for gray emphasizes nature-based solutions and infrastructure. Integrated planning and design uses of local resources and materials to build connects the two—gray and green—in a more community self-reliance and resilience. effective, economical, and sustainable network.

10 This section adapts and draws from guidelines prepared by the United Kingdom Town and Country Planning Association, especially its September 2008 guide The Essential Role of Green Infrastructure: Eco-towns Green Infrastructure Worksheet: Advice to Promoters and Planners, available at http://www.tcpa.org. uk/data/ﬁles/etws_green_infrastructure.pdf. It also draws from Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the 21st Century, the 2001 monograph by M. Benedict and E.T. McMahon of the Conservation Fund for the Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse, available at http://www.sprawlwatch.org/greeninfrastructure. pdf. Another good source of technical advice is the Landscape Institute’s web page on Green Infrastructure at http://www.landscapeinstitute.org/policy/ GreenInfrastructure.php 10 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Green infrastructure can contribute significantly sustainable and resilient town development. to the delivery of other forms of infrastructure Like town electric power, transport, and and services and should be given the same telecommunication systems, the green emphasis in planning and budgeting. infrastructure systems need to be planned comprehensively to provide ecological, social, Ideally, the green infrastructure strategy and economic benefits, functions, and values. for a town and specific green measures Green infrastructure needs to be integrated should be defined and mapped out before with development at all spatial scales: site, gray infrastructure options are considered neighborhood, local, and regional levels. Green and planned. In many situations, green infrastructure is most effective when it functions infrastructure provides the best solutions to at multiple scales. town development, leaving hard engineering to complement or make up any shortfall. If 2. Green infrastructure should be supported gray infrastructure is put in place first, it often by a green plan rules out green options and reduces urban All Mekong towns require a formally adopted sustainability and resilience. For Mekong towns green infrastructure plan supported by design to function and develop effectively, green standards and development controls. The infrastructure needs to be treated as an essential strategic planning of green infrastructure accompaniment or alternative to conventional requires a coordinated approach involving a or “gray” infrastructure. multidisciplinary team from a broad range of government sectors. Local authorities, national In summary, green infrastructure should agencies, and major landowners will need to ƷɆ be a foundation for planning, developing, and work with developers to prepare the strategy maintaining Mekong towns; and supporting regulations. It will be required ƷɆ be shaped by existing or past natural of national government infrastructure sectors systems in the town area including its local in particular to respect and uphold town green landscapes, drainage patterns, habitats, and plans within their own development plans and biodiversity; projects. ƷɆ be a strategically planned and interconnected network set out in town master plans; 3. Green infrastructure should be applied ƷɆ be multipurpose, seeking to serve many through town zones and environmental functions and uses as well as building impact assessment resilience in town areas and structures; All tools and procedures for shaping and ƷɆ involve local communities in design, assessing development proposals should construction, management, maintenance, be reviewed and revised to include green and use; infrastructure safeguards and screening tools. ƷɆ involve all relevant local authority All town development should proceed in a way departments in a coordinated and cross- that applies green infrastructure approaches sector manner; and consistent with the overall town green plan. ƷɆ be established permanently with financial Each town zone needs to be reviewed and support for continued maintenance and accompanied by a framework of sustainability adaptation. and resilience safeguards and development controls that promote green infrastructure. The These points can be expressed as a number of environmental impact assessment process, foundation principles which should drive the which operates at the project proposal level, introduction of green infrastructure and nature- needs to include specific tools for ensuring that based solutions to build ecological sustainability proposals embrace green infrastructure. and climate change resilience in Mekong towns. 4. Green infrastructure systems should 1. Green infrastructure should be the form connected networks across the entire foundation for town planning and town area development Green infrastructure systems should be Green infrastructure should be planned developed as a strong green fabric or network and implemented as a foundation for which binds a town together. It should achieve Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 11

physical and functional connectivity between including food, contact with nature, recreation sites at all levels and right across a town. Each and leisure, as well as safety. The green item of green infrastructure needs to function infrastructure network must provide a wide as part of a larger network incorporating variety of spaces, habitats, and connections, all the green spaces, features, and facilities supplying a broad range of fully integrated of a town, both public and private. Green ecosystem services. It should support specific infrastructure systems help protect and restore local priorities and strategies for environmental naturally functioning ecosystems and provide a management—for example, energy efficiency, foundation for future development. food production, and sustainable urban drainage. Multipurpose includes the provision of Connectivity may not always mean a direct diverse products and services from agriculture, physical connection between sites, although forestry and horticulture, renewable energy a physically joined-up network should be a installations and fuel sources, climate change priority—and may need to be established adaptation and mitigation, transportation routes, over time. Private land can also provide useful cycle paths and walkways, water management, “stepping stones” in the green infrastructure recreational and sporting activity space, network. Separate but closely colocated green biodiversity, and aesthetics. spaces can still operate collectively in mitigating the effects of climate change and provide many Multipurpose green infrastructure means taking ecosystem functions. The goal of all Mekong an “ecosystem approach” to town development towns should be to eventually join up its green in which the management of land, water, infrastructure network through a diverse and living resources is integrated to promote arrangement of greening strategies. conservation and sustainable use. It also seeks equity among social groups and respect for The strategic connection of different system cultural and socioeconomic diversity. components—parks, preserves, riparian areas, wetlands, and other green spaces 7. Green infrastructure should be financed and technologies—is critical to maintaining a primary budgetary item for continued ecological processes and services and to maintenance and adaptation. maintaining the health of the town’s residents Green infrastructure needs to be properly and its biodiversity. funded as part of a town’s core infrastructure, with provisions made for long-term 5. Green infrastructure should be implemented maintenance and management. It should be across different sectors and with communities funded up front with other essential services. Green infrastructure requires close collaboration That will require national and local governments between developers, local planners, and affected to recognize green infrastructure and green plan communities. It should involve government, implementation as a formal part of the regular nongovernment organizations, and community budget allocation and priority setting. groups representing interests as diverse as transport, water and waste management, Well planned green infrastructure decreases the biodiversity, food, health, and community costs of gray infrastructure and public services, development. All the local authorities within including the costs for stormwater management a town need to have a unified approach, to and water treatment systems. Investing in green hold a common vision and be committed to infrastructure can often be more cost-effective implementing the same green strategy. than conventional public works projects.

6. Green infrastructure should be The functions, values, and benefits of green multipurpose infrastructure are available for all town residents Green infrastructure should provide outdoor and visitors. Recognizing the public benefits of spaces and facilities that are welcoming to local green infrastructure is an important first step in people and that meet a variety of human needs, providing adequate funding. 12 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

1.2 Ten Strategies for Green Infrastructure resilience to floods, drought, heat, and and Nature-Based Solutions to Town climate change. Development Green infrastructure complements, strengthens, and can replace hard infrastructure measures in Mekong towns. It acts to manage and conserve water and energy; reduce heat, flooding, and the impacts of natural disasters; and bring nature back as the foundation for urban development and life. Green infrastructure needs to become an essential ingredient in all Mekong town spatial plans and infrastructure projects. The goal is to achieve ecological sustainability and climate change resilience along with community 2. Greening of core urban areas: Creating well-being and safety, environmental quality, treed and vegetated streets and boulevards, and beauty by seeking natural solutions to green plazas, green roofs, and walls makes development challenges. for attractive settings for shopping and leisure in the intensive use areas of towns This section introduces 10 strategies for bringing and also improves the vibrancy of local nature back into Mekong towns as a core economies. Street trees and green spaces development goal. It requires the greening of provide cooling, shade, cleaner air, and noise town plans and modification of infrastructure reduction, making core urban areas more design standards and controls to promote green livable and bringing multiple economic infrastructure and nature-based solutions. It is benefits. both a town planning challenge and a challenge to the way infrastructure is currently planned, designed, and constructed in the Mekong region. The text and diagrams in this section are drawn from a web-based tool on urban planning prepared by the Royal Chartered Institute for Landscape Architects in the United Kingdom.11

3. Greening of industrial and business zones: Attractive green settings encourage inward investment and establishment of new businesses. Industrial and business centers need to be carefully planned for sustainable and efficient transport, sustainable urban drainage, rainwater collection and 1. Creating a fabric of interconnected green wastewater cleansing, and reduced energy corridors and spaces: These should be demands, all by applying green infrastructure the foundation for town development. and natural system solutions. This creates Linking trees, parks, green areas, river valleys, attractive and desirable workplaces and wetlands, and drainage corridors with contributes to healthy local economies, vegetated pedestrian walkways, cycle paths, reducing ﬂood risk and climate change and transport routes increases biodiversity impacts and expanding the space for nature and enables wildlife to ﬂourish while building to thrive.

11 Landscape Institute. 2014. Local Green Infrastructure: Making the Most of Our Landscape. http://www.landscapeinstitute.org/PDF/Contribute/ LIGIDiagram1.pdf. The Landscape Institute is the Royal Chartered body for landscape architects in the United Kingdom. Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 13

as well as employment in green space management. Wetlands can also provide demonstration spaces for natural wastewater puriﬁcation.

4. Beautiful, healthy, and green residential areas: Green spaces for recreation and healthy living encourage social interaction, neighborhood events, and food growing. Interconnected green spaces build community cohesion and identity, making 6. Greening of towns on rivers and coasts: settlements more functional and livable. Riverine and coastal areas provide a Green space networks improve property unique opportunity for sustainable town values and reduce the effects of climate development with nature. Green belts to change, through natural drainage, renewable shelter against storms and for recreation and energy use, green building design, and as an amenity, extensive wetlands linked to building spacing and orientation. inland drainage corridors as part of ﬂood and storm protection and food security, and providing connected habitats for wildlife all need to be factored into river and coastal town plans. Natural systems and green infrastructure can be applied for wastewater treatment and renewable energy generation. Other economic beneﬁts can be achieved by creating distinctive places for tourism, leisure, and learning.

5. Green community centers: They are an important opportunity to demonstrate and pilot green infrastructure methods with local community support by acting as a neighborhood hub.12 They can demonstrate sustainable building design with green roofs and walls, solar heating and shade, and passive design cooling systems and rainwater collection. Associated green spaces including wetlands and agroforests 7. Networks of connected urban parks: Every cater for healthy living activities including Mekong town needs to set targets for green sports and opportunities for learning through cover and for urban parkland. Networks of connecting with nature and food growing, parks have an important contribution to

12 Community centers are public locations where members of a community tend to gather for group educational, social, sporting, or cultural activities. They can provide community support, public information, and other services such as youth clubs. They may be open for the whole community or for particular groups within the greater community. Community centers play an increasingly important role in greening projects involving local action. 14 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

make to the quality of the environment and to the quality of life in urban areas. Such sites are valued by the community, provide important refuge for wildlife in otherwise impoverished areas, and are beneficial to public health and well-being. They create learning and employment opportunities via interpretation facilities, events, rangers and green space managers, and education outreach. Urban parks are an essential component in building resilience to climate change, drought, and flooding. They can be 9. Creating sustainable drainage systems integrated with water supply, cooling, and (SUDS): Attenuation ponds, swales, and waste treatment, and are important in air reed beds need to be established throughout purification. the urban environment,14 providing natural ways to reduce flood risks, provide temporary storage, and improve water quality. SUDS create wetland habitat for wildlife in an attractive aquatic setting with potential for recreation, education, and leisure facilities.

8. Expanding allotments, smallholdings, and orchards:13 Town plans need to provide space to protect and restore locally sourced and distinctive food production and to connect urban populations with the rural economy. They enhance food security and provide opportunities to learn 10. Greening and rehabilitating urban about and gain employment in gardening, catchments and uplands: Forested and well vegetable and fruit growing, beekeeping, maintained urban uplands and watersheds and horticulture, as well as providing for provide many beneﬁts to towns: ﬂood outdoor places and activities that help bring control, water supply, agricultural produce, communities together, maintain culture and pasture land, and timber production customs, and provide for active lifestyles. and products including biomass for local

13 Allotments are small plots of land rented by an individual or community group for growing vegetables or flowers. Smallholdings are usually small farms supporting a single family or community group with a mixture of cash crops and subsistence farming. 14 An attenuation pond is designed to slow the passage of water from surface runoff to the drainage system, e.g., stormwater sewers. It does this by storing the runoff during times of heavy rainfall and slowly releasing it at a controlled rate after the peak flow has passed. A swale is a low tract of land, especially one that is moist or marshy. The term can refer to a natural landscape feature or a human-created one. Artificial swales are often designed to manage water runoff, filter pollutants, and increase rainwater infiltration. Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 15

combined heat and power (CHP) plants and There are highly vulnerable infrastructure renewable power generation, all providing systems in each town that, if properly addressed economic benefits and contributing to through careful adaptation planning and design reduced climate change impacts.15 Green of green infrastructure, could greatly improve urban catchments allow for recreation, the climate change resilience of each town and relaxation, and activities that contribute to act as GMS demonstration sites for replication a healthy lifestyle for town residents. They within the towns and more widely. protect vulnerable wildlife and retain the essential natural character of the urban Multidisciplinary teams including engineers landscape. trained in bioengineering, landscapers, horticulturalists, and other specialists will be required to successfully design, implement, and 1.3 Lessons Learned by the Climate Change demonstrate green infrastructure solutions. Core Groups in Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane 1.3.2 Town Planning As the three town core groups reviewed their Current Mekong urban planning inhibits master plan zoning scheme and conducted the nature-based solutions and innovations: There area-specific vulnerability assessments and is growing recognition by government agencies adaptation planning, they each identified various and other stakeholders in the GMS that the guiding lessons relating to opportunities for existing, largely engineering-led approach to innovation and impediments to reform which dealing with urban growth and development need to be overcome. This section summarizes issues such as flooding and drought is failing to the main lessons to be shared with urban and deliver outcomes which build resilience over infrastructure planners in other Mekong towns. time—and in some cases directly competes with The lessons provide directions for change them. All too often, master plans encourage and a guide to the interpretation and use of growth in areas subject to serious flooding this publication. (e.g., Dong Ha) even when past extreme events are considered which are projected to become If Mekong towns are to respond effectively more frequent and severe. and systematically to climate change in their urban planning and infrastructure development, Equally, there are many cases where significant reforms in the spatial planning and infrastructure investments have made the development control processes are needed. urban conditions worse even though national Those reforms range from the way master and sometimes international development plans are prepared and reviewed, to local safeguards and procurement procedures area adaptation planning, and to the way were followed. infrastructure is designed and managed. Gains in resilience can only be achieved 1.3.1 Green Infrastructure through significant reforms to existing Green infrastructure approaches and an systems of urban planning and development emphasis on rehabilitating and expanding control: In view of existing deficiencies, a critical natural systems in towns are an essential rethinking is needed on how infrastructure and foundation for building urban resilience in the other development projects are conceived, GMS. Green infrastructure is a way of designing designed, and delivered within Mekong towns, and implementing infrastructure assets such so that they might better respond to climate as roads, bridges, river embankments, canals, change and sustainability. The role of town markets, and ports in a way which improves their master planning, town zones, and development durability and performance as well as the beauty, controls systems, as well as environmental amenity, and multiple functions of the areas impact assessment is fundamental in this where they are located. process. Climate change vulnerability

15 CHP plants can utilize waste gas as fuel for electricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from animal waste, landﬁll gas, gas from coal mines, sewage gas, and combustible industrial waste gas. 16 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

assessment and adaptation planning need to be of areas covered by adaptation plans will grow well integrated with those processes and tools. and the system of development controls will be improved feeding into the regular review of the Town master planning should be formally overall town master plan. adopted as a cyclical process with review and revision at least every 3–5 years and a tight Area-wide approaches to adaptation statutory period within which the provincial and of specific infrastructure assets: Gray national governments must approve the plan. In infrastructure tends to be designed in isolation situations of scarce resources, it is not possible from the surrounding context which can lead to do everything at once; priorities must be set to negative impacts, poor performance, and as the focus of attention. In a cyclical planning eventual breakdown in functions. This approach, system, this means that the most important or sharply focused on the specific structure, is vulnerable areas receive attention while others not suited to dealing with extreme conditions, can be addressed in future cycles. At this stage, especially those projected with climate town spatial plans or master plans in the region change. Area-wide or ecosystem approaches are often treated as a one-off event rather that consider how all components of the than a cyclical process. Adaptation planning affected system work together to reinforce and needs to be an integral part of a cyclical master strengthen an infrastructure asset are needed. planning process so that systems of zoning and The town stories in this publication (Chapters development controls can be progressively built 5–7) illustrate the importance of area-wide up and improved with each planning cycle. approaches to building resilience—whether a floodgate, river embankment, or town market. Climate change threat and impact assessment needs to be an integral part of town planning: Climate change core groups bring cross- Town master planning and spatial zoning should sector collaboration in resilience building: include documentation of past extremes, such The core group approach to town planning as floods, combined with projected climate demonstrated in Battambang, Dong Ha, and change to define hot spots such as flood- and Kaysone Phomvihane are important multisector drought-prone areas. Those hot spots should technical structures for mainstreaming climate be overlaid on existing zoning schemes to adjust change in urban development. They act as boundary definitions and designations and technical advisory groups on climate change to guide development and design of suitable providing review and evaluation functions in town-wide and zoning safeguards to promote assessing proposed infrastructure development resilient land uses and structures. Participatory projects and providing advice on zoning and mapping approaches involving local officials development controls in the town master and communities are adequate for hot spot planning process. To function effectively, core definition. groups need to be formally recognized with a clear mandate and a secretariat as well as Consultation across sectors and with local financial and political support. communities is key to adaptation success: Town-wide and site-specific climate change Siting of strategic infrastructure away from vulnerability assessment and adaptation severe flood-prone areas: The vulnerable areas planning is a process that needs to involve within each town need to be mapped based local, provincial, and national governments; the on an understanding of past experience with private sector; and local communities. All levels extreme events and projections of additional of government, local communities, and the climate change influences. For example, areas private sector will have an essential role in plan prone to flooding, landslides, and river bank definition and implementation. collapse, subsidence and drought should be mapped and overlaid on the town plan so that Local adaptation plans are needed for adjustments can be made to zone boundaries particularly vulnerable areas: Each year, and controls to ensure that development detailed climate change impact assessments projects are appropriately sited and designed. and adaptation planning can be conducted for Strategic infrastructure and other buildings a few key areas within a town, leading to local should not be located in areas prone to severe area adaptation plans. Over time, the number flooding. Planning of land allotments prone Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 17

to any form of flooding and the design of any Zoning schemes and development controls structures on them needs to be guided by provide the framework for building urban mandatory standards and controls which ensure resilience: Most small and medium-sized towns resilience. in the GMS do not have spatial master plans with zoning schemes and linked development Technology can improve information, public controls. In cases where towns have master consultation, and consensus in adaptation plans, zoning schemes are often rudimentarily planning: Computers, the internet, mobile defined without consideration of potential phones, and social media are all powerful tools flooding or other threats to development. The that could be used to gain consensus and rationale for zone boundaries and location increase public participation in town planning are not clear. Few include town-wide or zone- and development approval processes. For specific development controls. For example, example, shared information networks between the comprehensive Dong Ha master plan has town planning and development agencies, urban and infrastructure expansion zones in electronic surveys and feedback systems areas prone to severe flooding and in areas via the internet or mobile phone, or online where maintenance of natural drainage corridors public notification and response portals for is essential to town resilience. The zones do development applications are all valuable tools not consider this vulnerability and are not for improving information and consensus for accompanied by appropriate development adaptation planning and green infrastructure guidance. In many cases, town zoning plans are design. long out of date and no longer reflect the way the town has developed. High priority should be Participatory mapping is an essential process given to preparing and regularly reviewing and for towns to document past extreme events revising town zoning schemes and associated and projected changes: In the context of development controls in ways that account for vulnerability assessment and adaptation climate and hydrological vulnerabilities. planning, it is a process in which core stakeholder groups define areas prone to regular Comprehensive asset management and good and extreme climate and hydrological events so operation and maintenance procedures are that development location and design can be needed for increasing resilience: Good asset adjusted to minimize negative impacts and build management, including regularly updated asset resilience. In situations of limited modeling and inventories and operation and maintenance geographic information system (GIS) mapping, plans, is essential for ensuring that town participatory mapping is an appropriate way infrastructure assets are well maintained and of accurately identifying hot spots. It begins perform as intended. All Mekong towns should with drawing areas affected by past extreme have a town asset inventory and an asset events. Then through discussion and consensus, operation and maintenance plan covering the additional effects of climate change can all major pieces of infrastructure including be added drawing on whatever information is green infrastructure. While maintenance plans available on projected conditions. Participatory and strategies vary by project type, proper mapping involves delineating hot spots and maintenance is essential to maximizing the then adjusting land use zoning schemes and environmental, social, and economic benefits development controls as part of town master of green infrastructure, as well as ensuring that planning.16 projects continue to perform in the face of climate change. Participatory mapping builds capacity and working relationships in cross-sector core Simple and practical vulnerability assessment groups. It promotes sharing of information and and adaptation planning methods are experiences and strengthens understanding needed as part of town planning and project of practical urban planning responses to review: The aim is to make vulnerability climate change. assessment part of normal urban planning and

16 When conducting participatory mapping, it is useful to separate mapping of historical flooding caused by pooling and flooding due to river overtopping. They have very different flood characteristics in terms of depth, duration, and impact, and need different responses. 18 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

environmental impact assessment. It is a two- impact across the urban landscape of many way relationship—a climate threat will impact poorly assessed and planned projects is making the area or asset—and new infrastructure and towns more vulnerable and committing them uses in the area will affect how serious the threat in the long term to expensive maintenance and becomes. Vulnerability assessment is applied reconstruction. in town master planning as part of zone and development control definitions and as a tool Outmoded infrastructure design standards in assessing specific infrastructure proposals inhibit the use of appropriate measures and in the development control process. The materials and promote hard engineering most important step is in listing the potential no matter what the cost. There are many impacts of the climate and hydrological threats impediments to the use of green infrastructure facing an area or proposed infrastructure asset. and nature-based solutions which require Adaptation measures are defined to address more flexible and innovative standards and those impacts. supporting directives. Even when arising through development aid and involving the application of externally driven planning and review processes, 1.4 Conclusion gray infrastructure is failing to perform well in increasingly severe climatic and flood conditions. Concerted reforms are needed in national Some major infrastructure projects reviewed as legislation, policies, and procedures and in local part of this technical assistance have made local government regulations and decisions before it environmental and social conditions worse— will be possible to build resilient and sustainable and reduced town resilience and sustainability. towns in the GMS in a systematic and visionary way. Widespread piloting and demonstrations High-level commitment in the GMS to climate accompanied by capacity building in skills, change adaptation creates a unique opportunity tools, and supporting technologies are needed to commence the reform process and refocus as a first phase to build momentum and town development on the linked goals of commitment to that reform. resilience and sustainability. This project has begun that process in three towns, and this Gray infrastructure is the driving force for publication stemming from their work is a development shaping Mekong towns. It is often tool to support and guide the reform process. designed in isolation of the wider environmental An immediate step is to create a network of and social effects and usually without adequate adaptation demonstration sites across the GMS understanding of past extremes affecting the based on green infrastructure approaches. There target area and of projected climate changes. is an opportunity to build on the formation Major projects are proceeding on a project- of the three core groups to create a GMS by-project basis and following assessments network of towns seeking to address climate limited to site-specific concerns. Detailed change. That would involve continuing support safeguard and development controls measures in bringing together towns on a regular basis are not well integrated in town master plans nor to motivate, share, and train. It would involve matched with the particular characteristics and establishing demonstration sites in each vulnerabilities of each town zone. town where green infrastructure approaches to resilience building are being tested and At the project level, environmental impact showcased. It would also involve setting up assessment processes are capturing only a very core groups in other towns as part of an expert small percentage of development proposals network of local planners and adaptation and are conducted without the benefits of practitioners in the GMS. Those groups could information on climate change. Most often, local be the focus of intensive capacity building with governments and communities are not engaged specialist input and funding support to help in the assessment and planning that does take drive and add creative energy to the reform place for major infrastructure. The cumulative process. Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and Resilient Mekong Towns 19

Bibliography

Centre for Urban Resilience and Energy (CURE). Institute for Social and Environmental 2002. Developing Standards for Accessible Natural Transition-International, Thailand Environment Green Space in Towns and Cities. Report for the Institute, and Vietnam National Institute for Countryside Council for Wales, prepared by Science and Technology Policy and Strategy the Centre for Urban and Regional Ecology, Studies. 2014. Urban Vulnerability in Southeast School of Planning and Landscape, University of Asia: Summary of Vulnerability Assessments in Manchester, Manchester. Mekong-Building Climate Resilience in Asian Cities (M-BRACE). Bangkok: Institute for Social and European Union. 2013. Building Green Environmental Transition-International. http://i- Infrastructure for Europe. Luxembourg: s-e-t.org/projects/m-brace.html Publications Office of the European Union. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ Town and Country Planning Association. 2008. ecosystems/ The Essential Role of Green Infrastructure: Eco- towns Green Infrastructure Worksheet—Advice to GIZ. 2014. The Vulnerability Sourcebook: Concept Promoters and Planners. London, UK. and Guidelines for Standardised Vulnerability Assessments. Climate Policy Support Project, World Bank. 2011. Guide to Climate Change Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Adaptation in Cities. Washington, DC: The Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Bonn and International Bank for Reconstruction and Eschborn, Germany. Development and The World Bank.

Chapter 2

Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Infrastructure Matrix

The methods presented in this chapter Green infrastructure technologies often work have been chosen from a variety of green best when combined. To help practitioners begin infrastructure solutions because they relate implementing green infrastructure options, we speciﬁcally to Greater Mekong Subregion have provided a matrix to illustrate how different development needs. The integration of green technologies may pair and interact with other infrastructure solutions in the early stages of complementary techniques (Table 2.1). the decision-making process of urban planners should be in every way facilitated. Green The columns represent the development needs infrastructure should be included in design that may be encountered in an urban context. standards and safeguards to be recognized as For each, the green infrastructure elements a complement and alternative to traditional that could bring beneﬁt are highlighted. All the infrastructure development. development needs listed are covered by one or more case studies. Design engineers wishing to explore different approaches to conventional infrastructure should ask themselves the following questions: 1. Can you meet the requirements with a completely natural approach? 2. If not, how can you use natural elements to strengthen the conventional infrastructure? 3. If you cannot act directly on site, how can you reinforce the life and effectiveness of the conventional infrastructure by acting on the surroundings? 22 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table 2.1: Green Infrastructure Techniques and Development Needs Matrix Bridges Buildings Canals redevelopment area Commercial and drains Culverts Dykes Drainage Flood gates areas Industrial Markets areas Parking redevelopment Port areas Residential embankments River embankments Road and footpaths Roads outfall Stormwater plants treatment Wastewater NEEDS DEVELOPMENT Bioretention pond Bioswales Brush mattress Constructed wetlands Drainage corridors Greywater recycling Green roofs and walls Live crib wall Live fascines Live fencing Live staking Log terracing Palisades Permeable paving Rain gardens Solid waste management Stormwater tree pits Urban river terracing Urban tree canopy cover Vegetated gabions Vegetated eotextiles Vegetated revetment Vegetated riprap Vetiver grass GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE Source: ADB and ICEM. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 23

2.3 Water and Flood Management

2.3.1 Constructed Wetlands Category: Water and ﬂood management; pollution management; energy, heat, and greenhouse gas management Application: Town-wide planning

Description and Application A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland created as a new or restored habitat for native and migratory wildlife, for discharge such as wastewater, stormwater runoff, or sewage treatment and for land reclamation in natural areas impacted by development. They are generally built on seriously degraded wetlands or new areas where there are problems with drainage and water quality. They can substitute for conventional stormwater and graywater treatment plants. Wetlands are frequently constructed by excavating, backfilling, grading, Constructed wetland diking, and installing water control structures to establish desired hydraulic flow patterns. They Source: Youth Landscape Architecture. www.youthla.org consist of shallow (usually less than 1-meter- deep) ponds or channels which have been https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/30004TBD. planted with aquatic plants. PDF?Dockey=30004TBD.PDF EPA. 1993. Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands Facts for Wastewater Treatment: A Technology Assessment. ƷɆ Wetlands act as a biofilter, removing Washington, DC. https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF. sediments and pollutants such as heavy cgi/2000475V.PDF?Dockey=2000475V.PDF metals from the water, and constructed C. H. Sim. 2003. The Use of Constructed Wetlands wetlands can be designed to emulate these for Wastewater Treatment. Selangor, Malaysia: features. Wetlands International Malaysia. http://malaysia. ƷɆ Wetlands trap suspended solids while other wetlands.org/Library/tabid/519/mod/1570/ pollutants are transformed and taken up by articleType/ArticleView/articleId/1369/Default.aspx plants or rendered inactive. 2.3.2 Drainage Corridors Benefits Category: Water and flood management ƷɆ Provides food and habitat for wildlife. Application: Town-wide planning ƷɆ Improves water quality. ƷɆ Provides flood protection, drought relief, and Description and Application opportunities for recreation. Creating natural drainage corridors normally involves converting a ditch or storm drain into Caution a natural creek flowing within a multipurpose While constructed wetlands seem simple, they corridor. They can also be created by are complex to design and require ongoing rehabilitating and enhancing natural creeks management. and streams. They greatly reduce the number of drain pipes and other costly technologies Sources required to manage stormwater runoff, and United States Environmental Protection Agency they reduce flood management costs overall. (EPA). 2004. Constructed Treatment Wetlands. Stormwater is collected in a traditional pit and https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/30005UPS. pipe network within the road reserves. The pit PDF?Dockey=30005UPS.PDF and pipe network conveys flows to the drainage EPA. 1999. Manual: Constructed Wetlands corridor where wetland conditions treat runoff Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Cincinnati, OH. before discharging to the natural watercourse. 24 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Caution Natural drainage corridors are often multiuse and therefore require suffi cient space to be eff ective.

Sources Government of Western Australia, Department of Water. 2006. Mimic Natural Drainage Processes: A Practical Approach for Stormwater Management in Western Australia. Perth. https://www.water.wa.gov. au/__data/assets/pdf_fi le/0018/5148/89891.pdf Northrop Engineers. 2008. Wagga Wagga Planning Study: Lloyd Study Area—Environmental Study – Stormwater. Sydney, Australia. http://www.wagga.nsw. gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_fi le/0018/4635/Lloyd_ Study_Area2.pdf Pace. Mountain House Master Drainage Plan and Creek Restoration. http://pacewater.com/ services/stormwater-management/river-restoration/ mountain-house-master-drainage-plan-creek- restoration/ State of Queensland (Department of Energy and Water Supply). 2013. Queensland Urban Drainage Manual. Third edition 2013—provisional. City East, Queensland, Australia. http://www.dews.qld.gov. au/__data/assets/pdf_fi le/0008/78128/qudm2013- Drainage corridors provisional.pdf

Sources: Hazen and Sawyer. www.hazenandsawyer.com, and Pace. 30zz0j1ewgra3qf6cz317ytj. wpengine.netdna-cdn.com 2.3.3 Permeable Paving Category: Water and fl ood management, pollution management Application: Town-wide planning Facts ƷɆ Natural drainage corridors require suffi cient Description and Application land allocation, and must be recognized Permeable pavements are paved surfaces that as a legitimate land use that needs to be infi ltrate, treat, and/or store rainwater where it appropriately considered during the planning falls. They may be constructed from pervious of new urban developments and the concrete, porous asphalt, permeable interlocking redevelopment of existing urban areas. pavers, and several other materials. They ƷɆ Natural drainage corridors help direct function similarly to sand fi lters in that they fi lter stormwater fl ows, thus reducing fl ooding in the water by forcing it to pass through diff erent built and residential areas. aggregate sizes and fi lter fabric (Figure 2.1).

Benefi ts Facts ƷɆ Improved drainage during minor and major ƷɆ Long-term research on permeable pavers storms. shows they eff ectively remove pollutants ƷɆ Reduced fl ooding. such as total suspended solids, total ƷɆ Natural stormwater and pollution fi ltration. phosphorous, total nitrogen, zinc, motor oil, ƷɆ Increased habitat for native plant and animal and copper. species. ƷɆ In the void spaces, naturally occurring ƷɆ Improved fl ow, which reduces stagnant water microorganisms break down hydrocarbons and associated odor and disease vectors. and metals. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 25

Benefi ts Figure 2.1: Cross-Section of Components of Permeable Paving ƷɆ Reduces fl ooding during storm events. ƷɆ Stormwater pollutants are broken down in 3/8” aggregate in openings the soil instead of being carried to surface Holland Grand Permeable waters. Allows water seepage to groundwater ƷɆ Bedding course: recharge. 3/8” aggregate 1 1/2” Curb/edge restraint ƷɆ Helps prevent stream erosion problems. to 2” deep layer. ƷɆ Takes pressure off existing drainage and stormwater management systems. Open graded base: clear crushed 1” Caution to 1 1/2” aggregate. Permeable paving is only suitable in areas that Nonwoven geotextile experience light vehicle traffi c, for example, on bottom and sides Soil subgrade-zero slope parking lots, road shoulders, sidewalks, and of open graded base. driveways. Source: RJ Wolfe and Sons. rjwolfeandsons.com Sources United States Environmental Protection Agency. What Is Green Infrastructure? https://www.epa.gov/ green-infrastructure/what-green-infrastructure#per Figure 2.2: Illustration of a Sophisticated Rainwater Harvesting System meablepavements and Its Uses University of Maryland Extension. 2011. Permeable Pavement Fact Sheet: Information for Howard County, Maryland. Document revised Tank 17 January 2016. Homeownershttps://extension. umd.edu/sites/default/fi les/_docs/programs/ master-gardeners/Howardcounty/Baywise/ PermeablePavingHowardCountyMaster Gardeners10_5_11%20Final.pdf

Wash closet 2.3.4 Rainwater Harvesting Category: Water and fl ood management Applications: Town-wide planning, individual Garden Garden owners Pump Description and Application Car Wash Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface, or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as Source: Hinren Technologies. www.hinren.com well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The harvested water can be used as drinking water, for domestic Benefi ts needs, and for irrigation (Figure 2.2). ƷɆ Reduces domestic and municipal water demand and expenses. Facts ƷɆ Is an accessible replacement for groundwater. ƷɆ The history of rainwater harvesting in ƷɆ Reduces pollutants and fl ow into surrounding Southeast Asia can be traced back to the 9th surface waters. or 10th century—the small-scale collection ƷɆ Serves as a backup water supply during of rainwater from roofs and simple brush dam emergencies and natural disasters. constructions. ƷɆ Reduces size of traditional stormwater ƷɆ Can improve the engineering of building management practices. foundations when cisterns are built as part of ƷɆ Lowers strain on municipal water supply the substructure. system. 26 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Caution the ground or, if infi ltration is not appropriate, Rooftops should be constructed of chemically discharged into a traditional stormwater inert materials such as wood, tiles, tin, aluminum, drainage system (Figure 2.3). or fi berglass, and cleaned regularly to avoid adverse eff ects on water quality. Facts ƷɆ Numerous prefabricated tree pit structures Sources are commercially available. These typically Akvopedia. 2015. Rainwater Harvesting/Rooftop include a ready-made concrete box Rainwater Harvesting. http://www.akvopedia.org/ containing an appropriate soil mixture and wiki/Rooftop_rainwater_harvesting (last modifi ed may also include plantings, usually one tree or 1 September 2015). a few small shrubs. Conserve Energy Future. What Is Rainwater ƷɆ Ideally, stormwater tree pits are employed Harvesting? http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/ in conjunction with other stormwater best Advantages_Disadvantages_Rainwater_Harvesting. management practices. Their usefulness is php enhanced with greater soil volume and by Global Development Research Center. An connecting individual pits with trenches. Introduction to Rainwater Harvesting. http://www. gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/introduction.html Benefi ts Innovative Water Solutions. Rainwater Harvesting. ƷɆ Reduce stormwater runoff volume, fl ow rate, http://www.watercache.com/education/rainwater/ and temperature. United States Environmental Protection Agency. ƷɆ Increase groundwater infi ltration and What Is Green Infrastructure? https://www.epa.gov/ recharge. green-infrastructure/what-green-infrastructure#rain ƷɆ Treat stormwater runoff . waterharvesting ƷɆ Improve quality of local surface waterways. ƷɆ Improve aesthetic appeal of streets and 2.3.5 Stormwater Tree Pits neighborhoods. Category: Water and fl ood management, ƷɆ Provide wildlife habitat. pollution management ƷɆ Require limited space. Application: Town-wide planning ƷɆ Are simple to install.

Description and Application Caution Stormwater tree pits consist of an underground Stormwater tree pits generally capture and structure and aboveground plantings which treat stormwater runoff from small, frequently collect and treat stormwater using bioretention. occurring storms but are not designed to Treated stormwater is then inﬁ ltrated into capture all runoff from large storms or extended periods of rainfall.

Figure 2.3: Cross-Section Illustration of the Components of a Stormwater Tree Pit

Vegetation centered in treatment

Impervious Mound 6” berm surface around tree ﬁ lter rim Conveyance protection bypass Cross section of 72” diameter concrete vault

Native 12” Overﬂ ow pipe soils Bioretention soil mix 12” Perforated 80% sand, 20% compost subdrain Crushed stone 12” Overﬂ ow outlet, Existing subgrade discharges to existing Sources: NYC Parks. www.nyc.gov, and Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment storm drain or the Station. njaes.rutgers.edu surface Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 27

Sources Arbor Day Foundation. How Trees Can Retain Stormwater Runoff . Tree City USA Bulletin No. 55. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/topics/urban_forestry/prod ucts/11/800TreeCityUSABulletin_55.pdf Auckland Council. n.d. Tree Pits: Construction Guide. Stormwater Device Information Series. http://www. aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/EN/environmentwaste/ stormwater/Documents/treepitsconstructionguide. pdf Charles River Watershed Association. 2008. Stormwater Tree Pit. http://www.crwa.org/hs-fs/ hub/311892/ﬁ le-640261436-pdf/Our_Work_/Blue_ Cities_Initiative/Resources/Stormwater_BMPs/ CRWA_Tree_Pit.pdf Philadelphia Water. Stormwater Tree Trench. http://www.phillywatersheds.org/what_were_doing/ green_infrastructure/tools/stormwater_tree_trench

2.3.6 Urban River Terracing Category: Water and ﬂ ood management Application: Town-wide planning

Description and Application Urban river terracing has as its main objectives fl ood protection, master landscaping, and the improvement of overall environmental Urban river terracing conditions. The philosophy is to move from fl ood resistance to fl ood accommodation. In Sources: Community Conservation Solutions. www.conservationsolutions.org, and Landezine: Landscape Architecture Works. www.landezine.com a stream area, the fl oodplain is widened and deepened, allowing it to fi ll during rain events and preventing stormwater from fl ooding Caution urban areas. Urban river terracing can require large investments to dredge and stabilize the area. Secondary channels are built parallel to the main stream to allow for more drainage during heavy Sources rainfall. European Centre for River Restoration. http://www. ecrr.org/ Facts D. Higgitt and G. Brierley. 2012. New Approaches ƷɆ Between heavy rain events, the fl oodplain is to Flood Hazard in Asian Cities. Innovation. Volume made available as a park and green space for 10, No. 2. http://www.innovationmagazine.com/ local residents. volumes/v10n2/coverstory3.html ƷɆ Dikes, streambed stabilization, and other R. Jones-Bos and D. Morris. 2011. Room technologies used to guide the stream are for the River: From Flood Resistance to Flood built using natural materials to maximize Accommodation. Presentation slides. http://www. water fi ltration and rehabilitation benefi ts. slideshare.net/DutchEmbassyDC/room-for-the-river- presentation-2011 Benefi ts Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington, DC. ƷɆ Reduces fl ood risk in inhabited areas. Water and the Dutch – Delta Technology. http:// ƷɆ Increases ecological functions such as waterandthedutch.com/delta/ water fi ltration. Stowa - Stichting Toegepast Onderzoek ƷɆ Provides fi sh, bird, and wildlife habitat. Waterbeheer. Room for the River. http://deltaproof. ƷɆ Creates opportunities for recreation stowa.nl/Publicaties/deltafact/Room_for_the_river. and tourism. aspx?pId=48 28 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

2.4 Slope Stabilization This matrix (Table 2.2) outlines how the slope stabilization techniques explained in this guide As with green infrastructure on the whole, ﬁ t together and work to improve each other. slope stabilization options are often most eff ective when combined with complementary Both columns and rows present all the slope techniques. stabilization techniques introduced in the volume. A green correspondence between rows and columns indicates the suitability of Table 2.2: Slope Stabilization Combination Matrix pairing the two techniques to maximize the eff ectiveness of the project.

2.4.1 Brush Mattress Category: Slope stabilization Applications: Town-wide planning, large infrastructure

Description and Application

Brush mattress cribwall Live fascines Live fencing LIve staking Live Log terracing Palisades gabions Vegetated geotextiles Vegetated revetments Vegetated riprap Vegetated grass Vetiver Also known as live brush mats or brush matting, Brush mattress a brush mattress is a combination of live stakes, Live cribwall live fascines, and branch cuttings installed to cover and stabilize streambanks. Brush Live fascines mattresses are used to form an immediate, Live fencing protective cover over the streambank. A thick Live staking mat of dormant cuttings is placed on the bank and held down with stakes. The goal of a brush Log terracing mattress is to create structural streambank Palisades protection that will eventually root and provide Vegetated vegetative stabilization. gabions Vegetated Facts geotextiles ƷɆ Layers of living branches are laid in a Vegetated crisscross pattern on a streambank to protect revetments the bank surface until the branches root. Vegetated riprap ƷɆ A properly staked brush mattress can Vetiver grass withstand considerable stream velocities, but must have a secure toe. Source: ADB and ICEM. ƷɆ Cuttings root along the entire length of the structure, providing long-term protection.

Benefi ts ƷɆ Works well on steep, fast-fl owing streams. ƷɆ Restores riparian vegetation and streamside habitat rapidly. ƷɆ Forms an immediate protective cover over the streambank. ƷɆ Captures sediment during fl ood conditions. ƷɆ Enhances conditions for colonization of native vegetation. ƷɆ Serves as habitat for birds, small animals, and insects.

Caution Brush mattresses are not recommended for streambanks steeper than 2.5:1, nor should Brush mattress they be used on streambanks where mass Source: Natural Resources Conservation Service New York. www.nrcs.usda.gov wasting occurs. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 29

Sources H. H. Allen and C. Fischenich. 2000. Brush Mattresses for Streambank Erosion Control. EMRRP Technical Notes Collection (TN EMRRP-SR-23). Vicksburg, MS: United States Army Engineer Research and Development Center. http://acwc.sdp.sirsi.net/ client/en_US/search/asset/1004293 Ernst Conservation Seeds. Brush Mattresses and Wattles (Fascines). http://www.ernstseed.com/ products/bioengineering/brush-mattresses-and- wattles-fascines/ C. E. Eubanks and D. Meadows. 2002. A Soil Bioengineering Guide for Streambank and Lakeshore Stabilization. San Dimas, CA: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. http://www. fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/pdf/fs683/cover.pdf Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2006. Live cribwall How to Control Streambank Erosion. Des Moines, Source: Calgary City News Blog. www.calgarycitynews.com IA. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/erosion/manuals/ streambank_erosion.pdf ƷɆ Provide a natural habitat for wildlife. 2.4.2 Live Cribwalls ƷɆ Provide immediate slope protection. Category: Slope stabilization Applications: Town-wide planning, Caution large infrastructure The height of a cribwall should not exceed 2 meters. Description and Application A live cribwall is a structure made of live The width of a cribwall should not exceed materials to reconstruct the streambank 6 meters. where extreme erosion has occurred. Once completed, this structure acts as a retaining Sources wall. The timbers provide immediate protection City of Knoxville. 2003. Activity: Bank Stabilization and stability for the structure. Over time, and Soil Bioengineering. Knoxville BMP Manual their importance gradually decreases as they Erosion and Sediment, ES-20. http://www.knoxvilletn. decompose. Meanwhile, the live cuttings grow, gov/UserFiles/Servers/Server_109478/File/ and the resulting root mass binds together the Engineering/BMPManual/ES-20.pdf internal ﬁ ll and the adjacent undisturbed soil. Ontario Streams. n.d. Live Cribwall. http://www. ontariostreams.on.ca/PDF/OSRM/Tech15.pdf Facts Riparian Habitat Restoration. Live Cribwalls. http:// ƷɆ A live cribwall is best used on the outside riparianhabitatrestoration.ca/575/livecribwalls.htm bend of a stream because the strongest Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2006. Live currents act on this side of the stream. Cribwalls. In How to Control Streambank Erosion. Des ƷɆ They can be used instead of gabions or Moines, IA. pp. 23–24. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/ concrete blocks where natural appearance erosion/manuals/streambank/live_cribwall.pdf and habitat features are important. ƷɆ Live cribwalls help reduce the grade of a slope 2.4.3 Live Fascines by stabilizing the toe and protecting it against Category: Slope stabilization undercutting. Applications: Individual owner, town-wide planning Beneﬁ ts ƷɆ Require minimal space. Description and Application ƷɆ Provide stability above and below the Live fascines are bundles of dormant, live water level. cuttings bound together into a long, cylindrical ƷɆ Stabilize the toe of the slope. form. They are used to protect banks from 30 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

washout and seepage, particularly at the ƷɆ Live fascines are most effective when edge of a stream where water levels fluctuate combined with live staking and riprap, and moderately. Live fascines are used from the can also be used in conjunction with many baseflow elevation and up along the face of an other soil bioengineering techniques. eroded streambank, acting principally to protect the bank toe and bank face. They are also useful Benefits over the crown to improve erosion control, ƷɆ Immediately reduce surface erosion or rilling. infiltration, and other riparian zone functions. ƷɆ Are suited to steep, rocky slopes where digging is difficult. Facts ƷɆ Are capable of trapping and holding soil on ƷɆ Fascines should be placed in shallow contour the slope face, thus reducing a long slope into trenches on dry slopes and at an angle on wet a series of shorter steps. slopes to reduce erosion and shallow sliding. ƷɆ Can manage mild gully erosion and can They are best suited for moist soil conditions. serve as slope drains when bundles are slightly angled.

Caution Live fascines are only appropriate on slopes not undergoing mass movement and above bank- full discharge levels.

Sources Massachusetts Nonpoint Source Pollution Management. n.d. Live Fascines. http://projects. geosyntec.com/NPSManual/Fact%20Sheets/ Live%20Fascines.pdf Mississippi Watershed Management Organization. 2010. A Guide to Bank Restoration Options for Large River Systems: Part II Bioengineering Installation Manual. MWMO Watershed Bulletin 2010-3. Washington State Department of Transportation. Live fascines 2003. Chapter 740: Soil Bioengineering. In Roadside Manual. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/ Source: Bender: Revegetation Bioengineering. www.bender-rekultivierungen.de manuals/fulltext/M25-30/740.pdf

2.4.4 Live Fencing Category: Slope stabilization Applications: Town-wide planning, large infrastructure

Description and Application Live fencing is a retaining structure installed along the contour of the slope. It comprises ﬂexible boards or wattle interwoven between living or dead posts to form a series of narrow terraces across the slope. When placed in shallow trenches across the slope of a bank, these structures provide protection from erosion and create a sediment trap. They can be used to support failing slopes or to reduce slope angles and allow other vegetation to be established. Live fencing Source: Kennebecasis Watershed Restoration Committee. www.kennebecasisriver.ca Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 31

Facts ƷɆ Live fences are most effective on lower-angle slopes and on sites with thin soils where excavation would be difficult. ƷɆ They are used where site moisture conditions will allow the living cuttings to sprout and grow. ƷɆ They can also be used to protect the slope toe.

Benefits ƷɆ Is used with living cuttings to make the walls sprout and grow, further strengthening the structure. ƷɆ Rooted fences retain and stop moving soil to establish terraces that slow runoff velocity Live staking and reduce erosion. Source: Wendy DesCamp, University of Washington. depts.washington.edu ƷɆ Enhances conditions for native vegetation growth. ƷɆ Is easily combined with other methods. 2.4.5 Live Staking Category: Slope stabilization Caution Applications: Individual owner, town-wide Live fencing is easily damaged and is therefore planning not sufficient for persistent rockfall. Description and Application Sources Live staking and joint planting involves the N.J. Georgi and J. E. Stathakopoulos. 2006. insertion of woody shrub cuttings into the Bioengineering Techniques for Soil Erosion Protection ground in a manner that allows the cutting and Slope Stabilization. Paper for the 46th Congress (stake) to take root and grow. Live stake cuttings of the European Regional Science Association, 30 can be used to repair small earth slips and August–3 September, University of Thessaly, Volos, slumps. The stakes can help buttress the soil Greece. http://www-sre.wu-wien.ac.at/ersa/ersaconfs/ and arching. ersa06/papers/927.pdf Government of the Hong Kong Special Facts Administrative Region of the People’s Republic ƷɆ Live stakes can be used to anchor and of China. 2008. Guidelines for Soil Bioengineering enhance the effectiveness of willow wattles, Applications on Natural Terrain Landslide Scars. Geo straw rolls, coir rolls, turf reinforcement mats, Report No. 227. Hong Kong, China. http://www.cedd. coir mats, continuous berms, and other gov.hk/eng/publications/geo_reports/doc/er227/ erosion control materials. er227links.pdf ƷɆ Live stakes also work very well as a means of D.F. Polster. 2003. Soil Bioengineering for introducing a particular plant species to a site. Slope Stabilization and Site Restoration. Paper presented at Sudbury 2003: Mining and the Benefits Environment III, 25–28 May, Laurentian University, ƷɆ Can improve aesthetics and provide wildlife Sudbury, Ontario, Canada http://depts.washington. habitat. edu/uwbg/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/ ƷɆ Slows the flow of water in high water stages. SoilBioengineeringForSlopeStabilizationAnd ƷɆ Staking a streambank helps dry out a wet, SiteRestoration.pdf unstable bank and allows it to become more Redwood, Design a Fence. n.d. Redwood stable. Fences for All Reasons. http://www.big-creek.com/ ƷɆ Is most useful in conjunction with other more files/5513/3830/9801/redwood-fences-how-to.pdf complex erosion control methods. 32 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Caution 2.4.6 Log Terracing Live staking must be carried out when plants are Category: Slope stabilization dormant. Live stakes provide very little initial site Applications: Town-wide planning, large protection during the establishment period. infrastructure

Sources Description and Application Ernst Conservation Seeds. Live Stakes and Whips. Log terracing is a way to intercept water running http://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering/ down a slope and comprises bedding logs or live-stakes-and-whips/ coir logs in shallow trenches along the corridor. C. E. Eubanks and D. Meadows. 2002. A Soil Log terracing is used on burned slopes that Bioengineering Guide for Streambank and Lakeshore have less than 30% of the original ground cover Stabilization. San Dimas, CA: United States remaining and are at risk of increased erosion, Department of Agriculture Forest Service. http://www. and where there are enough logs of adequate fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/pdf/fs683/cover.pdf size to construct a semicontinuous line at the Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2006. desired horizontal spacing. It is better to use How to Control Streambank Erosion. Des Moines, coir logs made locally than to fell trees. Log IA. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/erosion/manuals/ terracing shortens the slope length and the streambank_erosion.pdf gradient between each structure, providing Massachusetts Nonpoint Source Pollution stable planting areas throughout most of the Management. n.d. Live Stakes/Pole Plantings. http:// slope face. Logs must be installed in trenches projects.geosyntec.com/NPSManual/Fact%20Sheets/ and staked into place. Live%20Stakes.pdf Ontario Streams. n.d. Live Staking. http://www. Facts ontariostreams.on.ca/PDF/OSRM/Tech8.pdf ƷɆ Contour logs reduce water velocity, break up concentrated ﬂ ows, and introduce hydraulic roughness to burned watersheds. ƷɆ Log terracing should be eff ective for a period of 1–3 years, providing short-term protection on slopes where permanent vegetation that provides long-term erosion control will be established.

Beneﬁ ts ƷɆ Reduces length and steepness of the slope. ƷɆ Provides stable areas for establishment of other vegetation such as trees and shrubs. ƷɆ Provides immediate slope stabilization and helps to store sediment.

Caution Implementing log terracing is labor-intensive and can pose possible safety hazards because of the use of logs on a slope.

Sources Tahoe Regional Planning Agency. 2014. Chapter 4: BMP Toolkit, 4.2-e Terracing. In TRPA BMP Handbook. http://www.tahoebmp.org/Documents/ BMPHandbook/Chapter%204/4.2/e_Terrac.pdf United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Wyoming. Log Terracing Fact Sheet. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/ Log terracing portal/nrcs/detail/wy/technical/engineering/?cid=nrcs Sources: (from top) Coco Agri. www.cocoagri.com, and River Restoration in Northern Michigan. 142p2_027265 www.northernmichiganstreams.org Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 33

Pallsades Source: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries. www.water.nsw.gov.au

Washington State Department of Transportation. Benefi ts 2003. Chapter 740: Soil Bioengineering. In Roadside ƷɆ Are quickly and easily built. Manual. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/ ƷɆ Provide immediate slope stabilization. manuals/fulltext/M25-30/740.pdf ƷɆ Form a strong barrier to reinforce the slope, especially once cuttings have taken root. 2.4.7 Palisades ƷɆ Are inexpensive where materials are available. Category: Slope stabilization ƷɆ Have a positive fi lter eff ect. Applications: Individual owner, town-wide planning Caution Palisades are only eff ective up to 6 meters in Description and Application width and 2–4 meters in length. A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall, is typically a fence or wall made from wooden Sources stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive Capital Regional District, Canada. Erosion. https:// structure. It is a wall consisting of living uniform www.crd.bc.ca/education/our-environment/concerns/ stakes of live material driven into the ground erosion (a third of their length), close to each other to Cesvi. 2013. Natural Resource Management form a palisade. The top ends are cut plane and Hand Book: Soil Bio-engineering Techniques for may be tied to a horizontal (living or dead) pole Slope Protection and Stabilization. Dushanbe. http:// that ties in the ground at both sides of a gully. www.cesvi.org/aaa-root/o/Erosion%20control_ Tajikistan2013.pdf Facts ƷɆ Palisades are used to promote deposition in 2.4.8 Vegetated Gabions rills and V-shaped gullies and rehabilitation in Category: Slope stabilization fi ne soils (clay, sand, loess, or loam). Applications: Town-wide planning, large ƷɆ After sprouting, the resulting vegetation infrastructure becomes the major structural component. ƷɆ They help to dry wet soils through Description and Application transpiration. A gabion is a rectangular basket made of heavily galvanized wire mesh fi lled with small to medium-sized rock. The gabion is a geotextile, either natural (jute) or synthetic (wire), which 34 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 2.4: Cross-Section Illustration of Components Involved in the Use of Vegetated Gabions

Sources: Temperate Climate Permaculture. tcpermaculture.com, and Victor M Ponce San Diego State University. ponce.sdsu.edu

serves to hold soil and or rocky backfi ll in place Caution until roots from live cuttings can grow. The When the baskets are not completely fi lled, gabions are laced together and installed at fl exing occurs, which leads to wire fatigue and the base of a bank to form a structural toe or eventual failure. sidewall. Gabions are used to stop undercutting and/or scouring at the base of steep slopes. Sources Live cuttings are placed on each gabion layer Lake County Stormwater Management Commission, (Figure 2.4). Lake County Planning, Building and Development Department, and United States Department of Facts Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. ƷɆ This technique stabilizes steep slopes where 2002. Streambank and Shoreline Protection Manual. live fascines and brushlayers are inadequate. http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/Portals/36/docs/ ƷɆ Gabions can be used to reduce wave run-up regulatory/pdf/StrmManual.pdf and overtopping. Riparian Habitat Restoration. Live Sot ƷɆ Gabions help protect areas experiencing Gabion. http://riparianhabitatrestoration.ca/575/ erosion due to waves, currents, or livesoftgabion.htm groundwater fl ows. 2.4.9 Vegetated Geotextiles Benefi ts Category: Slope stabilization ƷɆ Are useful on steep slopes where grading is Application: Large infrastructure not possible. ƷɆ Can withstand higher shear stress. Description and Application ƷɆ Can be installed without special equipment. A geotextile is a permeable textile material ƷɆ Adjust to stresses and soil settlements. made of natural or synthetic fi bers that is used ƷɆ Simple fi eld maintenance is feasible without with foundation, soil, rock, and earth to increase the use of heavy equipment. stability and decrease wind and water erosion. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 35

Examples of Natural and Synthetic Geotextiles at Varying Stages of Installation and Growth Sources: (starting with column 1, from top) Agro Juta. www.agrojuta.com.br, Presto Geosystems. www.prestogeo.com, Layﬁ eld Construction Products. www. layﬁ eldgroup.com, Tencate Geosynthetics. www.tencate.com, Typar. www.typargeosynthetics.com, and Tencate Geosynthetics. www.tencategeosynthetics.uk.com

Geotextiles are designed to be permeable to ƷɆ Slows rill and gully erosion and stabilizes fi ll allow the fl ow of fl uids through or within them. banks. Live cuttings can be placed between geogrids, ƷɆ Quick and eff ective protection against erosion. and a root structure is established to bind the ƷɆ A wide variety of geotextile products are soil within and behind the geogrids. The toe of available to match specifi c needs. the bank is stabilized by placing layers of rock on top of the same geotextile fabric. Caution When placing live cuttings in the geogrid, plants Facts must be installed during their dormant season for ƷɆ Natural fi ber geotextiles are more them to properly take root. environmentally friendly, but they degrade faster and have a shorter shelf life. Sources ƷɆ Vegetated geogrids can be used where the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality. 2005. bank cannot be pulled back to a gentle slope. IDEQ Storm Water Best Management Practices Catalog. ƷɆ Woven geotextiles are generally preferred http://www.deq.idaho.gov/media/616538-17.pdf where high strength properties are needed, Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2006. How but where fi ltration requirements are less to Control Streambank Erosion. Des Moines, IA. http:// critical and planar fl ow is not a consideration. www.ctre.iastate.edu/erosion/manuals/streambank_ erosion.pdf Washington State Department of Benefi ts Transportation. 2003. Chapter 740: Soil Bioengineering. ƷɆ Live cuttings provide rapid vegetation growth, In Roadside Manual. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/ which slows water during high water stages. publications/manuals/fulltext/M25-30/740.pdf 36 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 2.5: Cross-Section Illustration of Vegetated Revetments, Including Components Installed Below and Above the Water Line

Sources: F. X. Browne. 2012. www.fxbrowne.com, and Seattle Public Utilities. www.seattle.gov

2.4.10 Vegetated Revetments excessive sediment deposition and projection Category: Slope stabilization into the stream. Applications: Town-wide planning, large infrastructure Source WatershedBMPs.com Description and Application Revetments are sloping structures placed 2.4.11 Vegetated Riprap on banks or cliff s to absorb the energy of Category: Slope stabilization incoming water. The lower portion of an eroding Applications: Town-wide planning, large streambank is stabilized by burying or securing infrastructure nonerosive materials below and slightly above the water line. Natural stabilization materials Description and Application include logs, trees, root wads, and boulders. Vegetated riprap comprises a combination Footer boulders or logs are installed at the base of rock and native vegetation in the form of parallel to the streambank. Boulders can be used live cuttings. Biological and technical bank to anchor the footer log. Trenches excavated protection techniques are combined to give into the streambank allow root wads to face excellent waterside erosion protection together slightly toward the direction of the fl ow so that with natural scenic beauty. For example, long brace roots can be fl ush with the streambank and living willow or cottonwood posts can be (Figure 2.5). planted in conjunction with the placement of rock used to armor the banks of watercourses or Facts redirect fl ows. The streambank can be gradually sloped from the hard toe/revetment to promote faster Facts establishment of vegetation. Five methods for constructing vegetated riprap that have proven eff ectiveness: Benefi ts ƷɆ Vegetated riprap with willow bundles. ƷɆ Reduce erosion and shear stress along banks. ƷɆ Vegetated riprap with bent poles. ƷɆ Established root systems help strengthen soil ƷɆ Vegetated riprap with brush layering and pole behind the bank. planting. ƷɆ Lower stream temperatures. ƷɆ Vegetated riprap with soil cover, grass and ƷɆ Decrease stream velocity. ground cover, and joint or live stake planted ƷɆ Increase habitat for aquatic and other wildlife. riprap.

Caution Beneﬁ ts Vegetation incorporated into the revetment ƷɆ Resists hydraulic forces, increases must be planted at medium density to avoid geotechnical stability, and prevents soil loss. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 37

Vegetated riprap Vetiver grass Source: Midwest Construction Products, midwestconstruct.com Source: Chhajed Garden. www.chhajedgarden.com

ƷɆ Creates habitat for both aquatic and 2.4.12 Vetiver Grass terrestrial wildlife. Category: Slope stabilization, pollution ƷɆ Provides shade and improves aesthetic and management recreation. Applications: Town-wide planning, large ƷɆ Roots, stems, and shoots will help anchor the infrastructure rocks and resist “plucking” and gouging by debris. Description and Application Vetiver is planted as a hedgerow across a slope Caution to form a very dense vegetative barrier that Installing plants that can survive at various slows down and spreads runoff. Combined with submersions during the normal cycle of low, a deep and strong root system, a wide range medium, and high stream flows is critical to the of pH tolerance, resistance to both drought success of vegetative riprap. and immersion, a high tolerance to most heavy metals, and an ability to remove nitrates, Sources phosphates, and farm chemicals from soil and P. Raymond. 2012. Soil Bioengineering Applications water, the vetiver plant can be used for soil and for Stream Bank Erosion Protection, Fish and Wildlife water conservation, engineered construction Habitat Creation. Presentation slides, Terra Erosion site stabilization, pollution control (constructed Control Ltd. http://www.sustainabletechnologies.ca/ wetlands), and other uses where soil and water wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Pierre_Raymond_ come together. Vegetated-Riprap-Installation-Techniques- Mar-28-2012.pdf Facts Terra Erosion Control. 2010. Vegetated and ƷɆ A vetiver hedge traps particles which can lead Complex Riprap Application. http://www.terraerosion. to a buildup of natural terraces behind it. com/VegetatedRiprap.htm ƷɆ It is ideal for road side slopes, coastal United States Department of Transportation, slopes, dams, bridge abutments, river and Federal Highway Administration. 2009. Bridge Scour stream sidings, exposed earth worked areas, and Stream Instability Countermeasures Experience, agricultural erosion control, and landslide Selection, and Design Guidance Third Edition, Volume 1. control. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/ library_arc.cfm?pub_number=23&id=142 Benefits Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. ƷɆ Will not turn into an invasive species or weed. 2013. Waterway Protection. http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/ ƷɆ Detoxifying capacity helps clean toxic areas Waterways/shoreline/erosioncontrol-vegetated.html like industrial sites and landfills. (last revised 31 October 2013). 38 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

and remove suspended solids, and ﬁ lter or absorb pollutants to soil and plant material.

Benefi ts ƷɆ Provide a variety of pollutant removal mechanisms, including fi ltration, adsorption to soil particles, and biological uptake by plants. ƷɆ Provide stormwater peak fl ow and volume control as well as water quality control where stormwater infi ltration is used. ƷɆ Reduce temperature impacts of runoff . ƷɆ Bioretention ponds can be included in the designs for gardens, commercial developments, parking lot islands, and roadways. ƷɆ Water is ponded to a depth of 15 centimeters Bioretention pond and gradually infi ltrates the bioretention area Source: Hanover Land Services. www.hanoverlandservices.com or is evapotranspired.

Caution ƷɆ Drought and frost tolerant; can withstand Bioretention areas should usually be used on brief periods of submergence. small sites (i.e., 2 hectares or less). Larger ponds ƷɆ Requires little maintenance once the hedge is tend to clog. established. Sources Caution F.X. Browne, Watershed Management Consultants. ƷɆ Vetiver is intolerant to shading, especially in n.d. Bioretention Systems for Stormwater Management: its establishment phase. Ten Towns Great Swamp Watershed Management ƷɆ Vetiver must be grown in full sun to succeed. Committee. http://www.fxbrowne.com/html/gs-facts/ gs-factsheet05v9.pdf Sources Offi ce of Lakes and Watersheds, Dane County, The Vetiver Network International. http://www. Wisconsin. 2007. Dane County Erosion Control vetiver.org and Stormwater Management Manual, Appendix Vetiver Systems NZ. http://www.vetiversystems.co.nz/ I – Bioretention Basin. http://danewaters.com/pdf/ manual/Appendix_1/BioretentionBasin.pdf Prince George’s County, Maryland. Bioretention 2.5 Pollution Management Design Specifi cations and Criteria. http://www. leesburgva.gov/home/showdocument?id=5057 2.5.1 Bioretention Ponds Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center. Category: Pollution management, water and Stormwater Management Fact Sheet: Bioretention. fl ood management http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Assorted%20 Application: Town-wide planning Fact%20Sheets/Tool6_Stormwater_Practices/ Filtering%20Practice/Bioretention.htm Description and Application A bioretention pond is a shallow planted 2.5.2 Bioswales depression designed to retain or detain Category: Pollution management, water and stormwater before it is infi ltrated or discharged fl ood management downstream. Bioretention basins retain, fi lter, Application: Town-wide planning and treat stormwater runoff using a shallow depression of conditioned soil topped with Description and Application a layer of mulch or high carbon soil layer and Bioswales are vegetated channels designed to vegetation tolerant of short-term fl ooding. remove silt and pollution from surface runoff . Depending on the design, they can provide The water’s fl ow path, along with the wide retention or detention of runoff water, will trap and shallow ditch, is designed to maximize Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 39

Bioswales How these interact with the street and other vegetation; graywater recycling Source: St George Rainway Project. www.rainway.ca Source: Novel Remodelling. novelremodeling.fi les.wordpress.com the time water spends in the swale, which aids Sources the trapping of pollutants and silt. A common SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, application is around parking lots, where Department of Environmental Resource Engineering. substantial automotive pollution is collected Bioswales. http://www.esf.edu/ere/endreny/ by the pavement and then fl ushed by rain. The gicalculator/BioswaleIntro.html bioswale wraps around the parking lot and treats United States Environmental Protection Agency. the runoff before releasing it to the watershed or https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what- storm sewer. green-infrastructure#bioswales University of Florida, IFAS Extension. 2008. Facts Bioswales/Vegetated Swales. Florida Field Guide to ƷɆ Bioswales may be designed to contain Low Impact Development. .http://buildgreen.ufl .edu/ check dams that facilitate pond formation, Fact_sheet_Bioswales_Vegetated_Swales.pdf further increasing infi ltration and decreasing stormwater fl ows. 2.5.3 Graywater Recycling ƷɆ Depending upon the land available, a Category: Pollution management, water and bioswale may have a meandering or almost fl ood management straight channel. Applications: Individual owners, town-wide planning Benefi ts ƷɆ Trap and break down common pollutants. Description and Application ƷɆ Improve water quality in surrounding water Graywater recycling systems collect the water bodies. from sinks, showers, and baths. Using state- ƷɆ Reduce stormwater runoff rates and fl ood of-the-art fi ltration, the system cleans the prevention. water and plumbs it back into toilets, washing ƷɆ Increase green space and aesthetic appeal. machines, and outside taps. The easiest way to ƷɆ Recharge surrounding groundwater. use graywater is to pipe it directly outside and ƷɆ Provide habitat for aquatic and other wildlife. use it to water decorative plants or fruit trees, or to clean pavements, cars, and dust. Caution A bioswale is primarily a conveyance system and Facts must be designed to transport water of a specifi c ƷɆ Graywater recycling systems have been storm severity without fl ooding. successfully adapted to suit large commercial 40 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

United States Environmental Protection Agency. Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits. http://www.epa.gov/region9/water/recycling/ Wholly H2O – Mainstreaming Efficient Water (re(Use). Uses and Benefits of Graywater. http:// www.whollyh2o.org/graywater/item/348-uses-and- benefits-of-graywater.html

2.5.4 Rain Gardens Category: Pollution management, water and ﬂood management Applications: Individual owners, town-wide planning

Description and Application A rain garden detains rainfall and stormwater runoff to slow flow, reduce pollution, and increase infiltration. Usually, it is a small garden designed to withstand the extremes of moisture and concentrations of nutrients, particularly A rain garden nitrogen and phosphorus, that are found in Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency. www3.epa.gov stormwater runoff. Rain gardens are ideally sited close to the source of the runoff and serve to slow the stormwater as it travels downhill, giving buildings like hotels and even industrial it more time to infiltrate and less opportunity to plants. gain momentum and erosive power. ƷɆ Unlike a rainwater harvesting system, which relies on rainfall, graywater is replenished daily. Facts ƷɆ Soils must be engineered with proper ratios Benefits of clay and sand, and a pH level appropriate ƷɆ Keeps dirty water from polluting sensitive to the region. Plants should be native ecosystems. and capable of withstanding periods of ƷɆ Graywater can be used to enhance nearby submergence. wetlands. ƷɆ Nitrogen and phosphorus levels and overall ƷɆ Reduces demand on municipally supplied sediment loads in the stormwater are fresh water. reduced by the action of the plants and soils. ƷɆ Reduces strain on water treatment plants. ƷɆ Provides water for groundwater recharge. Benefits ƷɆ Reduces cost and energy required to pump ƷɆ Clean and break down pollutants like oil, municipal water. fertilizer, pesticides, pet waste, transportation chemicals, and sediment, and prevent them Caution from reentering the water system. Graywater recycling produces water for ƷɆ Reduce localized flooding and strain on nonpotable uses. Graywater can be used for stormwater systems. irrigation, but it should not touch edible plants. ƷɆ Provide wildlife habitat. ƷɆ Contribute to groundwater recharge. Sources D. Ferguson. 2014. Greywater Systems: Can They Caution Really Reduce Your Bills? The Guardian. 21 July. http:// Water should only pool for a maximum of a few www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/jul/21/ hours to protect plants and reduce mosquito greywater-systems-can-they-really-reduce-your- breeding concerns. bills?CMP=twt_gu Graywater. http://www.graywater.net/ Sources Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 41

Rain Garden Network. 2015. Beneﬁts of Planting Rain Gardens. 26 April. http://www.raingardennetwork. com/whyplantraingarden.htm The University of Rhode Island. Rain Gardens. http://web.uri.edu/riss/take-action/simple-steps-at- home/rain-gardens/ United States Environmental Protection Agency. What Is Green Infrastructure? https:// www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-green- infrastructure#raingardens

2.6 Energy, Heat, and Greenhouse Gas Management A green roof Source: Herbidacious. herbidacious.wordpress.com 2.6.1 Green Roofs and Walls Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas management; water and flood management; ƷɆ Insulate buildings and moderate building pollution management temperature. Applications: Individual owner, town-wide ƷɆ Provide wildlife habitat. planning Caution Description and Application The additional mass of the soil substrate and A green roof system is an extension of the retained water places a large strain on the existing roof which involves a high-quality water- structural support of a building. proofing and root-repellant system, a drainage system, filter cloth, a lightweight growing Sources medium and plants. Green roofs are particularly Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. About Green cost-effective in dense urban areas where land Roofs. http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php/about/ values are high and on large industrial or office aboutgreenroofs buildings where stormwater management United States Environmental Protection Agency. costs may be high. They can be as simple as a Using Green Roofs to Reduce Heat Islands. https:// 5-centimeter covering of hardy groundcover or www.epa.gov/heat-islands/using-green-roofs-reduce- as complex as a fully accessible park complete heat-islands with trees. United States Environmental Protection Agency. What Is Green Infrastructure? https:// Facts www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-green- ƷɆ Through the dew and evaporation cycle, infrastructure#Greenroofs plants are able to cool cities and reduce the urban heat island effect. The light absorbed 2.6.2 Solid Waste Management by vegetation would otherwise be converted Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas into heat energy. management; pollution management ƷɆ On hot days, the surface of a green roof can Applications: Town-wide planning be cooler than the air temperature, while the surface of a conventional rooftop can be up Description and Application to 50°C warmer. Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) refers to the collection, transfer, treatment, Benefits recycling, resource recovery, and disposal of ƷɆ Retain rainwater, moderate water solid waste generated in urban areas (Table 2.3). temperature, and act as natural filters. MSWM is a major responsibility of local ƷɆ Reduce and delay stormwater runoff. government and a complex service involving ƷɆ Capture airborne pollutants and filter appropriate organizational, technical, and noxious gases. managerial capacity and cooperation between ƷɆ Increase green space. numerous stakeholders in both the private and public sectors (Figure 2.6). 42 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 2.6: Stages of Solid Waste from Extraction through to Emissions and Their Offsets

Virgin inputs Life cycle stage GHG emissions Sinks and emission offsets Raw materials acquisition

Materials extracted: Energy and Reduced carbon trees, ore, oil, etc. non-energy- sequestration related emissions in forests Manufacturing

Energy and Energy non-energy- Use related emissions

Recycling Increased Avoided fossil forest carbon fuel use sequestration Waste Management Energy Carbon storage in the soil Energy-related emissions Avoided fossil Composting fuel use

Carbon in long-term Combustion Emissions Emissions storage in landﬁll

Uncontrolled CH4 emissions or CH Avoided 4 fossil Landﬁlling ﬂared and recovered energy fuel use

Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency. www3.epa.gov

Table 2.3: Solid Waste Management Techniques ƷɆ Adding compost to soils stores carbon and Source reduction Also known as waste prevention, means reducing waste releases small amounts of methane and at the source. nitrous oxide that can be burned. Recycling and Involves collecting used, reused, or unused items that are ƷɆ When landfill waste breaks down, it releases composting considered waste; sorting and processing recyclable products methane. Capturing and burning this into raw materials; and turning recycled materials into new methane can reduce atmospheric pollution. products. ƷɆ Burning waste is an alternative energy source. Energy recovery Conversion of nonrecyclable waste into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through combustion, gasification, 2.6.2.1 Solid Waste Management: Energy pyrolization, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery. Production Treatment and Landfills are the most common form of waste disposal and are Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas disposal an important component of an integrated waste management management; pollution management system. Application: Town-wide planning Source: ADB and ICEM. Description and Application Benefits Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of ƷɆ Source reduction, also known as nonrecyclable waste materials into usable heat, “lightweighting,” reduces resource use and electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, greenhouse gas emissions. Source-reducing including combustion, gasification, pyrolization, paper products reduce tree harvesting, and anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery. larger forests store more carbon. This process is often called waste-to-energy. ƷɆ Recycling avoids greenhouse gas Most waste-to-energy processes produce emissions from using virgin materials, and electricity and/or heat through combustion, manufacturing a product from recycled or by producing methane, methanol, ethanol, materials uses less energy. or synthetic fuels (Figure 2.7). Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 43

Figure 2.7: Stages in the Conversion of Solid Waste to Energy

Source: Fides Global. ﬁdesglobal.co.uk

Facts Sources ƷɆ At a municipal solid waste combustion Brightside. Waste-to-Energy Pros and Cons. http:// facility, solid waste is burned in a combustion www.brightknowledge.org/knowledge-bank/ chamber. geography-and-environment/features-and- ƷɆ The heat released from burning is used to resources/waste-to-energy-pros-and-cons convert water to steam which turns a turbine SUEZ Isle of Man. Benefits of Energy-from-Waste. generator to produce electricity. http://www.sita.co.im/energy-recovery/benefits-of- ƷɆ The ash is treated and kept in a landfill energy-from-waste designed to prevent groundwater United States Environmental Protection Agency. contamination. Energy Recovery from the Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). https://www.epa.gov/smm/ Benefits energy-recovery-combustion-municipal-solid-waste- ƷɆ Reduces waste kept in regular landfills, and msw existing landfills can even be a source of material. 2.6.2.2 Solid Waste Management: Recycling ƷɆ Cheap, reliable source of fuel. Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas ƷɆ Burning waste reduces fossil use and reduces management; pollution management greenhouse gas emissions. Application: Town-wide planning ƷɆ Helps recover metals that may have been missed in initial recycling efforts. Description and Application Recycling involves collecting used, reused, Caution or unused items that would otherwise be Waste-to-energy facilities can be expensive considered waste; sorting and processing the to construct and can release toxins if not recyclable products into raw materials; and constructed properly. Residual ash must be turning recycled materials into new products. treated properly. Recycling prevents the waste of useful 44 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Recyclable materials are collected and sorted for processing into new products Sources: University of Minnesota. zeropluscampus.umn.edu, and Going Slowly. journal.goingslowly.com

materials, reduces consumption of fresh raw United States Environmental Protection Agency. materials, reduces energy usage, reduces air Sustainable Materials Management: Non-Hazardous and water pollution by reducing the need for Materials and Waste Management Hierarchy. “conventional” waste disposal, and lowers https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-materials- greenhouse gas emissions. management-non-hazardous-materials-and-waste- management-hierarchy Facts ƷɆ Recycling is a key component of modern 2.6.2.2 Solid Waste Management: Mulching waste reduction and is the third component Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas of the “Reduce, Reuse and Recycle” waste management; pollution management hierarchy. Application: Town-wide planning ƷɆ Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and Description and Application electronics. Materials to be recycled are A mulch is a layer of material applied to the collected, sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed surface of an area of soil. Its purposes can be into new materials bound for manufacturing. to conserve moisture, to improve the fertility and health of the soil, to reduce weed growth, Beneﬁts and to enhance the visual appeal of the area ƷɆ Reduces the amount of waste sent to landﬁlls (Figure 2.8). A mulch can be organic, recycled and incinerators. plastic, rubber, rock, gravel, cardboard, and/ ƷɆ Conserves natural resources such as timber, or paper. It may be permanent or temporary. water, and minerals. Mulches of manure or compost will be ƷɆ Prevents pollution by reducing the need to incorporated naturally into the soil. collect new raw materials. ƷɆ Saves energy. Facts ƷɆ Reduces greenhouse gas emissions that ƷɆ Mulching is crucial for the maintenance of an contribute to global climate change. urban tree canopy. ƷɆ Most mulching can be done anytime during Caution the growing season, but generally the earlier It is important that materials are properly sorted the better. in the recycling process. Contamination can ƷɆ Regularly refresh and form mulch to ensure lower the quality of recycled content. water can penetrate.

Sources Beneﬁts United States Environmental Protection Agency. ƷɆ Recycles material which would have ended Recycling Basics. http://www2.epa.gov/recycle/ up in landﬁlls. recycling-basics ƷɆ Reduces evaporation from soil surface, cutting water use by 25%–50%. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 45

Figure 2.8: Illustration of Mulch Around Figure 2.9: Map and Graph Illustrating Urban Tree Canopy the Base of a Tree in Cuyahoga, Ohio, United States

Other pavement Road/railroad Tree Building canopy Water Bare soil

Grass/Shrub

Source: Lauren Lanphear. forestcitytree.ﬁles.wordpress.com Source: Cuyahoga County Planning Commission. countyplanning.us

ƷɆ Stabilizes soil moisture and soil temperature. Description and Application ƷɆ Prevents soil compaction. The urban tree canopy is the layer of leaves, ƷɆ Reduces erosion. branches, and stems of trees that cover the ƷɆ Controls weeds, which rob soil moisture. ground when viewed from above. Tree cover can ƷɆ Adds an aesthetic ﬁnish to the urban mitigate climate change by reducing the levels landscape. of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and can help to reduce the urban heat island effect. A Caution tree is a natural air conditioner. The evaporation Do not make “mulch volcanoes” around tree from a single tree can produce the cooling effect trunks by applying chips up against a tree’s trunk. of 10 room-size, residential air conditioners Keep the mulch back at least 150 millimeters operating 20 hours a day (Figure 2.9). from the trunk. Facts Sources ƷɆ Canopy cover and trends are measured by Horticare, Inc. n.d. The Facts about Mulch. https:// classifying remotely sensed data, ground www.asawmill.com/uploads/Mulch_Facts.pdf sampling, and aerial photos. M. Shinn. 2011. Organic vs. Non-organic Mulch. ƷɆ Evaluating baseline and potential tree canopy Horticulture, 6 September. http://www.hortmag.com/ aids in establishing realistic targets. weekly-tips/tools-materials/organic-vs-non-organic- ƷɆ Canopy targets by zone are recommended mulch due to fundamental differences in land-use M. D. Whalen. 2010. Mulching. Colorado State characteristics. University, Denver County Extension Master Gardener. http://www.colostate.edu/Dept/ Beneﬁts CoopExt/4dmg/Garden/mulching.htm ƷɆ Reduces greenhouse gases and improves air quality. 2.6.3 Urban Tree Canopy ƷɆ Lowers temperatures in streets and in Category: Energy, heat, and greenhouse gas buildings under shade by reducing solar management; pollution management radiation reaching the ground. Application: Town-wide planning ƷɆ Reduces cooling costs in residential and commercial buildings. 46 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Slope stabilization methods were used for the Balephi landslide Source: Nepal District Road Support Program. www.ﬂ ickr.com

ƷɆ Filters particles and pollution from the air United States Environmental Protection and prevents pollutants from entering water Agency. What Is Green Infrastructure? https:// supply during rain events. www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-green- ƷɆ Provides wildlife habitat. infrastructure#Urbantreecanopy ƷɆ Creates green public spaces for locals and tourists. 2.7 Case Studies Caution Trees and shrubs require maintenance. Failing 2.7.1 Balephi, Nepal to maintain trees can lead to interference with Balephi Landslide Slope Stabilization other infrastructure like electricity lines and Category: slope stabilization, water and fl ood building foundations. management Applications: town-wide planning, large Sources infrastructure Center for Watershed Protection and United States Development Needs: road embankments Forest Service (Northeastern Area State and Private Green Infrastructure: branch packing, brush Forestry). Watershed Forestry Resource Guide – mattress, gabions, live cribwall, live fascines, Urban Tree Canopy. http://www.forestsforwatersheds. live staking org/urban-tree-canopy/ Portland Parks and Recreation. 2012. Tree Canopy Roads construction and maintenance in the Monitoring: Protocol and Monitoring from 2000–2010. mountainous region of Nepal is challenging Portland, OR. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/parks/ because of its steep slopes, weak rock mass, article/403426 thick soil profi le, and high rainfall during the United States Environmental Protection Agency. monsoon period. Landslides, debris fl ows, 2008. Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium slumping, and erosion on slopes are common of Strategies, Urban Heat Island Basics. Washington, during and after road construction and can be DC. https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island- the most destructive disaster for roads. compendium Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 47

Figure 2.10: Illustration of Bioengineering Components Involved in the Restabilization of the Balephi Landslide Site

Source: District Roads Support Programme

The Balephi Landslide occurred at Ch. No. 0+500 of Balephi–Jalbire Road in Sindhuplachowk during the 2002 monsoon. The Balephi to Jalbhire road is an important access road for people living in the areas around and beyond Jalbhire and provides a route for agricultural products on their way to major markets in Dhulikhel, Kavre, and Kathmandu.

The landslide completely washed away a 120-meter section of the road and disconnected the traffi c ﬂ ow for days.

The District Development Committee, the local community, and the bus operators’ organization temporarily opened the road by installing a basic gabion wall and backﬁ lling, but the slide was still active and would have undoubtedly caused more problems during the coming monsoons. 48 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Analysis showed that the cost of conventional engineering alone would have been 48% higher than the combination of conventional and bioengineering. Source: WWF Nepal. www.wwfnepal.org

movement behavior on the slope, and the failure mechanisms. Each segment was handled according to its needs, which included debris removal, slope trimming, drainage, stabilization, and erosion control. Standard engineering technologies such as stone and concrete revetments acted as the base of the stabilization. However, native grasses, shrubs, and wood cuttings were added to increase stability and provide natural water management. Brush layering increased slope stability and created more habitat for plant and wildlife species.

The bioengineering aspects of the project provided several days’ employment Beneﬁ ts for local people. ƷɆ Improved road reliability and quality. ƷɆ Restored access to markets in Dhulikhel and The Balephi Landslide was independently Kathmandu. assessed, and designs were drawn up by a ƷɆ Road and slope strengthened against erosion geotechnical and structural engineer using and impacts of monsoon rain. conventional engineering methods. The ƷɆ Local people economically beneﬁ t from new engineer prepared a detailed assessment report broom and fodder plants and timber from the and proposed a revetment and/or retaining slope. toe wall of stone masonry in mass concrete ƷɆ Primary school located about 10 meters along the river. Four retaining walls at diff erent above the scar now protected from further levels were also proposed to retain the road slides. bench and a cutoff drain on the slope above to carry surface water from the slide and from The Balephi Landslide project demonstrates surrounding agricultural land. A bioengineering that bioengineering techniques can produce specialist was also called in to incorporate better economic and environmental results suitable bioengineering techniques to enhance for slope stabilization when compared to the performance of the proposed structure and conventional engineering solutions, and they to create a more sustainable long-term solution. can be implemented at a lower cost.

Methods Used Bioengineering brings other beneﬁ ts, as well, The landslide was split into nine segments including improved water quality, increased according to the nature of the materials, water wildlife habitat, and improved aesthetics. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 49

Local and natural materials are utilized to reduce cost and carbon footprint. The external walls are made of in situ concrete with a bamboo formwork, while locally-sourced bricks are exposed on the internal walls as ﬁnishing Source: Inhabitat. http://inhabitat.com/a-ﬁve-towered-home-topped-with-lush-banyan-trees-pops-up-in-viet-nam/

2.7.2 Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam Green Buildings Category: slope stabilization, water and ﬂood management, pollution management Applications: individual owner, town-wide planning Development Needs: buildings Green Infrastructure: green roofs and walls, permeable paving

Ho Chi Minh City lies on the Saigon–Dong Nai River estuary and is among the world’s most threatened cities from global climate change. It faces risks from sea-level rise, storms, and flooding. With over 8 million people, the city is experiencing increasing densification and overcrowding of the inner city districts, together President Place with expansion into surrounding areas, often Source: Refico Real Estate Group. www.refico.com.vn by reclaiming land from the flooded forests and swamps that characterize the region. Now only 0.25% of the city is covered by greenery. Natural The green houses are built on vacant land drainage channels have been filled, encroached, hemmed in by buildings on all sides in one of and blocked by waste. Water pollution and air the most densely populated areas of Ho Chi pollution are serious health problems, especially Minh City. The aim of the project is to return as upstream developments cut off water supply green spaces to the city, accommodating high- and flow during dry periods. density dwelling with tropical trees. The houses comprise concrete boxes designed as “pots” to Yet, there are the beginnings of a trend to contain tress and roof gardens. promote green buildings—buildings that are resilient, sustainable, and lead to improved Banyan trees were chosen for the roofs because environmental and living conditions—in they have an aerial root system and fewer response to the degrading urban environment underground roots. 50 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Green Walls Source: Inhabitat. assets.inhabitat.com Stacking Green in Tube Houses Source: Archdaily. www.archdaily.com/199755/ stacking-green-vo-trong-nghia

The roofs are also designed to retain stormwater ƷɆ Building uses 50% less water than a non- to prevent flooding, with soil more than LEED structure. 1.5 meters deep, which required significant ƷɆ Air quality inside 30% better than in other structural support underneath. With this thick buildings. soil layer, the “pots” function as stormwater ƷɆ Trees and gardens on the 9th and 13th floors. basins for detention and retention. In addition ƷɆ Trees and permeable paving at ground level. to the green rooftops, the ground is built with permeable bricks which increase infiltration Benefits during the rainy season. Other Green Residential Buildings in Ho Chi Minh City Methods Used Green Office and Commercial Buildings Environmental Benefits ƷɆ Improve air and water quality. President Place, located at 93 Nguyen Du in ƷɆ Use local materials and conserve natural District 1, is the greenest building in the city. It resources. has received Leadership in Energy and ƷɆ Reduce temperature and heat island effect. Environmental Design (LEED) Gold ƷɆ Enhance and protect biodiversity. certification, the first building in Ho Chi Minh ƷɆ Reduce flooding and strain on local drainage City to receive this status. LEED is a system infrastructure. designed by the United States Green Building ƷɆ Create opportunities for water collection Council to determine how environmentally and storage. friendly buildings are based on the following: ƷɆ Sustainable use of construction materials. Economic Benefits ƷɆ Sources building material locally. ƷɆ Reduce operating costs. ƷɆ Avoids sending waste to a landfill. ƷɆ Create, expand, and shape markets for green ƷɆ Trains construction workers how to do things product and services. up to LEED standards. ƷɆ Improve occupant productivity. ƷɆ Avoids dumping paint and waste materials ƷɆ Optimize building life-cycle performance. into drains. ƷɆ External cladding louvered-wrapped and Social Benefits screens for shade. ƷɆ Enhance occupant comfort and health. ƷɆ Coolness of the interior reduces need for air ƷɆ Heighten aesthetic qualities. conditioning. ƷɆ Improve overall quality of life of residents and users. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 51

2.7.3 Pasig River, Philippines Pasig River Cleanup and Restoration Category: slope stabilization, water and ﬂood Once a major transport route, source of water, management, solid waste management and thriving ecosystem, the river is intimately Applications: town-wide planning, large connected to the country’s history. It has infrastructure become one of the most polluted and toxic river systems in the Philippines, and was declared Development Needs: canals, culverts and drains, biologically dead in the 1990s. It is considered drainage, port redevelopment, residential areas, the “toilet bowl” of Manila and is a dumping river embankment, stormwater outfall ground for domestic and industrial waste.

Green Infrastructure: bioswales, urban river Rehabilitation efforts are overseen by the terracing, solid waste management, vegetated Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission whose revetment, vegetated riprap mission is “[t]o restore the Pasig River to its historically pristine condition by applying bio- The Pasig River is a 27-kilometer body of water eco engineering and to attain sustainable socio- that traverses Metro Manila from Manila Bay. economic development.”17

The Pasig River before and after the cleanup and restoration efforts Sources: Rappler. static.rappler.com, and I Am Travelling Light. iamtravelinglight.ﬁles.wordpress.com

17 Taken from presentation to Water Environment Partnership in Asia, Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission. http://www.wepa-db.net/ pdf/0710philippines/10_PRRC.pdf 52 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

A floating billboard made of vetiver cleans polluted wastewater, mining wastes, Source: Pilipinas Coco Fibre. pilipinasecofiber.files.wordpress.com and contaminated land. Source: GMA News Network. images.gmanews.tv

Some rehabilitation efforts focused on the trash from the river. Teams of “river warriors” Estero de Paco, a tributary of the Pasig. Estero trained in maintenance and in education raise de Paco was home to the Paco Market, and for awareness among local inhabitants of the decades it absorbed waste from the market importance of environmental protection and and the almost 10,000 informal residents who proper waste handling. inhabited the banks. After a massive initial cleanup effort, community-based solid waste Some of the river’s banks have been stabilized management programs took effect to help keep using geotextiles made of coconut fiber from waste from reentering the river. local materials. Coco fiber provides the added benefit of filtering and cleaning water on its way Materials recovery facilities have been set up through the river. around the Metro Manila area, including near Paco Market, to collect solid waste for treatment Benefits and recycling. These facilities are now run by Benefits noted by inhabitants after rehabilitation local community organizations. efforts include: ƷɆ reduced pollution, Methods Used ƷɆ increased vegetation, It was estimated that upward of 65% of waste ƷɆ increased wildlife, entering the Pasig was domestic waste coming ƷɆ lower incidence of illness, and from illegal settlements along the riverbanks. ƷɆ fewer unpleasant odors. Inhabitants in these settlements regularly dealt with waterborne diseases, river accidents, and Future plans envision a human-made wetland flooding. One of the planks of the restoration constructed at the mouth of the Pasig to act as a project was the fair and equitable relocation of natural filtration system to clean pollutants and thousands of informal settlers. grow mangrove seedlings to be planted along the river. Initial cleanup efforts involved dredging and the use of heavy machinery to remove accumulated Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 53

Source: Malaysian Tourism. malaysiantourism.net

2.7.4 Putrajaya, Malaysia Putrajaya Constructed Wetland Category: heat, energy, and greenhouse gas management, water and ﬂood management Application: town-wide planning Development Needs: commercial area redevelopment, dikes, industrial areas, markets, parking areas, residential areas, wastewater treatment plants Green Infrastructure: commercial area redevelopment, dikes, industrial areas, markets, parking areas, residential areas, wastewater treatment plants Source: Putrajaya Lakes and Wetlands. portal.ppj.gov.my Putrajaya, the administrative capital of Malaysia, is the country’s largest urban development project on a greenﬁeld site, and it has been designed to be a model city of sustainable development.

Putrajaya Wetland is located in the northern part of Putrajaya in the valley of the Chuau and Bisa rivers. A part of the Putrajaya Lake system, it covers approximately 200 hectares of lands and water. Putrajaya Wetland is a constructed wetland and is considered to be the largest constructed freshwater wetland in Southeast Asia. Construction began in 1997 and was completed in 2002. Its key environmental function is to treat catchment water before it Since the completion of the Putrajaya Constructed Wetland, the number of enters Putrajaya Lake, thus ensuring that water bird species in the area has increased more than 400% from 10 to 167. in the lake remains clean and unpolluted. Source: Wisata Malaysia. malaysia.panduanwisata.com 54 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 2.11: Illustration of the Regions And Components Involved in the Construction and Function of the Putrajaya Wetlands

Source: PLWMOS. plwmos.ppj.gov.my

The Putrajaya Wetlands project illustrates the Methods Used benefi ts of incorporating wetlands into urban The Putrajaya wetland system features a development. It demonstrates how a town can multicell multistage system with fl ood retention draw inspiration from nature to solve an urban capability. The system consists of 24 cells problem that is of local and global signifi cance. divided into six arms. All arms except one discharge to the Central Wetland, the 24th cell, Wetlands, whether natural or human-made, can before fl owing into Putrajaya Lake. These arms be planned as an integral part of a city’s green straddle Sungai Chuau, Sungai Bisa, and three infrastructure to improve water quality and tributaries. urban aesthetics with a wider role for tourism, education, and research (Figure 2.11). Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 55

Altogether, more than 70 species of wetland plants have been planted in Putrajaya Wetland. Source: afadruskee. 3.bp.blogspot.com, and Malaysia Wetlands. archive.wetlands.org

Putrajaya ecohydrology management won gold in the 2012 International Awards for Liveable Communities. Source: Weather Forecast. www.weather-forecast.com

A series of rockfi lled weirs was constructed Benefi ts along the six arms of the wetland to divide the ƷɆ Natural stormwater and fl ood management 24 cells. Although all the six arms are connected, system for Putrajaya. they diff er in size, depth, plant communities, ƷɆ Increased wildlife habitat and conservation and pollutant load capacity. Each wetland cell is zones. planted with wetland plants native to Malaysia. ƷɆ Nature education and research area. The water that fl ows into all these 24 wetlands ƷɆ Increased outdoor tourism for Malaysians cells is cleansed multiples times by biochemical and international travelers. processes ensuring that only clean water enters ƷɆ Filtration properties of the wetland trap, break Putrajaya Lake. down, and digest pollutants in water before it enters the lake. Putrajaya Lake is at the southern part of the ƷɆ Nutrient removal performance along six cells wetland. About 60% of the lake’s water fl ows in 2004 was from the wetland while the remaining 40% is - 82.11% for total nitrogen, direct discharge from the bordering promenade. - 70.73% for nitrate–nitrogen, and The 20-meter-wide promenade is the buff er - 84.32% for phosphate. feature along the lake shorelines. The area of the whole lake is about 400 hectares. The lake’s total volume is about 23.5 million cubic meters with a depth in the range of 3–14 meters. 56 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Source: Inhabitat. http://inhabitat.com/how-the-cheonggyecheon-river-urban-design-restored-the-green-heart-of-seoul/

2.7.5 Seoul, Republic of Korea Cheonggyecheon River Category: slope stabilization; water and ﬂood management; energy, heat, and greenhouse gas management Applications: town-wide planning, large infrastructure Development Needs: canals, culverts and drains, drainage, river embankment, roads and footpaths, stormwater outfall Green Infrastructure: bioswales, dikes, drainage corridors, urban river terracing, vegetated revetment, vegetated riprap

Over the past decade, the Republic Korea— particularly the capital city, Seoul—has taken drastic steps to try to reduce the amount of pollution it creates and to curb its reliance on fossil fuels. Before restoration, residents of the area were more Perhaps the biggest change has been the than twice as likely to suffer from respiratory disease restoration of the old Cheonggyecheon than those in other parts of the city. stream, which cuts east to west across the Source: Urban Planet. urbanplanet.info Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 57

Figure 2.12: Illustration of the Cheonggyecheon River Restoration Plan

Beodeul Swampy Land Gwangtonggyo Fashion Square Wall of Wishes Old Bridge Remains Cheonggye Square and Culture Wall Cheonggyecheoh Bballaeteo and Tunnel Fountain

Jeongjo Banchado

Source: K. Johnson. Land of Morning Calm. 3.bp.blogspot.com

In the ﬁrst 3 months following its restoration, a quarter of all Koreans (about 10 million people) visited the river.

Source: Urban Planet. urbanplanet.info

city. Neglected and highly polluted, it was auto-centric, development-oriented urban covered over in 1958 to remove an eyesore landscape to one that values the quality of life and the stench emitting from its dirty waters. of its people and the importance of functioning In the 1970s, a raised four-lane highway was ecosystems. By demolishing an elevated completed on top of the stream, which had freeway and uncovering a section of the historic already been completely covered by concrete. Cheonggyecheon Stream, the Cheonggyecheon Used by more than 120,000 cars a day and often Restoration Project created both ecological and gridlocked, the highway was a major contributor recreational opportunities along a 5.8-kilometer to air pollution. corridor in the center of Seoul. The project has proven catalytic, spurring economic growth When the ambitious project to uncover and development in an area of Seoul that had and rejuvenate the Cheonggyecheon was languished over the last several decades. announced in 2003 by then-mayor Lee Myung-bak, it was met with huge opposition Methods Used from citizens and businesses. After a period of The design incorporated the original width of negotiation with local inhabitants and business the stream, but the bed was lowered to allow for owners, work began and the stream was opened future floods. The outer parts of the previous to the public in 2005, complete with plants and road deck were also retained to carry a new fish that have since flourished. two-lane side road and to allow space for floods to flow underneath. A new sloping embankment The City of Seoul is in the process of an wall was then built alongside. The final river important paradigm shift, changing from an cross-section varies from 9 meters in width 58 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Temperatures along the stream are 3.3°C–5.9°C cooler than on a parallel road 4–7 blocks away. Source: Kimchi Bytes. i0.wp.com

upstream to 115 meters downstream, while low- Table 2.4: Overall Biodiversity, level terraces on both sides of the river provide 2003 (Prerestoration) vs 2008 people and wildlife easy access to the water. Species 2003 2008 Plants 62 308 The river is allotted a daily supply of 1,006,370 Fish 4 25 barrels, which maintains an average depth of 40 Birds 6 36 centimeters and average current velocity of 0.25 meters per second. The design also takes into Aquatic animals 5 53 account the area’s combined sewage system, Insects 15 192 which could release wastewater and rainwater Mammals 2 4 runoff into the river during storms. Large Amphibians 4 8 sewers were built alongside the river to provide additional retention for stormwater and to ƷɆ Reduces the urban heat island effect: the protect its newly established ecological system. cooling effect of the stream, increased vegetation, reduction in auto trips, and Benefits 2.2%–7.8% increase in wind speeds through ƷɆ Increases open space and recreational the corridor. opportunities in the civic center area. ƷɆ Reduced small-particle air pollution by 35% ƷɆ Provides flood protection for up to a 200- from 74 to 48 micrograms per cubic meter. year flood event and can sustain flow rate of ƷɆ Enhances pedestrian experience. 118 millimeters per hour. ƷɆ Enhances tourism in the central business ƷɆ Increased overall biodiversity by 639% district. between the prerestoration work in 2003 and the end of 2008 (Table 2.4). Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 59

2.7.6 Sydney, Australia Homebush Bay Wetlands Renewal waste management, urban river terracing, Category: water and ﬂood management, vegetated revetment, vegetated riprap pollution management Applications: town-wide planning, large Sydney Olympic Park’s once-degraded wetland infrastructure and terrestrial ecosystems underwent extensive Development Needs: commercial area restoration works during the late 1990s in what redevelopment, industrial areas, parking areas, was the largest land remediation exercise ever river embankments, stormwater outfalls, undertaken in Australia. Located along the south wastewater treatment plants bank of the Parramatta River in the inner west of Green Infrastructure: bioretention pond, Sydney, the region was contaminated with dioxin bioswales, constructed wetlands, drainage and other chemicals by landﬁlling and intensive corridor, permeable paving, rain gardens, solid industries that closed in the 1980s.

The Brick Pit, a former quarry, became an environmental feature of the Sydney Olympic Park and a critical component in the revival of the endangered green and golden frog Sources: (starting from top) Wikipedia. upload.wikimedia.org, Sydney Olympic Park Authority. www.sopa.nsw.gov.au, Strata Live. www.stratalive.com.au, Australian Museum. australianmuseum.net.au, and Past/Lives of the Near Future. pastlivesofthenearfuture.ﬁles.wordpress.com 60 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

After winning the bid for the 2000 Summer The restoration works have won several major Olympics, Sydney set out to renew 760 hectares environmental awards: of land in an eff ort to run the greenest games ƷɆ The United Nations Environment ever. The bid for the Olympic Games had Programme’s Global 500 Award for included a set of environmental guidelines Environmental Excellence (2001) based on sustainability principles adopted at ƷɆ Gold Banksia Award (2000) the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit. They ƷɆ Banksia Award – Conservation of Flora and included commitments to the preservation Fauna (2000) and protection of natural ecosystems and ƷɆ Rivercare 2000 Gold Award (2000) endangered species, as well as energy and water ƷɆ Energy Australia–National Trust Heritage conservation, waste minimization, resource Award – landscape conservation conservation, and prevention of pollution. commendation – saltmarsh (2005) ƷɆ Energy Australia–National Trust Heritage Award – landscape conservation – Brickpit Ringwalk (2006) Figure 2.13: Illustration of Plans to Construct the Homebush Bay Wetlands Methods Used Stormwater and pollution control measures included (Figure 2.13): ƷɆ gross pollutant traps (GPTs), continuous deﬂ ective separation units (CDS units), and water quality control ponds installed throughout the park to capture locally generated pollutants and protect local waterways; ƷɆ three on-site water quality control ponds to collect stormwater runoff from the pavements, roads, and rooftops; and ƷɆ stormwater runoff from the 14-hectare parking lot and from much of the suburb of Newington is collected into irrigation storage ponds in Narawang Wetland.

The restoration involved: ƷɆ remediation of 160 hectares of contaminated land and the recovery and consolidation of 9 million cubic meters of excavated waste; ƷɆ restoration works to 100 hectares of remnant wetlands and 20 hectares of remnant forest; ƷɆ dechannelization of 2 kilometers of creekline, converting it from a concrete stormwater drainage channel into a naturalistic tidal waterway edged by vegetated terraces; ƷɆ restoration of tidal ﬂ ushing 35 hectares of a Ƶ

Ő͘ landlocked estuarine wetland; r ƷɆ construction of new wetland, grassland, a ͘Ž

a ŝů woodland, and saltmarsh landscapes on

ǁǁ͘ remediated lands; and ǁ ƷɆ design, construction, and establishment Source: Architecture AU. architectureau.com of new habitats for target ﬂ ora and fauna communities. Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 61

The parklands attract millions of visitors a year Source: River Canoe Club of New South Wales. www.rivercanoeclub.org

The stormwater diversion rate is 500 L/s which helps to replenish the water lost from Sydney Park due to evaporation. Source: Games Bids.com/Bookmarc. www.bookmarc.com.au

Benefits ƷɆ Increased wildlife habitat: ƷɆ Restored estuarine ecosystem health. - 3 endangered ecological communities ƷɆ Fishways between estuarine and freshwater - protected marine vegetation creek systems to enable fish passage from - over 180 species of birds the Parramatta River estuary to upstream - 7 species of frogs habitats that were previously inaccessible. - 10 species of bats ƷɆ Increased vegetative biodiversity. - 10 species of reptiles ƷɆ Educational and awareness-raising - many species of native fish opportunities for the benefits of biodiversity - thousands of invertebrates and green infrastructure. ƷɆ Natural stormwater collection and treatment. ƷɆ Increased green space for locals and tourists. 62 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

The bridge demonstrates that natural elements can be integrated with traditional engineering without sacriﬁcing the quality or functionality of the project or compromising its economical feasibility. Source: ML Ingenieria. www.mlingenieria.com

2.7.7 Veracruz, Mexico installation of the reinforcement could proceed Geotextile Bridge Abutments without interrupting train traffic near the Category: slope stabilization, water and ﬂood work site. management Applications: town-wide planning, large Geotextile materials also brought a ﬂexible infrastructure structural element. For stability and protection Development Needs: bridge against erosion, geocells were placed on Green Infrastructure: vegetated geotextiles embankment surfaces for further vegetation using regional plants. The covering vegetation The bridge connects a new residential area, also provided valuable aesthetic properties. Nuevo Veracruz, with the existing Xalapa– Veracruz Highway. Nuevo Veracruz is 2.7.8 Case Study Sources approximately 7 kilometers away from Veracruz, The case studies presented in this chapter a port city and economic hub. The bridge allows provide a snapshot of green infrastructure residents and commercial traffic to cross railroad methods used in different cities to build tracks that link cargo trains to the rest of the resilience and use nature-based solutions to country. solve urban problems.

Geotextile bridge abutments are not only safe, For more detailed information and descriptions but also capable of using elements that integrate on how each project was implemented, please harmoniously with the surrounding landscape. visit the following websites. The goal was to build a robust bridge while encouraging future builders to use sustainable Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam materials in their urban designs. Trees Grow on Rooftops http://www.dezeen.com/2014/06/19/house-for- The design engineering had to ﬁrst account trees-vietnam-vo-trong-nghia-architects/ for the low capacity of the soil and the short time line for completion. The use of geotextiles Pasig River, Philippines included time-saving construction without Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission affecting safety or quality, and ensured that http://www.prrc.gov.ph/ Green Infrastructure for Resilient Mekong Towns 63

Putrayaja, Malaysia City of Melbourne. 2009. City of Melbourne PLWMOS Putrajaya Lake and Wetland WSUD Guidelines: Applying the Model Management and Operational System WSUD Guidelines. Inner Melbourne Action http://plwmos.ppj.gov.my/ Plan. https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/ SiteCollectionDocuments/wsud-full-guidelines. Seoul, Republic of Korea pdf Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration Project http://lafoundation.org/research/landscape- K. Fritzsche et al. 2014. The Vulnerability performance-series/case-studies/case- Sourcebook: Concept and Guidelines for study/382 Standardised Vulnerability Assessments. Bonn and Eschborn, Germany: GIZ. http://www. Sydney, Australia preventionweb.net/ﬁles/38849_38849vulnerab Sydney Olympic Park Authority. Environment. ilitysourcebookguideli.pdf http://www.sopa.nsw.gov.au/our_park/ environment Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-International, Thailand Environment Veracruz, Mexico Institute, and Vietnam National Institute for Geosynthetics. 2011. New Bridge Abutments Science and Technology Policy and Strategy with a Vegetated Finish. 1 February. http:// Studies. 2014. Urban Vulnerability in Southeast geosyntheticsmagazine.com/2011/02/01/new- Asia: Summary of Vulnerability Assessments in bridge-abutments-with-a-vegetated-ﬁnish/ Mekong-Building Climate Resilience in Asian Cities (M-BRACE). Bangkok: Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-International. http://i- 2.8 Additional Reading s-e-t.org/projects/m-brace.html

Readers may also find the following materials M. Kramer. 2014. Enhancing Sustainable useful in their application of nature-based Communities with Green Infrastructure: solutions in Mekong towns. A Guide To Help Communities Better Manage Stormwater While Achieving Other M. Bertule et al. 2014. Green Infrastructure Environmental, Public Health, Social, And Guide for Water Management: Ecosystem- Economic Benefits. Office of Sustainable Based Management Approaches for Water- Communities Smart Growth Program. https:// Related Infrastructure Projects. United www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-08/ Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), documents/green-infrastructure.pdf UNEP-DHI Partnership – Centre on Water and Environment, International Union for United States Environmental Protection Conservation of Nature, and The Nature Agency. 2013. The Importance of Operation Conservancy. http://www.unepdhi.org/-/media/ and Maintenance for the Long-Term Success microsite_unepdhi/publications/documents/ of Green Infrastructure: A Review of Green unep/web-unep-dhigroup-green-infrastructure- Infrastructure O&M Practices in ARRA Clean guide-en-20140814.pdf Water State Revolving Fund Projects. Office of Water. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ Center for Neighborhood Technology and files/2015-04/documents/green_infrastructure- American Rivers. 2010. The Value of Green om_report.pdf Infrastructure: A Guide to Recognizing Its Economic, Environmental and Social Benefits. P. Winters, C. Piasecki, and R. Pirani. 2012. Chicago, IL and Washington, DC: Center for 9 Ways to Make Green Infrastructure Work for Neighborhood Technology and American Towns and Cities. Regional Plan Association. Rivers.http://www.cnt.org/repository/gi-values- http://www.rpa.org/library/pdf/RPA-9-Ways-to- guide.pdf Make-Green-Infrastructure-Work.pdf

Chapter 3

Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns

3.1 Building Resilience through framework which facilitates and guides the Urban Planning uptake of green infrastructure. It gives special attention to the role of town master planning Urban planning refers to the technical and and the use of zoning schemes and associated decision-making processes concerned with safeguards in promoting development that the use of land and the design of the urban embraces nature-based approaches. An environment. It involves consideration of a important section deals with development range of different issues—environmental, controls and safeguards. The term “safeguards,” social, economic, and aesthetic in nature. which is used by the Asian Development Bank Urban planning determines how towns develop (ADB), the World Bank, and other development and who is involved in the process. Integrated assistance agencies, is not widely used in town urban development is centered on improving planning in the Mekong region. Other terms the quality of life or “livability” for residents such as development or planning controls, by incorporating environmental, social, and codes, and standards are more common in climate change concerns into planning. Rapid town plans. urbanization and escalating demand for urban services have increased pressures on natural 3.1.1 Why Urban Planning? systems and resources within towns, reducing There are a number of factors that contribute their livability. As more people ﬁll towns in search to making urban planning a suitable “vehicle” of a better quality of life, the need for service for driving green development and building infrastructure will intensify. The challenge for resilience in towns across the Greater Mekong town managers is to maintain the natural system Subregion (GMS), with resilience meaning foundation of urban areas and natural resource the capacity for a socioecological system to availability while implementing sustainable (i) absorb stresses and maintain function in the solutions to urban service provision.18 face of external stresses imposed upon it; and (ii) adapt, reorganize, and evolve in ways that The previous chapter introduced a range of improve the sustainability of the system, leaving green infrastructure methods which need to it better prepared for future impacts (Table 3.1). be systematically applied in Mekong towns to build sustainability and resilience. This chapter Of these factors, perhaps key is that urban describes the urban planning and management planning, typically in the form of a land use

18 ADB. 2014. Enabling GrEEEn Cities: An Operational Framework for Integrated Urban Development in Southeast Asia. ADB Southeast Asia Working Papers Series, No. 9, November 2014. Manila. 66 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table 3.1: Why Urban Planning and Management is a Good Framework for Promoting Green Infrastructure

Is integrated encompassing social, economic, and environmental considerations Is a process familiar to the Greater Mekong Subregion, typically in the form of urban master plans and spatial land-use plans (e.g., a zoning plan)

Provides a process and tools for mainstreaming climate change into town development Urban planning Represents the starting point for considering the direction of future town growth Operates at both a town-wide scale as well as a site-speciﬁc level Has potential to incorporate legal and economic incentives for green development Can be a vehicle for inclusive and participatory planning and management of urban development

Figure 3.1: Town Master Plan and Zoning System in Battambang, Cambodia

Existing land use in Urban Area of Battambang Municipality

or zoning plan, is already a common feature 3.1.2 Problems with Current Mekong Urban in many towns across the GMS (Figure 3.1). Planning Though in most cases, the regular review, There is growing recognition by government revision, and endorsement of master plans is not agencies and other stakeholders in the GMS that systematic. Market and political forces also often the existing, largely engineering-led approach override plan provisions. Even so, town plans are to dealing with urban growth and development of growing importance and have a vital role in issues such as flooding and drought is failing to influencing future growth and development. To deliver outcomes which build resilience over date, town master plans in the region and their time—and, in some cases, directly competes zoning systems have not considered the impacts with them. All too often, master plans encourage of climate change. growth in areas subject to serious flooding (e.g., in Dong Ha) even when past extreme events are considered and are projected to Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 67

become more frequent and severe. Equally, Figure 3.2: Principles for Building Urban Resilience through there are many cases where infrastructure Green Infrastructure investments have made the urban conditions 1. Natural systems protection, rehabilitation and worse even though they follow national mimicking to build resilience and well-being and sometimes international development safeguards and procurement procedures. 2. Water conservation and management to reduce fl oods, drought, and pollution The reasons for this poor performance in urban planning and development control include the 3. Energy conservation and management and reducing reliance and fossil fuels following: ƷɆ Plan zoning schemes do not have associated 4. Sustainable design in buildings and site planning to safeguards and fail to take into account enhane effi ciency, resilience, and quality of life climate change and environmental and social conditions. 5. Transit-oriented design for resilience and quality of life ƷɆ Engineering initiatives tend to be project based and site specifi c (i.e., they do not consider potential implications for broader environmental and social systems). ƷɆ Infrastructure projects are often conceived and delivered in isolation of wider town development considerations. ƷɆ Projects typically deteriorate over time (i.e., Source: ADB and ICEM. require expensive ongoing maintenance and renewal). ƷɆ describe how additional layers can be added ƷɆ Construction frequently is based on design to an urban planning framework to help standards which are not adjusted to factor inform and support a zoning plan—and how in climate change and sustainability and are these layers can be tailored to address climate often decades old. change and sustainability concerns; and ƷɆ Rehabilitating systems impacted by poorly ƷɆ equip local urban planners with an conceived projects is diffi cult and expensive. understanding of the opportunities ƷɆ Procurement and contracting processes for mainstreaming climate change and inhibit rather than facilitate community sustainability into the urban planning process. involvement and management. ƷɆ Projects are not built for multiple uses but for Examples of the approach taken by other urban a single purpose. planning frameworks internationally are referred ƷɆ Projects are infl exible and do not allow towns to throughout the chapter. to shift and evolve over time. ƷɆ Projects occurring at a rapid pace and scale allow little opportunity for refl ection and 3.2 Urban Planning for Resilience: lessons learned. Five Guiding Principles

In view of these deﬁ ciencies, a critical rethinking The following section introduces guiding is needed on how infrastructure and other principles for incorporating resilience into an development projects are conceived, designed, urban planning framework. The guiding principles and delivered within the GMS, so they are a snapshot of the concepts and approaches might better respond to climate change and emerging in contemporary urban planning sustainability. The role of urban planning and practice which have relevance to the challenges management is fundamental in this process. presented by climate change and ecological sustainability. 3.1.3 Objectives of This Chapter The key objectives of this chapter are to Their purpose is to stimulate thinking on how ƷɆ introduce guiding principles which can towns and cities within the GMS can use urban help shape town zoning plans to build planning to build resilience. The principles, which resilience and sustainability through green all promote green infrastructure and nature- infrastructure and development controls; based solutions, are represented in Figure 3.2. 68 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.3: The Green Network Concept green spaces. That network needs to be carefully planned and maintained. It is the single most important strategy that all Mekong towns need to adopt in response to climate change. It brings multiple beneﬁ ts along with enhanced resilience including greater equity in living standards and community well-being. The concept of green urban networks involves large green spaces linked in a network through green corridors in ways which facilitate the ﬂ ow of people, water, wildlife, and other resources (Figure 3.3). Application of this approach is illustrated through the following brief case studies.

Case Study 1: Melbourne, Australia The city has adopted an urban forest strategy which would create such a green network and expand the city canopy cover to 40% Source: Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning. 2012. Reﬁ nement of the Chicago (Figure 3.4).19 The strategy aims to Wilderness Green Infrastructure Vision: Final Report. Chicago, IL. ƷɆ adapt the city to climate change; ƷɆ mitigate the urban heat island eff ect by Figure 3.4: Urban Forest Strategy of Melbourne, Australia bringing down inner-city temperatures; ƷɆ create healthier urban ecosystems; ƷɆ manage and conserve water; and ƷɆ engage and involve the community in city development.

The main approaches and targets for strategy implementation are ƷɆ increasing canopy cover from 22% to 40% by 2040; ƷɆ increasing forest diversity with no more than 5% of one tree species, no more than 10% of one genus, and no more than 20% of any one family; and ƷɆ improving vegetation health.

Source: City of Melbourne. Case Study 2: Hamburg, Germany The city has announced a similar green 3.2.1 Guiding Principle 1: Protecting, network plan over 40% of the city which seeks Rehabilitating, and Mimicking Natural to eliminate cars from many areas and create Systems bicycle ways and footpaths (Figure 3.5).20 Protecting and expanding natural assets is a key function of an urban land-use planning system. The plan creates and links 70 square kilometers Natural systems are a foundation of sustainable of new and existing green space throughout the Mekong towns—and the foundation for their city. The result will be a city that puts nature resilience. Towns need to develop in ways within easier reach of every resident, becomes which protect, rehabilitate, and mimic natural more resilient to ﬂ ooding caused by global systems so that the urban landscape maintains warming, and provides enough connectivity for a network of natural corridors and connected walking and bicycling to become car-optional

19 See City of Melbourne. An Eco-City. http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/Sustainability/UrbanForest/Pages/About.aspx 20 Inhabitat. 2014. Hamburg Announces Plans to Become a Car-Free City within 20 Years. http://inhabitat.com/hamburg-announces-plans-to-become- a-car-free-city-within-20-years/ Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 69

Figure 3.5: Citywide Green Network Plan in Hamburg, Germany

Sources: Inhabitat. 2014. Hamburg Announces Plans to Become a Car-Free City within 20 Years. http://inhabitat.com/hamburg-announces-plans-to- become-a-car-free-city-within-20-years/ (map); Inhabitat. 2011. Hamburg Is Building a Giant Green Roof Cover Over Sections of the A7 Motorway. November. http://inhabitat.com/hamburg-is-building-a-giant-green-roof-cover-over-sections-of-the-a7-motorway/ (photos).

Terracing of River Banks for Multiple Uses, Flood Protection, and Recreation as Part of a Citywide Green Network Source: Sasaki Associates. n.d. Cedar Rapids Riverfront. www.sasaki.com/project/133/cedar-rapids-riverfront citywide in 20 years. The plan will connect parks, objectives are permitted and those which recreational areas, playgrounds, gardens, and might have degrading impacts are avoided. The cemeteries through green trails and waterways. urban planning process, particularly land-use zoning and safeguards, has signiﬁ cant scope One exceptional component will be building a to provide that enabling environment for the cover for the A7 expressway, one of the largest establishment of green networks and the control in Germany. The plan calls for installing a canopy of development within it. Care is needed to cover 34 meters (m) wide and 2–3 m thick over ensure the wider natural systems are taken the A7 in three sections, covering a total of into account. For example, a drainage channel 3.5 kilometers (km) to reconnect neighborhoods renewal plan needs to consider the condition that have been disconnected for the 30 years and management of upstream and downstream since the expressway was built. The canopy natural features—and even broader watershed would be covered with wooded parkland, management priorities. This could involve both meadows, pathways, and garden allotments for natural and constructed elements, for example, Hamburg residents (Figure 3.5).21 the construction of wetlands, green street development, and the terracing and vegetating To establish and maintain such green networks, of riverbank stabilization works to allow for development needs to be controlled so that multiple uses. only projects consistent with the green network

21 Inhabitat. 2011. Hamburg Is Building a Giant Green Roof Cover over Sections of the A7 Motorway. http://inhabitat.com/hamburg-is-building-a-giant- green-roof-cover-over-sections-of-the-a7-motorway/ 70 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

River Bank Terracing and Vegetation as Part of a Green Infrastructure Network in Guadalupe River Park in San Jose, California, United States Source: R. Horii. 2011. Guadalupe River Park and Gardens—Part 2 South: Santa Clara Street to I-280. www.oocities.org/rhorii/GRPG/GRPG2.html

The goal of bringing nature back into Mekong Case Study 3: Moreton Bay Regional Council towns encourages the application of many green in Queensland, Australia infrastructure methods and new infrastructure The council adopted the following vision in its which replicates the functioning of natural Green Infrastructure Strategy: systems and services wherever possible. For some practitioners, that is the primary function A healthy and productive network of natural, of green infrastructure. For them, “[g]reen seminatural and engineered green spaces and infrastructure refers to natural, seminatural and assets valued for what they are, the ecosystem engineered green assets that are connected services they provide, and their contribution across a landscape. Green assets include to regional biodiversity and environmental parklands, waterways and wetlands, large resilience. and small tracts of natural and re-established ecosystems, ecological corridors, grassy fi elds, To realize its vision, the council identifi ed the street and habitat trees, community gardens, following underlying management approaches: drainage swales, and innovative technologies The network should such as vegetated roofs, bio-retention basins, ƷɆ promote linkages between green wildlife crossing and nesting infrastructure.”22 infrastructure components, ƷɆ be multifunctioning, ƷɆ be integrated with all other infrastructure types, ƷɆ be fl exible so that environmental values are strengthened while supporting development and other associated infrastructure networks, and ƷɆ promote diversity in biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The strategy should also be evidence-based so that its green infrastructure components are selected using scientiﬁ c data validated through remote sensing, ﬁ eld monitoring, and ground- truthing against predetermined criteria such as Establishing Natural Corridors across the Urban Landscape in Moreton Bay, Australia ecological value and consideration of future land Source: Moreton Bay Regional Council. 2013. Draft Green Infrastructure Strategy 2013–2031. use intent. www.moretonbay.qld.gov.au/uploadedFiles/moretonbay/development/planning/Draft- Green-Infrastructure-Strategy.pdf

22 Moreton Bay Regional Council. 2013. Draft Green Infrastructure Strategy 2013–2031. p. 5. https://www.moretonbay.qld.gov.au/uploadedFiles/moretonbay/ development/planning/Draft-Green-Infrastructure-Strategy.pdf Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 71

Wetlands in Suncheon, Republic of Korea Source: Korea JoongAng Daily. 2012. Rare Birds, Sunset Lovers Flock to Suncheon Bay. 11 December. http:// koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2963720

Doi Saken Forest in Chiang Rai, Thailand

Sources Lanna Touring. n.d. Rai Doi Tung Flower Garden. www.lannatouring.com/TourPro/CHR01/CHR01.html (in Thai) (left); My Chiang Mai Tour. n.d. Attractions in Mae Fa Luang – Chiang Rai District. http://mychiangmaitour.com/ maefaluang/

Case Study 4: Suncheon, Republic of Korea Now, Suncheon Bay’s wide tideland, fi eld of The medium-sized city with approximately reeds, and salt swamp are maintained as an 270,000 residents is located on the south coast essential part of the urban landscape functioning in South Jeolla Province, which contains 40% as a water and air pollution purifi cation system, of the country’s coastal wetlands. In the past for city drainage, for storm and fl ood protection, decade, Suncheon has transformed itself into and as a multipurpose recreational facility for an eco-city committed to the conservation of the city’s residents. its estuarine and other natural ecosystems as a foundation of its city development strategy. Case Study 5: Chiang Rai, Thailand Suncheon Bay includes a long stream of 3.5 km, The municipality is located in Chiang Rai tideland 2,221 hectares (ha) wide, and a fi eld province, the northernmost province of Thailand of reeds 230 ha wide. In 2003, Suncheon in the Kok River Basin with a population of Bay was designated as one of the fi rst coastal 70,000. The urban center serves as the main wetland protection areas after the city council business area and is the location of government successfully blocked a private proposal to agency buildings. The suburbs are mostly reclaim part of the bay for urban development. agricultural and residential. The sensitive Three years later, the bay was listed as the ecosystems in and around Chiang Rai are under Republic of Korea’s fi rst coastal Ramsar Wetland severe pressure from rapid urban development of International Importance. It is also to be and the growth in tourism. protected as a “heritage landscape” under the Cultural Heritage Protection Act, and the local In 2008, the local government initiated the government is seeking to add it to the UNESCO Enhancing Urban Ecosystems and Biodiversity World Heritage List. in Chiang Rai City project. It aims to restore 72 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

and conserve the diverse ecosystems in the development must not lead to a net increase city area to maintain a natural economic, in the quantity or decrease in the quality social, and environmental balance in urban of stormwater discharged from the project development. Its objectives include biodiversity site compared with pre-development levels. conservation as a carbon sink and food supply Measures promoted to achieve such a for city residents. In 2011, Chiang Rai received a requirement might include rainwater tanks, rain UN-Habitat award for “good practice” in urban gardens, retentions ponds, and bioswales. biodiversity conservation. Such water conservation and management Several development strategies are being measures could apply to an urban development implemented to attain this vision. They of any scale whether an industrial site, market, include an integrated approach to climate government building complex, or dwelling. They change mitigation and adaptation involving are consistent with the emerging approach of all government agencies, the private sector, water sensitive urban design, which is defined and community groups in linking biodiversity as “a land planning and engineering design conservation with local economic development approach which integrates the urban water and disaster preparedness. The initiative has cycle, including stormwater, groundwater and resulted in the demarcation of forests, lakes, and wastewater management and water supply, rivers as conservation zones in the town master into urban design, to minimize environmental plan; and in improved and expanded green degradation and improve aesthetic and spaces within the city, for example, a forested recreational appeal.”23 and wetland track called Doi Saken. These actions have boosted tourism and tourism There is scope for significant improvements to revenue, spawned new educational programs stormwater management practices in Mekong for school children and youth, and strengthened town which have potential to greatly reduce community relationships reducing conflicts and the impacts of pluvial flooding. An example of social tensions. the situation in which these measures might be employed is provided in the following case study Obstacles to the initiative which the of a residential area in Melbourne, Australia. municipality has had to address include ƷɆ residential and developer encroachment into Case Study 6: Green Streets in Heidelberg the conservation zones designated by the West, Melbourne, Australia municipality, The city is an example of how new infrastructure ƷɆ a lack of biodiversity expertise to survey and can be designed and implemented in a way identify priorities and define effective and which helps build climate resilience. The realistic management plans, and residential area of Heidelberg was originally ƷɆ limited local community capacity and constructed as housing for athletes for the awareness concerning biodiversity values and 1956 Olympic Games. It adjoins Darebin Creek. requirements. The creek is degrading due to an increase in rainwater runoff, increasing erosion and 3.2.2 Guiding Principle 2: Water sedimentation, and decreasing water quality. Conservation and Wise Management The principle of water conservation and wise The impacts are due to stormwater from management can take differing forms when surrounding residential development which applied to urban planning. With respect to is piped directly to a series of outfalls to the drainage infrastructure, a frequent challenge creek without any form of flow management in Mekong towns, minimizing the burden of or treatment. No pollutant traps or wetlands new development on existing stormwater exist to moderate quality and runoff to the infrastructure would be a priority. It might creek (Figure 3.6). The planned response is to take the form of a requirement that new

23 BMT WBM. 2009. Evaluating Options for Water-Sensitive Urban Design: A National Guide. Prepared by the Joint Steering Committee for Water Sensitive Cities in Delivering Clause 92(ii) of the National Water Initiative. Canberra: Joint Steering Committee for Water Sensitive Cities. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 73

Figure 3.6: Residential Area before Green Street Redevelopment in Heidelberg, Melbourne, Australia

Clockwise from top left: typical streetscape in study area, aerial photograph of area at time of construction, impacts to quality of creek as a result of stormwater runoff , location plan of area and creek alignment.

Sources: City of Melbourne Urban Forest Strategy and Precinct Plans by City of Melbourne. Image: Anton Malishev. http://architectureau.com/ articles/2014-victorian-landscape-architecture-awards/; City of Port Phillip. http://www.portphillip.vic.gov.au/content-images/Urban_Forest(1).jpg introduce new street sections (green streets) parallel onroad parking area, a rumble strip of with two elements: permeable paving or grasscrete to reduce the ƷɆ A large single sided bioretention swale total hard surface area of the roadway without incorporated at the low side of the road, with losing the ability for two-way passing traffi c. a single direction camber for the new road surface to direct all stormwater into this zone The outcome of the improvement works is ƷɆ Self-irrigating tree planter pits integrated into improved quality of water entering the creek, the uphill side of the street within an area of reduced rate of ﬂ ow, and reduced overall volume permeable paving. At the edges of the main of surface water through increased inﬁ ltration roadway, and partially encroaching into the (Figure 3.7).24

24 This green streets approach has been implemented extensively in Portland, Oregon (United States). See https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bes/ article/414873 74 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Green Street Design Approaches for Heidelberg, Melbourne, Australia Sources: Landscape and Urbanism. 1.bp.blogspot.com, Green Infrastructure Digest. hpigreen.ﬁ les.wordpress.com, and Chesapeake Stormwater Network. chesapeakestormwater.net

Figure 3.7: Schematic Illustration of Situation in Heidelberg, Melbourne, Australia

Before After

Existing situation (left) and proposed situation (right) showing how stormwater will be collected in a biogengineering swale, ﬁ ltered for nutrients and sediments before passing slowly to Darebin Creek. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 75

Figure 3.8: Vegetation Cover Increase from 1986 to 2007 in Singapore

1986 VEGETATION COVER: 35.7% 2007 VEGETATION COVER: 46.5%

Note: Dark green areas: tree canopy cover; light green areas: shrub cover or grasslands. Source: Civil Service College Singapore. www.cscollege.gov.sg/Knowledge/Ethos/World%20Cities%20Summit/PublishingImag

Case Study 7: Combined Green Plan and ƷɆ Plan for an island-wide network of green Water Conservation Strategy of Singapore links to connect parks and water bodies with The strategy enabled green cover in the city residential areas. to grow from 35.7% to 46.5% between 1986 and 2007, despite the population growing As part of the implementation of the master by 68% from 2.7 million to 4.6 million plan, the Public Utilities Board has opened up (Figure 3.8). and developed its water bodies for conservation and recreational activities. The Active, Beautiful The importance of greenery and water and Clean (ABC) Waters Programme is management for multiple uses for a quality one such initiative, where the objective is to living environment is emphasized in Singapore’s rehabilitate water canals and landscape them for Master Plan 2003, which has adopted the better integration with surrounding parks and theme “A City in a Garden.” The master plan, green spaces. drawn up by the Urban Redevelopment Authority to steer Singapore’s urban Since 2011, the water catchment area has development to 2017, incorporates a new been increased from half to two-thirds of Parks and Water Bodies Plan with the following Singapore’s land surface. Rainwater is collected guiding principles:25 through a comprehensive network of drains, ƷɆ Plan for a hierarchy of parks distributed canals, rivers, stormwater collection ponds, and throughout the island, from larger parks with reservoirs before it is treated for the drinking more facilities to smaller parks near homes, water supply. That strategy is accompanied by with a guideline provision of 0.8 hectares per a comprehensive rehabilitation and greening of 1,000 population. the city’s watersheds and of water infrastructure ƷɆ Cluster groups of parks with complementary using bioengineering methods and community ecosystems and activities, such as wetlands, involvement. This meets 30% of the city’s water hill parks, and tropical rainforests, and needs; a target that will be increased to 50% of connect them, where possible, to give a more future needs by 2060. This makes Singapore holistic experience. one of the few countries in the world to harvest ƷɆ Bring people closer to nature and, where urban stormwater on a large scale for its water possible, integrate nature areas within parks. supply (Figure 3.9).

25 Extract from N. Lang. 2008. A City in a Garden. https://www.cscollege.gov.sg/knowledge/ethos/world%20cities%20summit/pages/08a%20city%20 in%20a%20garden.aspx 76 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.9: Watersheds for Rainwater Collection in Singapore

Source: Singapore Water Constraint. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-f6dioT6ghS8/UVl_ANMNSKI/AAAAAAAAAAw/DKmLYA8T47o/s1600/1.jpg

3.2.3 Guiding Principle 3: Energy It may take the form of applying a “green Conservation and Wise Management to belt” around an urban area or green networks Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels throughout to conﬁ ne urban expansion or Urban planning and management needs to to incentivizing the inclusion of renewable apply the energy conservation principle in a energy in new proposals by allowing more variety of ways—from emphasizing public intensive development than would otherwise transport use and reducing car dependence, be considered. For example, a proposed high- incorporating sustainable building design and rise building which incorporates solar-powered renewable energy in new development, through recharge stations for electric vehicles may be to protecting viable agricultural lands and green permitted to exceed the prescribed height limit spaces within the urban landscape.26 Each of otherwise applicable to an area. Town planning the other urban planning green infrastructure can promote green infrastructure methods principles has a role to play in promoting energy which reduce energy consumption such as conservation and wise management. For “green” and “blue” roofs (i.e., roofs designed example, energy conservation and management to store water), green walls, and various green is a key principle applied through eff ective street, urban canopy, and water management application of sustainable design in buildings and options that reduce the heat island eff ect. transport systems (principles 4 and 5).

26 United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN HABITAT). 2012. Sustainable Urban Energy: A Sourcebook for Asia. Nairobi, Kenya. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 77

From an adaptation perspective, a further Figure 3.10: Buildings with Potential for Small Wind Turbines advantage of promoting decentralized and in Central Sydney, Australia renewable energy is that at times of network failure, for example, during a storm or ﬂ ood event, such forms of energy are likely to be more resilient than centralized technologies.

Case Study 8: City of Sydney, Australia The city has adopted its Decentralised Energy Master Plan 2012–2030 emphasizing renewable energy and which is to be delivered through Green Infrastructure Master Plans for decentralized energy (trigeneration and renewable energy), decentralized water, energy effi ciency, and advanced waste collection and treatment technologies.27 The city plans to produce 70% of its energy needs locally from trigeneration systems. These small local generators are nearly three times more energy effi cient than coal- ﬁ red power plants because they use waste heat to both heat and cool buildings. Other emissions cuts will come from energy effi ciency and renewable energy. Thirty renewable energy technologies were screened for the master plan. The short list of 14 technologies is based on technologies that are commercially available today or will become commercially available by 2030. They include solar photovoltaic and solar water heating technologies, integrated wind turbines (Figure 3.10), and renewable gas from waste and biomass.

The Decentralised Energy Master Plan sets out the size and availability of renewable energy resources needed to meet Sydney’s energy and climate change targets and the potential Source: City of Sydney. 2013. City of Sydney Decentralised Energy Master Plan – Renewable investment required. The fi rst objective was Energy 2012–2030. Sydney. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_ fi le/0003/153282/Renewable-Energy-Master-Plan.pdf to determine how much of the city’s 30% renewable electricity target could come from within the local government area and, where virtually energy-independent and reduce its there is a shortfall, to determine the amount carbon emissions by 70% from 2006 levels of renewable electricity to be sourced from by 2030. beyond but within proximity of the city to meet the target. The town urban master plan, referred to as the Sydney Local Environmental Plan 2012, provides The overarching Sustainable Sydney 2030 Plan the spatial planning and development control aims to turn the city into a low-carbon city using framework for realizing the city’s energy and locally produced electricity instead of coal- other green infrastructure targets.28 The plan fi red power. The target is for Sydney to become divides the city into zones and specifi es the

27 City of Sydney. 2013. City of Sydney Decentralised Energy Master Plan – Renewable Energy 2012–2030. Sydney. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/ assets/pdf_ﬁ le/0003/153282/Renewable-Energy-Master-Plan.pdf 28 City of Sydney. Local Environmental Plans. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/development/planning-controls/local-environmental-plans (last updated 8 October 2013). 78 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.11: Local Environment Plan and Zoning System in Sydney, Australia materials, ventilation, water use, energy effi ciency, and waste management. Figure 3.12 is an example of sustainable building best practice in Berkeley, California. It is a key to eff ective climate change mainstreaming. In addition to having positive environmental and resilience beneﬁ ts, sustainable building design delivers health and well-being advantages to occupants and the wider urban community. Increasing the proportion of sustainable buildings within urban environments should be promoted through the urban planning framework of towns within the GMS.

Case Study 9: City of Yarra in Melbourne, Australia An increasing number of countries are requiring new buildings to achieve a sustainability rating as part of the approval process. For example, the City of Yarra in Melbourne (Australia) requires developers to submit a sustainability design assessment (SDA) and Source: The Urban Developer. 2014. Proposed Zoning Changes for City of Sydney. July. www.theurbandeveloper.com/proposed-zoning-changes-for-city-of-sydney/ sustainability management plan (SMP) with their development proposal application. The SDA is a simple sustainability assessment of a proposed design at the planning stage in support planning controls that must be followed within of the planning application by showing how each zone and the “consent authorities” that the developer intends to address the 10 Key must approve development applications Sustainable Building Categories (Figure 3.13). (Figure 3.11). The plan is supported by a The Yarra Council’s Planning Scheme outlines development control plan with more detailed general sustainable design guidance, but the planning and design guidelines.29 For example, SDA process encourages developers to strive the plan’s environmental management for best practice, creativity, and innovation. An provisions are intended to ensure that principles SMP is required for all larger developments of of ecologically sustainable development are 10 or more residential dwellings or more than integrated into the design and construction of 1,000 square meters of nonresidential gross development, particularly in relation to reduced ﬂ oor area. It addresses the 10 Key Sustainable energy usage. They are also intended to lead Building Categories and demonstrates that a to improved sun access to publicly accessible comprehensive sustainable design assessment spaces and to lower overall levels of wind, has been undertaken during a project’s early noise, and reﬂ ectivity. Similar controls on water design stage. In relation to these categories, management promote green infrastructure an SMP must identify relevant sustainability approaches. targets or performance standards and document the means by which the appropriate target or 3.2.4 Guiding Principle 4: Sustainable Design performance will be achieved. in Buildings and Sites Sustainable design relates to a process of Energy effi ciency is one of Yarra’s 10 sustainable ensuring buildings are environmentally building categories. The planning guidance responsible and resource effi cient throughout points out that passive design principles their life cycle. It can be applied to virtually all including thermal mass, external shading, aspects of a building including siting, orientation, building orientation, cross-ventilation, and

29 City of Sydney. Development Control Plans. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/development/planning-controls/development-control-plans (last updated 6 May 2016). Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 79

better insulation in buildings lead to less reliance on energy-hungry air conditioning systems to maintain comfortable internal temperatures: “Using renewable energy further reduces a building’s environmental impact. Good building design decreases power consumption, saves money and reduces the eff ects of climate change. On the other hand, poor building design is uneconomical and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.”30

The Yarra Council has two levels of compliance when it comes to environmental sustainable design principles: mandatory and best practice. Source: Walking Melbourne. www.thecollectormm.com.au Mandatory requirements are that the building must meet the National Building Code Energy Effi ciency standards. These requirements are Developments that seek to vary from these the minimum standards but are not necessarily best practice standards must demonstrate how best practice. In addition, the Yarra Council energy effi ciency can be satisfactorily achieved. requires developers to meet its best practice standards. For example, to achieve best practice The Yarra Council’s best practice standards energy effi ciency building standards, as many also promote improved urban ecology. as possible of the following environmental Urbanization has altered natural systems and sustainable design principles must be processes such as soil fi ltration and drainage, incorporated into a new building or building overland and waterway fl ows, light availability, extension design: wildlife habitat, and other ecosystem services. ƷɆ Install appropriate external shading devices For example, replacing areas of vegetation responding to diff erent facade orientations. with hard surfaces including roads, driveways, ƷɆ Demonstrate energy effi ciencies beyond and paving increases stormwater runoff and minimum national compliance benchmarks contributes to fl ash fl ooding, pollution, and (e.g., +10%). infrastructure breakdown. The council has ƷɆ For offi ce buildings, include a NABERS introduced environmental sustainable design Energy Commitment Agreement.31 principles aimed at decreasing the areas of hard ƷɆ Ensure habitable rooms do not rely on or impervious surfaces and increasing vegetation artifi cial lighting throughout the day. and landscaping. It found that landscaping in ƷɆ Install energy-effi cient artifi cial lighting, urban areas can reduce air conditioning costs including sensible lighting controls. by up to 50%, for example, by shading windows ƷɆ Provide external clothes-drying facilities. and walls of a building. The cooling eff ect of one ƷɆ Consider renewable energy production for a healthy tree can be the equivalent of 10 room- proportion of water heating, space heating, size air conditioners operating 20 hours a day. and electricity demands. The council also recognized the growing body ƷɆ Specify energy-effi cient (high star rating) of research showing that communities are heating and cooling systems. happier and healthier and have a greater sense ƷɆ Install energy-effi cient (high star rating) hot of well-being in well vegetated and green urban water systems. streetscapes and spaces.

30 City of Whittlesea. 2012. Energy Effi ciency: Building Design for a Sustainable Future. Sustainable Design Assessment in the Planning Process (SDAPP), 10 Key Sustainable Building Categories. p. 1. https://www.whittlesea.vic.gov.au/building-planning-and-transport/planningdev/planning-permits/~/media/Files/ Building%20Planning%20and%20Transport/PlanningDev/SDAPP%20-%20Energy%20Effi ciency.pdf 31 The Government of New South Wales’ NABERS Energy Commitment Agreement allows developers and building owners to promote and market excellent greenhouse performance of new and refurbished commercial offi ce buildings from the outset. The commitment agreement outlines the developer’s commitment to design, build, and commission the building to a high star rating level. See http://www.nabers.gov.au/public/WebPages/ ContentStandard.aspx?module=21&template=3&include=CA.htm&side=CommitmentAgrTertiary.htm 80 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.12: Sustainable Building Design Best Practice in Berkeley, California, United States

Source: Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Architects. 2011. Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of California, Berkeley. Portland, OR. https://issuu.com/zgfarchitectsllp/docs/li-ka-shing-center?e=5145747/2590067 Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 81

Figure 3.13: Sustainable Design Categories and Guidance by Yarra City Council, Melbourne, Australia

Source: City of Yarra. 2012. Building Design for a Sustainable Future. Sustainable Design Assessment in the Planning Process (SDAPP), 10 Key Sustainable Building Categories. p. 3. http://www.yarracity.vic.gov.au/planning--building/Environmentally-Sustainable- Design/ten-key-sustainable-building-categories/ 82 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

The Yarra Council’s best practices for developers ƷɆ when a strong, competitive public transit to follow in landscaping and vegetation of their system is present, particularly when it is site and buildings aim to integrated with high-density development ƷɆ save energy and achieve seasonal heat within 500 meters of transit stations.32 control, ƷɆ reduce glare and ground temperature, A TOD neighborhood typically has a ƷɆ reduce wind penetration and capture cooling center with a public transit station or stop breezes, and surrounded by relatively high-density ƷɆ increase habitat and ecosystem services. development with progressively lower-density development spreading outward from the The best practice guide provides a wide center. It concentrates housing, shopping, range of landscaping, vegetation, and and employment along a network of walkable building innovations to enhance the town’s and bikeable streets within a 5-minute walk of urban ecology and resource materials which transit stations, or 400 meters in any direction developers can refer to in preparing their site (Figure 3.14). assessment and landscaping plan as part of the overall building and site development The TOD principles need to be incorporated application. into planning for growth areas within towns and cities. The Government of Queensland 3.2.5 Guiding Principle 5: Transit-Oriented embraces diversity in transport as an important Design TOD principle. Its guide to Queensland towns Transit-oriented design (TOD) locates and cities stipulates that a TOD neighborhood development in a manner which maximizes should be easy to move around in, and be well access to public transport, reduces the size connected to, other destinations by a range and dominance of roads and hard surfaces, of diff erent travel modes, including public and promotes walkable green urban areas. The transport, walking and cycling, and private overall goal is to reduce the reliance on private vehicles. TOD neighborhoods should cars. TOD can encourage a much smaller carbon ƷɆ incorporate direct, attractive, and safe footprint through reduced dependence on pedestrian links to transit stations, and private motor vehicles by providing easy access between neighborhoods and employment to high-quality public transport services and centers, transit interchanges, and community reducing the need to travel for employment, facilities; everyday goods and services, and to public open ƷɆ provide high-quality intermodal connections space. Private vehicle travel tends to decline with links between trains, buses, taxis, and ƷɆ where population and employment density other forms of transport; is higher, particularly if it is concentrated ƷɆ develop a coherent and legible streetscape in compact activity centers with increased that favors pedestrian and cyclist movement; land-use mix; ƷɆ allow for increasing levels of pedestrian ƷɆ in areas with connected street networks, movement and use of public transport as fuel which encourage pedestrian and cyclist costs rise; movement; ƷɆ protect and enhance pedestrian and bicycle ƷɆ in areas with attractive and safe streets connectivity in the construction of new that accommodate pedestrian and bicycle transit infrastructure; and travel and where buildings are connected to ƷɆ provide equitable access for people with footpaths rather than set back behind parking disabilities or restricted mobility along lots; continuous paths of travel in the public ƷɆ in areas with traffi c calming and other domain and to all parts of premises to which

measures that reduce vehicle traffi c speeds; the public is entitled access.33 and

32 T. Litman. 2008. Valuing Transit Service Quality Improvements. Journal of Public Transportation 11(2): 43–63. http://www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2010/03/JPT11-2Litman.pdf 33 State of Queensland, Department of Infrastructure and Planning. 2010. Transit-Oriented Development: Guide for Practitioners in Queensland. Brisbane, Australia. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 83

Case Study 10: Transit-Oriented Development Figure 3.14: Urban Design for Transit-Oriented Development Guidelines in Edmonton, Canada in Paris, France Edmonton City Council in Canada has also adopted TOD guidelines to support implementation of Edmonton’s Strategic Plan, Municipal Development Plan, Transportation Plan, and Environmental Strategic Plan. The TOD guidelines are organized under four categories: (i) Land use and intensity guidelines (ii) Building and site design guidelines (iii) Public realm guidelines (iv) Urban design principles

The Land Use and Intensity Guidelines identify minimum and maximum land-use expectations for new allowable uses. The Building and Site Design Guidelines describe qualities that foster the desired relationship between buildings and the street and provide appropriate transitions Source: Skyscrapercity.com. 2009. Top Architects Unveil New Paris. www.skyscrapercity.com/ between shorter and taller buildings. showthread.php?t=827526

The Edmonton guide stresses the importance of the public realm for the success of TOD. ƷɆ provide attractive linear amenities that serve A quality public realm attracts and stabilizes as passive recreational spaces for adjacent private investment and ensures consistency housing, retail, and employment uses; and throughout the TOD neighborhood. The Public ƷɆ may include limited vehicle access for vehicle Realm Guidelines identify maximum block loading, drop-off and deliveries, and on-site dimensions and conﬁ guration expectations private parking facilities (Figure 3.15). and include the Public Boulevard Guidelines identifying minimum dimensions, restrictions, Case Study 11: Melbourne, Australia and pedestrian components required for new Melbourne urban planners emphasize the and improved public streets. The Urban Park importance of connectivity (or permeability) and Plaza Guidelines identify sizes of public in the transport network. Connectivity aff ects urban parks and plazas, as well as the types the degree to which transportation networks of amenities that need to be provided. The such as streets, walking paths, and cycling Bicycle Facilities Guidelines identify bicycle paths connect people to their destinations parking and bikeway requirements, and the (including intermediate destinations such as Roadway Guidelines specify the dimensions and public transport services). Good connectivity quality of improved streets, all applying green provides easy access to key destinations for infrastructure principles. The prescriptions or pedestrians. Excellent connectivity actively development controls are very detailed. seeks to discourage car use by making local trips easier and more pleasant by foot than by car For example, a detailed guide under the public (Figure 3.16). realm block speciﬁ cations requires midblock access ways for redevelopment and new The Planning Institute of Australian and Local development to break up blocks of 130 meters Government Association provide the following or more in length and guidelines strategies for achieving excellent ƷɆ result in development sites with more connectivity in towns:34 pedestrian and bicycle connections, visual ƷɆ Provide a grid path network. Spacing of permeability, and pedestrian-scaled building pathways should optimize pedestrian footprints;

34 Healthy Spaces and Places. http://www.healthyplaces.org.au 84 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.15: Examples of Transit-Oriented Design in Edmonton, Canada

Sources: City of Edmonton Sustainable Development and Transportation Services Departments. 2012. Transit Oriented Development Guidelines. https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/documents/PDF/TOD_Guidelines_-_February_2012.pdf (left and middle); Dialog. n.d. Transformational Transit. http://www.dialogdesign.ca/assets/Edmonton-LRT-Sketch-Web.jpg

Figure 3.16: Laneways and Bikeways Provide Excellent Connectivity in Melbourne, Australia

Sources: Top: Healthy Spaces and Places. 2009. Connectivity. July. http://www.healthyplaces.org.au/site/connectivity_full_text.php (left and middle); Bicycle Network. Protected Bike Lanes. https://www.bicyclenetwork.com.au/general/for-government-and-business/2845/ (right). Bottom: Grayline. Melbourne City Tour. http://www.grayline.com/tours/melbourne/melbourne-city-tour-5913_57/ (left); Auckland Design Manual. St. Kilda Road, Melbourne. http://www.aucklanddesignmanual.co.nz/resources/case-studies/street_st_kilda (right). Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 85

Figure 3.17: Australian Guidance for Increasing Connectivity and Green Streets in Towns

Source: Street Cross-Section by TPG Town Planning and Urban Design, cited in Health Spaces and Places. Image Gallery: Connectivity. http://www. healthyplaces.org.au/site/image_gallery.php

movement and discourage car movement engineering standard, Australian Standard such as the use of cul de sac roads with 1428 Parts 1 and 2, Part 13 of the AustRoads pathways to enable pedestrian only access to Guide to Traffi c). the next street. ƷɆ Plan new subdivisions based on pedestrian and cyclist movement in the fi rst instance 3.3 Urban Planning for Climate before “fi tting” the road network into the Resilience: Essential Components plan. and Support Systems ƷɆ Retrofi t existing subdivisions by closing road space (particularly one leg of cross- This section describes the essential elements intersections) while retaining cycling and and processes in an urban planning framework pedestrian paths (this makes pedestrian for building resilience in Mekong towns. Five movement safer and more attractive while components cover the full spectrum of the also improving vehicle safety at these urban planning process: from “visioning” through intersections). to the “development review process” and the ƷɆ Provide footpaths on both sides of all streets steps in between (Figure 3.18). except where the road surface is so narrow that cars are expected to share the space with Many towns and cities within the GMS already pedestrians. include some of these components in their ƷɆ Increase residential densities to support urban planning processes. In those cases, the additional localized facilities (over emphasis needed is on how to improve their 30 dwellings per hectare will sustain a basic performance and adjust them to address climate level of facilities within walking distance). change through green infrastructure. ƷɆ Ensure pathway and bikeway networks allow for longer distance travel within the town. 3.3.1 Building Resilience and Sustainability ƷɆ Set a minimum standard footpath width of into the Town Development Vision 1.2 meters as adequate for most road and The visioning process is designed to establish street situations except in commercial and a town’s overarching development goal and shopping environments (which is a national approach. A vision can apply to a whole region 86 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.18: Essential Ingredients for Mekong Town Planning Frameworks Given the inﬂuential role of the vision statement, it is appropriate to consider how it might be Town used to address climate change. By referencing Vision climate change in a high-level policy direction, it puts the onus on other layers of policy and plans Town Strategic to follow the lead set by the vision. Plan In September 2014, the climate change Local Area Plans core groups from Battambang, Dong Ha, and Kaysone Phomvihane came together to discuss and develop “green vision statements” for their towns to address resilience through Development Controls green infrastructure concepts. They used a list of descriptors to stimulate debate and reach consensus on the most appropriate terms to Development Review Process include in their visions.

The Kaysone Phomvihane Core Group focused on peace, environmental conservation, and or city, a precinct or neighborhood, or even a stable economic development in formulating particular site. Its purpose is to set the tone their vision statement. The group wished to or direction for all subsidiary urban planning see stronger commitment to the protection policies which guide development outcomes in of nature and natural resources and to raising the area. awareness within their community of the need for natural system conservation as an important In most instances, the visioning process involves strategy for development and for building consultation with residents, business owners, climate change resilience. community groups, government departments, and other stakeholders. Gaining the views of the Vision: Build Kaysone Phomvihane as a clean community through consultation helps urban city with strong economic growth, environmental planners to deliver outcomes consistent with sustainability, awareness of environmental community aspirations. protection, and improved natural resources conservation to reduce impacts of climate change. Community visioning is the process of developing consensus about what future The Dong Ha Core Group reconsidered the a community wants, then deciding what is relevance of each of the green infrastructure necessary to achieve it. A vision statement concepts for their town. The Dong Ha group captures what community members most value concluded that climate change, though not about their community and the shared image explicitly mentioned in their existing town of what they want their community to become. vision statement, is inherent in the term “green” It inspires community members to work which it adopted as a core concept for town together to achieve the vision. A thoughtful development. It also promoted the concept of vision statement is one of the elements happiness to include fairness, social equity, and a needed to form a forward-looking strategic healthy and enjoyable environment. planning framework that gives local authorities the long-term-comprehensive perspective Currently, the Dong Ha Strategic Local necessary to make incremental decisions on Economic Development Plan, 2012 describes community issues as they arise. Community the vision for Dong Ha as “[a] dynamic and vision statements are typically crafted through a vibrant city serving as the regional economic collaborative process that involves a wide variety growth centre for trade and investments in the of community residents, stakeholders, and southern economic corridor while optimizing elected officials. its resource potentials for sustained economic Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 87

Kaysone Phomvihane Core Group Formulating a Green City Vision Statement Source: ICEM. development.” The vision proposed by the core The town of Hull in Massachusetts (United group reduces the overriding emphasis on the States) adopted a comprehensive vision economy and promotes sustainability. statement including implementation strategies commencing with “We the people of Hull seek Vision: Dong Ha is green, prosperous, happy, fair, to shape a future for our town that preserves and equitable, and dynamic, and enjoys the beneﬁ ts of enhances its natural features and rich heritage, sustainable development. while providing the services and amenities that characterize a healthy, dynamic community.”36 The Battambang Core Group’s interpretation of their town’s vision embraced the concept of The mayor and members of the Edenton Town conservation, to include conservation of nature, Council, North Carolina (United States) architecture, and heritage. gather regularly to review and update the council’s 10-year vision statement. It outlines Vision: A city of beauty, safe water, clean air and what the elected offi cials envision the town high quality of life where communities, agencies, community being 10 years in the future. The and infrastructure are made resilient to climate vision statement includes strategies to help change through effi cient and eff ective use of guide the town to achieving the vision. The resources and the conservation of nature. strategies become the basis for new initiatives that are incorporated into the annual budget. An Australian example of a vision statement For example, the vision directs the town to which addresses environmental sustainability develop “a sound, stable infrastructure that and issues associated with climate change meets the needs of citizens, businesses and can be found in the municipality of Moreland industries. Such infrastructure includes well- in Melbourne (Australia), which states: maintained streets, a clean and reliable water “Moreland City Council seeks to create an supply, clean and reliable wastewater treatment, environmentally sustainable and livable city, an environmentally-sensitive storm water where people can shop, work and socialize treatment and a reliable electrical distribution locally. A city where a car and a high income or system.”37 not necessary for a rich and rewarding quality of life. A city which will continue to provide a range Portland, Oregon (United States) conducted of opportunities and choices for a diverse and an extensive participatory process and arrived at prosperous community.”35 a vision to “[i]mprove human and environmental

35 Moreland City Council. 2006. Moreland Planning Scheme, Local Planning Policy Framework. http://www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/planning-schemes/get- information-about-your-planning-scheme/planning-scheme-histories/ (amended 21 September 2006). 36 Town of Hull, Massachusetts. n.d. Wave of the Future: Hull Vision Statement. http://www.town.hull.ma.us/Public_Documents/HullMA_townmgr/vision 37 Town of Edenton, North Carolina. http://www.townofedenton.com/ 88 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

3.3.2 Building Resilience and Sustainability into the Town Strategy The town strategy sits below the vision statement and helps to inform key elements of the vision in terms of things such as ƷɆ the location of major infrastructure investment, ƷɆ the location of major transport routes and nodes, ƷɆ the location of major employment nodes, and ƷɆ the location of areas of environmental Battambang Core Group Formulating a Green City Vision Statement sensitivity and natural assets and corridors. Source: ICEM. In most cases, the town vision and strategy health by creating safe and complete are developed together in one process. In the neighborhood centers linked by a network of city Mekong region, urban strategies often take greenways that connect Portlanders with each the form of master plans that include strategic other, encourage active transportation, integrate orientations and the actions required to nature into neighborhoods, enhance watershed implement them. health and provide access to services and destinations, locally and across the city.”38 From a climate change adaptation perspective, it is the identifi cation of areas of vulnerability The goal will be achieved by focusing on the and environmental sensitivity which is of following actions and policies:39 most signifi cance in the town strategy. In ƷɆ Prioritize human and environmental circumstances where towns are experiencing health and safety. Decisions must consider rapid growth, a long-term plan should identify impacts on human and environmental health and protect those areas that play a role in and safety and prioritize actions to reduce building resilience. Rivers, creeks, reservoirs, disparities and inequities. wetlands, and areas of native vegetation are ƷɆ Promote complete and vibrant all important in this respect, particularly when neighborhood centers. The neighborhoods a town is confronting increased fl ooding and must provide businesses and services; drought impacts due to climate change. By housing that is easily accessible by foot, preserving these natural assets, there is greater wheelchair, bike, and transit; healthy food; opportunity for natural drainage systems to and parks and other gathering places. function eff ectively. Many of the existing ƷɆ Develop city connections, greenways, and problems faced by towns in the GMS are a corridors. A system of habitat connections, consequence of the degradation of existing neighborhood greenways, and civic corridors natural systems. The urban planning process and will weave nature into the city and sustain the city strategy in particular need to identify, healthy, resilient neighborhoods, watersheds, rehabilitate, expand, and maintain these areas. and Portlanders. Case Study 12: City Strategy of Portland, Visions for Mekong towns, defi ned through Oregon, United States an open and participatory process and which A central theme in Portland’s town strategy is incorporate the ideas of environmental building “connections for people, places, water sustainability and climate change, provide and wildlife.” The strategies that Portland has a strong and transparent policy direction identifi ed for achieving that goal include the for guiding development through the urban following (Figure 3.19):40 planning process.

38 Portland City Council. 2012. The Portland Plan: Summary. p. 14. http://www.portlandonline.com/portlandplan/index.cfm?c=58776&a=405753 39 Footnote 38, p. 88. 40 Footnote 38, p. 88. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 89

ƷɆ Develop the network of habitat connections, Figure 3.19: Concept of the Healthy Connected City Network of neighborhood greenways, and plan for Neighborhood Centers and City Connections in Portland, Oregon, civic corridors as a spine of Portland’s civic, United States transportation, and green infrastructure systems to enhance safety, livability, and Central City Habitat corridors Neighborhood centers Neighborhood greenways watershed health and catalyze private investment and support livability. ƷɆ Preserve and restore habitat connections and tree canopy to link stream and river corridors, landslide-prone areas, fl oodplains, wetlands, and critical habitat sites into a system of habitat corridors. This provides connections for wildlife, supports biodiversity, improves water quality, reduces risks due to fl ooding and landslides, and supports Portland’s adaptation to climate change. ƷɆ Plan, fund, and manage green infrastructure as part of the city’s capital systems. ƷɆ Build on Portland’s green street and bikeway eff orts to create a citywide greenway network of trails and pedestrian and bike- friendly green streets. Locate neighborhood greenways to serve currently underserved communities, improve accessibility, and make Civic corridors Schools and parks Residential areas connections to the central city, neighborhood hubs, major employment and cultural centers, Source: City of Portland. 2011. The Portland Plan. October. www.portlandonline.com/ schools and universities, community centers, portlandplan/proposed_draft/pplan-draft-integrated.pdf parks, natural areas, and the Willamette and Columbia rivers. ƷɆ Design neighborhood greenways and civic Habitat connections are corridors and corridors to integrate safe and accessible neighborhood tree canopy that weave nature facilities for pedestrians and cyclists, into the city and connect to large natural areas sustainable stormwater facilities, tree like Forest Park. The habitat connections include planting, and community amenities. anchor habitats and the connections between ƷɆ Transform prominent transit streets, them. They provide corridors for residents and and streetcar and light rail corridors into migrating wildlife. Anchor habitats are places distinctive civic places of community pride with large, contiguous natural areas that serve that serve Portland’s future multimodal as a safe and healthy home for resident and mobility needs and are models of ecological migratory animal species and native plants. design. ƷɆ Preserve older and historic buildings, public Neighborhood centers are places with places, and parks along corridors, where concentrations of neighborhood businesses, appropriate, to enhance the pedestrian community services, and housing and public realm and create a unique sense of place and gathering places, providing area residents with neighborhood identity. local access to services. They should be well designed, accessible, green, and pleasant areas Notes: to be in. Central City is the region’s center of jobs, high- density housing, transit, and other services. It Neighborhood greenways are pedestrian and also comprises a large portion of the Willamette bike-friendly green streets and trails that link River waterfront in the city. It benefi ts the neighborhood centers, parks, schools, natural entire city and has a key role as part of an areas, and other key community destinations, interconnected system of neighborhood centers making it easier to get around by walking, biking, and city greenways. or wheelchair. 90 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.20: Plan Melbourne City Strategy

Source: Department of Transport, Planning, and Local Infrastructure. 2014. Map 4: A Plan for Melbourne. http://planmelbourne.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/ pdf_ﬁ le/0006/131298/Map-04-Plan-Melbourne-May-2014.pdf

Civic corridors are major streets and transit employment areas, parks and natural areas, corridors that link neighborhood centers to each and other destinations through networks of other and Central City. In some cases, a civic neighborhood greenways and civic corridors. corridor may not be a single street, but multiple Source: Portland City Council. 2012. The parallel streets that serve complementary Portland Plan: Summary. p. 18. http://www. functions. Civic corridors are enjoyable places to portlandonline.com/portlandplan/index. live, work, and gather with bike and pedestrian cfm?c=58776&a=405753 facilities, large canopy trees, green infrastructure stormwater facilities, and place-making Case Study 13: Plan Melbourne (2014) – amenities. Metropolitan Planning Strategy A similar approach has been adopted by the City Schools and parks are important community of Melbourne, Australia. Its City Strategy or Plan destinations that can be safely and conveniently Melbourne is intended to guide development reached from neighborhood greenways. through to 2050. Plan Melbourne is the City Council’s primary policy and planning strategy. Existing residential areas are connected The intention of Plan Melbourne is to move to neighborhood centers, the city center, toward a thriving and sustainable city. Four Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 91

Left to right: A walkway and cycle path network along Yarra River and Botanical Gardens to the central business district, urban sprawl on outer fringe, and walkways along the Port Phillip Bay shoreline. Sources: Smaragd Reizen. 2003. Autorondreis Van Sydney Naar Melbourne. http://www.smaragd-reizen.nl/autorondreis-van-sydney-naar-melbourne (left); Sydney Morning Herald. 2010. Green Wedges Lost in the Woods. http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-opinion/green-wedges-lost-in- the-woods-20100113-m6g9.html (middle); David Wall Photo. Catani Gardens, St Kilda, Port Phillip Bay. http://www.davidwallphoto.com/detail/27142- Catani-Gardens,-St-Kilda,-Port-Phillip-Bay,-Melbourne,-Victoria,-Australia-_-aerial.html (right). interrelated themes set the broad strategic these areas at the city strategy or master plan directions for the City Strategy.41 They are for level increases the likelihood of them being Melbourne to be refl ected in Local Area Plans when prepared. In ƷɆ a connected and accessible city, the case of Battambang, more detailed guidance ƷɆ an environmentally responsible city, is needed on the methods and standards to ƷɆ an inclusive and engaging city, and realizing the green street concept. ƷɆ an innovative and vital business city. 3.3.3 Building Resilience and Sustainability Plan Melbourne delineates areas of green into Local Area Plans reserve (green hatching) and green corridors, Local area plans are urban planning in a more the extent of the urban area (dark grey targeted and detailed form. They can apply to hatching), and the areas identifi ed for growth a specifi c area within the town or to a strategic (light grey hatching) (Figure 3.20). Importantly, theme. They are intended to provide more Melbourne uses a defi ned urban growth specifi c development guidance, controls, and boundary (illustrated by the light brown line) standards. For example, a local area plan might to prevent development from encroaching into address an area around a train station as a environmentally sensitive areas. “high-density residential area” needing special development guidance; or a natural drainage Plan Melbourne is supported by a range of area, river, or creek within the town could be subsidiary strategies and plans providing more identifi ed as an area of “high environmental detail for each of the main strategic themes. sensitivity” and subject to more detailed They include the Melbourne Green Plan and treatment within a local area plan. Naturally, Urban Forest Strategy, the Sustainable Energy such local plans should be consistent with the and Greenhouse Strategy, and the Sustainable city vision statement and strategy. Water Management Plan. Case Study 14: Local Area Plan of Gisborne, When preparing a city strategy for towns Australia in the GMS, key natural assets need to be Gisborne is a peri-urban township approximately identifi ed and earmarked for protection. The 52 kilometers north of Melbourne. It is subject Battambang Future Greenery System Plan 2020 to signifi cant growth. The area in Figure 3.22 was is an example of how a city strategy promotes identifi ed as being suitable in accommodating connectivity through green street networks and some of this growth by providing for between along the Sangkae River (Figure 3.21). Identifying 300 and 330 new dwellings.

41 Victorian State Government. 2014. Plan Melbourne. http://www.planmelbourne.vic.gov.au/Plan-Melbourne (last updated 20 October 2015). 92 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.21: Bird’s Eye View of Future Greenery System (in 2020) for the Urban Area of Battambang, Cambodia

Source: Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst. 2007. Urban Planning on District Level: A Race against Time. http://www.forum-urban-futures.net/ﬁ les/DED_ Pilot%20DistrictBattambang.pdf

Figure 3.22: Aerial Photo of Study Area (left) and Select Site Photos (right)

Source: Hansen Partnership in collaboration with Cardno, Ecology & Heritage Partners, Tim Nott Economics Analysis & Strategy, and Macedon Ranges Shire Council. 2012. New Gisborne Development Plan. http://www.mrsc.vic.gov.au/ﬁ les/bb66ed14-efde-443f-84d1-a2f400e200c6/26mar14-pe3-att1. pdf (all photos). Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 93

Figure 3.23: Local Area Plan of Gisborne Emphasizing Enhancement and Maintenance of Natural Systems

Source: Hansen Partnership, Melbourne. www.hansen-online.com.au

Given some of the drainage sensitivities of the By setting aside the area around the existing area, the local authority opted to prepare a local drainage line for open space and requiring area plan to help guide its development. The minimum setbacks to development, the local local area plan sought to area plan protects the existing natural drainage ƷɆ avoid adverse impact to the site natural system as well as providing a key asset for areas and maintain the current hydrological community benefi t in the form of a green regimes, corridor parkway. ƷɆ maintain the ecological values present in the marshlands reserve, By providing targeted design guidance in the ƷɆ utilize drainage lines to provide for a centrally form of a local area plan, the local authority can located linear open green space corridor, and create greater certainty for developers and the ƷɆ enhance the residential amenity of the community over how the land will be utilized. growth area by providing desirable visual and physical connections with a site of Local area plans are a particularly valuable tool in environmental signifi cance and beauty. guiding development in areas where signifi cant urban regeneration is proposed to occur. They Figure 3.23 shows the planning and design can also be used to give specifi c direction to principles underpinning the plan (left) and the growth areas, as in Mildura (case study 15). fi nal local area development plan itself (right). The pink hatching indicates land for residential The approach described in the case study has purposes (with key access roads marked), while the potential for widespread application for the green hatching demarcates areas around the Mekong towns. Once drafted, local area plans drainage line for environmental protection. can be utilized in a way which gives the local 94 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.24: An Indicative Cross-Section Showing How the Drainage Line Is to Be Protected

parkway with drainage channel

Source: Hansen Partnership in association with Aurecon Engineering. 2014. Mildura South (Sixteenth and Deakin West) Development Plan. http:// dsewebapps.dse.vic.gov.au/Shared/ats.nsf/(attachmentopen)/4A4934ABE3418C70CA257DD400106FFF/$File/Mildura+C75+Mildura+South+(Sixteent h+&+Deakin+West)+Development+Plan+October+2014+Exhibition+Gazetted.PDF

authority, the community, and investors a clear, ƷɆ Discretionary: Qualitative, open to spatial understanding of what development interpretation, allows greater fl exibility in the goals they are required to comply with in form of the response which can be taken to a specifi c area. They allow pilot sites to be achieve compliance (e.g., “New buildings identifi ed and planned in detail. From the should ensure they fi t in with the heritage perspective of building resilience to climate character of the area.”) change, local area plans can be used to protect natural assets (e.g., creek corridors required for While the format of the control (and the drainage) or a plan for their rehabilitation. terminology used to label it) may vary, their purpose is the same—that is, to shape urban 3.3.4 Building Resilience and Sustainability development in a manner which helps realize into Development Controls the vision, the city strategy, or the local area plan Within contemporary urban planning, (as most applicable). development controls can take a variety of forms including, for example, zoning plans with In the Mekong region, there is little in the way of associated controls or safeguards, development development controls in a form which resembles plan overlays that set out conditions for land what is used and applied internationally. While uses and the new built form relating to a specifi c sector design standards and building codes area,42 provincial or district planning policies, and are relatively common—and these can be local area planning policies. They can be either very detailed—there are few development prescriptive or discretionary in nature with the control policies relating to specifi c urban distinction as follows: areas, that is, that have spatial relevance. The ƷɆ Prescriptive: Quantitative, can be mandatory, one development control tool readily in use, generally numerically specifi c (e.g., “New however, is land-use zoning, typically in the buildings must maintain a 15-meter setback form of a spatial land-use plan. These spatial from the riverbank.”) plans off er broad guidance on what land uses

42 A development plan overlay requires an overall plan to be prepared to coordinate land uses, development, and redevelopment change over a defi ned area. The specifi cs for such a plan are laid out in the schedule. A schedule to the overlay specifi es what the development plan must include and can include requirements about pedestrian and road connections, where diff erent land uses should be located and the design of new development on the land, among other things. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 95

can occur in which locations but are usually Table 3.2: Content of the Policy Instrument Supporting the Land-Use weak in terms of more detailed development Zone Map guidance and controls. Moreover, they are frequently ignored, particularly where large-scale Component Action Required investment is involved. Purpose of zone: Defines the Confirm the proposed development The following section introduces the zoning overarching objective of the zone. is consistent with the purpose of plan and what it ought to comprise and provides the zone. suggestions on how it can best be used to Use table: Divides land uses Determine if the proposed respond to climate change. into categories, e.g., permissible, development is permissible, prohibited, or permissible subject to permissible with condition, or 3.3.4.1 Land-Use Zoning Plans conditions. prohibited in the use table. A zoning plan is a type of development control frequently used by urban planners to manage Safeguards: Guides and controls If the proposed development is development within the zone; can be permissible, assess it against the urban development and plan for future used to address various considerations relevant safeguards and ensure that growth. It comprises an illustrative map used such as flooding, environmental the design and management allow to designate the location of different land uses protection, urban design, and heritage them to be met. or “zones” and a supporting written instrument conservation as relevant. which explains what each zone means and how it is to be applied. Source: Author’s synthesis based on Victoria State Government. Victoria Planning Provisions. http://planningschemes.dpcd.vic.gov.au/schemes/vpps In the case of the planning system in the state of Victoria, Australia, the written instrument supporting the zone map is set up to provide plan illustrates that the low-lying areas closest three components: a purpose, a use table, to the river are designated as public conservation and safeguards. Each component requires a and resource zones, shown in green. These areas corresponding action from the urban planner contain playing fields and green open space applying it as explained in Table 3.2. areas but are not permitted to contain any development. The urban flood zones, shown in An example of a zoning tool from Mildura, light blue, are areas where development can Victoria including the illustrative map and occur subject to complying with particular extracts from the accompanying written safeguards. In this instance, safeguards are document is provided as case study 15. used to guide aspects of development such as setback distances, permeability requirements Case Study 15: Zoning Plan and Safeguards (i.e., extent of hard surfaces), and building in Mildura, Victoria, Australia materials and orientation. Mildura is a town of approximately 30,000 people, located on the Murray River in the Extracts from the plan state the purpose of northwest of the State of Victoria, Australia. public conservation and resource zones as It has a semiarid climate but is subject to follows:43 serious flooding. ƷɆ To identify waterways, major floodpaths, drainage depressions, and high hazard areas In preparing development controls for the within urban areas which have the greatest town, the local authority used a combination of risk and frequency of being affected by zoning and development safeguards to ensure flooding. no development was allowed in areas subject ƷɆ To ensure that any development maintains to severe flooding and limited development the free passage and temporary storage of (subject to conditions) in areas that experience floodwater, minimizes floodwater, minimizes moderate flooding. flood damage, and is compatible with flood hazard, local drainage conditions, and the An aerial photo of Mildura and corresponding minimization of soil erosion, sedimentation, zoning plan are shown in Figure 3.25. The zoning and silting.

43 See in particular Section 36.03 Public Conservation and Resource Zone of Victoria State Government. Mildura Planning Scheme. http:// planningschemes.dpcd.vic.gov.au/schemes/mildura 96 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Figure 3.25: Zoning Plan in Mildura, Victoria, Australia

Sources: Google Earth (left); Hansen Partnership. 2010. Ontario – Flora Precinct Land Use Vision and Urban Design Framework. http://trove.nla.gov.au/wo rk/182387578?selectedversion=NBD51724786 (right).

ƷɆ To protect water quality and waterways as minimum setback requirements for buildings natural resources. adjacent to a river.

This case illustrates how zoning and safeguards Similarly, if there is an area which is in need of can be used as development controls to guide rejuvenation, it might be designated as an urban development in areas aff ected by fl ooding. The renewal zone. The written instrument could be same approach can be applied to any urban area drafted to provide incentives for investment, with diff ering characteristics and controls to such as increased building heights, higher plot promote and require the kind of development ratios, or reduced land taxes. best suited to the area and the climatic and hydrological conditions it experiences. From a climate change adaptation perspective, there is good sense in towns and cities in the A key strength of the zoning plan is that it can GMS giving thought to applying an urban fl ood be customized to respond to diff erent issues zone (or similar) to areas subject to severe depending on communities’ needs and area fl ooding. This can assist in making it clear to characteristics. For example, if a part of a town the community and investors that the area is growing rapidly, a zoning plan can be used to contains a fl ood risk and may be unsuitable for designate an area as an urban growth zone. The certain kinds of development. Towns will need to written instrument can set out the purpose of map past extreme fl oods and then seek expert the zone, what levels of density are envisaged, support in defi ning the additional risks posed by which land uses are appropriate (and which climate change. are not), and any relevant safeguards, such as Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 97

3.3.4.2 Development Safeguards When applied to a solitary site, requirements In circumstances where risks are less severe such as stormwater management (i.e., reducing and a certain level of development may be the amount of rainfall runoff associated with appropriate, supporting safeguards can be used a development) may be seem negligible. Yet, to guide development and ensure impacts are the impact ,when applied across a whole town minimized. Safeguards provide a benchmark or through the contribution of many developments, rule against which new development is required particularly a town undergoing rapid growth, can to be assessed. They can be mandatory or be very significant. discretionary in nature and can be tailored to suit particular conditions and address particular These types of approaches are an effective issues. In effect, they set the parameters means of under which development can occur prior to ƷɆ reducing pressures on existing infrastructure; addressing detailed design matters covered by ƷɆ minimizing the environmental impacts of new sector design standards and/or building codes. development; They can be part of the written instrument ƷɆ managing growth; and supporting the zoning tool (as described in case ƷɆ delivering happier, healthier communities. study 15) or potentially a stand-alone document relating to certain kinds of development or areas The introduction of these processes wherever anywhere in the town. possible are important in delivering climate change adaptation and sustainability to towns Table 3.3 lists example safeguards dealing with and cities within the GMS. flooding and environmental considerations. This is not an exhaustive list. The intention, rather, is In different parts of the world, and even within to provide an idea of the types of safeguards that countries, the terms used for the land-use can be used by urban planners to help manage zone plan and the associated safeguards development. document may differ. For example, in Sydney, Australia, local area plans are called local The focus on flooding and environmental environment plans which include planning safeguards is reflective of key issues faced in the control maps (another term for zone maps). GMS likely to be affected by climate change. The local environment plan applies a zone (e.g., rural, environmental protection, residential, The examples in Table 3.3 demonstrate the center, business park, industrial, recreation, enormous potential for development controls infrastructure) to land within a municipality. such as zoning plans and accompanying The local environment plans are supported by safeguards to assist in building climate resilience development control plans which provide more and sustainability in Mekong towns. detailed planning and design guidelines.

Table 3.3: Safeguards Dealing with Flooding and Environmental Considerations

Examples of Flooding Safeguards Category Subcategory Safeguard Land Use – Development is prohibited from occurring on land subject to significant flooding. Building Materials All building materials used below the adopted design flood level must not be susceptible to water Construction damage. Electrical supply ƷɆ All electrical wiring should be located above the design flood level. ƷɆ All electrical wiring installed below the design flood level should be suitably treated to withstand continuous submergence in water. Freeboard The minimum floor level of all new dwellings or of extensions greater than 20 square meters to existing dwellings must be 300 millimeters above the designated flood level. Storage Commercial and industrial development should make adequate provision for flood-free storage areas for stock and equipment susceptible to water damage. continued on next page 98 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table continued Examples of Flooding Safeguards Category Subcategory Safeguard Earthworks Filling ƷɆ High hazard: Significant earthworks, including levees and raised roads, are inappropriate for floodway land. ƷɆ Moderate hazard: Any fill of urban areas liable to flooding must not exacerbate flooding impact to surrounding properties. Site Planning Building orientation Buildings should be aligned with their longitudinal axis parallel to the direction of flood. Permeability ƷɆ Building pads should be restricted as near as practicable to the building envelope. ƷɆ The site area covered by pervious surfaces should be at least 20% of the site.

Site coverage The total footprint of all buildings and structures should not exceed more than 60% of the total site area. Subdivision – ƷɆ High hazard: Further subdivision is inappropriate, unless it can be shown that the land can be filled to the design flood level without creating any adverse effects. ƷɆ Moderate hazard: All land, other than public roads and reserves, is to be filled to a minimum level of the design flood where an additional allotment is created. Infrastructure Stormwater ƷɆ Post-construction stormwater runoff should be treated to remove 80% suspended solids, management 45% total phosphorous, and 45% total nitrogen of typical urban annual load and maintain discharges for the 1.5-year annual recurrence interval at pre-development levels. ƷɆ Stormwater quality treatment measures should be designed to prevent litter being carried to receiving waters. This includes appropriate design of waste enclosures and use of gross pollutant traps for development with potential to generate significant amounts of litter. Roads/ transport ƷɆ New roads are not to obstruct free movement of floodwaters. ƷɆ Consideration should be given to incorporating treatment systems such as a rain gardens or vegetated swales in the upgrading of roads or streets. Site Planning Setbacks No buildings and works are permitted within 10 meters of the bank of an identified watercourse or drainage corridor. Subdivision Public open space ƷɆ For subdivisions of three or more lots, a minimum 5% of the total land area should be set aside for public open space. A cash contribution may be provided in lieu of land being provided. ƷɆ Open space should be aligned along natural drainage lines. Asset Vegetation removal Where native vegetation is permitted to be removed, an offset is to be provided in a manner that Protection is equivalent to the contribution made by the native vegetation to be removed. Drainage Areas containing natural water features should be protected and enhanced. Building Design Environmentally ƷɆ All new buildings must achieve a minimum six-star energy efficiency rating. sustainable ƷɆ Environmentally sustainable design initiatives are encouraged, including the use of solar hot development water and natural ventilation, along with on-site collection and reuse of stormwater.

Source: ADB and ICEM.

Case Study 16: Development Controls in Plan by deﬁning a prescribed tree or vegetation Kiama, New South Wales, Australia and the council’s requirements for the In Kiama, a coastal town of New South Wales, submission, assessment, and determination the town council adopted the Development of applications for the pruning and removal Control Plan 2012 to give detailed development of tree(s) and other vegetation on public guidelines and controls to speciﬁc types of and private land within the Kiama Local development or areas of land throughout the Government Area. municipality.44 One set of controls relates to the preservation and management of trees and The Kiama Development Control Plan also vegetation aiming to conserve important natural spells out detailed controls on site landscaping areas and individual trees. The controls support and the requirement to submit suitable Clause 5.9 of the Kiama Local Environmental landscape plans and documents for proposed

44 Kiama Municipal Council. Kiama Development Control Plan 2012 (DCP 2012). http://www.kiama.nsw.gov.au/Planning-and-Development/Strategic- Planning/Development-Control-Plans Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 99

commercial, industrial, and medium-density developments within the municipality. Basic information and design considerations are provided, which help applicants in meeting the requirements of the environmental legislation when preparing development applications. The objective of this chapter of the Development Control Plan is to do the following: ƷɆ Provide a high standard of landscape design which complements the design of the development and integrates within the streetscape or rural setting in size, scale, mass, and bulk throughout the Kiama Municipality. ƷɆ Require landscaping to be considered in consultation with building and subdivision design as soon as possible in any development. ƷɆ Incorporate environmentally sustainable practices within the design. ƷɆ Reduce the impact of development activity Source: Australia for Everyone: Sydney. www.visitsydneyaustralia.com.au on the landscape. ƷɆ Provide landscaping that requires low maintenance. ƷɆ Use raised planter areas to minimize the ƷɆ Protect and enhance remnant native possibility of landscape areas being used for bushland areas by the retention and parking or storage areas. regeneration of indigenous fl ora. ƷɆ Provide mulch to garden beds and planted areas. The landscaping design guidelines for industrial ƷɆ Provide suitable edging materials to separate development proposals are very detailed and mulch and landscape from turf and hard in this case they are mandatory. They include a surfaces. requirement for a developer to do the following: ƷɆ Screen waste and service areas with suitable ƷɆ Provide planting beds minimum 3 meters plant and building materials. wide across the front of the site and ƷɆ Use recessive colors if manufactured metal minimum 3 meters wide across the rear as fencing is to be used. well as 1-meter-wide side boundaries where it ƷɆ Maintain visibility of vehicular traffi c moving adjoins residential property or public spaces, in and out of the driveway. to screen the development and reduce the ƷɆ Consider the impact of the landscape bulk and scale of the building (additional on adjoining properties, for example, guidance is provided for parking lot design overshadowing, structural issues, and views, and requirements). by the careful selection and location of trees. ƷɆ Incorporate indigenous tree and shrub ƷɆ Require engineer’s document for retaining planting in the buff er zone areas, if possible. walls over 600 millimeters high. A mix of planting forms and habits is desirable. This kind of detailed design guidance is given ƷɆ Provide security fencing on street frontages for all land uses and zones. It also defi nes of low visual impact, open design, and management obligations such as mandatory located within and screened by planting beds maintenance programs and periods. A project is (additional guidance is provided on fencing considered completed when all the hard and soft design). landscape features or any work specifi ed in the ƷɆ Provide landscape treatment within or approved landscape plans have been installed adjacent to the parking area which includes and approved by a private certifying authority shade and screening. or council. The mandatory maintenance ƷɆ Separate landscaped areas from parking periods for various developments are specifi ed: and driveway areas by devices that prevent industrial – 52 weeks, commercial – 26 weeks, vehicles from damaging the plants. residential – 26 weeks, and rural – 52 weeks. 100 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

These maintenance periods may be extended assessing impacts, planning and managing for speciﬁc developments. A landscape impact mitigations, preparing environmental maintenance program is required with the assessment reports, disclosing information landscape plan. This is to describe the means and undertaking consultation, establishing a of maintaining the landscaping during the grievance mechanism, and monitoring and maintenance period and must include plant reporting.47 establishment, watering, mowing, fertilizing, weeding, staking, pruning, mulching, pest and The experience gathered in the GMS has, disease control, and generally maintaining the however, highlighted issues in the application of site in a neat and tidy condition. safeguards regarding the environment. These problems can be summed up as follows: 3.3.4.3 Environmental Safeguards ƷɆ Safeguards are implemented as far as Environmental safeguards aim to ensure the international funding agency (i.e., ADB or the environmental sustainability of projects and World Bank) projects are concerned; rarely to support the integration of environmental are they considered for other types of smaller, considerations into the project decision-making differently funded projects. process. A policy regarding safeguards requires ƷɆ Governments and communities do not have investors and contractors to identify project the capacity to apply some of the more impacts and assess their signiﬁcance; examine sophisticated safeguards envisioned for the alternatives; and prepare, implement, and environmental aspects of projects. monitor environmental management plans. It ƷɆ Project design and environmental also requires consultation with stakeholders assessment teams often work in isolation likely to be affected by the project and disclosure from local planners and communities. of relevant information in a timely manner and in ƷɆ Seldom is there an effective follow-up or a form and in languages understandable to those consultation to check if safeguards have been

being consulted.45 Environmental safeguards can implemented and have worked to achieve be linked to town master plans, to zones, and to their objectives. speciﬁc categories of project proposals. They can also be referred to as development controls Those problems place greater responsibility or standards as discussed and illustrated in the on Mekong towns to take the initiative in last section and Table 3.3. introducing adequate safeguard frameworks to promote green infrastructure and their goals For example, ADB’s 2011 Safeguard Policy for ecological sustainability and resilience—and Statement builds the three previous safeguard then in ensuring they are implemented. policies on the environment, involuntary resettlement, and indigenous peoples into a 3.3.5 Development Review Process consolidated framework. The Safeguard Policy Having addressed how resilience and Statement aims to promote sustainability of sustainability measures can be introduced project outcomes by protecting the environment into the visioning, city strategy, local area and people from projects’ potential adverse plan, and development control aspects of impacts by avoiding, minimizing, mitigating, urban planning, it is important to consider and/or compensating for them; and helping questions around their implementation. After member countries to strengthen their safeguard all, there is little point in strengthening the systems and develop the capacity to manage urban planning framework to better respond to environmental and social risks.46 climate change, if it “falls down” at the point of implementation—the point when development ADB borrowers are required to meet the actually occurs on the ground. safeguard requirements when deﬁning environmental safeguards for projects supported In most international examples, the by the ADB. These requirements include implementation of an urban planning framework

45 ADB. Environment Safeguards. http://www.adb.org/site/safeguards/environment 46 ADB. 2009. Safeguard Policy Statement. Policy paper. Manila. http://www.adb.org/documents/safeguard-policy-statement 47 Footnote 45 Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 101

(and the ideas and controls it promotes) is Figure 3.26: Development Application Review Process achieved primarily through the development in Melbourne, Australia review process. The development review process refers to the decision-making processes by which proposals for new development or The Planning Permit Process investment are considered by a government authority. Before making the application ƷɆ %* Ɇ+10Ɇ+10Ɇ0$!Ɇ,(**%*#Ɇ/ $!)! For development controls such as zoning or ƷɆ ('Ɇ0+Ɇ0$!Ɇ +1* %(Ɇ,(**!. safeguards to be effective (whether dealing with ƷɆ ('Ɇ0+Ɇ0$!Ɇ*!%#$+./ climate resilience or any other matter), there ƷɆ +*/% !.Ɇ#!00%*#Ɇ,.+"!//%+*(Ɇ 2% ! needs to be a robust and preferably transparent process by which new development is assessed against the relevant controls and safeguards Prepare and submit the application which apply. ƷɆ ,,(% 0%+*Ɇ%*"+.)0%+* ƷɆ ,,(% 0%+*Ɇ"+.) Cities are largely the product of incremental ƷɆ !! development over time and without a robust system or process to determine what is appropriate on a development-by -development basis, it is difficult to achieve the identiﬁed city Council checks the application goals, such as building climate resilience. ƷɆ +.!Ɇ%*"+.)0%+*Ɗ ƷɆ !"!..(Ɗ In its more advanced form, the development review process can be set up to incorporate the views of residents and community groups Application is advertised if required for at (e.g., through public exhibition of development least 14 days applications, public hearings and meetings, and a ƷɆ /1((5Ɇ5Ɇ(!00!.Ɇ0+Ɇ*!%#$+./Ɇ* ɆɆ/%#*Ɇ+*Ɩ/%0! system for consideration of comments). ƷɆ !+,(!Ɇ˒! 0! Ɇ)5Ɇ+&! 0

Figure 3.26 is an example of the development review process used in Melbourne, Australia. Council assesses the application ƷɆ +*/% !./Ɇ*5Ɇ+&! 0%+*/ Tribunals can be set up to consider disputes ƷɆ +( /Ɇ)! %0%+*Ɇ)!!0%*#Ɇ%"Ɇ*!! ! between parties or appeals against planning ƷɆ +*/% !./Ɇ*5Ɇ.!"!..(Ɇ +))!*0/ decisions to ensure they are fair and balanced, ƷɆ //!//!/Ɇ,(**%*#Ɇ/ $!)!Ɇ,.+2%/%+*/ as in the example of the Victorian Civil and ƷɆ !#+0%0!/Ɇ3%0$Ɇ,!.)%0Ɇ,,(% *0 Administrative Tribunal referred to in the ƷɆ .!,.!/Ɇ.!,+.0 Figure 3.26 ﬂowchart.

3.3.6 Impact Assessment as a Tool Council decides the application in Development Control Conventional strategic environmental Permit with Notice of decision assessment (SEA) and environmental impact Refusal conditions with conditions assessment (EIA) can be key tools for promoting effective responses to climate change and for ensuring that adaptation principles and approaches are followed. Review by VCAT if applied for ƷɆ 5Ɇ0$!Ɇ,!.)%0Ɇ,,(% *0Ɇ#%*/0Ɇ +* %0%+*/Ɇ+.Ɇ.!"1/( Strategic environmental assessment: An ƷɆ 5Ɇ*Ɇ+&! 0+.Ɇ#%*/0Ɇ*+0% !Ɇ+"Ɇ ! %/%+* SEA could be applied to town master plans to assess the overall adaptation strategies, VCAT = Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal. safeguards, and spatial zoning approaches to Source: City of Melbourne. Planning Application Process Overview. www.melbourne.vic. promoting adaptation. It aims to ensure that gov.au/building-and-development/planning-and-building-services/planning-applications/ policies, strategies, and plans are sustainable. Pages/planning-application-process-overview.aspx 102 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

SEAs of town master plans would address the Adaptation impact assessment: Adaptation broader strategic issues usually relating to more plans and adaptation measures may be subject than one project. They would allow for green to a formal SEA in the case of large-scale infrastructure and nature-based solutions to adaptation plans involving many individual and urban resilience to be built into master plans separate adaptation actions or developments so that subsequent development is guided and and/or an EIA for individual adaptation actions shaped in a sustainable way. depending on the SEA and EIA requirements in the country of implementation. SEAs follow similar steps to EIAs but have much larger boundaries in terms of time, space, and Adaptation plans seek to enhance resilience and subject coverage. For the most part, an SEA sustainability in an area and of infrastructure is conducted before corresponding EIAs are systems. So inherently, they should have a undertaken for specific development proposals positive influence on environmental conditions within a plan. The SEA is a tool to examine the and community welfare. Normally, it is major broad strategic concerns which need to be infrastructure development proposals and not resolved and decided prior to making project- adaptation plans that are subject to an EIA. specific decisions. This means that information Adaptation in one sector or area, however, may on the environmental impact of a plan can have unplanned effects on other sectors or cascade down through the tiers of decision areas—an adaptation impact assessment (AIA) making and can be used in an EIA at a later seeks to ensure those unwanted effects are stage. This should reduce the amount of work avoided or mitigated. It also seeks to improve that needs to be undertaken. Systems for SEA adaptation design and processes. are in place in the People’s Republic of China, the Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam. An AIA is a form of EIA, following EIA tools and steps. It is a process whereby the potential Environmental impact assessment: EIA environmental impacts of proposed adaptation tools and processes are applied to assess the plans are assessed. An AIA should identify area-wide and cross-sector implications of significant impacts and measures to mitigate development proposals. To consider climate the impacts of adaptation measures to avoid change impacts and adaptation responses, the irreversible damage to the environment and EIA process should ensure sustainable use of natural resources. ƷɆ evaluate a development proposal’s potential They take the form of a checklist of questions environmental risks and impacts in its that allow for an adaptation plan or measure to geographic area of influence against the be examined against green infrastructure and town plan and its general and zone-specific ecosystem principles and approaches. safeguards relating to climate change; ƷɆ identify and evaluate potential impacts The AIA process should provide information from climate change on the project’s area of to decision makers and the public about influence; the environmental, social, and economic ƷɆ identify and assess alternatives to meeting implications of an adaptation plan so that the project objectives; improvements can be made. For example, it ƷɆ identify ways of improving project selection, may suggest measures to prevent or reduce siting, planning, design, and implementation undesirable impacts through modifications to by avoiding, mitigating, or compensating the design or process of construction within the for adverse environmental impacts and the adaptation plan. anticipated adverse impacts from climate change; and Assessing the impacts of an adaptation plan ƷɆ ensure adaption measures to address should form part of the adaptation planning adverse environmental impacts and process. This typically involves a rapid impact anticipated adverse impacts from climate assessment of the effects an adaptation change throughout project implementation plan would have on other areas, sectors, or are in place and are consistent with green communities. This assessment helps to ensure infrastructure and ecosystems approaches to that negative impacts of adaptation measures adaptation as spelled out in the town plan. are avoided or mitigated and positive impacts are enhanced or replicated. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 103

An AIA should be conducted as part of Table 3.4: Most Common Environmental Topics in Urban Indicator Sets preparing and mainstreaming an adaptation plan. A rapid assessment of the impact of the Theme Common Sustainability Indicator Topic adaptation plan on other areas, sectors, or communities is an important step in developing Land Use ƷɆ Size and growth of built-up area effective adaptation measures. The assessment ƷɆ Amounts and accessibility of public green space should identify both positive and negative and open space effects of adaptation measures and how Urban Air ƷɆ Frequency of exceeding air quality standards negative effects can be avoided or minimized ƷɆ Emission of air pollution by source and how the beneﬁts can be enhanced and Water Use ƷɆ Water consumption per capita replicated. ƷɆ Connection rates to the supply network, services interruptions, and quality of drinking water An SEA or EIA may not necessarily be required Urban Water Quality ƷɆ Connection rates to wastewater treatment and for adaptation plans or adaptation measures so degree of treatment a stand-alone AIA may be the main opportunity ƷɆ Bathing water quality for checking and improving adaptation plans. Waste Management ƷɆ Generation and disposal of municipal solid waste 3.3.7 Indicators of Green Performance ƷɆ Recycling rates (Sustainability and Resilience) Transport and Traffic ƷɆ Modal split Keeping track of a town’s progress in achieving ƷɆ Network length of public transport systems its sustainability and resilience goals and strategies—and associated safeguards—requires Climate Change and ƷɆ Carbon emissions a process and capacities for monitoring against a Energy ƷɆ Intensity of energy and electricity consumption by sector framework of indicators. There is a growing body of experience in planning and implementing Environmental Health ƷɆ Number of residents exposed to noise what are termed “green growth strategies” and much work has gone into considering how Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2011. Urban Environmental Indicators for Green Cities: A Tentative Indicator Set. Working Party on best to monitor their implementation and Environmental Indicators, ENV/EPOC/WPEI (2011) 6. Paris. performance.

Green growth indicator frameworks for towns adapt them to priority economic sectors and focus on a few key dimensions. They include specific geographic circumstances. human well-being, resource efficiency and productivity, economic transformation, and The Organisation for Economic Co-operation maintenance of environmental quality and and Development (OECD) has reviewed natural capital. the most common environmental indicators used in member country towns (Table 3.4). Green growth strategies for Mekong towns It found that the number of indicators for each require closer attention to indicators that topic varied greatly and that many were not explicitly address inequality, access to basic expressed in a form which was readily measured. ecosystem services, and human capital Also, responsibility for monitoring and the investments (including traditional knowledge); linkages with urban planning and development urbanization patterns and infrastructure were weak. development; governance (transparency, accountability, and inclusiveness); resilience; The review found that issues relating to natural and a sector perspective (including, in particular, systems and to climate change in urban areas agriculture). were not clearly expressed in indicators and rarely monitored and used to shape town master Several indicators are well-known and widely plans. In response, the OECD has developed accepted and for which data are available, while a tentative set of indicators for countries others require further definition and investment organized around key sectors and policy for harmonization of methodology and data issues or areas of intervention (Table 3.5). The collection. Government agencies and businesses new indicator framework gives much greater need to define green growth indicators that emphasis to ecological sustainability and quality address their particular circumstances and to of life with five main categories: four related 104 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table 3.5: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development application of natural resource fees and charges. National Level Green Growth Indicators The work resulted in the definition of 80 indicators within those five fields for application Indicator Groups Topics Covered and testing in towns and cities. Environmental and Resource Carbon and energy productivity ƷɆ The intent of the OECD town green growth Productivity ƷɆ Resource productivity ƷɆ Multifactor productivity indicator framework is to foster economic growth and development through activities to Natural Asset Base ƷɆ Renewable stocks: water, forests, fish promote ecological sustainability and resilience. resources They are a starting point for Mekong cities ƷɆ Nonrenewable stocks: mineral resources ƷɆ Biodiversity and ecosystems and towns which need to develop modest frameworks to be applied on a phased basis Environmental Dimension of ƷɆ Environmental health and risks as capacities increase—the key need being to Quality of Life ƷɆ Environmental services and amenities establish feedback mechanisms to influence Economic Opportunities and ƷɆ Environmental goods and services planning and development decisions. Policy Responses ƷɆ Technology and innovation ƷɆ International financial flows In Asia, the use of green growth indicators at the ƷɆ Prices and transfers city level is in a pilot phase. Most countries are ƷɆ Skills and training focusing on national frameworks. For example, ƷɆ Regulations and management approaches the Republic of Korea was the first country to Socioeconomic Context and ƷɆ Economic growth and structure declare low-carbon green growth as a national Characteristics of Growth ƷɆ Productivity and trade vision and strategy in 2008. Subsequently, it ƷɆ Labor markets, education, and income set up a comprehensive institutional and legal ƷɆ Sociodemographic patterns framework to implement the vision and strategy. Statistics Korea selected 30 indicators to assess policy performance and the implementation Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2011. of green growth based on three main criteria: Towards Green Growth: Monitoring Progress. OECD Green Growth Studies. Paris. policy relevance, analytical soundness, and data availability. The framework of indicators and the results of the assessment are presented in to the environment and the fifth providing the Figure 3.27.48 socioeconomic and growth context. This framework has yet to be translated to Those national indicators for the five sets indicators that would be of practical use to need to be expressed in more practical terms towns. The first priority of Mekong town for towns, so that, for example, the focus on is to start to promote and act on the green environmental and resource productivity at the infrastructure principles in urban planning national level translates into measures of energy set out early in this chapter. They need to be and resource use efficiency for a town. National expressed in terms of town master plans, zoning indicators relating to the natural asset base schemes, and development control standards become indicators relating to environmental and safeguards. They need to be applied to the pressures, such as consumption of energy, water, way infrastructure is designed and managed and and undeveloped land. The environmental to the way development projects are reviewed. dimensions of quality of life translate into urban Progressively, a monitoring framework of the residents’ health and access to basic services. kind proposed by the OEDC can be introduced Economic opportunities and policy responses to measure how well Mekong towns are are measured by the strength in production performing against their new green development of green goods and services as well as the strategic objectives.

48 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Paciﬁc. 2013. Green Growth Indicators: A Practical Approach for Asia and the Paciﬁc. ST/ESCAP/2674. Bangkok. Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 105

Figure 3.27: Green Growth Indicators in the Republic of Korea

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CDM = Clean Development Mechanism, GDP = gross domestic product, GHG = greenhouse gas, GNI = gross national income, ODA = official development assistance, R&D = research and development, VA = value added. Source: Statistics Korea. 2012. Korea’s Green Growth Based on OECD Green Growth Indicators. Seoul. http://kostat.go.kr/koreasGreenGrowth/EBook.htm (accessed 10 November 2013) 106 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

3.4 Conclusions 3.5 Additional Reading

Urban planning presents a vehicle for delivering Readers may also find the following materials resilience and sustainability in towns of the useful: GMS. Urban planning encompasses a wide range of issues, from broad-scale environmental Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2012. Green protection measures to individual site design Growth, Resources and Resilience: Environmental and architectural detailing. Therefore, it has Sustainability in Asia and the Pacific. United potential to influence outcomes at multiple Nations and Asian Development Bank stages and levels of the development process. publication ST/ESCAP/2600, RPT124260. Bangkok. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/ Within the GMS context, there are considerable publication/29567/green-growth-resources- opportunities to strengthen urban planning resilience.pdf processes. For many countries, provinces, and towns in the region, the use of development ADB. 2014. Enabling Green Cities: An safeguards in the manner advocated in this Operational Framework for Integrated Urban volume is largely uncharted territory and would Development in Southeast Asia. ADB Southeast require considerable resources and training to Asia Working Papers Series, No. 9. Manila. deliver effectively. Yet, more concerted work on initiating and implementing them is needed Council for Scientific and Industrial Research throughout the region. (CSIR). 1996. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): A Primer. CSIR Report ENV/S-RR 96001. In the short term, Mekong towns need to think Stellenbosch, South Africa. critically about their existing spatial zoning plans and incorporate basic measures which will build Department of Environmental Affairs and in climate resilience and sustainability, such as Tourism (DEAT). 2004. Strategic Environmental ƷɆ identifying areas vulnerable to climate threats Assessment, Integrated Environmental (including using participatory mapping) and Management, Information Series 10. Pretoria. determining whether any changes to land use zoning are required in response; B. Doberstein. 2003. Environmental Capacity- ƷɆ strengthening how zoning can influence Building in a Transitional Economy: The development through the preparation of a Emergence of EIA Capacity in Viet Nam. Impact clearly defined purpose and use table for Assessment and Project Appraisal 21(1): 25–42. each zone; ƷɆ identifying those natural systems throughout ICEM – International Centre for Environmental the town and surrounding areas which Management. 2010. MRC Strategic contribute to climate resilience and ensuring Environmental Assessment (SEA) of Hydropower they are protected in the land-use zoning on the Mekong Mainstream: Summary of the Final plan; and Report. Ha Noi, Viet Nam. ƷɆ promoting the use of green infrastructure in new development projects. ICEM. 2013. Climate Change Adaptation Methodology: Infrastructure Guide. Ha Noi, In Viet Nam, for example, there is already a Viet Nam. process in place for town master plans to be reviewed every 5 years. It is therefore important Institute for Social and Environmental that any results and recommendations that Transition (ISET). 2011. Catalyzing Urban might result from a vulnerability assessment Climate Resilience. Boulder, CO. http://www. are fed into this process so that changes can be acccrn.org/sites/default/files/documents/ISET_ incorporated into future updates. CatalyzingUrbanResilience_ allchapters.pdf

Readers are encouraged to reﬂect on the L.H. Nam. 2010. Development of EIA System ideas presented here and begin to put them in Viet Nam 1993 –2010. Presentation at the into practice in their own town planning and 3rd Meeting of Signatories to SEA Protocol and development processes. 14th Meeting of Working Group on EIA, 22–26 November, Geneva, Switzerland. Agency for Urban Planning for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 107

EIA and Appraisal, Vietnam Environment Approach for Urban Planners. Nairobi. http:// Administration, Ministry of Natural Resources mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx? and Environment, Viet Nam. publicationID=3530&AspxAutoDetectCookieS upport=1 Open Development Cambodia (ODC). Environmental Law and Environmental S. Wayakone and I. Makoto. 2013. Evaluation of Impact Assessments. http://www. the Environmental Impacts Assessment (EIA) opendevelopmentcambodia.net/brieﬁng/eia/ System in Lao PDR. Journal of Environmental (last updated 19 September 2014). Protection 3(12): 1655–1670.

United Nations Department of Economic World Bank. 2011. Guide to Climate and Social Affairs (UNDESA). 2012. Change Adaptation in Cities. Washington, Shanghai Manual – A Guide for Sustainable DC. http://siteresources.worldbank. Urban Development in the 21st Century. org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/ Shanghai, People’s Republic of China. http:// Resources/336387-1318995974398/ sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page GuideClimChangeAdaptCities.pdf =view&type=400&nr=633&menu=35 World Bank. 2013. Energizing Green Cities in United Nations Human Settlements Programme Southeast Asia: Applying Sustainable Urban (UN-Habitat). 2014. Planning for Climate Energy and Emissions Planning. Washington, DC. Change: Guide – A Strategic, Values-Based http:// dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9837-1

Chapter 4

Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns

4.1 Introduction the templates, the data can be transferred to the relevant matrix to help with ranking and This chapter lays out a step-by-step process for prioritization. The templates and data will also readers to assess vulnerabilities in their town add legitimacy to plans when dealing with and to plan and implement ways of adapting decision makers. to those vulnerabilities. The goal is to increase resilience to climate change and other impacts. It is possible for a single person to complete Whether working with smallholder farmers or the process outlined in the chapter. However, if sophisticated engineers, the process is the same. you are working with a team of practitioners, it Though there is much to gain from going into is useful to consider including team members the fi eld, the process can also be completed by a from a variety of technical backgrounds single offi cer at a desk. and stakeholder groups. The importance of coordination in planning, project design, and The chapter includes templates that you can fi ll implementation increases as you move through out in the offi ce or in the fi eld. As few or as many the process, so there is value in creating a team as necessary ca be used to get a clear picture. with that coordination in mind. Once you have recorded the information in

Figure 4.1: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Process Who Will Find This Guide Useful?

Vulnerability Adaptation Adaptation Infrastructure Assessment Implementation Planning engineers Environment Flood and Assessing the Deﬁ ning adaptation Implementing assessment drought impact of climate options, priorities, adaptation specialists specialists change on and plans for the measures over time Local infrastructure and most vulnerable and adjusting based communities the capacity to assets. on experience and Decision Urban adapt. new information. makers planners

Source: ADB and ICEM. 110 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

It is also important to keep in mind that this Notes guide includes two streams of activity: process Notes will appear in light blue boxes. Notes and tools. The process includes each of the include experience, expertise, and advice that vulnerability assessment and adaptation steps can help expand your understanding of the from scoping through to implementation and process. replication. Tools are the activities you will use to gather the data and information necessary to Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs complete each step. The number of tools you Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs will be include will vary depending on the size of your separated into blue boxes like this. The target system and team. No matter how many information in these boxes will help add depth tools you employ, the process will remain the to your process. same; you can use the steps as guideposts to keep you and your team on track.

4.2 Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Steps

Step 1: Determining the scope and target infrastructure system/assets

Step 2: Conducting the baseline assessment

Step 3: Assessing the impacts of climate change on the assets Assessment Step 4: Assessing the capacity to avoid or recover from the impacts Impact and Vulnerability and Vulnerability Impact

Step 5: Scoring and ranking vulnerability

Step 6: Identifying adaptation options to address the impacts

Step 7: Deﬁ ning the priority adaptation measures Planning Adaptation Step 8: Preparing the adaptation plan and supporting measures

Step 9: Designing and constructing adaptation measures

Step 10: Monitoring, maintenance, and repair

Step 11: Adaptation phasing, adjustment, and retroﬁ tting and Feedback Implementation Implementation

Step 12: Replicating and upscaling

Source: ADB and ICEM. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 111

4.3 Impact and Vulnerability and command area. Climate change will affect Assessment each of the components differently with implications for system effectiveness. All need The impact and vulnerability assessment phase to be included in the assessment. consists of five main steps. Each will help you understand and document the impacts of The linked assets which influence the climate change threats and opportunities on effective functioning of the target system – existing and planned infrastructure (Figure 4.2). what other assets need to be covered as part of the target system? For example, a floodgate Step 1: Determining the Scope and Target operation depends on the condition of the Infrastructure Assets canal system leading to and away from it, on the The first step in any planning process is to condition of the dike slopes in which the gate is set the boundaries or scope of what is being embedded, and on surrounding land uses. All assessed. No one organization can address these would be impacted by climate change with everything, so it is important to define knock-on effects on the gate. boundaries to focus your resources and energy. Scoping can be done by one practitioner or by The geographic area – what geographic a team and can be completed in the office. It is boundary(ies) should be defined for the best that all stakeholders agree on the scope of assessment? A problem with infrastructure the assessment; otherwise, misunderstandings design and management is that it can be too can arise. Scoping tends to be an ongoing narrowly focused and not recognize that it is part process. As you learn more through your of a wider system which can shape effectiveness vulnerability assessment and adaptation of design and operation. For example, drainage planning, or as more details come to light culverts under roads can be washed out if their through your work on the project, you may find design is not sufficient for the catchment area, that you need to adjust your scope. especially if the watershed is degraded or road embankments unstable. Scoping relates to a range of variables including: The infrastructure asset or system under The stakeholders to be involved – what line focus and its components – what asset or agencies and community groups need to component(s) is to be assessed? For example, take part in the assessment and adaptation an irrigation system is made up of many parts— planning? The assessment can be undertaken the catchment, water intake, sediment trap, as an in-house activity or one that is inclusive distribution canals or piping, pumping facilities, of affected stakeholders, such as other

Figure 4.2: The Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Process

1. Scoping 2. Baseline Assessment 3. Impact 4. Assessing 5. Scoping Assessment Adaptive Capacity Vulnerability

Assets Baseline Threats Impact Capacity Vulnerability Assessment Deﬁning the Documenting Expressing Assessing Establishing system and its past and existing climate change Assessing capacity of the relative level components and conditions, threats and potential impacts management of vulnerability the geographic including climate opportunities in of threats and agencies and based on impact area as the variability and terms relevant to opportunities on communities and adaptive target for the extreme events. the target system, the system and to respond and capacity. assessment. sector, and area. area. recover.

Source: ADB and ICEM. 112 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

line agencies and local residents. Ideally, For some sectors, defining the target stakeholders should be involved at various infrastructure system and its components is stages in the assessment through field meetings, not straightforward. It requires interpretation public hearings, and workshops. The scope for and judgments by the assessment team. For participation may depend on the budget and example, a local feeder road that connects town resources available to the assessment team. At A and town B may be 100 kilometers long. The a minimum, the groups who need to be involved entire road might be identified as the target in the implementation of adaptation measures infrastructure system, and all of its culverts, should be consulted and kept informed during bridges, and associated slope and drainage the assessment. protection measures would be its elements. Or the assessment team might decide to choose The time period covered – what past and a short section of the road that has proved to future time period should be considered? In be especially vulnerable to past extreme events many towns, there is little information on climate such as floods and landslides. In that case, the change projections affecting their area or the “system” would be the road section and the few information they have is not readily translated elements within that section. Assessment teams into practical guidance for adaptation. In such will need to carefully define the boundaries of situations, it is best to document and assess the the assessment and the components of special impacts of past extreme events—and regular interest. seasonable events—on the target area and Defining the infrastructure system objectives: assets. When considering climate change, how What does your target infrastructure system far out into the future should projections go and do? Once you have identified your system, it is other influences in that time period need to be important to establish its objective or purpose considered. and how each component contributes to that objective. To help keep you and your team on track, be sure to save your scoping analysis and decisions in a scoping report. A simple table outlining your For example, a small irrigation system might target infrastructure system, the geographic area, deliver about 0.9 liters per second per hectare of and any additional scoping issues such as the water to a command area of 300 hectares. Each need to consider overall watershed influences element will have its own role in contributing will suffice. Saving your scope in a document to this overall objective which needs to be helps you to remember how and why scoping described, such as how the sediment trap decisions were made and to revise your scope objective is to keep sediment from entering and when necessary. blocking the distribution piping and canals.

Defining the target infrastructure “system”: In your scoping report, write down your target Once you have defined the initial scope of the infrastructure system’s main objective. Then list assessment, it is time to create a more detailed each of the components that are part of that description of your target infrastructure system. system and how each one contributes to that objective. The system description should include Including these details within the scoping report ƷɆ details of the main infrastructure components will help you remember why particular scoping (e.g., an irrigation system might include the decisions were made and will help you define water source and catchment, sediment trap, vulnerabilities and adaptation measures in pumps, canals, culverts, distribution pipes, subsequent steps. and command area); ƷɆ services provided by the system’s assets; A system or component may have more than ƷɆ involvement of local communities in one objective. Taking the time to define primary management and maintenance; and and secondary objectives will also help you draft ƷɆ the natural and social system components a more thorough vulnerability assessment and linked to the asset and affected by its create a more effective adaptation plan. condition and resilience (e.g., agricultural fields, school buildings, market, and other The following suggests guidance for defining the infrastructure systems). scope of the vulnerability assessment: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 113

Table 4.1: Guidance for Deﬁning the Scope of the Vulnerability Assessment

Infrastructure asset or system under focus: ƷɆ Existing projects vulnerable to past climate variability or extreme events. ƷɆ Infrastructure of strategic importance to the nation, town, or local community (e.g., road links to market or airport). ƷɆ Poor quality or damaged infrastructure which needs to be replaced or repaired (e.g., repeatedly damaged by floods). ƷɆ New infrastructure of strategic importance or affecting a large area or number of people ƷɆ Representative of an infrastructure category and therefore valuable as a pilot for replication. Linked assets influencing the target system: ƷɆ Other assets upstream, downstream, or near the target system which influence its operation (e.g., drainage corridor, canal or river banks, dike, agriculture, or residential uses). ƷɆ Degraded assets already affecting the condition of the area or existing infrastructure. ƷɆ Assets which will be impacted by the proposed infrastructure system. Geographic area: ƷɆ Area served by the target system (e.g., irrigation command area). ƷɆ Area with potential to affect the target system. ƷɆ Area exposed to past extreme events and projected climate change threat. ƷɆ Area with potential as an accessible and representative demonstration for replication. Stakeholders to be involved: ƷɆ People potentially affected by the existing or proposed infrastructure system. ƷɆ Area where communities are committed to participate in adaptation management, monitoring, and repair. ƷɆ Line agencies which will need to have a role in adaptation implementation or which will need to provide essential information or approvals. Time period covered: ƷɆ Historical record of temperature and rainfall as validation period for climate change projections. ƷɆ Time of past, more extreme events affecting the target area. ƷɆ Time slice for climate change projections (e.g., 2030, 2050). ƷɆ Lifetime of existing or proposed target infrastructure.

Step 2: Conducting the Baseline Assessment be used in subsequent steps in the process. The baseline assessment of the target The template is included as Appendix 1 in this infrastructure system provides a strong chapter. foundation for the entire vulnerability assessment and adaptation process. It Your assessment will include the following: establishes the evidence base, justification, and ƷɆ A short description of your target credibility for all the judgments and decisions infrastructure system, which you can pull that follow. The baseline assessment step can from your scoping documents. be the most time- and resource-consuming ƷɆ A description of the watershed in which the of the vulnerability assessment process. Once system functions. completed, your baseline will describe the ƷɆ A description of the system’s location and any past and existing situation, trends, and drivers human-made or geographical attributes. that affect the target systems and will provide ƷɆ A description of the state of the an analysis of the changes to the system that infrastructure (e.g., new, functioning, will occur whether the climate changes or not damaged, or under repair). (Figure 4.3). ƷɆ Descriptions of any human-made elements in the system, including photos and Field assessment: To complete the baseline illustrations where possible. assessment, conduct a field visit to your target ƷɆ A description of known past extreme events infrastructure system and complete the baseline that impacted the system. assessment field template. Be detailed when ƷɆ Any adaptation responses to those extreme you fill it out. The information you include will events, including recovery efforts. 114 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

ƷɆ Expert judgment on the design and form of those human-made elements to withstand Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs extreme events. It is often the case that information on past extreme events, such as floods and drought, Creating a climate threat profile: Once you and the design details of existing strategic have collected all of the necessary information infrastructure is not available. Consider on past extreme events and the stability of the consulting with local people, experts, system, you can begin to apply climate change and government officials to fill in your projections and variability to see how it may knowledge gaps. impact on your system and its surrounding area. You may also engage in participatory mapping Preparing a climate change threat profile for exercises to glean the necessary information. the target area will be based on understanding See Appendix 8 for more information on and documenting the nature and impacts of participatory mapping. past extreme events, for example, past storms, floods, or droughts.

Figure 4.3: Baseline Assessment Components

Asset inventory and priority setting ƷɆ Provide a description of the existing and proposed assets in the sector or area ƷɆ Describe the condition of the infrastructure systems

Past climate variability and extreme events ƷɆ Describe the most signiﬁcant past extreme events affecting the sector or area ƷɆ Describe the impacts of that event

Adaptation audit of past protection measures ƷɆ Describe measures taken to learn from past from past extreme events ƷɆ Assess the effectiveness of those past “adaptation measures”

Socioeconomic status and trends assessment ƷɆ Identify stakeholder “users” and affected communities ƷɆ Describe socioeconomic trends of relevance to the asset

Natural systems status and trends ƷɆ Describe natural systems that affect the asset (e.g., catchments, rivers) ƷɆ Describe the status and trends in those systems of relevance to the system

Climate change threat and opportunities proﬁle ƷɆ Gather all existing climate change projections relating to the area ƷɆ If feasible, conduct fresh climate change and hydrological modeling

Sources: (from top) Café Science Dundee. www.cafesciencedundee.co.uk; Armadillo Projections. armadilloprojections.ﬁles.wordpress. com; Lotzacurlscambodia. 2.bp.blogspot.com; and Malaysia Wetlands. archive.wetlands.org Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 115

To determine future climate threats, Figure 4.4: Examples of Climate Change Threats you will need to consult your national hydrometeorology agency or institute for downscaled climate change and hydrological modeling for your area. If these are not Flooding (e.g., fl uvial and fl ash fl oods) and increased available, then conclusions drawn from precipitation: threat of physical damage from intense national projections on likely trends and fl ow and inundation, increased destabilization of nearby ranges in changes aff ecting the target area land, erosion, landslides will be adequate for the local vulnerability assessment.

To help keep track of all of these new data, note the following in the vulnerability assessment Storms, strong winds, hail, and lightning: physical matrix (Appendix 3): damage to natural and built assets (e.g., houses, crops) ƷɆ the particular change to the climate, ƷɆ the elements and/or system that this change will impact, ƷɆ how that impact will occur (the threat), and Drought: reduced water availability, sedimentation of ƷɆ the projection or modeling that you used to canals, threat to productive crops, animal loss, drying/ determine this result. movement of soil/foundations leading to damaged structures, dust storms This matrix acts as a record of your assessment and helps guide the plans you will draft based on your assessment. It can be used to add weight and legitimacy to your decisions when dealing Low temperatures, frosts, cold snaps: crop losses, with decision makers. animal losses, damage to built infrastructure (e.g., expansion of ice and loss of structural integrity) Notes It is not necessary to cover all climate change parameters. Focus on those which are most relevant to the target infrastructure system and its surrounding area. Temperature range changes: loss of species that are unable to adapt to temperature changes Some changes in climate may also prove beneﬁ cial. For example, increased rainfall may improve crop yields in a dry agricultural area. Any assessment should take care to consider parameters which might have positive eff ects. Heat waves: crop losses, forest ﬁ res, damage to physical infrastructure through heat expansion/cracking Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs (e.g., pipes) If you have the time and resources, you can conduct new climate change and hydrological modeling to ensure you have the most up-to- date information. Source: ADB and ICEM.

Step 3: Assessing the Impacts of Climate to your decisions when dealing with decision Change on Your System makers. Footnoting of reasons for various A vulnerability assessment matrix (Appendix 3) judgments made in each column of the matrix provides the framework for documenting is a necessary part of building the case for your the assessment results. Table 4.1 provides adaptation recommendations. an example of a completed vulnerability assessment matrix for a small irrigation scheme. In the impact assessment, you determine the This matrix acts as a record of your assessment eff ects of the identiﬁ ed climate change threats and is the basis for your adaptation planning. on the target system by considering its exposure It can be used to add weight and legitimacy and sensitivity to them. 116 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table 4.2: Vulnerability Assessment Matrix Example: Irrigation system with 68-hectare command area. Major system components: 1. Concrete weir across river with scouring sluice gate 2. Gated off-take into main canal 3.5 kilometers in length 3. Main canal concrete-lined for 270 meters across landslide zones and incorporating retaining wall over 15 meters 4. One aqueduct, two footbridges, and four division boxes to assist distribution of water 5. One inlet/outlet box to catch additional drainage ﬂows from upstream into the main canal Impact

Threat Interpretation of Threat Impact Summary Exposure Sensitivity Level Impact Change and shift in Interpretation of the threat for refer to table Written explanation of what the impact is, and why it refer regular climate the system or area was scored (very low to very high) to table Increase in ƷɆ * .!/! Ɇ .+,Ɇ30!.Ɇ 1,2H L M ƷɆ0!.Ɇ.!-1%.! Ɇ0Ɇ%*0'!Ɇ/(%#$0(5Ɇ%* .!/! Ɇ MM maximum demand particularly for paddy land preparation temperature and ƷɆ.+/0Ɇ%* % !*0/Ɇ ! .!/! ƷɆ! +* Ɇ,+00+Ɇ .+,/Ɇ(!//Ɇ/1/ !,0%(!Ɇ0+Ɇ".+/0Ɇ )#! evapotranspiration ƷɆ(0!.*0%2!Ɇ .+,,%*#Ɇ,00!.*Ɇ +1( Ɇ!Ɇ%*0.+ 1 ! Increased rainfall ƷɆ.! %,%00%+*Ɇ%* .!/!Ɇ 1.%*#Ɇ 3L L L ƷɆ+1( Ɇ.! 1 !Ɇ30!.Ɇ !)* Ɇ".+)Ɇ0$!Ɇ/0.!)Ɇ 1.%*#Ɇ HL early and mid-monsoon period monsoon period Ʒ+Ɇ%), 0Ɇ+*Ɇ%*"./0.1 01.! ƷɆ%00(!Ɇ!˒! 0Ɇ+*Ɇ .+,Ɇ,.+ 1 0%+* Increased river flow ƷɆ * .!/!/Ɇ/%#*%˔ *0(5Ɇ 1.%*#Ɇ 4M M M ƷɆ%00(!Ɇ%), 0Ɇ+*Ɇ .+,Ɇ,.+ 1 0%+* HM (intake) early monsoon ƷɆ * .!/! Ɇ˗+3Ɇ +1( Ɇ )#!Ɇ/5/0!)Ɇ%*"./0.1 01.! Change and shift in events Flash floods (intake) ƷɆ * .!/!Ɇ%*Ɇ! Ɇ(+ Ɇ 1.%*#Ɇ 5H 6H H ƷɆ(+ '#!Ɇ+"Ɇ%*0'!ƂɆ(! %*#Ɇ0+Ɇ0!),+..5Ɇ.!/0.% 0%+*Ɇ+"Ɇ 7M H flash floods – might block or irrigation water damage intake ƷɆ! %)!*0Ɇ!*0!.%*#Ɇ)%*Ɇ *(Ɇ3%((Ɇ.!/0.% 0Ɇ%0/Ɇ ..5%*#Ɇ ƷɆ0.!)Ɇ! Ɇ)+/0(5Ɇ.+ 'Ɇ/+Ɇ capacity little chance of degradation Flash floods ƷɆ * .!/! Ɇ˗++ Ɇ˗+3/ H 8L M ƷɆ*(Ɇ30!.Ɇ1*(!Ɇ0+Ɇ!Ɇ/1,,(%! Ɇ0+Ɇ +3*/0.!)Ɇ 9L M (aqueduct) ƷɆ +1.%*#Ɇ+"Ɇ .+//Ɇ .%*#!Ɇ areas channel bed and pier foundations Storms ƷɆ * .!/! Ɇ.%*"((Ɇ%*0!*/%05Ɇ H 10L M ƷɆ.+,/Ɇ +1( Ɇ!Ɇ )#! Ɇ* Ɇ %ˍ 1(0Ɇ0+Ɇ$.2!/0 HM over cropped area ƷɆ!2!(Ɇ0!.. !/Ɇ3%((Ɇ/+.Ɇ%* .!/! Ɇ.%*"(( ƷɆ!.. !Ɇ*'/Ɇ,.+0! 0! Ɇ3%0$Ɇ/+5!*ƁɆ*(5Ɇ vulnerable at start of monsoon Drought ƷɆ! 1 0%+*Ɇ+"Ɇ30!.Ɇ 11M M M ƷɆ+1( Ɇ˒! 0Ɇ5%!( /Ɇ"+.Ɇ0$!Ɇ/! +* Ɇ,+00+Ɇ .+,Ɇ* Ɇ 12M M availability in stream during preparation for paddy crops late dry season and delay of ƷɆ*Ɇ(0!.*0%2!Ɇ0+Ɇ0$!Ɇ/! +* Ɇ,+00+Ɇ .+,Ɇ +1( Ɇ!Ɇ monsoon flows introduced Landslides ƷɆ$!.!Ɇ)%*Ɇ *(Ɇ,//!/Ɇ M 13H M Ʒ/$+10Ɇ+"Ɇ)%*Ɇ *(Ɇ(! %*#Ɇ0+Ɇ(+//Ɇ+"Ɇ30!.Ɇ/1,,(5Ɇ 14L M crosses steeper land to full irrigated area (there is no command area above ƷɆ & !*0Ɇ0+Ɇ/0.!)/Ɇ+.Ɇ this location, so if this one is damaged the whole aqueduct structure system is at risk

1 Evapotranspiration increases throughout the year with total demand over the paddy season May–October increasing by up to 380 millimeters. 2 Minimum temperature increase of up to 3°C in March–April and frost probability in February reduced to only 5%. Less likelihood of damage to second potato crop. 3 Monthly average daily rainfall increases slightly during early monsoon period (maximum of 5 millimeters in July). However, it decreases post monsoon and during winter periods. 4 River flow increases by about 80% during May–July. A 20-year return period flow could occur every 2 years. The rest of the year, little change. 5 100-year return period flood could increase in size by up to 100%. Rainfall intensity will increase by 60%. Catchment area mostly forest. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 117

6 Well-designed weir across stream with scouring sluice. No spindle to adjust intake gate height to prevent sediment entering the main canal during flood flows. 7 Sediments collected in main canal can be manually shifted relatively easy with local labor. 8 Gabions protecting cross-channel bed and channel has adequate capacity for increased flows. New piers provided to support aqueduct. 9 Farmers cannot redesign or repair without technical assistance: ƷɆ+/0ɆƻŸŷƂŷŷŷɆ0+Ɇ.! !*0(5Ɇ.!$%(%00!Ɓ ƷɆ/Ɇ.! !*0(5Ɇ%),.+2! ƁɆ 0Ɇ3%((Ɇ$2!Ɇ(+3Ɇ,.%+.%05Ɇ"+.Ɇ"101.!Ɇ"1* %*#Ɓ 10 Wind damage to traditional rice crops only from storms prior to harvesting. 11 River flows reduced by 50% with negligible flows predicted in March/April. 12 Department of Agriculture providing agricultural extension services in the area. 13 Remedial works already undertaken in sensitive areas to support the main canal against landslides: ƷɆ+Ɇ 0 $Ɇ .%*#!Ɇ+2!Ɇ(* /(% !Ɇ.!/Ɇ0+Ɇ.! 1 !Ɇ30!.Ɇ(+##%*#Ɇ+"Ɇ1,,!.Ɇ/(+,!/Ɓ 14 Farmers cannot repair damage by themselves: ƷɆ/ɆɆ.! !*0(5Ɇ%),.+2! Ɇ/5/0!)ƂɆ%0Ɇ3%((Ɇ$2!ɆɆ(+3Ɇ,.%+.%05Ɇ"+.Ɇ"1* %*#Ɓ Source: Author.

Exposure is the extent to which a system is The rating system for exposure and other exposed to the climate change threat. Sensitivity parameters uses a score from very low to very is the degree to which a system will be affected high. Rate the system and each component by, or be responsive to, the exposure. The using your expert judgment and scientific data: potential impact is a function of the level of exposure to climate change threats, and the Sensitivity: The next step in the impact sensitivity of the target assets or system to that assessment is to rate the sensitivity. Sensitivity exposure. is the degree to which exposure to a threat will negatively affect the operation of the system. Exposure to a threat depends on the following: ƷɆ Location of the system with respect to the Sensitivity may be influenced by the following: threat, for example, distance from the flood ƷɆ Integrity of design: Is the asset designed zone or river bank robustly and with features to mitigate against ƷɆ Threat intensity, for example, how deep and threats? For example, powered irrigation fast flowing is the floodwater, how heavy is system to protect crops against drought; crop the rain, how strong is the wind? varieties resilient to frost/drought; drainage ƷɆ Frequency, for example, the “return period” around buildings, roads, and fields; buildings of large, destructive floods – every 5 years, raised above the flood line. every 10 years? ƷɆ Integrity of materials and construction: ƷɆ Duration, for example, the flood threat lasts Does the asset contain strong, durable, for 1 day, floodwaters remain for 5 days. appropriate materials in light of the expected threats? For example, buildings constructed Judgments based on the information on past of bamboo or concrete, unsealed. extreme events need to be adjusted to account ƷɆ Geotechnical character: For example, bank for the expected effect of climate change stability, soil condition, drainage capacity (e.g., increases in frequency and intensity and volumes, vegetation, and existing of flood events).

Exposure Scale

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

very low intensity/ low intensity/ medium intensity/ high intensity/ very high intensity/ severity and/or very severity and/or severity and/or severity and/or severity and/or very infrequent and/or infrequent and/or average recurrence/ frequent and/or frequent and/or very short duration short duration average duration long duration very long duration 118 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Sensitivity Scale

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

very good integrity Good integrity of average integrity of poor integrity of very poor integrity of design, materials, design, materials, design, materials, design, materials, of design, materials, and construction and construction and construction and construction and construction

stability measures. May require more formal scoring and line them up along the impact geotechnical assessment or visual inspection. scoring matrix. For example, a system element that is assessed as having medium exposure and Taking into account these variables, rate your low sensitivity will generate an impact rating system sensitivity from very low to very high: of medium.

Impact: Assessing impact is the most important The detailed impacts you list in the vulnerability stage of the vulnerability assessment. Use the assessment matrix will help define your impact scoring matrix to score and document adaptation responses in the next steps. When your results carefully on the impacts column describing Impacts, remember there are of two of the vulnerability assessment matrix kinds: (i) direct impacts, like a damaged road, (Appendix 3). Insert detailed footnotes and (ii) indirect impacts, where that damaged explaining your choices in the matrix, as these road prevents produce from reaching the market will come in handy in the next step. or children from getting to school. Listing both direct and indirect impacts will help you define Impact = Exposure X Sensitivity. To determine adaptation options that address the most the impact rating for your system, take your significant of both kinds of impacts. results from your exposure and sensitivity Step 4: Assessing the Capacity to Avoid or Recover from the Impacts Impact Scoring Matrix Adaptive capacity: Once you have completed the impact assessment, you must assess the Exposure of system to climate threat capacity of the managing organization or community to prepare for and respond to the impacts. You will include the results of this Very Low Low Medium High Very High assessment in the same vulnerability assessment matrix that you worked with in Step 3. This step can be completed from your office. Very High Medium Medium High Very High Very High To complete the assessment, take each of the impacts you listed and consider them against High Low Medium Medium High Very High the appropriate factors in Table 4.3. Using these considerations, rank the organization’s adaptive capacity on a scale from very low to very high. Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High List your results in the vulnerability assessment matrix using footnotes to explain your scores. Low Low Low Medium Medium High This scale is an example of an organization delivering and/or managing the infrastructure Sensitivity of system to climate threat system Sensitivity of Very Low Very Low Low Low Medium High system (e.g., a road, irrigation system, or water supply intake and pumping station). Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 119

Table 4.3: Factors to Consider When Assessing Adaptation Capacity

1. Crosscutting factors 2. Infrastructure ƷɆ The range of available deputation technologies such as ƷɆ Availability of physical resources for repair (e.g., materials bioengineering approaches. and equipment). ƷɆ Management and response systems in place. ƷɆ Regularity of system maintenance. ƷɆ Availability of relevant technical staff and knowledge. ƷɆ Existence of backups in place (e.g., alternative routing for ƷɆ Suitable ﬁ nancial resources to support climate change failed roads or bridges). adaptation. ƷɆ Presence of other infrastructure negatively aff ecting the system. 3. Natural Systems 4. Social Systems ƷɆ Condition and stability of watershed aff ecting the asset. ƷɆ Availability of insurance and other ﬁ nancial resources to ƷɆ Riverbank slope stability. respond to impacts. ƷɆ Water quality (e.g., in the case of irrigation and water ƷɆ Existence of “user groups” and other community supply assets). arrangements. ƷɆ Access to alternative services.

Source: ADB and ICEM.

Adaptive Capacity Scale

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

very limited limited institutional growing institutional sound institutional exceptional institutional capactiy capacity and limited capacity and access capacity and good institutional capacity and no access to access to techincal to technical or access to technical and abundant access technical or fi nancial and fi nancial fi nancial resources and fi nancial to technical and resources resources resources fi nancial resources

Notes Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs It is not necessary to consider all impacts. The The information you need to assess adaptive factors to consider will depend on the nature capacity may not be readily available. Seek out of your target system and the organizations information from the community and other involved in its operation. When assessing experts to fi ll any knowledge gaps. adaptation capacity of the responsible infrastructure department the most important Step 5: Scoring and Ranking Vulnerability factors are those of a cross cutting nature and The fi nal vulnerability score is determined by those relating directly to the asset and its repair considering the impact and adaptation capacity and/or construction. together. To do so, take the impact and adaptive capacity results of each of your threats and plot When deciding on ratings for exposure, them on the vulnerability scoring matrix. Note sensitivity, impact, and adaptive capacity, your results in the vulnerability matrix. it is important to include justifi cations and explanations of your decisions in the An important point to keep in mind is that with vulnerability assessment matrix. Notes included increasing severity of impact, the vulnerability in your matrix will help others understand the of the target infrastructure system increases. reasoning behind your scores and increase the Adaptation capacity has the opposite credibility of your fi nal rankings. Also, reasons eff ect; with increasing adaptive capacity, an given for the exposure and sensitivity scores help infrastructure system would have decreasing you complete the impacts summary column of vulnerability. The vulnerability scoring matrix the matrix (Appendix 3). takes that inverse relationship into account. 120 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Vulnerability Scoring Matrix

Impact Very Low Low Medium High Very High Inconvenience Short disruption Medium Long term Loss of life, (days) to system disruption to damage to livelihood, or function (weeks) system function system, property system integrity (months) (years)

Very Low Medium Medium High Very High Very High Very limited institutional capacity and no ﬁnancial resources

Low Low Medium Medium High Very High Limited institutional capacity and limited access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High Growing institutional capacity and Adaptive Capacity Adaptive access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

High Low Low Medium Medium High Sound institutional capacity and good access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

Very High Very Low Low Low Medium High Exceptional institutional capacity and abundant access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

The aim of the adaptation planning process upgrading existing infrastructure and building is to guide the preparation of an integrated adaptation measures into sector- and area-wide adaptation plan to build resilience in the target plans and into new infrastructure. Adaptation infrastructure system or area that will ultimately includes taking advantage of the opportunities be supported and funded. that may arise due to climate change, as well as responding to negative impacts. Adaptation to climate change refers to actions taken by households, businesses, governments, It involves developing a range of adaptation and communities to respond to the potential options for each of the main impacts impacts of climate change. It can include actions you determined during your vulnerability taken to prevent, avoid, or reduce the risks of assessment and then determining priorities for those impacts (proactive adaptation), or in implementation that are built into an integrated response to impacts as they happen (reactive adaptation plan. With limited resources, it is adaptation). It can mean retroﬁtting and not possible or necessary to do everything at Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 121

Figure 4.5: Adaptation Planning Process

6. Identifying Adaptation Options to Address Impacts 7. Prioritizing 8. Preparing Plans and Supporting Adaptation Measures to Ensure Implementation

Review Assets Review Identify Set Priorities Prepare Plans Mainstream Impacts Options Plans Review most Identify options Identify linkages vulnerable Review all Identify range or groups of between Deﬁ ne budgets systems and impacts for the of adaptation options that are options, their and supporting assets for threats system, assets, measures to most important, actions, and measures; they face. and components; address each feasible, and bring phasing, and modify sector group by impact and the most beneﬁ ts. integrate them development which could group. Options into a plan. polices, as be addressed can relate to required. together. the system or assets.

Source: ADB and ICEM. once; choices must be made on what is feasible Notes and necessary now and what can be left to later It is feasible to go directly from the vulnerability planning cycles. assessment phase to defi ning an adaptation plan without using the adaptation planning Adaption planning has three main steps: matrix. The matrix provides an additional set of (i) Defi ning the options. tools to identify the most signifi cant problems (ii) Setting priorities among them. that need to be addressed and to choose (iii) Preparing adaptation plans and integrating which adaptation responses should receive them into established development plans attention in situations of scarce resources. and budgets (Figure 4.5). Each team charged with taking climate change into account when preparing plans for areas Similar to the vulnerability assessment phase, or designing infrastructure systems needs to adaptation planning uses a matrix and a number consider the level of eff ort and justifi cation of other tools to guide scoring. This adaptation required in setting adaptation priorities. planning matrix (Appendix 4) is applicable no Completing the adaptation planning matrix matter what kind of target infrastructure system gives you another tool that you can use to or area you are dealing with, whether it is a road add legitimacy to your adaptation plan when or water supply scheme, or an urban settlement communicating with decision makers. or river basin.

Your fi nal adaptation plan does not need to follow the matrix outcomes precisely. Other 4.4 Adaptation Planning factors may infl uence adaptation priorities. Also, in some cases, the matrix results may Step 6: Identifying Adaptation Options appear counterintuitive. If an adaptation to Address Impacts measure is critical to the operation of an entire Reviewing the threats and impacts: infrastructure system but only scores medium The adaptation planning phase focuses on the priority for adaptation because of its high cost, most vulnerable assets and areas identifi ed then the fi nal plan should override the matrix during the vulnerability assessment. First, result and stress its importance. This highlights review the threats and impacts identifi ed for the importance of using the vulnerability the system elements that scored high or very assessment and adaptation planning matrices high on the vulnerability scoring matrix. Transfer as a guide to infl uence but not dictate the fi nal these impacts on to the adaptation planning decisions on adaptation priorities. matrix; you will be working with these impacts 122 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

throughout these steps. The intention is to culvert bridge. A river dike system may require confirm the vulnerability assessment findings bioengineered slope stabilization. and ensure that all the most serious impacts are addressed. 4. Supporting and Facilitating Adaptation Measures Identifying adaptation options: Adaptation The fourth response is often overlooked options are shaped by because it can be the most complex and ƷɆ existing conditions at the target location, involve many authorities and stakeholders. ƷɆ the climate change threats, To be effective, many of the measures defined ƷɆ the potential impacts on the infrastructure for the area or system may require supporting systems being assessed, and actions by other sectors, areas, resource ƷɆ the capacity of the system to recover from managers, or levels of government. It may the impact. involve establishing new decision-making and management structures. It may involve Adaptation options fit within four scales: introducing new procedures like spatial planning and zoning for safeguards. It may involve 1. Area-Wide Adaptation more detailed modeling of hydrology to better The first response is to look broadly at the entire inform infrastructure location and design. area where the target system is located. This may A comprehensive adaptation plan needs to be mean, for example, looking at the host town, a combination of mutually reinforcing actions commune, catchment, river basin, or protected using natural, built, social, economic, and area and thinking through an overall area-wide institutional systems. approach to adaptation. Setting a framework of broad principles for adaptation may help shape At this stage, when filling out the adaptation the more specific measures for the target system planning matrix, list all options regardless of and its elements. It also promotes integration of how feasible they seem. You will refine your adaptation measures across sectors and areas list at a later stage. You do not need to develop and seeks to avoid mistakes that could reduce detailed designs for your options yet, but it is resilience in other areas. important to establish certain guiding principles at the outset. In general, it is best to consider 2. System-Wide Adaptation adaptation options that take wider ecological, The second response is to identify adaptation social, and economic factors into account as options for the target infrastructure system, early as possible. Green infrastructure options whether that is an irrigation scheme, river contribute to overall sustainability beyond just embankments, or feeder road, etc. the target infrastructure system and should be implemented as much as possible. 3. System Component Adaptation The third response is to determine the Chapter 2 contains more than 25 green adaptation requirements for each of the key infrastructure techniques. Including solutions system components that you outlined in your from the chapter will ensure that your list scoping document. For example, if your target contains strong, viable, and sustainable infrastructure system is a road, you may need a adaptation options.

Table 4.4: Adaptation Planning Matrix

Threats Impacts Adaptation Options Priority Adaptation Insert all high and very Insert the impacts Listing of the adaptation Feasibility Effectiveness Priority high threats, ﬁrst for recorded for the high and options in addressing cost, skills, staff, how well does the system as a whole very high threats (only each of the most equipment it avoid, reduce and then for each of consider direct impacts) signiﬁcant impacts – or eliminate the the high and very high focus on structural and threat components. bioengineering options

Source: ADB and ICEM. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 123

When listing your adaptation options, be sure to Finally, to ensure best results, identify measures footnote how the action will modify vulnerability, that fi t within the mandate of your immediate either by minimizing exposure, reducing stakeholders. Then progressively identify what sensitivity, or building adaptive capacity. others can do to reinforce your core measures and to promote their sustainability and Your main focus should be on defi ning replication. adaptation measures for the target infrastructure system; supporting measures such as policy Table 4.5 illustrates categories of adaptation and institutional reforms can be an ongoing options and the key actors responsible for consideration once you move into more mature implementation. phases of the adaptation planning process. Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs Notes Identifying adaptation options requires It is important to draw from international, the involvement of a cross-sector group of regional, and local experience to fi nd out what specialists as well as aff ected stakeholders. has worked in building resilience to extremes in In most cases, adaptation will require action the past. and commitment from local aff ected groups, so their involvement at each step should be Reviewing international experience can expose facilitated. As in other phases of the process, planners to new approaches, technologies, the extent and nature of consultation will materials, and even institutional arrangements depend on resources available, urgency for and policies that have worked well in other action, and the level of decision making. countries.

Table 4.5: Adaptation Option Categories and Examples

Adaptation Category Specifi c Measures Main Responsibility Bioengineering ƷɆ Flood protection: dike drainate system; fl ood storage reservoir; erosion protection; From district to Measures bridges; road culverts, etc. national level ƷɆ Water storage (e.g., dams, tanks) for use during dry months government, can ƷɆ Reinforcing existing structures or building new ones to withstand severe estorms involve local user and wind groups Traditional local ƷɆ Bamboo stakes and vegetation in riverbanks Land owners, adaptation measures ƷɆ Maintenance of traditional water sources and water user groups user groups, local ƷɆ Use local natural mateirals and designs in construction of houses, rock walls, govenrment level and windbreaks ƷɆ Re-vegetating foredunes and mud fl ats with local native species and re-estabilishing mangroves to combat erosion ƷɆ Maintaining fi sh traps and reviving community gardens that diversify livelihood options ƷɆ Traditional seed storage facilities Economic ƷɆ Natural resource and land use taxes National or provincial instruments ƷɆ Payments for ecosystems services government ƷɆ Grants and tax reductions ƷɆ Conditions on licenses and permits Natural systems ƷɆ Revegetation of watersheds National or provincial management ƷɆ Rehabilitation of river embankments and fl oodplains government ƷɆ Establishing biodiversity corridors with delegated ƷɆ Eff ective management of protected area network and buff er zones responsibilities to user ƷɆ Greening of urban areas groups ƷɆ Agro-forestry practices to increase species complexity and stability ƷɆ Water allocation systems to share limited water supplies during drought continued on next page 124 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Table continued Social responses ƷɆ Resettlement programs Local communities, ƷɆ Livelihood and crop diversiﬁcation national or provincial ƷɆ User groups for maintenance and management of facilities and resources governments ƷɆ Seasonal and planned migration ƷɆ Education and awareness programs Policies and ƷɆ Zoning for development control (e.g., no major structures) National or provincial regulations ƷɆ Regulatory requirements for structural integrity of buildings, material controls, ﬂoor government height restrictions ƷɆ Sector design standards (e.g., of culverts, materials, setbacks) ƷɆ Urban zoning and safeguards ƷɆ EIA and SEA provisions and tools which consider climate change Research and ƷɆ Research into drought or saline-tolerant crops National or provincial development ƷɆ New porous surface materials to allow for water penetration in urban areas government, institutes ƷɆ Tolerance levels and adaptive capacity in wild species and ecosystems Industrial responses ƷɆ Formation of local user groups for management and maintenance of infrastructure National or provincial facilities government ƷɆ Structures for promoting partnerships with business and the community ƷɆ Programs to integrate climate change within disaster risk management agencies ƷɆ Creating inter-agency networks on climate change that encourage collaboration between organisations

EIA = environmental impact assessment, SEA = strategic environmental assessment. Source: ADB and ICEM.

Step 7: Defining the Priority Adaptation Table 4.6 describes those options and their Measures operational and financial implications. In most Fundamentally, adaptation planning is all about cases, planning for a phased approach to prioritizing. It is not possible or necessary to adaptation over the lifetime of a project is the do everything at once. Some investments most effective approach. It may not be a matter need to be made immediately or soon, while of choosing between options but staging them; others can be left until more resources become some will need to be implemented before others available. Your first priorities should fit within are feasible. available funds and address the most serious vulnerabilities in the systems and elements that Once you have developed a full list of are most important to your target area, sector, or adaptation options and chosen which of the four community. approaches your adaptations will follow, you can begin to prioritize. It will not be feasible or Your first priorities should also lay the necessary to implement all possible solutions. foundation for future adaptation investments Some of the options may cancel each other out. and facilitate future additions and modifications For example, it may not make sense to build a as the climate continues to change. The best flood retention dam as well as raise the level of adaptation measures facilitate future adaptation a downstream bridge. Also, resource limits and within and outside your target infrastructure policy or regulatory limits and standards may system instead of making them more difficult or favor certain options over others. expensive. The next step in the adaptation planning matrix Strategic options for adaptation: There are four is to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of approaches to adaptation: each adaptation option to arrive at a rating of (i) Build now for lifetime adaptation. priority. (ii) Plan for phased adaptation over project lifetime. Feasibility of an adaptation option: Feasibility (iii) Progressive modification to design. is the extent to which each option can be (iv) Build to repair. accomplished or implemented. Factors Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 125

Table 4.6: Four Approaches to Design of Adaptation Measures in Infrastructure

Adaptation Approach Description of Adaptation Approach Expected Financial Implications Build now for lifetime adaptation ƷɆ Build all adaptation measures immediately to ƷɆ Relatively high investment initially. last the project lifetime. ƷɆ No additional investment for subsequent adaptation required. ƷɆ Long-term security is dependent on actual climate change not exceeding predictions. Plan for phased adaptation over ƷɆ Fully plan an upgrade program to progressively ƷɆ Medium-level initial investment. time adapt the design as climate change occurs. ƷɆ Investment required during asset life cycle. ƷɆ Implementation of project adaptation phases will occur as designed. Progressive modification to ƷɆ Redesign and reconstruct as required in ƷɆ Lower initial investment. design response to verified climate change. ƷɆ Climate changes will force redesign costs ƷɆ Initial design may not provide functionality to and investments for reconstruction during adapt over life span. asset life cycle to avoid catastrophic failure. ƷɆ Redesign and reconstruction required prior to ƷɆ This is potentially an expensive approach. damage or failure. Build to repair ƷɆ Accept that there will be damage and repair is ƷɆ Low initial investment. required. ƷɆ Likely financial loss due to damage of asset. ƷɆ Initial design does not incorporate ƷɆ Relatively high repair cost during lifecycle adjustments to respond to climate change but overall may lead to lower whole life costs projections. Should the asset be damaged, if climate change does not cause substantial asset manager accepts damage and carries out damage. repairs. ƷɆ This is the cheapest up-front option but comes with the largest risk and potential cost.

Source: ADB and ICEM. that inﬂuence feasibility include technical short time to put in place, but years to mature complexity, capacity of the infrastructure and increase in strength and resilience. management agency and user community, and the cost. 3.Capacity of local communities: If local communities are an essential force in building, 1.Technical complexity and demands: Does managing, and monitoring the adaptation the affected community or lead government measure, many issues will need to be considered agency have the knowledge and skills to use through consultation and survey. Who within the technologies involved? Is the technology the community will take on the responsibility? available within the country? Does it come with Will special management groups need to high maintenance demands and costs? Will it be assembled? Will the key actors be able require investment in time and resources to to manage work and home roles with new understand how it can best be applied locally? duties? Will compensation be needed? It is not necessary for the adaptation team to resolve all 2.Time to implement: Implementation issues relating to local community involvement, time can be a critical factor in situations where but it is important to discuss how much past and existing extreme events have caused effort will be required to establish community damage or threaten strategic infrastructure and management. facilities. Also, some options such as a riverbank dike may need to be fully in place to be effective, 4.Capacity of government: In most cases, whereas others can or need to be implemented even for national infrastructure assets, local over several years. For example, to stabilize a government will have a role in adaptation bank with bioengineering methods may take a management, monitoring, and repair. If 126 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Flexibility Rank

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

requires additional may require established established and established R&D, very lengthy additional technique, tested technique, and tested implementation, R&D, lengthy implementation implementation technique in GMS, very limited implementation, matches matches or better implementation technical and limited technical effectiveness, effectiveness, matches or betters institutional and institutional growing technical sound technical effectiveness, capacity, cost vastly capacity, cost and institutional and institutional exceptional outweighs potential outweighs potential capacity, cost in capacity, costs technical and effectiveness effectiveness line with potential match or institutional effectiveness better potential capacity, costs effectiveness match or better potential effectiveness

GMS = Greater Mekong Subregion, R&D = research and development.

responsibilities fall to local agency staff, duty statements and performance evaluation criteria Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs will need to be revised, new budget items The final ranking from very low to very high introduced and sourced, and equipment and feasibility is made based on expert judgments supplies drawn together to meet the demands. of the information gathered during the Information and capacity strengthening baseline and impact assessment phase. activities may also be needed. Establishing feasibility is a matter of discussion and consensus. In a workshop situation, for 5.Cost: Cost has been left to last in this list example, feasibility and effectiveness can because it can be a “showstopper.” High cost be defined through group sessions over can easily prevent action or lead to suboptimal a few hours by drawing from the baseline adaptation strategies, especially when important assessment, vulnerability assessment matrix, options require phased funding over the long and field visits. term. It may be tempting to score expensive measures as having low feasibility, even if they are critical to the effective functioning of a Effectiveness of adaptation options: The system or the safety of affected communities. It next step in priority ranking is to determine may be best to leave cost out of your feasibility the degree to which each adaptation option assessment at this stage. Like adaptation plans, would produce the desired result. You will budgets are all about prioritizing, and you may establish how successful each option would be find that you have enough funding once your at avoiding or reducing the negative impacts whole plan has been prepared. of climate change and enhancing any benefits. Implementing options that reduce negative While the above factors do not require official impacts while enhancing benefits effectively scoring, the feasibility rank can act as a guide. build resilience into your target infrastructure Once you and your team have established a system. feasibility rank for each of your options, note the results in the adaptation planning matrix. Be The best adaptation options will also increase sure to record how you established the rank as the well-being of affected communities, these notes will add legitimacy to your choices especially disadvantaged groups, and the natural when communicating with decision makers. systems they live in. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 127

Eff ectiveness Rank

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

will not eliminate or will only marginally moderate reduction reasonable eliminates or near reduce the impact, reduce impact, slow in impact, some reduction impact, eliminates impact, many years to take to take eff ect, short time to take eff ect, quick to take eff ect, immediately eff ect, short life life span medium life span medium to long life eff ective, medium span span to long life span

Ask the following questions to assess how Ranking priority: Priority is a function of eff ective an adaptation option will be at feasibility and eff ectiveness. To determine a eliminating or reducing the impact: priority ranking for each of your adaptation ƷɆ Will it eliminate the impact? options, take the results from your feasibility ƷɆ If not, by how much will it reduce the impact? discussions and the results from your ƷɆ Will it take some time to become eff ective eff ectiveness ranking and plot them on the (e.g., several years for the root system to priority of adaptation matrix. Note the ﬁ nal rank establish in a bioengineered slope)? in the adaptation planning matrix. ƷɆ How long will the adaptation measure last? Priority of adaptation = Feasibility of adaptation Use the eff ectiveness rank tool to establish a action X Eff ectiveness in addressing impact rank for each adaptation option. Notes Once you have ranked each of your adaptation In some cases, important adaptation options, note the results in the eff ectiveness measures will not score well on your priority of column of the adaptation planning matrix. Be adaptation matrix. Cost, time to implement, sure to record how you reached each rank, as and other factors may reduce a score even these notes will add legitimacy to your choices when expert judgment has established that the when communicating with decision makers. measure is critical. If through your community You can also use the notes to help develop consultations, a particular measure or set of monitoring and evaluation indicators in the next measures has emerged as necessary, it should steps of this process. be considered high priority even if it has not scored as such on the matrix.

Priority Scoring Matrix

Eff ectiveness in dealing with impact

Very Low Low High High Very High

Very High Medium Medium High Very High Very High

High Low Medium Medium High Very High

Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High

Feasibility of action of Feasibility Low Low Low Medium Medium High

Very Low Very Low Low Low Medium High 128 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Step 8: Preparing the Adaptation Plan and Institutional arrangements and Supporting Measures responsibilities: Describe how the adaptation There is no “right” way to structure an plan will be implemented. Include the agencies adaptation plan. Your plan will depend on the involved, any special institutional arrangements, size and complexity of your target infrastructure and any local user groups or community system. If it is a large system with many elements organizations. Include funding sources and managing bodies, your plan will consist where possible. of many pages and components. However, if your target infrastructure system is something Time: Estimate how much time each measure smaller, like a reinforced streambank, your plan will take. Set your measures up in phases: may come in the form of a short brief. (i) Immediate (1 year) (ii) Short (2 years) The templates and matrices you have filled (iii) Medium (5 years) out along the way will help you in crafting your (iv) Long Term (10 years or more) plan. You have defined what you will need to implement, how, when, and with whom to make Identify the urgent measures and those that your target infrastructure system more resilient need to be taken before others are possible. to climate change and other impacts. Now it is a matter of taking those details and assembling Adaptation impact assessment: Describe how them in an integrated way. your adaptation plan as a whole will help avoid or minimize negative impacts and enhance Lay out your adaptation plan: benefits.

Scope: It is best to start your plan by laying out Other development influences: Development the scope, which you defined in the first step. does not happen in a vacuum. Describe Your scope may look different now than it did in other development factors that could affect the beginning of your process. Be sure to include implementation or influence the system and its the most up-to-date version of your scope to adaptation measures. Identify additional actions account for any changes. needed to control or work with other influences.

Target infrastructure system: Using materials Sectoral reforms: Identify any adjustments from your baseline assessment, describe your that should be made within the target sector target infrastructure system. Describe its main to implement or replicate your adaptation elements and overall objectives. measures and plan. This could include revising guidelines, improving design standards, and Adaptation measures: Take the adaptation strengthening policies. This section provides the measures that scored well in your adaptation opportunity to make recommendations to help planning matrix and arrange them in roughly mainstream adaptation so that measures can be the order you identiﬁed in your prioritizing step. rolled out more efficiently in other areas. Describe them in detail, including how each measure pertains to either a particular element Collaborative approaches: There may or the system as a whole. Taking information be measures that are outside the capacity from your vulnerability assessment matrix and and authority of a single national and local your adaptation planning matrix, explain how government agency. These will require a more each measure will address impacts and build coordinated, all-government approach. In resilience in the system. these cases, identify the bodies you envision will need to be involved and describe how you Adapting to opportunities: Identify any positive imagine that kind of collaboration would work. climate change effects and opportunities and This will help identify who you will need to have what “adaptation” measures are needed to take discussions with in your implementation phase. advantage of those opportunities. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 129

Figure 4.6: Adaptation Implementation and Feedback Process

9. Design and Construction 10. Monitoring with Regular 11. Phasing, Adjustment, 12. Audit, Replicate, with Consultation Maintenance and Repair and Retroﬁtting and Commit to Cyclical Adaptation

Design and Construct Monitor and Repair Phase and Adjust Replicate and Repeat

Design may involve Investment in Keep to planned Conduct adaptation hot spot avoidance, monitoring of the phasing of adaptation audits and replicate bioengineering, landscape and system, measures based on what works well in other rehabilitation of natural early warning of potential latest climate change areas, ensure policies systems, development of failure, effectiveness of information and lessons and procedures are in controls, and setting up adaptation, and a program from implementation, make place to lock vulnerability community management of regular maintenance adjustments, retroﬁt, and assessment and adaptation and maintenance involving communities. invest in responses. into the development and processes. planning cycle.

Source: ADB and ICEM.

4.5 Adaptation Implementation Design: At its heart, design and construction and Feedback take the plans you drafted in the previous stages and turn them into a set of instructions for Ultimately, the goal with adaptation and implementation. Your instructions will fall into implementation is to integrate this kind of two categories: process into regular development. Monitoring, (i) Structural periodic impact assessments, and improvements (ii) Nonstructural need to be instituted and budgeted for. By making these activities a normal part of Structural instructions encompass designs of development, you are mainstreaming climate physical interventions. For example, if you are resilience and sustainability. using live fascines (see section 2.4.3) to stabilize a streambank, engineering instructions will More than the previous sections, this section cover the details of how those fascines will be is a work in progress. It reﬂects cutting-edge implemented, the amount of materials needed, strategies in global adaptation implementation. and the skills required. At the procurement stage, it is important to hire contractors and workers Figure 4.6 describes the four main steps in who have some familiarity with bioengineering adaptation implementation. and climate-resilient construction. Either that or you will have to arrange for training. Step 9: Designing and Constructing Adaptation Measures Nonstructural instructions will cover how There are several good guides that describe the to implement the necessary policy changes, processes involved in building and maintaining training regimes, and institutional activities infrastructure. Chapter 2 contains several that you outlined in your adaptation plan. case studies that explain how others have These nonstructural instructions will become implemented large and small adaptation plans. more important in your monitoring and maintenance phases. 130 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Eff ective monitoring programs are an essential Notes part of adaptation. They track how well, or if, The most important consideration at this stage your adaptation measures are mitigating the is to ensure that the measures identiﬁ ed to impacts they were intended to address and adapt to impacts outlined in the vulnerability provide you with the data you will need to adjust assessment are not forgotten. If you have as climate and other circumstances change. If been working alone up to this point, or if you you have a phased approach to your adaptation have not had construction experts as part of plan, monitoring will alert you to when key your team, it is crucial that you communicate infrastructure pieces are ﬁ nished so the next how important it is that adaptation measures ones can begin. Monitoring programs also alert be designed in such a way that they actually you to any weaknesses in the system so you can perform the functions that you need them to. repair them before they cause further damage.

Strong links between the vulnerability Appendix 7 provides a template to help you assessment team and the design and organize your monitoring and maintenance construction team will help ensure that eff orts. adaptation needs are met. That way, you can take designs and weigh them against the Here are a few things to keep in mind while elements and objectives that you outlined putting together a monitoring and maintenance in your scope and vulnerability assessment. program: Do the designs account for each of the vulnerabilities and threats you identifi ed? Has 1. Human resources A strong monitoring and anything been overlooked or left out? maintenance plan depends on high-quality inputs from aff ected local communities and In the other direction, strong links will also the agencies responsible for managing your ensure that you are made aware of any target infrastructure system. Local community changes that become necessary if design and assistance is especially important in vulnerable construction reveal new information. If you areas where government capacity and resources receive new information quickly enough, you are limited. will be able to refi ne your adaptation plan without losing too much time. You will have already identifi ed possible community partners in your adaptation planning process. Now is the time to engage and organize Step 10: Monitoring, Maintenance, those partners. and Repair One of the main challenges in implementing You will also have identifi ed the government adaptation measures is ensuring that new divisions that are responsible for your target technologies are properly operated and infrastructure system. If at all possible, ensure maintained. Keeping your adaptation plan in that you coordinate local community eff orts place and functioning well requires monitoring with those of government specialists and and attention to detail. experts, or delineate responsibilities.

Table 4.7: Monitoring and Maintenance Framework

Adaptation Monitoring Focus Frequency Responsible Entity Organisational Technical indicators Measure Indicators Short-term Measures

Long-term Adaptation Measures

Source: ADB and ICEM. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 131

2.Capacity building: Your community groups Figure 4.7: Components of a Monitoring and Maintenance Plan and local experts may not be trained in green infrastructure or climate-resilient development. To ensure high-quality monitoring, you will have ƷɆ Human resources to engage in skill-building eff orts. These eff orts ƷɆ User and oversight groups, involvement of local community should be tailored to your specifi c adaptation ƷɆ Specialists, staff from government division responsible for measures and your measurable indicators. You infrastructure can also equip them with tools like “Walking the Route” included in Appendix 8 that outlines how to audit a road or slope, what to look for, and ƷɆ Capacity building how to record the fi ndings. ƷɆ Training for community members in running groups, monitoring ƷɆ Training for local staff and other experts in climate-resilient 3.Measureable indicators: Your community building groups and local experts will do little good if they have no guidelines and nothing to measure. These indicators may be process- ƷɆ Measurable indicators based to measure progress in implementation or ƷɆ Impacts on elements, objectives from vulnerability assessment outcomes-based to measure the eff ectiveness ƷɆ Health and stability of implemented adaptation measures of your adaptation plan. Developing indicators at the project level is relatively straightforward. Many infrastructure projects come with ƷɆ Feedback mechanisms established monitoring and evaluation ƷɆ Systems to collect and synthesize data generated by community systems with proven indicators that already and experts exist. Furthermore, your scoping process and ƷɆ Links to fi lter results to decision makers vulnerability assessment already indicated the objectives of your target infrastructure system and its elements and the specifi c impacts you ƷɆ Funding intend to address. However, monitoring and ƷɆ Major budget items for disaster recovery, infrastructure repair evaluation on a broader scale—for example, ƷɆ Embed maintenance for adaptation into normal repair processes for an entire town or catchment—can be more complex and will require creativity and strong Source: ADB and ICEM. coordination across sectors.

4.Feedback mechanisms: High-quality Notes monitoring depends on a clear description of the Practical diffi culties in conducting a monitoring program stem from a objectives of the adaptation measures and how general lack of fi nancial, human, and technical resources and capacities; they link to the broader goals. Once collected, a lack of baseline data and historical trends; uncertainty in projected your monitoring teams need a way to relay that climate change impacts; and insuffi cient sharing of information across information back to the decision makers. Your stakeholder groups, levels, and sectors. As a result, monitoring is one of plan should include means by which your teams the weakest areas of adaptation practice. This entire process equips you can communicate their fi ndings, be they regular with the materials necessary to help overcome these challenges. The goal meetings, web-based feedback forms, or other is to mainstream this type of adaptation planning and monitoring into systems. Having access to your team’s fi ndings existing development frameworks. will equip you with the data you will need to procure funding for repair and rehabilitation. Tools, Methods, and/or Inputs Core groups such as those whose stories are included in this publication 5.Funding: Most countries include a major may provide you with a viable monitoring and maintenance model. While budget item dedicated to covering the costs of your monitoring team may be smaller than the core groups discussed, the maintaining and repairing infrastructure after groups cover a breadth of technical skills and community perspectives normal wear-and-tear or after catastrophic that may prove to be necessary for thorough, consistent monitoring and weather events. Rooting your monitoring and regular feedback. Links between similar groups in the region could also maintenance program into this budget item complement in-house capacity building, as could visits to other sites will help to mainstream the process and ensure employing similar techniques. that you have adequate funding to repair any weaknesses you fi nd. 132 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

Step 11: Adaptation Phasing, Adjustment, scheduled for implementation at later phases and Retrofitting of the infrastructure system’s life depending A successful monitoring and maintenance on climate change projections. The need for program should lead to progressive those later measures should be kept under improvements in your target infrastructure review based on regular updating of climate system. As technology and expertise improve, change and hydrological information and regular your monitoring program should highlight areas on-site inspections of assets and surrounding where you can implement these advances, conditions. One tool described in Appendix 8, thus allowing you to keep up with the times. It “Walking the Route,” is designed for that kind of should also help shape any future adaptation site and asset inspection. measures, as you will be progressively learning from the adaptation and implementation The results from an effective monitoring process and applying new knowledge to new program should lead to progressive adaptation plans. improvements in infrastructure performance and help shape future adaptation measures. Phasing: Some of the adaptation measures This requires capacities in national and local you identified in your adaptation plan may be governments, as well as in communities to take scheduled for implementation in later phases of actions to make those adjustments on a regular the infrastructure system. This can be for many basis. There needs to be a commitment in reasons, including policy to take action on adaptation monitoring ƷɆ the need for supporting infrastructure pieces and review findings and recommendations, to be in place first; the budgets to do so, and all the necessary ƷɆ planned funding that comes later than your skills and technologies to rehabilitate, retrofit, initial investments; and reconstruct infrastructure components ƷɆ time needed to increase education, capacity, as needed. and training among community and local experts; or Infrastructure departments already spend a ƷɆ verification that the impacts of extreme large part of their budgets in maintenance events are occurring as projected. and repair, most often when failures occur following landslides, floods, drought, and other A well-functioning monitoring program will alert extreme events. It is necessary to build on that you to when, and if, your subsequent phases considerable effort by making it more proactive should be implemented. You will be able to and anticipatory so that interventions are check your monitoring results against budgets, possible before major failures occur. For that to community realities, and new trends in climate be possible, investments are needed in regular change and climate projections. updating of climate change downscaling, in hydrological modeling by catchments, and in Your monitoring program will also alert you to providing practical information to infrastructure when you need to make adjustments to your sectors on demand and tailored to their needs. plan. To adjust effectively, you need The benefits of that improved service will begin ƷɆ capacity in national and local governments; to show in more sensitive infrastructure siting ƷɆ capacity in communities; and design. ƷɆ a policy commitment to take action on adaptation monitoring and review findings Step 12: Replicating and Upscaling and recommendations; Adaptation auditing: The experience with ƷɆ the skills and technology necessary to implementing adaptation measures should rehabilitate, retrofit, and reconstruct be documented in regular adaptation audits. infrastructure components as needed; and “Audits” can describe case studies of what ƷɆ funding. has and has not worked. They can focus on measures that have been long practiced Adjustment and renewal: Some adaptation in the region, for example, bioengineering measures identified in adaptation plans are techniques for slope and riverbank stabilization. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 133

They can also be conducted every few years 4.6 Optional Steps and Tools for for adaptation approaches used in recent Large-Scale Plans and Projects infrastructure development and which might involve new technologies and materials. In cases of large-scale projects, programs of The aim is to build on and replicate the best national strategic importance, or projects that examples of good adaptation through the sector affect large populations or areas, a vulnerability infrastructure programs. assessment team can add rigor to the vulnerability assessment by Upscaling of good adaptation ﬁeld practices (i) taking a quantitative approach to the means making the necessary reforms to policies, scoring rather than applying the very low to institutional arrangements, and procedures at very high rankings, and/or higher levels, which will enable good practices to (ii) adding a step following the vulnerability be applied systematically within the sector and assessment to assess the signiﬁcance of in other areas. the impacts.

Green Infrastructure: The other prerequisite When large investments are involved, the to realizing anticipatory adaptation is through government may call for added certainty intensive attention to testing and demonstration and justification of the team’s adaptation of fresh approaches. A guiding principle for recommendations. Adding either or both of that piloting is to respect and build on natural these methods can provide further evidence to features and systems. This often means justify and refine specified courses of action. using measures that are based on traditional knowledge and practices, as well as those The quantitative approach to the vulnerability which have been practiced by sector agencies assessment scoring is not described in this for many decades. These techniques are often chapter. It is set out in an accompanying called bioengineering methods or, more broadly, publication. Here, the significance assessment green infrastructure. step is presented.

Green infrastructure is about changing the way Estimating the significance of the Impacts roads, drains, floodgates, river embankments, (risk assessment): A vulnerability assessment water supply and sanitation facilities, power identifies the direct and indirect impacts of supply services, and buildings are designed various climate change threats on a system and and managed to be ecologically sustainable its components. It can be valuable for a team and resilient to climate change. As detailed in to think through in greater detail the impacts Chapter 2, green infrastructure includes an array they have identified and to understand and of products, technologies, and practices that document them more fully. Determining the use natural systems—or engineered systems significance of those impacts can lead to a more that mimic natural processes—to enhance the detailed ranking of impacts and assist in setting overall environmental quality, the infrastructure, adaptation priorities. Furthermore, it can inform and its resilience to climate change. decision makers of the level of risk associated with the impacts. Progressively, infrastructure line agencies need to take on the responsibility for review “Significance” is a term widely used and and adjustment to their own planning and understood among environmental impact management instruments to accommodate assessment practitioners. In the field of disaster climate change adaptation on a regular and risk management, however, the equivalent term cyclical basis. For that, each sector will need to is “risk assessment.” The challenge with that embrace the preparation and regular review term from disaster risk management is that it has of sector adaptation plans of action in keeping many meanings and associated methodologies with the cycles of their development planning and is used in many sectors and industries. For and budgeting. example, it is the foundation of the life insurance 134 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

sector. For the purposes of this chapter, the It is a challenging stage of adaptation planning. estimation of significance can be viewed as a risk Even if there is very little chance of an event assessment method. happening, the consequences could be so serious in terms of potential loss of life and Significance is a function of the likelihood of property that a team could choose to override an impact occurring and the seriousness of the matrix results and assign highest priority the impact. The resulting significance of each to adaption measures designed to avoid the impact provides a first guide to priority setting impact. Dam failure, for example, can have such among adaptation options. Significance is serious impacts that, even if unlikely to happen, assessed on a scale of very low to very high it would necessitate extensive safeguards and interpreted as follows: adaptation measures.

Likelihood is the chance or probability of Seriousness criteria used for assessing something happening. If an impact is very seriousness of impacts include signiﬁcant, but there is little probability of ƷɆ loss of life; it happening (e.g., catastrophic failure in a ƷɆ loss, damage to, or destruction of property; hydropower dam), a team of planners need to ƷɆ loss of productivity and income; or make a judgment on what is an acceptable level ƷɆ impediments to socioeconomic functions. of risk for each potential impact. The assessment of likelihood provides the team with the initial Environmental criteria may also be important information needed to make that judgment. for some areas. If your target area is in a forested

Signiﬁcance of Impact = Likelihood of impact happening X Seriousness of impact Signiﬁcance

Signiﬁcance Scoring Matrix

Seriousness of impact Very Low Low Medium High Very High Very High Medium Medium High Very High Very High High Low Medium Medium High Very High

occuring Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High Low Low Low Medium Medium High Likelihood of impact of Likelihood Very Low Very Low Low Low Medium High Likelihood the impact occurring The chances of the Impact Seriousness of etc life, property Loss of the impact Signiﬁcance of L MM HHH Signiﬁcance Rank L LM

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

very low impact that low impact that can moderate impact that high importance extreme impact does not require an be dealt with as and can be addressed by requiring immediate requiring urgent adaptation response when they happen or adaptation measures remedial action and action - to be given as budget allows on a phased basis further study highest priority for adaptation Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Guide for Building Resilient Mekong Towns 135

area, seriousness might encompass degradation through to a more rigorous and lengthy process to endangered species habitat or resources requiring the establishment of a comprehensive essential for local livelihoods. scientific evidence base. It will depend on the size and importance of the projects and plans To “score” significance, plot your likelihood and being considered, and on the funds and staff seriousness rankings on the significance matrix. resources the sector has made available for the process. Valuation of impacts: The financial cost will vary in its importance—whether an assessment A glossary of terms used in the vulnerability is being undertaken for a poor rural village or assessment and adaptation planning process a large urban center, for example. It can be appears as Appendix 10. difficult to estimate cost. For important impacts, a detailed cost–benefit assessment may be required. Estimates for damage and financial 4.7 Additional Reading losses may be available for past disasters which can be used as cost coefficients. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2011. Community-Based Climate Vulnerability The following is an example of the low and Assessment and Adaptation Planning: A Cook high end of the scale of seriousness for rural Islands Pilot Project. Manila. https://www.adb. infrastructure: Low significance: org/publications/community-based-climate- ƷɆ No loss of life. vulnerability-assessment-and-adaptation- ƷɆ No injuries. planning-cook-islands ƷɆ No destruction of property. ƷɆ Some damage to property up to $500. ADB. 2011. Guidelines for Climate Proofing ƷɆ Minimal loss of productivity and income up Investment in the Transport Sector: Road to a total of $1,000 across the community. Infrastructure Projects. Manila. http://www. ƷɆ Minimal impediment to socioeconomic adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional- ƷɆ function of community (up to 1 day). document/32772/files/guidelines-climate- proofing-roads.pdf Very high significance: ƷɆ Severe loss of life. ADB. 2012. Guidelines for Climate Proofing ƷɆ Many severe injuries. Investment in Agriculture, Rural Development, and ƷɆ Destruction and damage to property above Food Security. Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/ $100,000. default/files/institutional-document/33720/ ƷɆ Loss of productivity and income above files/guidelines-climate-proofing- investment. $250,000 across the community. pdf ƷɆ Impediment to social/economic function of community longer than 7 days. ADB. 2013. Guidelines for Climate Proofing Investment in the Energy Sector. Manila. http:// Additional tools which can provide more www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional- information, rigor, and scientific evidence inputs document/33896/files/guidelines-climate- at various steps of the vulnerability assessment proofing- investment-energy-sector.pdf and adaptation process are described in Appendix 8 with a detailed summary of T.O. Balangue. 2013. Compendium of Climate economic analysis methods provided in Change Vulnerability and Impact Assessment Appendix 9. Tools. Manila: Climate Change Commission, Philippines. https://gc21.giz.de/ibt/var/app/ The vulnerability assessment and adaptation wp342deP/1443/wp-content/uploads/filebase/ process set out in this chapter can be conducted va/vulnerability-method- briefs/philippines_ as a rapid assessment based mainly on expert CCC_Compendium_of_CC_Vulnerability_ and stakeholder judgments and knowledge and_Impact_Assessment_Tools.pdf 136 Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities

A. Daze et al. 2009. Climate Vulnerability Centre for Integrated Mountain Development and Capacity Analysis. CARE. http://www. (ICIMOD). http://www.climateadapt.asia/ careclimatechange.org/cvca/CARE_ upload/events/files/4df5851ac678bicimod- CVCAHandbook.pdf framework_for_community-based_climate_ vulnerability_and_capacity_assessment_in_ A. Droubi and W.K. Al-Zubari. 2012. Vulnerability mountain_areas.pdf Assessment of Freshwater Resources to Climate Change: Implications for Shared Water Resources C. Morgan. 2011. Vulnerability Assessments: A in the West Asia Region. Nairobi: United Nations Review of Approaches. International Union for Environment Program. http://www.unep.org/ Conservation of Nature (IUCN). https://portals. dewa/Portals/67/pdf/Freshwater_vunerability_ iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/2011-068.pdf Report_LR.pdf S. Olmos. 2001. Vulnerability and Adaptation J. Edwards et al. 2007. Handbook for Vulnerability to Climate Change: Concepts, Issues, Assessment Mapping. Swedish Rescue Services Agency. Methods. Climate Change Knowledge Network. http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/ http://www.iisd.org/cckn/pdf/va_foundation_ ANNEXES/3.2.4%20Risk%20assessment%20 final.pdf and%20vulnerability%20maps/Handbook%20 for%20Vulnerability%20Mapping.pdf R.B. Regmi et al. 2010. Participatory Tools and Techniques for Assessing Climate Change Impacts J.F. Feenstra et al. 1998. Handbook on Methods and Exploring Adaptation Options. Nepal for Climate Change Impact Assessment and Livelihoods and Forestry Program. http://www. Adaptation Strategies Version 2.0. United Nations forestrynepal.org/images/publications/Final%20 Environment Programme. http://www.ivm.vu.nl/ CC-Tools.pdf en/Images/UNEPhandbookEBA2ED27-994E- 4538-B0F0C424C6F619FE_tcm53- 102683. United Nations Framework Convention on pdf Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2011. Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerability: Making A. Garg et al. 2007. Handbook of Current and Informed Adaptation Decisions. Bonn, Germany. Next Generation Vulnerability and Adaptation http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/ Assessment Tools. Basic Project. http://www. pub_nwp_making_informed_adaptation_ basic-project.net/data/final/Paper08India%20 decisions.pdf Vulnerability%20and%20Adaptation%20 Assessment%20Tools%85.pdf M. Winograd. 2006. Capacity Strengthening in Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation J. Hinkel et al. 2013. PROVIA Guidance on Strategy Assessments. Environment and Assessing Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Development Action in the Third World to Climate Change. United Nations Environment (ENDA). http://danida.vnu.edu.vn/cpis/files/ Programme. http://www.unep.org/provia/ References/Vulnerability/Background%20 Portals/24128/PROVIA_guidance_report_low_ on%20frameworks,%20 methodologies%20 resolution.pdf and%20tools%20for%20vulnerability%20 and%20adaptation%20assessments-%20 M. Macchi. 2011. Framework for Community How%20to%20move%20from%20reactive%20 Based Climate Vulnerability and Capacity to%20proactive%20approaches.pdf Assessment in Mountain Areas. International Case Study 1

Building Climate Change Resilience in Battambang, Cambodia

Battambang town is the capital of Battambang ƷɆ Battambang is projected to experience Province lying close to the northwest corner of signifi cant climate changes that will have Tonle Sap Lake in central Cambodia. About 74% a range of impacts, including changes to of the town is agricultural land, producing rice, hydrology and the frequency and intensity of vegetables, livestock, poultry, and fi sh. The town fl oods and drought. has experienced rapid industrial and commercial ƷɆ The adaptive capacity of the town remains growth but remains part of Cambodia’s weak in terms of infrastructure, institutional agricultural heartland. arrangements, community involvement, and technical and fi nancial capacity. It is a river town connected to Tonle Sap Lake by ƷɆ The vision of the Town Strategic the Sangker River, with a population projected to Development Plan (2011–2015) is “a green grow by almost 70,000 people—or roughly half and healthy town for living, prosperity, the current population—by 2030. Incremental employment and tourism with improved and poorly controlled developments have raised security and pubic order, promotion of the town on the west bank of the river so that education and gender equality.” drainage of large areas now fl ows away from rather than into the Sangker River. This results in regular fl ooding. 5.2 The Work of the Climate Change Core Group

5.1 Overview ƷɆ As part of an Asian Development Bank project, a technical Climate Change Core ƷɆ Battambang is part of the greater natural Group was established to ensure that landscape of the Cardamom region, which representatives from key sectors and levels of forms a complex network of interconnected government work together to landscapes and watersheds that provide ż discuss and map past and future climate important ecosystem services to nearby extremes, communities. ż assess climate change threats and ƷɆ Battambang Province has a medium vulnerability of critical infrastructure in the vulnerability to ﬂ oods and a very high town, and vulnerability to drought. ż develop locally appropriate climate change ƷɆ Floods have been recorded in every adaptation measures to address the commune of the town and typically potential impacts. occur during the rainy season from June to December. 138 Case Study 1

Figure 5.1: Climate Change Hot Spots in Battambang Climate Change (ARCC) Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study, which used modeling and downscaled data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to project changes in temperature and precipitation at the regional level. ż Superimposing the mapped climate change proﬁle onto the past extremes map to identify the town’s climate change hot spots.

ƷɆ The main steps taken by the core group in identifying development controls and safeguards were to ż overlay the climate change hot spots on the town zoning plan, ż adjust the designations and boundaries of each zone as required, and ż deﬁne development controls and safeguards for each zone (starting with the zones most affected by the hot spots).

5.3 Case Studies

The Battambang Climate Change Core Group undertook case studies to assess the river embankments, the central railway station, and the canal along the town’s western border.

The 8.5-kilometer-long canal runs from south to north, beginning at the Sangker River water intake not far from the Kampong Seima Pagoda and ending in Sla Kaet District, where it discharges back in to the Sangker River.

The 20-meter-wide canal was built during the Khmer Rouge regime for irrigation. While ƷɆ The key steps taken by the core group in not systematically maintained, it remains a defining climate change hot spots were key facility for irrigation, fishing, water supply, the following: sewage treatment, and drainage. Increasingly, it ż Documenting past extreme events and also serves as a flood retention and protection regular flooding through participatory system for the town. mapping, with detailed information for various flood zones on duration, depth, The canal is largely overgrown and increasingly and source—localized rainfall and/or river impeded by encroachment, blockages, and overtopping. The core group mapped illegal settlement. The core group’s vulnerability floods as far back as 2000, including the assessment found the system as a whole to six river overtopping events that occurred be highly vulnerable to the threat of flooding between 2000 and 2011. caused by increased rainfall with climate change. ż Defining the climate change profile for the site based on results from previous The key objective of the canal system work by ICEM – International Centre for rehabilitation is to create a green belt for the Environmental Management on the 2013 town that can be used for a variety of purposes. Mekong Adaptation and Resilience to These include a green walkway and bicycle path Building Climate Change Resilience in Battambang, Cambodia 139

Government funded embankments on the western side of the Sangkae River Source: Cambodia Watch. 2.bp.blogspot.com along the canal banks connected to a riverbank Figure 5.2: Kampong Seima Irrigation Canal System path network around the town, clean water supply, fi shing, irrigation, natural stormwater and fl ood management, and bioretention and pollution treatment. Key components 5.3.1 River Embankments ƷɆ Kray Porn canal section and The riverbanks near the Sor Kheng Bridge were major agricultural production specifi cally selected for their strategic location in area the heart of the city. To the north of the bridge, ƷɆ Section at National Roads the riverbanks have been reinforced; to the No. 5 and 57 south, they remain in a natural state.

The northern embankments on the western side Sangke River of the river have been hardened with masonry ƷɆ The main canal made from cladding. The riverbank on the east side has the 10 kilometers eroded and subsided due to ﬂ oods in 2013 that ƷɆ Main canal from Kampong compromised Road 159D which runs alongside Seima to Damnak Loung: the river. 2500 meters with concrete embankment

The banks of the river collapse regularly, Source: ICEM. endangering buildings and residents, as well as the main hospital and other key road and bridge infrastructure. cafés, and restaurants with the river park at one end connected to the railway station wetlands The core group found the system as a whole park at the other—all designed to enhance town to be moderately vulnerable to the threat fl ood protection and resilience. of fl ooding caused by increased rainfall and overtopping due to climate change both within 5.3.2 Railway and Surrounding Wetland the town and upstream. The group found Settlements that the riverbank on the east side is highly The case study area includes the unused town vulnerable to fl oods and erosion. This location railway station buildings and adjacent informal has been one of the central areas for recreation, settlements around wetlands that fl ood every tourism, and hotel services. year. Unregulated construction has fi lled in lakes and natural drainage, exacerbating fl oods and Under the core group’s adaptation plan, this health problems associated with waterborne area in central Battambang would form part diseases. of a major urban renewal and redevelopment zone based on green infrastructure principles, The railway lake is locally known as Boeung beautifi cation, and multiple uses. It would Ra and is located in Tuol Ta Ek village in become a central area of green walkways, shops, Battambang. There are two temporary 140 Case Study 1

from key agencies as was refl ected in the composition of the core groups. ƷɆ Town master planning and zoning must include a step of overlaying past extreme climatic events and projected climate change to ensure appropriate boundary defi nitions and designations, and development and design of suitable townwide and zone safeguards to ensure land uses and structures are resilient. ƷɆ The town master planning should be formally adopted as a cyclical process with review and revision at least every 5 years and a statutory period within which the provincial and The rail yards and maintenance buildings national governments must approve the plan. Source: Stig Berge, Panoramio. static.panoramio.com Adaptation planning needs to be an integral part of the master planning process. ƷɆ The core group will be an important cross- communities living in this lake without offi cial sector technical group for the town. It legal land title recognition from the government. will act as a technical advisory group on climate change, providing monitoring and Railway Station Lake is located on the western evaluation to ensure that all developments part of the Sang Ke River and next to the railway consider climate change, assessing proposed station. The lake supports rich biodiversity infrastructure development projects, and including fi sh, snakes, edible plants, waterbirds, providing technical advice in the town master and other aquatic resources. The water quality planning process. of the lake is heavily polluted from residential ƷɆ Community engagement at all stages of waste. adaptation to climate change is key to its success. The entire railway and wetlands area is a fl ood ƷɆ Green infrastructure and bioengineering and climate change hot spot with a high severity have much to off er in building town resilience ranking in terms of fl ood threat. The core group to climate change and should be actively found the system as a whole to be very highly promoted and demonstrated through vulnerable to the threat of fl ooding caused by formal policy commitments in the town plan increased rainfall with climate change. and development controls, and through a formal vision statement for Battambang’s The core group’s adaptation plan is to develop development. the area as an urban renewal and multiuse ƷɆ Informal migrant settlements and linked zone with natural drainage infrastructure that climate change impacts are a major issue for incorporates low-cost but attractive housing Battambang: the town’s migrant settlements for the current residents of the informal are located in some of the most vulnerable settlements. The goal is to create a tourism and areas to climate change. Managing these recreation area in the heart of town that is linked settlements eff ectively will be vital to to the river and its green walkways. advancing the town’s development vision and also to increasing its resilience. ƷɆ There are signifi cant opportunities to build 5.4 Key Conclusions and Lessons on the project with the new governor as Learned mentor: Battambang has a new governor: former Deputy Governor Sieng Em Wounzy. ƷɆ Climate change vulnerability assessment and Governor Wounzy is an architect and planner adaptation planning should be mainstreamed by training who championed this project into townwide master planning and as deputy governor. As governor, he will infrastructure planning processes, including prove to be a strong and infl uential advocate the use of participatory mapping approaches for climate-sensitive development in the involving communities and representatives town creating an important opportunity Building Climate Change Resilience in Battambang, Cambodia 141

to showcase good adaptation in urban ƷɆ When conducting participatory mapping, infrastructure. which is a critical part of climate change ƷɆ The long-term presence of the embedded vulnerability assessment, it is important geographic information system team to separate mapping of historical flooding within the governor’s master planning caused by pooling and the flooding caused department also provides an important by river overtopping because these have very opportunity to showcase Battambang and different flood characteristics in terms of green infrastructure as a Greater Mekong depth, duration, and impact, and they require Subregion-wide demonstration for building different responses. climate change resilience.

5.5 Battambang Core Group Members

Ear Kimchheng Deputy Director, Provincial Department of Environment Kem Sokuntheary Deputy Director, Provincial Department of Public Works and Transport Khoeu Sophal Deputy Director, Provincial Department of Urban Planning, Construction and Cadastral Nou Chharvivann Chief of Office, Drainage System and Water Pollution Treatment of Provincial Department of Public Works and Transport Chea Vong Narith Chief of Office, Legal and EIA of Provincial Department of Environment Mao Sok San Chief of Office of Meteorology of Provincial Department of Water Resource and Meteorology Nou Sean Chief of Office of Provincial Technical Unit of Water Supply Iv Ngorn Medical Officer, Provincial Department of Health Ya Sophat Deputy Chief, Provincial Red Cross Kea Chhun Chief of Office of Agricultural Extension, Provincial Department of Agriculture Yan Bophay Deputy Director, Provincial Electricity Transmission line Seng Sorath Deputy Office Chief of Technical Unit of Provincial Water Supply Phok Sinmary Deputy Governor Song Soeung Chief of Office of Municipal Public Works Sok kinna Chief of Office of Urban Planning, Construction and Cadastral, Municipality Nou Chamroeun Chief of Office of Municipal Beauty and Waste Management Thuch Vannarath Chief of Office of Administration and Finance Chheng Sivutha Chief of Office of Planning and Commune/Sangkat Support Nhek In Rotha Chief of Office of Urban Development Tuy Rong Chief of Office of Tourism Ty Kim Heng Deputy Chief of Office of Urban Planning, Construction and Land Management Pich Leakhena Deputy Chief of Office of Social Affairs and Rehabilitation Kun Ratanak Officer at Office of Administration and Finance Keo Putchenda Officer at Office of Social Affairs and Rehabilitation Chhoeung Vuthy Officer at Office of Administration and Finance Soeung Bora Project Manager, Cambodian Education and Waste Management Organization Yong Tonghan Local expert on temporary resettlement Chin Vuthy Director of Aphivath Srey

continued on next page 142 Case Study 1

Table continued El Sales Chief of Sla Ket Sangkat Kim Chorng Chief of O Char Sangkat Touch Monyroth First Deputy Chief, Prek Preah Sdech Sangkat Kok Han Councilor of Chamkar Samrong Sangkat Horm Heng Councilor of Ratanak Sangkat Samrith Chhorn 1st Deputy Chief, Toul Ta Ek Sangkat Sourn Sokhen 1st Deputy Chief, Svay Por Sangkat Mao Siny Councilor, Kdol Dountiev Sangkat

Source: Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org

This summary is part of a series that comprises Source for all material in this summary: ICEM the Resource Kit for Building Resilience and – International Centre for Environmental Sustainability in Mekong Towns. The resource Management. 2015. Building Urban Resilience kit was developed with the Climate Change in Battambang, Cambodia. Volume 5 of the Core Groups from each town to promote Resource Kit for Building Resilience and nature-based solutions and integrated green Sustainability in Mekong Towns. Prepared by infrastructure approaches for building resilience ICEM for the Asian Development Bank and in Mekong towns. Nordic Development Fund. Ha Noi, Viet Nam. Building Climate Change Resilience in Battambang, Cambodia 143

Case Study 2

Building Climate Change Resilience in Kaysone Phomvihane

Kaysone Phomvihane is the capital of prone areas in the town and what adjustments Savannakhet Province in the Lao People’s were required to increase town resilience. Democratic Republic. The town is the largest The core group also assessed two key pieces in the province with a population of 76,307 of infrastructure: the southern fl ood gate and and is bounded to the west by the Mekong canal system and the Savanxay Market and River and Thailand. The town covers an area of drainage network. 779.03 square kilometers and is mostly fl at and undulating land. 6.2 Case Study Site 1: Southern Savannakhet has long been a center of trade Floodgate and Canal and power. The name Savannakhet derives from the old Pali language, meaning “land of gold.” The fl oodgate Houy Longkong is located People here have cultivated rice in the largest in Thahae Village, just 120 meters from the plain in the country and fostered rich arts and Mekong River. The system is in poor condition culture. Today the average economic growth and does not function eff ectively in meeting rate is 9.97% per year with services, industry multiple demands, including fl ood protection, and handicrafts, and agriculture being the dominant sectors.

6.1 Overview

Kaysone Phomvihane experiences fl oods and drought on an annual basis. Its location on the banks of the Mekong River make it susceptible to increased fl ooding from riverbank overtopping and backing up of fl oodwaters along tributaries and drainage corridors combined with regular intensive rainfall on the town and its catchment. It also experiences periodic tropical storms. These factors hinder economic growth.

As part of an Asian Development Bank project, the Kaysone Climate Change Core Group was formed to identify past and future ﬂ ood- Source: ICEM. 144 Case Study 2

agricultural water supply, town drainage, market, which consists of three buildings and a recreation, and beautifi cation. surrounding hard surface area for stalls. Located in the heart of the town, Savanxay Market is a The southern fl ood gate and canal system was hub of economic activity. found to be highly vulnerable to the threat of fl ooding caused by increased rainfall in the canal Although the building itself is in fairly good catchment and higher Mekong water levels with condition, the surrounding access roads are climate change. seriously degraded, refl ecting the drainage problems and intensive use of the area. The The core group recommended installing market has serious fl ooding and drainage operations and monitoring equipment challenges with implications for public health, like pumps and stream gauges, as well as well as economic and livelihood impacts. This as rehabilitation of drainage canals and also aff ects the surrounding area. slopes around the fl ood ate culvert using bioengineering techniques. The market buildings lack gutters and downpipes to store or drain water away from on- The core group’s plan takes an area-wide site market areas that become locally fl ooded. approach, including addressing issues with Market operation and management is poor with the canal, the dike and road, the steep banks, lack of wastewater treatment, poor solid waste and the linked land uses. It emphasizes management, and an inadequate stormwater bioengineering measures to reduce bank drainage system. The site is highly vulnerable to collapse and erosion to bring back the natural regular pluvial fl ooding resulting from increased stream drainage corridor and character. rainfall and from the Mekong River fl ooding in Solid waste, which builds up around the gate extreme events due to climate change. entrance, will be regularly cleared. Houses in the area will be raised on stilts, and government The aim of the core group’s adaptation and community monitoring and maintenance plan is to drain waste and stormwater into systems will be instituted to help manage the the Mekong and to improve on-site waste gates and canal. treatment and drainage. It will also provide an area of high-quality amenity and beauty for vendors, customers, and tourists, with green 6.3 Case Study Site 2: Savanxay space and walkways to the Mekong River. The Market plan includes wastewater recycling, walking paths, proper drainage, and green space. It also Savanxay Market is located in Ban includes an educational component to improve Houamouang, Kaysone Phomvihane, and the understanding of climate change impacts extends over 2 hectares. It began service in and adaptation among local people. 1991. There is a main road on either side of the

6.4 Key Conclusions and Lessons Learned

ƷɆ Broad consultation is key to adaptation success: Townwide and site-specifi c climate change vulnerability assessment and adaptation planning is a process that needs to involve local, provincial, and national government; the private sector; and local communities. All levels of government, local communities, and the private sector will have an essential role in plan defi nition and implementation. ƷɆ Siting of strategic infrastructure away from fl ood-prone areas: Care is required in building Source: ICEM. resilience into the Mekong River exit points Building Climate Change Resilience in Kaysone Phomvihane 145

and the proposed treatment plant near the ƷɆ Participatory mapping of past extreme market. The very important drainage gully events: Mapping of past extreme events and exit area to the Mekong River from the and flooding as well as overlaying a defined market is degraded and will require special climate change profile for the town enabled treatment. The core group questioned the the core group to overcome the constraint wisdom of constructing a treatment work that no flood or climate change maps had close the Mekong River rather than requiring been prepared for Kaysone Phomvihane. the private sector owner of the market to Moreover, the economic development plan install and manage an on-site treatment and master plan of the town did not have the facility. benefit of accurate assessments of flooding ƷɆ Area-wide approaches to adaptation in potential and its implications for land uses. specific infrastructure assets: Additional adaptation measures are required for the This summary is part of a series that comprises northern floodgates along the lines proposed the Resource Kit for Building Resilience and for the southern floodgates. The entire Sustainability in Mekong Towns. The resource creek waterway leading from the town to kit was developed with the Climate Change the Mekong River through the floodgate Core Groups from each town to promote is severely degraded. It would be essential nature-based solutions and integrated green for bioengineering and natural system infrastructure approaches for building resilience rehabilitation to take place as part of an in Mekong towns. overall adaptation strategy for this drainage system and flood control infrastructure of the Source for all material in this summary: ICEM town. – International Centre for Environmental ƷɆ National and local government collaboration Management. 2015. Building Urban Resilience on adaptation and urban planning: Core in Kaysone Phomvihane, Lao PDR. Volume 7 of group members raised the problem of a lack the Resource Kit for Building Resilience and of coordination and consultation between Sustainability in Mekong Towns. Prepared by the national and provincial governments ICEM for the Asian Development Bank and on urban planning and management issues Nordic Development Fund. Ha Noi, Viet Nam. in towns—especially important now with projected climate change.

Case Study 3

Building Climate Change Resilience in Dong Ha

Dong Ha is the political, economic, and 7.1 Case Study Site 1: The Box Canal sociocultural center of Quang Tri Province with and Drainage Basin of Ward 5 nine wards covering an area of about 7,300 hectares. The city has a strategic location at The Le Loi drainage system has a core zone— the intersection of National Road 1 A and the the drainage channel—and a surrounding zone Trans-Asian Road, one of several development of residential and commercial buildings and corridors identifi ed for infrastructure and road and services infrastructure. This includes a investment support to enhance trade between box canal system linked to an upstream former the Mekong countries. reservoir. The box canal has constricted runoff and fl ow in this major drainage corridor and now Historically, Dong Ha is known as a trading point causes more severe and frequent fl ooding of on the national road. The Dong Ha market was surrounding residences, shops, and roads and is famous in the north as a center for consumer a dangerous area for children and animals living goods from the south and from the Lao People’s close by. Democratic Republic and Thailand. Even during times of national economic stagnation, Dong Ha The current structure of the Le Loi box canal is was one of the few locations in Viet Nam which inadequate to cope with minor frequent fl ood experienced growth. events and certainly cannot handle conditions equivalent to past extremes and those projected Flooding is a natural threat for Dong Ha due to with climate change. It has made fl ooding in the climatic and topographic conditions of the the surrounding residential and agricultural area. With climate change, fl ood and drought area substantially worse. The system as a whole conditions in Dong Ha are expected to become is highly vulnerable to the threat of fl ooding more frequent and extreme. Therefore, it caused by increased rainfall with climate change. becomes a question of how best to live with the fl oods by minimizing their impact on the city and The core group’s overall approach to adaptation its citizens. is to redesign the whole 285-hectare basin as a new urban development center, which has As part of an Asian Development Bank project, an attractive green core zone with multiple the Dong Ha Climate Change Core Group was functions: as a drainage corridor, water retention formed to identify past and future fl ood-prone facility, landscaped recreation area, and water areas in the town and what adjustments were and air purifi er. The development of a green and required to increase town resilience. The core modern urban renewal area will increase the group also assessed two areas: the box canal total value of the basin and a part of this added and drainage basin of Ward 5 and the market- value can be invested in improvement of the to-port zone. green infrastructure system. 148 Case Study 3

Case Study Site 1: Le Loi Street Box Culvert and Canal - Dong Ha City - Quangtri - Viet Nam

7.2 Case Study Site 2: The Market-to- River would make it an accessible and highly Port Zone visible demonstration site for good adaptation. The area has a favorable location with many Located in the center of Dong Ha, the area important facilities critical to a future trade and is a strategic development zone covering the service center enabling Dong Ha to realize its central market to the new port area. The port vision as a prominent economic corridor and is just downstream of the market with the riverside city. main Dong Ha Bridge spanning the Hieu River between them. Due to climate change, Dong Ha is projected to become wetter in the wet season and hotter The zone contains a potential natural drainage in the dry season. This will lead to increased point in Le Duan Park, which could play an incidence and severity of flooding at the site in important role in helping to alleviate pluvial the wet season and more intensive drought and flooding in the area by linking it to the river. heat effects in the dry season. Given its location and economic resources, this zone could become an important center of The core group’s adaptation plan includes trade, tourism, and commercial activity, from expanded green space, footpaths, and riverside which economic resources could be drawn to recreational facilities. It increases permeable strengthen the town’s adaptive capacity. surfaces, rehabilitates the port as a recreation and tourism center, and retrofits the market to The area’s strategic and prominent location recycle stormwater and manage solid and liquid at the center of town and along the Hieu wastes on-site. Building Climate Change Resilience in Dong Ha 149

Case Study Site 2: Central Market to Port Zone - Dong Ha City - Quangtri - Viet Nam

7.3 Lessons Learned easy to deliver. However, with the serious problems associated with and caused by ƷɆ Green infrastructure is a critical these hard measures, a shift toward softer component of ecologically sustainable and bioengineering solutions is needed. urban development. Dong Ha is situated ƷɆ The core group can act as a mediator in a risky topographical and climatic region. between the decision makers and the However, green infrastructure can help to community and demonstrate methods for limit damage from natural disasters and wider community engagement. climate change impacts. ƷɆ A climate change threats and impacts ƷɆ The destruction of Dong Ha’s natural system database is needed to support adaptation foundations through urbanization that planning. Climate change is recognized by replaces natural functioning systems with the provincial and Dong Ha governments, but hard engineering solutions has considerably there is a lack of detailed data on the nature increased the vulnerability of the city. and extent of the threats and their impacts. ƷɆ The protection of Dong Ha’s remaining One important task for the future is to natural systems and their enhancement with develop an accurate database and geographic green infrastructure should be the highest information system (GIS) products on priority in the overall city vision. speciﬁ c threats and impacts on diff erent ƷɆ Local government as well as the Asian areas of the town. Development Bank and the World Bank ƷɆ Urban heat and its consequences need seem to prefer hard engineering solutions further study. They were not covered because they are standardized and relatively in this study which focused mainly on 150 Case Study 3

ﬂood protection and drainage. Given the This summary is part of a series that comprises projections for increasing incidence of higher the Resource Kit for Building Resilience and temperatures and severity of drought in Dong Sustainability in Mekong Towns. The resource Ha, an important task for the future will be to kit was developed with the Climate Change investigate this issue more thoroughly. Core Groups from each town to promote ƷɆ Current urban planning in Dong Ha does not nature-based solutions and integrated green consider climate change. Safeguards and infrastructure approaches for building resilience standards are only applied to planning new in Mekong towns. urban zones. Existing zones and unplanned development are not covered by the same Source for all material in this summary: ICEM safeguards and standards. – International Centre for Environmental ƷɆ The box canal case study has made it clear Management. 2015. Building Urban Resilience in that even on higher ground severe local Dong Ha, Viet Nam. Volume 6 of the Resource ﬂooding can happen when poorly planned Kit for Building Resilience and Sustainability in development leads to destruction of natural Mekong Towns. Prepared by ICEM for the Asian infrastructure. Development Bank and Nordic Development Fund. Ha Noi, Viet Nam. Appendixes

Appendix 1: Baseline Assessment Field Report Template

Purpose: To collect information to be able to undertake vulnerability assessment and adaptation planning.

NAME OF TARGET SYSTEM:

DISTRICT:

SECTOR:

DATE:

NAME:

1.Provide short description of the system, its components and its location

2.Describe the watershed context of the system

Describe the location of the system within the watershed, the watershed condition, and experience of past extreme events in the watershed (e.g., landslides and ﬂoods). Document with photographs and sketches any past or existing conditions which illustrate the problems that have arisen.

3. 152 Appendixes

3.Describe the speciﬁc location

Include the geographic and human-made features, any slopes, the vegetation, the soil type, proximity to any water bodies, and any areas of instability.

4.Describe the condition of the system and its components

Include description of signs of degradation and apparent causes and/or implications, and existing approaches to maintenance and repair.

5.Describe the design and form of any human-made components in the system

Include description of current component/asset design and materials. Provide drawing and photographs of the asset design and condition.

3. Appendixes 153

6.Describe past extreme events and impacts on the system

Include event dates, biophysical description of the events, and impacts on the system and its components.

7.Describe past adaptation responses to the impacts of past extreme events

Include description of adaptation responses, drawings if appropriate, and a description of the success of the adaptation response.

8.Provide expert judgment of the design and/or form appropriateness of the human-made components to withstand extreme events

3. 154 Appendixes

Appendix 2: Vulnerability Assessment Field Report Template

CLIMATE CHANGE THREATS DESCRIPTION OF THREATS: Circle relevant threat in list provided and describe how it relates to the target Change and shift in regular climate system and its components. Increase/decrease in temperature Increase/decrease in precipitation Increase/decrease in ﬂow

Change and shift in events Riverine flooding Extreme localized pooling/flooding Flash floods Storms Landslides Droughts

EXPOSURE SCORE Description

SENSITIVITY SCORE Description

IMPACT SCORE Description

ADAPTIVE CAPACITY SCORE Description

VULNERABILITY SCORE: Refer to guiding matrix to help identify the vulnerability score Appendixes 155

Appendix 3: Vulnerability Assessment Matrix

System: Major components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Threat Interpretation of Threat Exposure Sensitivity Impact Impact Summary Adaptive Capacity Vulnerability Change and shift Written description of how the Refer to table Written explanation of impact Refer to table in regular climate threat relates to the system and explanation for score

Change and shift in events

1 Include footnotes 2 3 4

Summary Threat Exposure Sensitivity Impact Level Adaptive Vulnerability Capacity 1 2 3 156 Appendixes

Concluding statement

Command area least vulnerable to increased temperature and rainfall while intake most vulnerable to ﬂash ﬂoods. The main canal is more vulnerable to sedimentation and landslide problems.

Notes on completing the vulnerability assessment matrix:

ƷɆ It is important to be precise in the threats being considered. For example, with storms, you will need to notate speciﬁc characteristics of storms, wind, intense rainfall, lightning, etc. ƷɆ In situations where the technical information is poor, you will need to rely more on expert judgment and knowledge. ƷɆ Similarly, local communities and user groups need to be consulted as an important source of experience and knowledge ƷɆ It is useful to conduct separate assessments for each of the main components as the impacts of various climate change threats may be distinctive. A more focused assessment will allow more precise targeting of adaptation options and priorities. Appendixes 157

Appendix 4: Adaptation Planning Matrix

Target Infrastructure System:

Description, including objectives and main elements. Threats Impacts Significance Adaptation Options Priority Adaptation Insert all high Insert the Listing of the adaptation and very high impacts recorded options in addressing threats, first for the high and each of the most for the system very high threats significant impacts – as a whole and (only consider focus on structural and then for each direct impacts) bioengineering options of the high and very high components. Likelihood Likelihood the impact occurring The chances of the Impact Seriousness of etc life, property Loss of the impact Significance of Feasibility equipment cost, skills, staff, Effectiveness or eliminate reduce does it avoid, how well the threat Priority

1 Include footnotes 2 3 4 158 Appendixes

Appendix 5: Vulnerability Assessment Scoring Tools

Impact Scoring Matrix Exposure of system to climate threat

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

Very High Medium Medium High Very High Very High

High Low Medium Medium High Very High

Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High

Low Low Low Medium Medium High

Very Low

Sensitivity of system to climate threat system Sensitivity of Very Low Low Low Medium High

Vulnerability Scoring Matrix

Impact

Very Low Low Medium High Very High Inconvenience Short disruption Medium Long term Loss of life, (days) to system disruption to damage to livelihood, or function system function system, property system integrity (weeks) (months) (years)

Very Low Medium Medium High Very High Very High Very limited institutional capacity and no ﬁnancial resources

Low Low Medium Medium High Very High Limited institutional capacity and limited access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

Medium Low Medium Medium High Very High Growing institutional capacity

Adaptive Capacity Adaptive and access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

High Low Low Medium Medium High Sound institutional capacity and good access to technical and ﬁnancial resources

Very High Very Low Low Low Medium High Exceptional institutional capacity and abundant access to technical and ﬁnancial resources Appendixes 159

Appendix 6: Vulnerability Assessment Report Contents Description

District assets and/or system priorities ƷɆ Short brief on the sector in the district; for example, summarize the different types of infrastructure in the sector for the district and overall status. ƷɆ Restate the criteria for identifying priority assets and/or systems for the vulnerability assessment. ƷɆ Describe each priority system and its components.

Vulnerability assessment method ƷɆ Short summary of method and/or process (no more than 1 page). ƷɆ Explain use of the method in this sector; for example, the interpretation of the criteria for sensitivity, exposure, impact, and adaptive capacity. ƷɆ Describe how the climate change threat proﬁles were interpreted for the sector; what projected changes are important for the sector in this district?

Vulnerability assessment results ƷɆ Present the results for each system in turn referring to the appended matrix. ƷɆ For each system and its components: o Go through each step in the vulnerability assessment and draw out the most signiﬁcant issues and interpretations. o Pay special attention to describing the impacts column, both direct and indirect. o Draw together the results for each system (e.g., some components are more vulnerable than others and why). o Repeat those analytical steps for each system.

District vulnerability summary ƷɆ Provide a summary of the results (including a summary matrix, like an irrigation project summary matrix). ƷɆ Describe which systems are the most vulnerable and why. ƷɆ Describe the components of each asset and/or system which are most vulnerable and why. ƷɆ Draw out the main lessons that can be applied to the different types of systems and different components. ƷɆ Identify linkages with other sectors or geographic areas within the district. 160 Appendixes

Appendix 7: Monitoring and Evaluation Framework

Adaptation Monitoring Focus Frequency Responsible? Organisational Technical Measure Indicators Indicators Short-Term Measures

Long-Term Adaptation Measures Appendixes 161

Appendix 8: Tools Supporting the Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Process

Key climate change vulnerability assessment GIS analysis: A range of GIS techniques are and adaptation tools include the following: available for assessing the impacts of climate change and development, including zone Climate change downscaling and modeling: of influence mapping, sector overlays, hot The downscaling of predicted climate change spot mapping, and vegetation or land-use and global circulation models (GCMs) enable identification mapping using satellite imagery. spatial assessment to quantify future climate, All modeling tool outputs and socioeconomic using both statistical and dynamic approaches. analysis can be linked directly to GIS analysis Once the capacities of the Department of making it a critical tool in the vulnerability Hydrology and Meteorology, Ministry of assessment and adaptation process in this guide. Science, Technology and Environment are in For participants at all levels, GIS maps can bring place, results from multiple GCMs and multiple to life the relationships between projected downscaling techniques can be made available changes and infrastructure systems and areas to infrastructure sectors on a regular and and make the impact assessment process more on-demand basis through the Department of credible. Hydrology and Meteorology portal and as a result of regular consultation with them. Two important GIS tools for vulnerability assessment and adaptation tools are the Hydrological modeling: One of the most following: important effects of climate change is on ƷɆ Participatory mapping: When detailed hydrological processes and a reason why it is hydrological modeling of past extreme necessary to link projected climate changes with events and of projected climate changes are hydrological analysis. not available, past extreme events such as floods and landslides can be mapped with Hydrological modeling is used in developing the input of local communities and local baselines and assessing changes in basic government experts who were present at the hydrophysical processes, including precipitation, time. For example, in June 2013, continuous hill slope runoff subsurface infiltration and rain in upper catchments of Nepal caused groundwater interactions, stream flow and water the water level in the Seti River east of the levels, and sediment transport. Catchment-scale Mahakali to rise from 6.94 meters (m) to hydrological modeling includes flooding, water 11.56 m and 5.53 m to 12.81 m in the Karnali resource utilization, and land-use change. The at Chisapani within a 24-hour period. The ICEM integrated water resources management discharge in the Mahakali River rose from model is a physical model which provides an 139,000 to 440,716 cubic feet per second, advanced geographic information system (GIS)- causing riverbank collapse and loss of life and compatible framework for integrated modeling property. Local residents and government of water resources and water utilization in both officials have a vivid memory of depth, local and basin-wide scales. duration, and extent of the floodwaters and would be able to draw their memories on Hydrodynamic modeling: Hydrodynamic base maps. Those sketches can be digitized modeling enables threats to be quantified. on GIS maps and then checked for accuracy By running detailed three-dimensional (3-D) through participatory exercises. Often, the models of lakes, river channels, and floodplains, flood hot spot maps which result are more it is possible to quantify erosion, sediment accurate than maps coming from detailed dynamics, stratification of the water column, hydrological modeling. Hot spot maps nutrient transport pathways, water quality, and based on past extreme events are a good productivity. Hydrodynamic modeling can also foundation for understanding conditions with be applied to atmospheric environments for 3-D climate change. analysis of pollutant dispersion and emissions ƷɆ A next step in participatory mapping can be modeling. the definition of climate change hot spots. 162 Appendixes

Simple calculations of increased water comparison of the net present value (NPV) volume and fl ow can be made by considering of the project without climate change to the projected rainfall increases and the size of NPV for the project with climate change. The catchments aff ecting the target area. That diff erence between the former and the latter additional information can be discussed by represent the costs (or benefi ts) of climate participants who can then rank fl ood hot change. spots and interpret the eff ects of climate change projections on them. ƷɆ Determining the benefi ts of adaptation: ƷɆ Hazard or hot spot mapping: The process comparison between the NPV of the project of establishing geographically where and with climate change, but without adaptation, to what extent particular hazards such as and the NPV of the project with climate fl oods and drought are likely to pose a threat change and with adaptation. to infrastructure and to local communities. Hazard mapping can be conducted as a Integrated spatial assessment: Practical participatory exercise and/or as an output of integrated assessment models such as Dyna- detailed modeling against various scenarios CLUE are designed for undertaking integrated of climate change. spatial assessments and suited to focused climate change assessments for specifi c areas. Macroeconomic assessment and valuation: The core of the model is spatial land-use Macroeconomic assessment examines the projections capable of integrating demand eff ects of climate change on individual sectors for diff erent land uses, location conditions and the economy and cross-sector implications (including climate change), and policy scenarios. of adaptation options. Valuation assesses impact The model output can be read directly to costs and compares adaptation options through assess the environmental consequences of the cost–benefi t analysis, cost-eff ectiveness simulated changes. Integrated spatial models are analysis, sensitivity analysis, and trend analysis. used, for example, when considering alternative routing of a major road or the siting of water Economic assessments of climate change serve intakes, pump stations, and canals in an irrigation to justify appropriate adaptation response scheme. and identify the investment required to make adaptation eff ective. For infrastructure Impact assessment matrices: Impact departments, economic assessments can cover assessment matrices for climate change allow two critical steps (Figure A8.1): the prioritizing and weighting of options and ƷɆ Establishes the costs of climate change recommendations. They are technical and with respect to the infrastructure project: capacity building tools that promote ownership by stakeholders of the process and its results.

Figure A8.1: Economic Assessment of Climate Change Geotechnical surveys: Identifying where Impact and Adaptation the likely points of failure are in diff erent road routings, riverbank dikes, water supply Costs of climate reservoirs, and intakes, for example, may require change fi eld-based geotechnical surveys. These are conducted by infrastructure sector engineers Cost and benefi ts of the project Cost and benefi ts of the project familiar with geotechnical issues of slope without climate change with climate change stability. In its simplest form, it involves “walking the route” and recording observations in a fi eld sheet against key variables such as existing road cross-section, natural slope condition and Cost and benefi ts of the Cost and benefi ts of the failures, and existing earthworks (Figure A8.2). project without adaptation project with adaptation In a practical tool developed by ICEM, the fi eld observations are scored allowing for the identifi cation and mapping of hot spot zones Benefi ts of along the route where failures are likely. In a road adaptation section of 10 kilometers, for example, there may Appendixes 163

be fi ve key points which need to be given priority planning, especially in situations where the for adaptation measures. scientifi c and technical information is limited. The Ministry of Science, Technology and Monitoring and evaluation tools: Monitoring Environment manual on conducting local and evaluation (M&E) is critical to continuous adaptation plans of action is a rich source of learning and adjustment to adaptation measures participatory and consultative tools which can based on performance and changing conditions. be drawn from in conducting infrastructure An M&E framework needs to be defi ned as vulnerability assessments and adaptation plans. part of the adaptation plan. The framework needs to identify responsibilities, frequency, Walking the Route and indicators for measuring performance and Over the years, ICEM has conducted a identifying potential for failure. Adaptation number of slope stability assessments in audits conducted at regular intervals are needed various environments. Through this work, it to consolidate monitoring results and to propose has developed the following geotechnical further adaptation action and safeguards. survey data code for fi eld assessments. The code outlines aspects to pay attention to when Community consultation tools: Consultation conducting a slope stability assessment. By with aff ected communities and users of following the code and noting each applicable infrastructure is important in conducting aspect, you will ensure your slope stability vulnerability assessments and adaptation assessment is detailed and thorough.

Figure A8.2: Geotechnical Survey Data Code

Source: ICEM. 164 Appendixes

Application of Tools in the Vulnerability assessment and adaptation plan that most suits Assessment and Adaptation Process your needs. This chapter and its appendixes present a number of tools that can be applied in your The following diagram presents a summary vulnerability assessment process. These tools of these tools in a potential sequence and in work together and in sequence to deliver the relationship to one another.

1. Assets 2. Threats 3. Baseline 4. Impact 5. Adaptation 6. Vulnerabilty Assessment Assessment Capacity Impact and Identifying the Deﬁning CC Vulnerability assets threats and Exposure X Assessment opportunities Sensitivity

Climate change downscaling and modeling Hydrological modeling Hydrological modeling Hydrodynamic modeling Tools Hydrodynamic modeling Impact assessment matrices

Global information system analysis and products — Participatory mapping — Hot spot mapping

1. Review the 2. Looking back 3. Deﬁning 4. Setting 5. Integrating 6. Building most vulnerable to deﬁne impacts adaptation priorities among adaptation adaptation Adaptation assets that require options options priorities packages into Planning responses plans and projects

Macro-economic assessment and valuation of options

Tools Integrated spatial assessment

1. Construction 2. Operations: 3. Monitoring and 4. Adjust and 5. Replicate and Adaptation and installment: Maintenance and Enforcement renew: Reinforce Implement- Rehabilitation, repair for resilience Based on lessons ation enhancement, and and new inﬂuences avoidance

Global information system analysis and products Tools Monitoring and evaluation — Adaptation options

Community involvement — events and ongoing roles Appendixes 165

Appendix 9: Approach to Economic Analysis of Adaptation Options

A9.1 Introduction Once a vulnerability assessment has been exogenously depending on the model – can conducted for an asset or area and adaptation often be related to monetary values. Important options have been identified, the options have approaches are very specific physical models to be appraised and prioritized. Economic (such as a crop model) and so-called Ricardian assessments are useful in the process of models. … [These are generally] not considered evaluating and prioritizing well-defined main economic approaches for the assessment adaptation options using economic criteria. of climate change adaptation options because they are not specifically designed to prioritise Each adaptation option should be regarded as among alternative options.” an investment. The economic analysis identifies which of the solutions proposed will create the To evaluate the benefits of each proposed highest benefit at reasonable costs and within adaptation option, the impacts of budget. Decision makers need to optimize climate change and quantify the costs of budget allocation especially in situations of implementation of the options need to be scarce resources.49 assessed. Note that adaptation solutions usually will not completely eliminate impacts of climate The Fourth Assessment Report of the change. It is important to take into account the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change costs of residual damage. Adaptation options defines adaptation costs as “the costs of that have the highest net benefits will be planning, preparing for, facilitating, and selected.51 implementing adaptation measures, including transition costs,” and defines benefits as “the When undertaking the economic assessments, avoided damage costs or the accrued benefits planners need to consider the main purpose and following the adoption and implementation of core objectives of the adaptation options. For adaptation measures.”50 example, planners must decide if their objective is to According to a German International ƷɆ minimize or avoid all or only part of the Development Agency (GIZ) report by Noleppa expected or observed impacts; et al. (2013, p. 9): “The objective often is ƷɆ return levels of human well-being to pre- to model climate change impacts and their climate change levels; or associated costs and benefits. Such economic ƷɆ maintain current levels of risk or as a assessments are classified according to the type minimum reduce them cost-effectively of model used. There are two main typologies: within agreed budgets or predefined The first typology classifies models with respect acceptable levels. to their economic (i.e., market and/or sector) coverage. Model inputs and outputs are mainly In practice, objectives vary between regions, monetary values such as prices, revenues, countries, and communities, and trade-offs will rents, costs, etc. … [They are] principally able to need to be made between adopting all possible analyse costs and utilities (benefits) based on measures, and living with the risks. the standard concept of welfare economics. The second typology does not use a pure economic There are three main techniques to be applied concept, but combines economics with physics in the economic assessment of climate change and other sciences. Models first provide adaptation options: information on physical indicators (such as ƷɆ cost–benefit analysis (CBA); yields, occurrence of health problems, number ƷɆ cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA); and of damages, etc.), which – endogenously or ƷɆ multicriteria analysis (MCA).

49 S. Noleppa. 2013. Economic Approaches for Assessing Climate Change Adaptation Options under Uncertainty. Bonn and Eschborn, Germany: GIZ. 50 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Glossary. In Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 869. 51 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2012. Assessing the Costs and Beneﬁts of Adaptation Options. Nairobi. 166 Appendixes

Figure A9.1: Selecting the Suitable Economic Approach for Assessing A9.2 Methods Climate Change Adaptation Options A9.2.1 Cost–Benefi t Analysis CBA can rank activities and determine the Are costs and benefits of adaptation optimal use of scarce resources in effi ciency options measurable in monetary terms? terms, and, because CBA weighs costs against benefi ts, it determines whether benefi ts outweigh costs, allowing a decision on whether YES NO implementation is in the interest of the national or local economy. This clear “yes” or “no” Is it possible to quantify costs and benefits of answer, the fact that measures across sectors CBA adaptation options at all? can be compared and that CBA can be used to optimize measures makes this technique 54 CEA YES NO superior to CEA and MCA. A drawback of CBA is that it requires that Is it possible to rank adaptation options with respect to certain benefi ts are measurable and can be expressed criteria, e.g. based on a qualitative assessment? in monetary terms and that the emphasis is on economic effi ciency alone. If there is no market YES NO for the goods or services provided by the activity, often prices can be estimated in indirect ways. MCA Other (non-economic) The following are the main steps in assessing approaches adaptation options using the CBA:55 ƷɆ Establish a baseline. A baseline needs to CBA = cost-benefi t analysis, CEA = cost-eff ectiveness analysis, MCA = multicriteria be defi ned—that is, the situation without analysis. the adaptation intervention being carried Source: S. Noleppa. 2013. Economic Approaches for Assessing Climate Change Adaptation out—as well as the situation with successful Options under Uncertainty. Bonn and Eschborn, Germany: GIZ; United Nations implementation of the adaptation option Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2012. Assessing the Costs and Benefi ts of Adaptation Options. Nairobi; I. Niang-Diop, and H. Bosch. 2011. Formulating to determine the costs and benefi ts by an Adaptation Strategy. Dakar: University Cheikh Anta Diop. comparing the two. The baseline is not the same as the present situation; it requires defi ning and projecting a “without” situation. All three approaches are able to analyze and ƷɆ Quantify and aggregate the costs over prioritize adaptation options.52 specifi c time periods. Costs of an adaptation action include direct costs (e.g., investment Figure A9.1 illustrates the decision process and regulatory) and indirect costs (e.g., social among the three main techniques mentioned. welfare losses and transitional costs). ƷɆ Quantify and aggregate the benefi ts The three methods are presented in the over specifi c time periods. Benefi ts of an following section alongside three case studies adaptation intervention should include relative to the Asia and Pacifi c region. All the avoided damages from climate change case studies are taken directly from the impacts and co-benefi ts, where relevant. If United Nations Framework Convention on there is no market for the goods or services Climate Change (UNFCCC) work on impacts, provided by the adaptation activity, benefi ts vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change.53 can be estimated in indirect ways through

52 See footnotes 49 and 51; also Global Climate Chance Alliance Support Facility (GSF). 2011. Costing, Assessing and Selecting, Adaptation and Mitigation, Options and Measures. Training workshop on mainstreaming climate change: module 6. Broomﬁ eld, CO: MWH; I. Niang-Diop, and H. Bosch. 2011. Formulating an Adaptation Strategy. Dakar: University Cheikh Anta Diop. 53 See footnote 51. 54 UNFCCC. 2002. Annotated Guidelines for the Preparation of National Adaptation Programmes of Action. Bonn, Germany. 55 See footnote 51. Appendixes 167

“nonmarket-based” approaches, such as Various adaptation measures were implemented, contingent evaluation. including investment in irrigation facilities ƷɆ Compare the aggregated costs and benefits. to reduce drought sensitivity, installation of The bottom line for choosing an adaptation electrical fencing to reduce wildfire intrusion option is the comparison of the monetized risks and flood risk reduction investments. elements of costs and benefits. The costs and benefits need to be discounted to properly The costs included the direct project costs and calculate their present value. Adaptation the opportunity costs of human and material planners can choose between three indicators resources contributed by the target households of whether their options are efficient: and other local stakeholders. Benefits were ƷɆ The net present value (NPV) is the difference measured by comparing the present value of between the value of the benefits and the real income gains to a ‘no-project’ baseline. The value of the costs, calculated at their present present value of the benefits was always higher value. The NPV should be greater than 0 for than the present costs. an option to be acceptable. The better the economic value of an adaptation measure, Lessons Learned the larger the NPV becomes. However, a In order to assess the benefits of reducing larger NPV does not necessarily indicate damage from future climate-related disasters higher efficiency. as part of pre-project CBA assessment, it is ƷɆ The benefit–cost ratio (BCR) is the ratio advisable to obtain and record information of the present value of the benefits to the on past disaster frequencies and associated present value of the costs. Benefits and costs damages as part of the baseline vulnerability are each discounted at a chosen discount assessment. Gaps in official statistics on this rate. The BCR indicates the overall value type of information are likely at the community for money of a project. If the ratio is greater level so that participatory methods will be than 1, the option is acceptable. The larger required to obtain the necessary information. the BCR becomes, the better the adaptation option is judged to be. Source: United Nations Framework Convention on ƷɆ The internal rate of return (IRR) can be Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2012. Assessing the Costs considered the interest rate an adaptation and Benefits of Adaptation Options. Nairobi. option would generate for society. Technically speaking, the IRR is the discount rate at which A9.2.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis the NPV becomes 0. Hence, a resulting IRR If the benefits are difficult to express in higher than the discount rate to be chosen is monetary terms (as is the case, for instance, of a good result. human health, extreme weather events, and biodiversity and ecosystem services), CEA is Case Study - Nepal: Assessing Adaptation the appropriate method to compare alternative Options for Freshwater Resources Using Cost- measures to find out how an objective can be Effectiveness Analysis reached in the most cost-effective way. The objective needs to be sharply defined.56 Overview Practical Action undertook the “Mainstreaming The following are key concepts to bear in mind Livelihood-Centred Approaches to Disaster to properly conduct a CEA:57 Management” project in Nepal between 2007 ƷɆ Just as in a CBA, costs need to be quantified and 2010. A CBA was undertaken following the in monetary terms to conduct a CEA. The implementation of the project, which focused procedure is identical to the cost assessment on community-level project activities and did used in a CBA. not include indirect long-term benefits that ƷɆ For a CEA, the unit in which benefits are could arise. measured has to be carefully defined.58

56 See footnote 54. 57 See footnote 49. 58 Global Climate Chance Alliance Support Facility (GSF). 2011. Costing, Assessing and Selecting, Adaptation and Mitigation, Options and Measures. Training workshop on mainstreaming climate change: module 6. Broomﬁeld, CO: MWH 168 Appendixes

Examples are the number of animals Among the options identified by the preserved in a biodiversity program or communities were the installation of the area of pristine forest protected in a desalinization systems, rainwater harvesting, conservation program. and watershed protection measures, including ƷɆ Quantifying (monetary) costs and contour farming, planting trees on hillsides, (nonmonetary) benefits means that the planting fruit trees within crop plots to provide unit costs can be calculated as the ratio of shade for the plants, or reinforcing salt-tolerant total (discounted) costs to total benefits if, vegetation buffers. as in the case of a CBA, incremental costs and benefits (attainable by comparing a Lessons Learned baseline scenario and one or more adaptation All three communities selected rainwater scenarios) rather than absolute costs and harvesting as their preferred adaptation option. benefits are taken into consideration.59 The It was deemed to be the most cost-effective output indicator of a CEA is therefore also a option (i.e., yielding the desired quantity and cost–benefit ratio (CBR). The most cost- quality of water at the least cost). In addition, efficient option is the one with the lowest rainwater harvesting was determined to be CBR, that is, the lowest costs per unit of the most practical, easily implemented, and benefit. The inverse, a BCR, can also be taken sustainable measure. Other measures were as an indicator; in such a case, the highest either too expensive, such as desalination BCR directly indicates the most economically systems, or did not promise the desired quality promising adaptation option. and quantity of water, such as watershed ƷɆ Beware that, if more than one type of benefit protection measures. results from an adaptation option, a CEA can still be conducted as long as benefits can be Source: United Nations Framework Convention on expressed in the same unit to be compared Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2012. Assessing the Costs and accumulated. and Benefits of Adaptation Options. Nairobi.

Case Study – Pacific Islands: Assessing A9.2.3 Multicriteria Analysis Adaptation Options for Freshwater Resources When benefits cannot be measured Using Cost-Effectiveness Analysis quantitatively or when multiple diverse benefits cannot be aggregated, an MCA can be used Overview by assessing the different adaptation options As part of the Capacity Building to Enable the against a number of criteria. Similar to a CBA Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific and CEA, an MCA is able to rank and thus Island Countries project, adaptation measures prioritize among multiple adaptation options. were implemented at nine pilot sites on four However, contrary to a CBA, ranks resulting islands in the Pacific (Cook Islands, Fiji, Samoa, from an MCA are not based purely on economic and Vanuatu) following intensive community calculations but on a qualitative assessment of consultations and cost-effectiveness analyses. criteria such as feasibility, cost-effectiveness, co- Communities in the pilot sites identified benefits, ease of implementation, acceptability water resources as their greatest concern. to local population, and resources required.60 Vulnerabilities were noted in terms of immediate quality and quantity, and in terms of the The following are the steps in assessing sustainability of supply. Freshwater resources are adaptation options using MCA:61 threatened by increasing salinity. Communities ƷɆ Agree on the decision criteria. Each criterion are suffering because inhabitants have to spend needs to be described, including the unit and a considerable amount of their day fetching span of possible scores, so as to ensure that water. Health problems are also increasing and those involved in the assessment process agricultural yield is decreasing. have a shared understanding.

59 see footnote 58. 60 See footnote 49. 61 See footnote 51. Appendixes 169

ƷɆ Score the performance of each adaptation In the beginning, a total of 17 adaptation options option against each of the criteria. Once this were identified based on the framework of is completed, standardization is required in climate-induced hazards. The nine shortlisted case scores of the various criteria differ in options were ranked based on the following four units (e.g., monetary or qualitative values) or criteria (the first three constitute benefits and spans (e.g., 1–5 or 0–100). Transformation of the last, costs): scores into similar units allows for effective ƷɆ human life and health saved and/or protected comparison of the criteria. by the intervention; ƷɆ Assign a weight to criteria to reflect priorities. ƷɆ arable land with associated water supply (for In case some criteria are perceived to agriculture and/or livestock) and productive be more important than others and the forest (for forestry and forest products priorities are known, criteria can be assigned collection) saved by the intervention; different weights, thus indicating their relative ƷɆ essential infrastructure saved by the importance. intervention such as existing and projected ƷɆ Rank the options. A total score for each hydropower plants, communication systems, option is calculated by multiplying the industrial complexes, cultural and religious standardized scores with their appropriate sites, and main tourist attractions; and weight. Finally, weight-adjusted scores are ƷɆ estimated project cost. aggregated and compared. Initially, the benefits of the different adaptation The main result of an MCA is a rank order of projects were scored to be able to rank them. adaptation options and an appreciation of the Following that, the scores were standardized on weaknesses and strengths of the attributes a scale from 0 to 1 to proceed with the analysis of each of the options. An MCA can also be and to allow costs to be included. The last conducted in conjunction with other assessment step of the multicriteria analysis was assigning approaches (CBA and CEA) to provide a more weights to different benefits. solid foundation for informed decision making. Source: United Nations Framework Convention on Case Study – Bhutan: Assessing Adaptation Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2012. Assessing the Costs Options Using Multicriteria Analysis and Benefits of Adaptation Options. Nairobi.

Overview A9.3 Conclusions Bhutan assessed its vulnerability to climate Adaptation planners should consider the change and possible adaptation options during strengths and weaknesses of the various the development of its National Adaptation economic assessment approaches for assessing Programme of Action (NAPA). A task force adaptation options according to their objectives team consisting of representatives from key and circumstances. In some situations, a sectors including agriculture, biodiversity and number of approaches could be applied in a forestry, natural disaster and infrastructure, complementary fashion. health, and water resources identiﬁed and ranked possible priority adaptation projects Table A9.1 clusters the different assessment using multicriteria analysis. approaches and their main strengths and weaknesses.

Table A9.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Approaches Presented

Cost-Beneﬁt Analysis Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Multicriteria Analysis

Description and/or CBA assesses benefits and costs CEA identifies the least-cost MCA assesses adaptation options outputs of adaptation options in monetary option of reaching an identified against a number of criteria, which terms. Outputs include net target and/or risk reduction level can be weighted, to arrive at an present values, internal rates of or the most effective option overall score. return or benefit-cost ratios. within available resources.

continued on next page 170 Appendixes

Table continued

Cost-Beneﬁt Analysis Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Multicriteria Analysis

Strengths CBA can provide concrete CEA can assess options, using MCA can consider monetized quantitative justiﬁcation for units other than monetary units, and nonmonetized costs and adaptation options rather than thus it is good for effects that are beneﬁts together. It also allows just relative information. It difficult to value. It can be applied for considering a wide range of allows for a comparison between within the context of routine risks criteria including equity. different aspects using a common (e.g., health effects) as well as metric (e.g., US dollars). major climate risks.

Weaknesses CBA focuses on efficiency, when CEA is unable to offer an Scoring and ranking of options in other criteria may be importan absolute analysis or common MCA is subjective and not easily (e.g., uncertainty or equity). It has metrics. It deals insufficiently comparable. difficulties with nonmonetized with uncertainty or equity. The costs and beneﬁts and may need selection of thresholds or target a subjective input into the choice risk levels is not always easy or of discount rate. objective.

CBA = cost-beneﬁt analysis, CEA = cost-effectiveness analysis, MCA = multicriteria analysis. Source: ADB and ICEM.

Appendix 10: Glossary action is required to return to, maintain, or achieve desired resilience. Adaptation – A process by which strategies to moderate, cope with, and take advantage of the Adaptation audit – Documenting adaptive consequences of climatic events are enhanced, measures taken by government or communities developed, and implemented. Adaptation in response to past extreme events. Also, measures may be used to increase the resilience assessing their effectiveness as a guide to future of infrastructure and other assets to withstand adaptation on the principle of learning from increasing intensity and frequency of climate the best of what is in place. Adaptation audits events. Adaptation might include more regular are normally conducted as part of the baseline and effective maintenance and protection assessment. They can also be conducted measures, through to redesign and rerouting to at regular intervals (e.g., every 3 years) for avoid potential impacts. Adaptation may also measures put in place in response to climate include building the capacity of the people and change as part of adaptation monitoring and institutions to prepare for and respond to the evaluation programs. impacts of extreme events. Adaptation impact assessment – Adaptation Various types of adaptation can be measures can have unwanted impacts on other distinguished, including anticipatory, geographic areas and on other sectors which autonomous, and planned adaptation: undermine their resilience. Also, measures taken ƷɆ Anticipatory adaptation – Adaptation that now might rule out future adaptation options. takes place before impacts of climate change Adaptation impact assessment is conducted are observed. Also referred to as proactive on the measures in adaptation plans to avoid or adaptation. mitigate those unwanted effects. ƷɆ Autonomous adaptation – Adaptation that does not constitute a conscious response to Adaptation deficit – The adaptation deficit climatic stimuli but is triggered by ecological is those measures which need to be taken to changes in natural systems and by market address the known impacts from past climate or welfare changes in human systems. Also variability and extreme events irrespective referred to as spontaneous adaptation. of climate change, but which would build ƷɆ Planned adaptation – Adaptation that is resilience to future conditions. The adaptation the result of a deliberate policy decision, deficit includes many actions required as based on an awareness that conditions have basic ingredients of good development such changed or are about to change and that as maintenance of drainage systems, effective Appendixes 171

sediment trapping in irrigation schemes, and use description, of the climate system. The classical of bioengineering methods to strengthen slopes period of time is 30 years, as deﬁned by the and banks associated with roads and dikes. World Meteorological Organization.

Adaptive capacity – The ability to adjust to Climate change – Climate change refers to climate change (including climate variability any change in climate over time, whether due and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to natural variability or as a result of human to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope activity. This usage differs from that in the with the consequences. One way to enhance United Nations Framework Convention on adaptation is by building “adaptive capacity.” Climate Change (UNFCCC), which defines “climate change” as: “a change of climate which Asset – A resource with economic value that an is attributed directly or indirectly to human individual, community, corporation, or country activity that alters the composition of the global owns or controls with the expectation that atmosphere and which is in addition to natural it will provide future benefit. Assets include climate variability observed over comparable infrastructure or the basic equipment, utilities, time periods.” See also climate variability. productive enterprises, installations, and services essential for the development, operation, and Climate change scenario – A plausible and growth of an organization, city, or community. In often simplified representation of the future the context of adaptation planning, an asset is climate, based on an internally consistent set any piece of infrastructure or resource for which of climatological relationships and assumptions a sector department has responsibility for its of radiative forcing, typically constructed for construction and maintenance, and for ensuring explicit use as input to climate change impact its long-term sustainability. models. A “climate change scenario” is the difference between a climate scenario and the Baseline – The baseline is the state against current climate. which change is measured. It might be a “current baseline,” in which case it represents observable, Climate forecast – A climate forecast is the present-day conditions. It might also be a result of an attempt to produce an estimate of “future baseline,” which is a projected future the actual evolution of the climate in the future, set of conditions excluding the driving factor for example, at seasonal, interannual, or long- of interest. Alternative interpretations of the term timescales. See also climate projection and reference conditions can give rise to multiple climate change scenario. baselines. Climate model – A numerical representation Basin – The drainage area of a stream, of the climate system based on the physical, river, or lake. chemical, and biological properties of its components, their interactions, and feedback Capacity building – In the context of climate processes, and accounting for all or some of its change, capacity building is developing the known properties. The climate system can be technical skills and institutional capabilities represented by models of varying complexity; to enable active participation in all aspects of that is, for any one component or combination adaptation to, mitigation of, and research on of components, a hierarchy of models can climate change. be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to Climate – Climate in a narrow sense is usually which physical, chemical, or biological processes defined as the “average weather,” or more are explicitly represented, or the level at which rigorously, as the statistical description in terms empirical parameterizations are involved. of the mean and variability of relevant quantities Coupled atmosphere/ocean/sea-ice general over a period of time ranging from months to circulation models (AOGCMs) provide a thousands or millions of years. These quantities comprehensive representation of the climate are most often surface variables such as system. More complex models include active temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in chemistry and biology. Climate models are a wider sense is the state, including a statistical applied, as a research tool, to study and simulate 172 Appendixes

the climate, but also for operational purposes, Effectiveness – The effectiveness of a including monthly, seasonal, and interannual proposed adaptation action to address a climate projections. potential impact can be measured by assessing whether it will eliminate the impact completely, Climate projection – The calculated response whether it will reduce the impact and by how of the climate system to emissions or much, and whether it will take some time to concentration scenarios of greenhouse gases become effective. and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often based on simulations by climate models. Climate Erosion – The process of removal and transport projections are distinguished from climate of soil and rock by weathering, mass wasting, and forecasts, in that the former critically depend on the action of streams, glaciers, waves, winds, and the emissions, concentration, radiative forcing underground water. scenario used, and therefore on highly uncertain assumptions of future socioeconomic and Exposure – is a measure of the extent to which technological development. the asset is exposed to the potential threats or existing hazards. Exposure in the context of Climate sensitivity – The equilibrium climate change is limited to potential climate temperature rise that would occur for a doubling threats. The exposure may depend upon of carbon dioxide concentration above pre- the relevance of the threat (e.g., increase in industrial levels. temperature) to the type of asset, and the extent to which the threat will increase (e.g., in intensity Climate threshold – The point at which and frequency) external forcing of the climate system, such as Extreme weather event – An event that is rare the increasing atmospheric concentration of within its statistical reference distribution at a greenhouse gases, triggers a significant climatic particular place. Definitions of “rare” vary, but or environmental event which is considered an extreme weather event would normally be as unalterable, or recoverable only on very long rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. timescales, such as widespread bleaching By definition, the characteristics of what is called of corals or a collapse of oceanic circulation “extreme weather” may vary from place to place. systems. Extreme weather events may typically include floods and droughts. Climate variability – Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics Feasibility – A measure of how feasible an (such as standard deviations, statistics of adaptation measure may be—whether it is extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal technically feasible and/or whether there is and spatial scales beyond that of individual sufficient time and materials available to do weather events. Variability may be due to natural the work. Includes cost considerations—how internal processes within the climate system expensive the measure is and/or whether there (internal variability), or to variations in natural is government budget available—and the or anthropogenic external forcing (external capacities of community and government. variability). See also climate change. Groin – A low, narrow jetty, usually extending Downscaling – A method that derives local- to roughly perpendicular to the shoreline, designed regional-scale (10–100 kilometers) information to protect the shore from erosion by currents, from larger-scale models or data analyses. tides, or waves, by trapping sand for the purpose of replenishing or making a beach. Drought – The phenomenon that exists when precipitation is significantly below normal Hazard – A hazard is an existing source of recorded levels, causing serious hydrological danger that may cause harm, damage, or loss, imbalances that often adversely affect land or poses a danger to a system vulnerable to resources and production systems. the hazard. A hazard may be a static physical obstruction, such as a landslide, or it may be a Dike – A human-made wall or embankment temporary danger, such as strong winds from a along a shore to prevent flooding of low- storm. A hazard is different from a threat in that lying land. a threat is a potential future event, such as the Appendixes 173

threat of landslide posed by the combination of Likelihood – The likelihood of an occurrence, an heavy rains and a steep, unstable slope. outcome or a result, where this can be estimated probabilistically. In this context, the likelihood of Impact assessment – The practice of an impact is a combination of the probability of identifying and evaluating, in monetary and/ climatic events happening and that these events or nonmonetary terms, the effects of climate will have the predicted impact. change on natural and human systems. Mitigation – An anthropogenic intervention Impacts – The effects of climate change on to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the natural and human systems or assets. Often, climate system; it includes strategies to reduce reference is also made to secondary and tertiary greenhouse gas sources and emissions and consequences. For example, climate change enhancing greenhouse gas sinks. The term can result in less rainfall, which will inhibit mitigation in the climate change context should crop growth. This is either because it means not be confused with the “mitigation measures” less water falling on plots, less groundwater used to address environmental and social recharge, or less water in streams from which impacts of developments. water is taken to irrigate crops. The secondary consequence of this is less crop product, which Projection – The potential evolution of a quality can lead to economic difficulties or hunger. or set of quantities, often computed with the Depending on the consideration of adaptation, aid of a model. Projections are distinguished one can distinguish between potential impacts from predictions to emphasize that projections and residual impacts: involve assumptions concerning, for example, ƷɆ Potential impacts – All impacts that may future socioeconomic and technological occur given a projected change in climate, developments, that may or may not be realized, without considering adaptation. and are therefore subject to substantial ƷɆ Residual impacts – The impacts of climate uncertainty. See also climate projection. change that would occur after adaptation. Resilience – The ability of a social or ecological Infrastructure – The basic equipment, utilities, system to absorb disturbances while retaining productive enterprises, installations, and services the same basic structure and ways of essential for the development, operation, and functioning, the capacity for self-organization, growth of an organization, city, or nation. and the capacity to adapt to stress and change.

Integrated water resources management Riparian – Relating to or living or located on the (IWRM) – The prevailing concept for water bank of a natural watercourse (such as a river) or management, which, however, has not been sometimes of a lake or a tidewater. defined unambiguously. IWRM is based on four principles that were formulated by the Risk – The probability quantifiable damage, International Conference on Water and the injury, liability, loss, or any other negative Environment in Dublin, 1992: (i) fresh water is occurrence that is caused by a threat or hazard. a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to The probability of something happening sustain life, development, and the environment; multiplied by the resulting cost or benefit if it (ii) water development and management should does. Sometimes used interchangeably with be based on a participatory approach, involving “hazard” and “threats,” the risk can be reduced users, planners, and policy makers at all levels; through adaptation and addressing the impacts, (iii) women play a central part in the provision, even if the threats of climate change and the management, and safeguarding of water; and hazards they bring remain the same. (iv) water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an Risk management framework – The overall economic good. system for managing the impacts resulting from climate change and extremes of climate Landslide – A mass of material that has slipped involving identifying the climate threats to a downhill by gravity, often assisted by water when structure or asset, assessing the vulnerability the material is saturated; the rapid movement of and potential impacts, and then developing a mass of soil, rock, or debris down a slope. adaptation options and plans for its protection. 174 Appendixes

Scenario – A plausible and often simpliﬁed management framework, the signiﬁcance of the description of how the future may develop, impact is assessed from a consideration of the based on a coherent and internally consistent likelihood that it may occur with the seriousness set of assumptions about driving forces and key of the impact. relationships in respect to climate. Scenarios may be derived from projections, but are Stakeholder – A person or an organization that often based on additional information from has a legitimate interest in a project or entity, other sources, sometimes combined with a or would be affected by a particular action “narrative storyline.” or policy.

Scoping – A critical, early step in climate Streamflow – Water flow within a river channel, change impact and vulnerability assessment, for example, expressed in cubic meters per and in the final preparation of an adaptation second. A synonym for river discharge. plan. The scoping process identifies the boundaries of the assessment and plan in Surface runoff – The water that travels over terms of its infrastructure focus, geographic the land surface to the nearest surface stream; area coverage, and temporal dimensions. runoff of a drainage basin that has not passed Assets and issues that are likely to be of most beneath the surface since precipitation. importance and relevance to the assessment are described and those that are of little concern Threat – Something that may cause damage or are eliminated. In this way, the assessment harm (to the asset) in the future. focuses on the significant effects, and time and money are not wasted on unnecessary Threshold – The level of magnitude of a system investigations. The scoping process will process at which sudden or rapid change occurs. involve roundtable consultations with local A point or level at which new properties emerge government sector experts and local leaders in an ecological, economic, or other system, and effected communities. It is based on an invalidating predictions based on mathematical initial understanding of the effects of past relationships that apply at lower levels. extreme climate and hydrological events in the target areas. Uncertainty – An expression of the degree to which a value (e.g., the future state of the Sensitivity – The degree to which a system climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by can result from lack of information or from climate variability or change. The effect may be disagreement about what is known or even direct (e.g., a change in crop yield in response knowable. It may have many types of sources, to a change in the mean, range, or variability of from quantifiable errors in the data to temperature) or indirect (e.g., damages caused ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, by more frequent flooding due to increased or uncertain projections of human behavior. water flow and volume in rivers during extreme Uncertainty can therefore be represented by flood events). quantitative measures (e.g., a range of values calculated by various models) or by qualitative Seriousness – The seriousness of an impact statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment of a is a measure of what would happen if the team of experts). impact occurred. This might include loss of life, the damage to the asset and how long it Vulnerability – Vulnerability is the degree to would take to repair and at what cost, the loss which a system is susceptible to, and unable of the services provided by that asset, and to cope with, adverse effects of climate the economic implications (loss of life, loss of change (i.e., threats and hazards), including property, i.e., destruction of property, damage climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability to property, loss of productivity and income, is a function of the character, magnitude, and or impeding of function). This can range from rate of climate change and variation to which trivial (very low) to catastrophic (very high). a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. Significance – The extent to which something (the impact) matters; its importance. In a risk Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities Case Studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion

Urban populations are projected to increase from 54% to 66% of the global population by 2050, with close to 90% of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa. Cities and towns—a growing source of greenhouse gas emissions—will need to address challenges posed by climate change. A nature-based approach in identifying climate change vulnerabilities and developing relevant adaptation options was conducted in three towns of the Greater Mekong Subregion. Working with local governments, nongovernment organizations, women’s groups, and professional associations, town-wide adaptation measures were deﬁ ned by overlaying climate change projections on town plans and zoning schemes for strategic infrastructure. This publication captures valuable experience and lessons from the project.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Paciﬁ c region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to a large share of the world’s poor. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

ISBN 978-92-9257-657-8

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