k

503

Index

Note: because of frequent repetition, arctic, alas (alasses), 183 subarctic, Northern Hemisphere, Antarctica, Alaska Highway, 65, 373, 390 northern Canada, western Canadian Arctic, alas-thermokarst relief, Yakutia, 182–185, Siberia, Alaska, Scandinavia andSvalbard are 293 not indexed. Geographic names and altiplanation see cryoplanation localities are kept to a minimum. AMAP, 37 Andersson, J. G., 3, 219, 296 a aquifers, 79–80 acid-rock drainage, Raglan Mine, Québec, asymmetrical valleys, 46, 268, 284–287, Canada, 420 364–365 active layer, 71–72, 82–85, 109, 171–175, aufeis (naledi) see icing, groundwater 223, 235–240, 268 k avalanches, snow and debris, 226, k Stefan equation, 84–85, 136–137, 170 228–230, 276 terminology, 82–83 thermal regime, 83 see also ground b temperature regime badland thermokarst relief, 186–187 transient layer, 83–84 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 15 active-layer detachments and slope failures, Banks Island, NWT, Canada, 46, 50, 179, 190–193, 226, 227–228 51–52, 177, 187, 189–191, 227, 245, active layer-permafrost interface see 252, 259, 274, 361, 364 transient layer Barn Mountains, Yukon Territory, Canada, active-layer phenomena, 235–240 277, 282, 296–298, 348–349 active-layer thaw (thickness), 171–175 ‘baydjarakhii’ (cemetery mounds), adfreeze, 379, 382, 406, 408, 410 183, 377 adsorption, 66 Baykal-Amur railway, Siberia, 405 aeolian processes and landforms, 267–274 beaches, arctic, 262–264 niveo-aeolian sediments,COPYRIGHTED 273–274 beach-fast MATERIAL ice see ‘ice-foot’ loess-like silt, 274 beaded drainage, 186 sand dunes and sand sheets, 271–273 bearing strength (capacity), loss of, 379, wind abrasion, 269–271 382, 395 wind deflation, 271 Beaufort Plain, Banks Island, NWT, Canada, aggradational ice, 117, 141 46, 284–287, 361, 364 air-circulating shoulder embankments, 392 Beilu’he Permafrost Research Station, airstrips and runways, 376–377, 382, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China, 405, 410–411 407 Aklisuktuk (‘the little one that is growing’), Belchatów, central Poland, 332, 359 14 Beringia, 304, 306, 311, 313, 314, 321

The Periglacial Environment, Fourth Edition. Hugh M. French. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

k k

504 Index

biogeographic zonation, 41–60 Chalk dry valley, southern England, Alpine and subalpine, 43 351–352, 364 zonation (mid latitudes), 58–60 ‘channelled scablands’,eastern Washington, zonation (low-latitudes), 59–60 USA, 361–362 Antarctica, 60 chaos theory, 149 Low Arctic and High Arctic, 41–43 chemical weathering, 195–196, 204–208, Low Arctic Tundra, 42, 49–52 211 see also cold-climate weathering Montane zonation, 43, 60 Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, 37–38, Polar deserts and polar semi-deserts, 42, 44–45, 54, 91 44, 47–49 Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring Polar desert-tundra transition, 49–50 (CALM) Program, 104–105, 108 see also tree line climate change, 35–38, 61–62, 110, 259, blasting, frozen rock, 419 293 see also IPCC; NIPCC blockfields (rock-rubble, felsenmeer), 3, climate-controlled permafrost see 197 see also mountain-top detritus permafrost blow-outs (deflation hollows), 271–272 climate, effect of orientation, 34–35, 87–88 boreal forest, 6, 56–58 climate warming and thermokarst, insects and rodents, 58 172–174, 375 Lapland, 56–57 climate warming, Arctic, 35–39 North American, Siberia, 6, 24, 39, 41, coal mining, 123, 419 see also Gruve 7 42, 46, 56–58 coastline evolution, influence of permafrost, bottom temperature of the winter snow 264–266 cover (BTS), 106 coasts and shorelines, Pleistocene, 304, k boulder barricades, 264 308, 343 k braided stream channels, 257–259 coefficient of cryogenic contrast (CCC), brecciated bedrock, 120, 122, 131, 197, 284 210–211, 325–326 bridge construction, 406, 408–410 coefficients of thermal expansion and ‘brodelboden’ see cryoturbation contraction, 141–144 ‘bugor’ see hydrolaccolith cold-air drainage, ice caves, 98 ‘bulgannyakh’, 159, 183 see also pingo cold-climate coastal erosion, Arctic, 176, bulk/dry density, 78 191, 264–265 cold-climate coastal processes, 260–267 c effects of sea ice, 260–261 calcretes see fragipans ice on the beach, 262–264 cambering and valley bulging, 288 storm events, 262 capillarity, 66, 67, 68, 83 wave generation and sediment transport,

carbon dioxide (CO2), 10, 39, 47, 56, 62, 261–262, 268 106, 214 cold-climate coastal sedimentation, carbon storage, 9–10, 39, 46 263–264 carbon release, coastal erosion, 264, 265 cold-climate deltas, 266–267 case hardening, 208, 215, 270 see also rock cold-climate weathering, 195–217 varnish components of weathering, 196 catchment flow regimes, northern Canada, distinct nature, 195 249, 254 mineral-water reactions, 196 cave art, ancient man, 312 rates, 205–206, 214–215 ‘cave-in’ lakes, 185, 188 cold deserts, 17–19, 51, 60 cavernous weathering see salt weathering cold regions engineering, general principles, ‘cement’ ice, 115 see also pore ice 378–379

k k

Index 505

cold regions engineering, general solutions, cryoplanation terraces (steps), 281, 283, 379–383 298 cold regions geomorphology see periglacial cryosolic micromorphology, 216–217 geomorphology cryosols, 215–216 cold regions geotechnical engineering, cryosphere, 8–10, 35–36 373 cryostratigraphy, 12, 111, 124–132, composite-wedge casts, 179 136–137 construction, ‘active’ methods, 379–382 cryostratigraphy and past environments, construction, ‘passive’ methods, 382–383 136–137 containment, waste drilling fluids, tailing, cryostructural analysis, 125–128 382–383, 415–416, 420–422 cryofacies, 127–128 contaminants, mining, 419, 420, 422 cryostructures, 125–127, 128–129 convective embankments for road and cryotextures, 127 railway applications, 383 cryosuction, 66–67, 68 convectively-cooled containment dykes for ‘cryo’ terminology, 15 dams and tailings ponds, 383 cryotic (non-cryotic), 72, 80 convexo-concavo debris-mantled slopes, cryoturbation(s), 215–217, 240–243, 336, 278, 280 339, 347, 349–351 coversand, 268, 351, 359, 360 cryptogamic crusts, 215 crop markings, 327–328 culverts, 382, 410 CRREL permafrost tunnel, Alaska, 126, 128, 132 d crushed rock embankments, 390–392, 402, Davisian periglacial slope evolution model, k 403–404 293–294 k ‘cryo-anchors’, 382 Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada, 22, cryobiological weathering, 208, 95, 107, 384–387 213–214 debris flows, 178, 276–278 ‘cryodiagenesis’,active and passive zones, ‘dells’, Łodz´ Plateau, Poland, 364 113 Dempster Highway, Yukon Territory, cryofront, 69 Canada, 406, 408–410 cryogenic textures, bedrock, 120–121 desert varnish, 270 see also rock varnish cryogenic weathering, 208–213 see also desiccation and wind abrasion, 42, 55 cold-climate weathering diamond mining, 382–383, 420 see also coefficient of cryogenic contrast, CCC, Ekati Diamond Mine 210–211 diapiric upturning and ‘drop soil’ structures, cryogenic disintegration, 210 337–339 physico-chemical changes, 212 differential heave and ice segregation see cryohydrosphere, 10 cryoturbation ‘cryohypergenesis’, 113 see also zero-annual dock facilities, Lena River, Yakutsk, Siberia, amplitude 400 cryolithology, 124 drilling and waste-drilling-fluid disposal cryolithosphere, 10 problems, 414–415 cryo-osmosis, 326 dry debris flow, 278 cryopediments, 281, 298 see also pediment-like surfaces e cryopedology, 215 Eagle River bridge, Dempster Highway, cryopeg, 71, 420 see also talik; saline Yukon Territory, Canada, 406, permafrost 408–410 cryoplanation, slope evolution, 294–295 ecosystem adaptations, 43, 54, 55

k k

506 Index

ecosystem changes, 61–62 freezing, 65–67, 112, 117, 140–141 ecosystems Antarctica, 60 front, 69 arctic and subarctic, 41–59 downward and upward freezing, effects of orientation, 46 140–141 effects of vegetation, 44–47, 54, 90 and ice segregation, 65–67 see also flora and fauna, 44–47, 309–312, 397 segregated ice and permafrost, 54–55, 102–104 one and two-sided, 33, 83, 112, 217, ‘super-dominants’, 41 221–223 Ekati Diamond Mine, NWT, Canada, plane, 67 382–383, 420 and thawing indices, 196–197 elevational permafrost (climate controlled by freezing-degree days (FDD), elevation), 95–100, 313 30, 196–197 embankments, crushed rock, 382, freezing-point depression, 66, 71 390–392, 402, 403–404, 406, 407 frost and thaw ‘bulbs’,pipelines, 417 epigenetic and syngenetic cryostructures, ‘frost bursting’ see hydro-fracturing 128–129 frost-coated clasts, 278 ‘equiplanation’ see cryoplanation frost cracks, 118, 144, 326, 327, 332, 333 expanded joints, 121, 122–123, 339 frost creep, 219, 221–223 see also exploration problems, oil and gas, solifluction 411–414 frost damage ratio, 405 ‘explosive shattering’ see hydro-fracturing frost-disturbed bedrock, Pleistocene, 343–344 f frost-disturbed soils, Pleistocene, 347, Fairbanks, Alaska, 390–392 k 349–350 k Falkland Islands, South Atlantic, 3, 219, ‘frosted’ sand grains, 358–359 296 frost-fissure pseudomorphs and casts, felsenmeer see mountain-top detritus 327–333 fen (wetland), 56–57, 109–110 ice-wedge pseudomorphs, 329–331 fire, 57, 58, 92 sand veins, sand-wedge casts and fluvial processes and landforms, composite-wedge casts, 331–332 247–259 terminology, 327–329 fluvial ‘tapping’, 191 frost-free days, 19 fluvio-thermal gulley erosion, 284 see also frost heave, 69–70, 85, 140–141, 235–239, thermal erosion 378, 417 forest-tundra transition (ecotone), 42, amounts, 236 45–46 bedrock, 235, 237 ‘fortress’ polygons, 148–152 coefficient, 70 fragipans, 326–327, 359 see also pressures, 70 previously-frozen ground, evidence primary and secondary, 70 Franklin Avenue, Yellowknife, NWT, stress, strain, 70 Canada, 387–390 and thaw settlement, pipelines, 415, 417 frazil ice, 261 frost-jacking, 378, 418 free-face slope forms, 275–278 frost-mound remnants, 333–335 freeze-thaw cycles (oscillations), 4, 7, frost mounds 21–23, 25, 197–198, 222 classification, 157 freeze-thaw weathering, experimental (lab) collapsed, 161, 163 studies, 200, 201, 202, 205, 210–211 other types, 165 freeze-up and break-up, rivers, 250, perennial, 159, 165, 333–335 see also 251–252, 253, 384, 402 pingos

k k

Index 507

Pleistocene, 333–335 igneous and metamorphic rocks, 119 seasonal, 165, 166–167 unconsolidated sediments, 118–119 ‘frost-pull’ and ‘frost-push’ mechanisms, ground ice classification, 113–115 235–236, 237 ground temperature, effect of orientation, frost (rock?) shattering, 197–204 34–35, 87–88 hydro-fracturing, 200, 202 ground temperature regime, 31–35 ice segregation, 197–200 ground water, 78–81 insolation and thermal shock, 200–202 ground water (ice) geochemistry, 81, 128, frost sorting, 239 133–134, 136 ‘frost-susceptible’,‘non-frost-susceptible’, ground-water icings, 81–82 69, 72 ground-water seepage, 405, 410 frost-thaw basins see Pleistocene ground wedges, 118 see also thermokarst thermal-contraction-cracking ‘frozen fringe’, 69 Gruve 7, Longyearbyen, 123, 419 frozen ground, creep, 287–290 see also ‘gulls’ see expanded joints permafrost creep frozen rock masses; creep and stability, 10, h 230–232 see also permafrost creep hardpan (‘fragipan’), 216 ‘head’ (solifluction) deposits, 3, 353 see g also solifluction Garry Island, NWT, Canada, 146, 151 heat exchangers, 380–382 see also gas-liquid inclusions, saline, 212 thermosyphons Gaspésie Mountains, Québec, Canada, heat pipes, 405 see also cryo-anchors 344–345, 347 heat-pump chilled foundations, 381–383 k k gelifluction, 219, 223 see also solifluction Herschel Island, Yukon Territory, Canada, geochemistry, lake and ground water, 134 107, 265 geocryology, 10–12, 15 see also high-permeability embankments and gravel cold-regions geotechnical pads, 382–383, 420 engineering Holocene (Hypsithermal) thaw geotechnical and environmental problems, unconformity, 117, 137 13, 15, 373–422 Hudson Bay Railway, Manitoba, Canada, geothermal gradient, 71, 73–76, 95 405 glaciations and karst, 206–208 human occupance, 373–374 glacier ice, buried, 137 see also massive ice commercial tourism, 374, 397 Global Terrestrial Network-Permafrost geopolitical considerations, 374 (GTN-P), 104–105 indigeneous peoples, 396–397 gravel pad foundations, 379–380 population, 12–13, 373, 387, 390–396 gravimetric water content, 78 societal concerns, 12–13, 396–397 ‘grèzes litées see stratified slope deposits urbanization, 374, 384–396 ground climates, 28–35 see also hummocks Temperature at Top of Permafrost slope, 50, 246 (TTOP) tundra, 246 MAAT, 30–31 hummocks, earth and mud, 241–243 MAGST, 30–31 equilibrium model, 242 thermal offset, 30–31 thermally-induced soil circulation, ground ice, 72, 89, 111, 339 242–243 ‘excess ice’, 112, 120 hydraulic (open) system pingos, 159–161 ice content, 111 hydro-fracturing, 200, 202 ground ice amounts, 118–123 hydrolaccoliths, 165, 167

k k

508 Index

hydrology see permafrost hydrology icing mound, Big River, Banks Island, NWT, hydrostatic (closed) system pingos, Canada, 252 161–165 icing, river, 251–252 Illisarvik, Mackenzie Delta, NWT, Canada, i 107, 118, 139–141, 144, 146, 191 ice, 26–27 Inexpressible Island, Antarctica, 26, 267 aggradational, 117, 141 ‘initially-ground wedges’, 327 see also frost basal melt water/regelation, 134 cracks buried, 113, 115, 134–135, 137 inselberg-like hills, 281, 282 coefficient of expansion, 26 insolation and elevation, Qinghai-Tibet content, 120, 123 Plateau, 19–21, 35 crystallography, 132 insolation and orientation, Mongolia, dykes, 136 87–88 geochemistry, 133–134 insolation weathering (‘spalling’), 200, 202 intra-sedimental, 135–136 inter-tidal zone, 262–264 intrusive, 117–118 intra-and sub-permafrost waters, 81 jams, 250, 400, 401 intra-permafrost tálik, 71 massive, 133–136 intrusive ice, 117–118 Mohs hardness, 27 Inuvik, NWT, Canada, 384–385, 411 physical properties, 27 IPCC, 35, 36, 110 pushing, 262–263 iron ore mining, 419 see also Schefferville sand and soil pseudomorphs, 131 isotopes, ground ice, 128, 133–134, 136 silt, sand and gravel pseudomorphs, 180–181 k j k single-year and multi-year, 261 joint widening, 120–122, 200 surface, 113 Ice Age mammals and ecosystems, k 309–312 Kangerlussuaq airport, Greenland, 411 ice-albedo feedback mechanism, 9, 38 Karkevagge, northern Sweden, 204–205, ‘ice-complex’ see yedoma 229 ‘ice foot’,shore naledi, 261, 262 karst, cold-climate, 206–208 ice-marginal drainage, 361–362, 363 kimberlite mining, 420 see also Udachnaya ‘ice-rind’, 177, 284 kimberlite mine ice sheets and past permafrost, 306–307 Klondike, placer mining, 15, 376, 419–420, ice-wedge deformation, 148, 149 421 ice-wedge polygons krummholtz, 54–55 growth sequence, 152 ‘kurums’ see mountain-top detritus morphology and surface relief, 147, 186–187, 414 l ice-wedge pseudomorphs, 179–180, lag gravels and stone pavements, 359, 360 328–331, 339 lake-ice blisters, 260 ice wedges, 142–144, 152–155 lakes see thermokarst lakes anti-syngenetic, 151 lakes, ice, 92, 259–260 classification, 152 ice cover break-up, climate change, 259 epigenetic, 151 ice cover break-up, thermokarst lakes, inactive, 151 259 isotopes, 134 lakes, perennially-frozen, Antarctica, 260 syngenetic, 151, 154, 355 landscape inheritance, 296–298 icing, groundwater, 81–82, 160, 404–405 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 303, 304

k k

Index 509

latent heat of fusion, 78 mudboils, 243–245 latitudinal (climate-controlled) permafrost, Muller, S. W., 11, 71, 373 93–95, 313 municipal infrastructure, northern Canada, ‘limons à doublets’ see coversands 384–390 lithalsas, 158, 334 loess and aeolian silt, 268, 355–358 n China, 355–358 Nahanni karst, 207–208 Europe, 358 National Petroleum Reserve, NPR-4, Kazakhstan, 356–357 northern Alaska, 411, 412, 414 North America, 358 natural resources, 13, 373–374, 383, 405 Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 277, 289 needle ice, 239 Łozinski, Walery von, 3, 10, 197, 344 neoformed clays, 327 see also LPM permafrost, Northern Hemisphere, previously-frozen ground 313–314 ‘n’ factors, 29–30 see also ground climates ‘nila’ ice, 261 m NIPCC, 35 Mackay, J. Ross, 12, 139, 143, 145, nival flow regime, 253 see also surface 149–151, 160 water hydrology MackenzieDeltaregion,NWT,Canada, ‘nival’ offset see ground climates ecosystem changes, 61, 185 nivation, 232–233, 281, 283, 364 Mackenzie River, NWT, Canada, 248–251, niveo-aeolian deposition, 273–274, 360 401 non-diastrophic structures, Pleistocene, ‘mammoth steppe’, 309–312 see also 339–341 Beringia k non-sorted circles, 217 k ‘mardelles’ see Pleistocene thermokarst Noril’sk, Siberia, Russia, 394, 420, 422 ‘mares’ see Pleistocene thermokarst northeast China, 319, 320, 394, 396 mass heat capacity, 78 Northern Circumpolar Soil Carbon ‘massive’ cryotextures, 116 see also pore ice Database, 39 massive ice (icy sediments), 111, 120–121, northern rivers, transport, 399 134–136 northern shipping routes, 374, 399, 401 mass-wasting processes and active-layer phenomena, 219–246, 268 o rapid, 226–232 oil and gas development, 411–418 slow, 219–226 oil and gas, terrain disturbance, 411–415 Old Crow, Yukon Territory, Canada, 45–46 methane (CH4) and gas hydrates, 10, 39, 47, 106, 167, 204, 259 Olympic Mountains, WA, USA, 46, 555 microbiological activity in cold opencast mining, 382 environments, 213–214 organic soil (material), 46, 51, 62, 339 Middendorff, Alexander von, 14 organic terrain, 156–159 mining, 387, 419–422 oriented thaw lakes, 190, 191–192, 260, containment and waste disposal, 268 420–422 opencast, 420 p Mohs hardness, 27, 268–269 PACE, 290 Mongolia, 46, 396 paleo-active layer, 129–130, 323–326 mountain-top detritus, 3, 197, 344–346 mineralogy and weathering, 324–326 morphogenetic region (zone), 3–4, 15 paleo-permafrost table, 323, 324, 326 ‘muck’ see yedoma paleo-thaw layer, 137

k k

510 Index

paleo-thaw unconformity, 129, 324 periglaciation, 5, 343, 366–369 palsas, 109–110, 156–158, 334 periglaciation, southern England and pancake ice. 261 northern France, 367–368 paraglacial, 5, 12 permafrost, 4, 70–78, 87–89, 93–100 past permafrost, 305, 306–307 aggradation, 139–167 influence of glaciations, 305–307 anti-syngenetic, 154–156 Siberian, 306–307 creep, 287–288, 341 Western North American Arctic, 306 depth of zero-annual amplitude, 14, 73, past permafrost degradation see Pleistocene 108, 113 thermokarst ‘dry’, 72 patterned ground, 216–217, 239, 240–246, and ecosystems, 102–105 346, 351 engineering see cold-regions engineering micro-patterned ground, 239 epigenetic, 112–113 nets and stripes, 246 equilibrium or climate-controlled (see sorted and non-sorted circles, 240–243 permafrost) peat, 46, 51, 156 and glacial limits, 95 plateaus, 109–110, 158–159 moisture and ice within permafrost, thermal properties, 74, 90 72–73 see also ground ice pediment-like surfaces, 280–281, 282, monitoring and mapping, 104–106 296–298, 366 see also cryopediments hydrology, 72–73, 78–82 pedon see cryosols polygenetic, 112 perennially-cryotic ground see permafrost relict (terrestrial), 5, 6, 72, 76, 93, 101, perennially-frozen ground see permafrost 305–307, 323 k perennial springs, 81 science and engineering, 10–11 see also k periglacial climates, 17–39 cold regions engineering alpine, 21, 24 subsea, 93, 101 Antarctic, 14, 26 syngenetic, 112–113 continental, 20, 24 table, 72 high Arctic, 21–24 thawing see thermokarst low temperature range, 22, 25–26 thermal and physical properties, 73–78, montane, 20, 24–25 379 periglacial climates and global climate permafrost and climate warming, 106–110 change see also climate change GCMs, 35, 39 GCMs, 109 IPCC reports, 35–37 resilience and vulnerability, 102, 106 NIPCC, 35 permafrost distribution, 87–100 periglacial concept and history, 3–5, 13–16 alpine (mountain), 10, 60, 93, 95–98, 106 periglacial, diagnostic criteria, 4–5 Antarctica, 95, 96 periglacial environments, 4–8, 10, 12–13, controls, 87–92 15 latitudinal, 93–95 periglacial ‘facies’, 3–5, 197 see also montane, 93, 98–100 mountain-top detritus permafrost engineering, ‘active’ and ‘passive’ periglacial geomorphology, 11–12 solutions, 379–383 periglacial involutions, 347, 349–350 permafrost-land surface energy exchange, periglacial rock streams and ‘time travellers’, 109 see also ground climates 351–353 permafrost thawing, evidence, 109–110 periglacial slope and landscape evolution, northern Alaska, 107 275–298 northern Canada, 109–110 periglacial terminology, 3, 15, 16 Northern Hemisphere, 108

k k

Index 511

Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, 108–109 extent in southern circumpolar region, western Canadian Arctic, 107 321–322 pile foundations, permafrost, 378, 382, extent in western, central and southern 387–389, 408–410 Europe, 313, 315 Pine Barrens, New Jersey, USA, 352–353, extent in western and north-eastern 359–360 China, 317, 319, 320 pingo growth rates, 160–163 Pleistocene periglaciation, 343–369 pingo ice, 117, 163 Pleistocene rivers and terraces, pingo-like features, 165 362–364 pingos, 141, 159–165 Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain, USA, closed-system growth mechanisms, 363–364 161–163 Western Europe, 362, 364 open-system growth mechanisms, Pleistocene slope failures, 291–292, 367, 160–161 369 pingo ‘scars’ see frost-mound remnants Pleistocene ‘super-permafrost’ zone, pingos, collapsed forms, 161, 163 see also 317–319, 353 frost-mound remnants Pleistocene temperature depression, 309, pipelines and permafrost, 415–418 317, 322 pipelines, oil and gas, 415–418 Pleistocene thermokarst, 335–341 Pleistocene wind action, 352, 358–360 gas, chilled, 417–418 plug circles, 240 see also hummocks, mud oil, warm, 415, 418 boils placer gold mining, 419–420, 421 ‘plug-like’ flow, 223 Pleistocene aeolian sand deposition, 360 polar deserts and polar semi-deserts, 6, 18, k Pleistocene drainage modification, k 47–49 360–365 polygons Pleistocene environments, 300–308 degraded (high-centred), 52, 147, 152, global (eustatic) considerations, 186 304–305 development of polygon net, 142–145, problems of paleo-reconstruction, 152 11–12, 307–312 ‘fortress’, 147, 152 sea level changes, 304 low-centred, 145, 147, 152, 186 uplift, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, 304–305 ‘pool’ ice, (thermokarst-cave ice), 131–132, Pleistocene frost action, 343–351 176 Pleistocene glaciations, 206–208, 303, population of the periglacial domain, 305–307, 316, 321, 322, 367 373–374, 387 Pleistocene Mackenzie Delta, Canada, pore ice, 67, 69, 115–116, 119, 379 185 porosity, 78 Pleistocene mass-wasting, 351–358 Porsild Pingo, Mackenzie Delta, NWT, Pleistocene pediment-like surfaces, 282, Canada, 161 366 see also cryopediments pounus, 158, 246 Pleistocene periglacial domain, 312–322 previously-frozen ground, 323–326 extent in eastern Europe and Kazakhstan, primary and secondary wedges, 327 315–316 proactive roadbed cooling methods, QTR, extent in North America, 319–321 China, 406 extent in Northern Hemisphere during proglacial environments, 5 LGM, 314 proglacial flow regime, Arctic, 255 extent in southern, central and northern proglacial melt-water drainage channels, Siberia, 317–319 Pleistocene, 361–363

k k

512 Index

pseudomorphs road and highway construction, 376, 382, ice, silt, sand and gravel, 180–181 390–393, 401, 402, 404 ice-wedges see ice-wedge pseudomorphs roads, all-season, 401–405 sand wedges see sand-wedge casts roads, ice, 401, 403 ‘pseudo-solle’ see cryoturbation roads, winter, 401 pyrogenic tundra, 58 Rockcliffe apartment building, Yellowknife, NWT, Canada, 387–388 q rockfalls, 230–232, 276 Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China rock glaciers, 10, 96, 98, 288–290 Qinghai-Tibet Engineering Corridor, rock varnish, 213–214, 215, 270–271, 360 QTEC, 406–407 rockwall recession, 231–232 Qinghai-Tibet Highway, QTH, 402–404, ‘rubble drift’ see ‘head’(solifluction) deposits 406, 407, 408 runways see airstrips and runways Qinghai-Tibet Railway, QTR, 406, 407–408 s Quaternary, 301–304 Sachs Harbour (Ikaahuk), Banks Island, Holocene climatic fluctuations, 304 NWT, Canada, 177, 262, 376–377, last 140,000 year ice-core records, 303 392 LGM (18–24 ka) glaciers and sea ice, 303 Sachs River lowlands, 189–191 magnetostratigraphy, 302–303 saline permafrost, 382, 410, 420–421 see oxygen-isotope record, 302 also cryopeg Quaternary science, 11–12 salt weathering, 208–212 sand dunes and sand sheets, 271–273, 360 r see also coversand k k railways, 405–408 sand-wedge casts, 328–333 rectilinear debris-mantled slopes, sand wedges and sand-wedge polygons, 278, 279 144, 152–153, 258 Red Dog Mine, Brooks Range, Alaska, 422 Schefferville, Québec, Canada, 90, 419 relict sand wedges, 328 sea ice, 9, 37, 38, 260–264 residual thaw layer (zone), 129–130, 324 and climate warming, 261, 374 reticulate vein ice, 116, 117, 125, 129 Pleistocene, 302, 304, 314, 343 retrogressive-thaw-slumps, 178–179 shoreline and inter-tidal zone, 262–263 reversed thermal offset, 31 and wave generation, 261–262 Richter denudation slopes, 295–296 seasonal-frost mounds, 158, 165–167, river and valley incision, Pleistocene, 407–408 362–364 seasonally-active permafrost, 71 river channel morphology, 256–259 seasonally-frozen ground, 4, 9, 72, 93, river discharges/ and sediment yields to 100–101 Arctic Ocean, 37–38, 247, 256, 400 secondary precipitates and clay minerals, river-ice break-up, 399, 401 326–327 river ice damage, 250, 252, 400 ‘sediment-filled pots’ see Pleistocene river-ice hydrology, 251–252 thermokarst river (freshwater) ice regimes, 247–248, segregated ice, 66, 67–69, 116–117, 119 250 settling ponds (‘tailings’), 382, 419–422 river icing, 82 Shergin’s Well, Yakutsk, Siberia, 14 river-icing mounds, 251–252 sill ice see ice, intrusive rivers as highways, 399–401 skin flows, 291 see also rivers, sediment movement and denudation, active-layer-detachments and slope 255–256 failures

k k

Index 513

slope and valley asymmetry see sub-permafrost tálik, 71 asymmetrical valleys sumps see waste-drilling fluids slope evolution models, 293–295 supra-permafrost layer, 71, 72 slope hydrology and slopewash processes, supra-permafrost tálik, 71 232–234 surface water hydrology, 252–255, 256 slopes, frozen and thawing, 287–293 SWIPA, 37 slopes, morphology, 275–283 syngenetically-frozen sediments, 112 slope stability and failures in permafrost, syngenetic and epigenetic freezing, 112 290–293, 379 syngenetic ice wedges, Late Pleistocene, slopewash, 232, 233–234 153–154, 317–319 slush avalanches, 27 slushflows, 230, 252 t Snap Lake Mine, NWT, Canada, 422 tafoni see salt weathering snow, 19, 24, 26–27, 55 taiga, 6, 18–19, 42, 45–46 ablation and runoff, 234 tálik, 71–72, 79–80, 92, 116, 161, 165, abrasion, 55 189–190, 379, 392 cover, 9–10, 37, 38, 90–91 Temperature at Top of Permafrost (TTOP), fences, 90, 402 30, 76–77, 151 hydrology, 233–235 terrain disturbance, oil and gas exploration, snowbed habitats, 48–49 411–416 soft-sediment deformations, Pleistocene, Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica, 208–209, 260, 338–340 270 soil organic carbon, SOC see carbon storage terrestrial carbon pool, 46 see also carbon storage k soil, potential seasonal freezing and thawing, k 170 see also themokarst ‘tesselations’, 15 see also ‘soils of the hummocky ground’ see polar thermal-contraction-crack polygons deserts and polar semi-deserts thaw-consolidation (settlement), 72, soil (‘ground’) wedges see frost cracks 290–293, 379, 417 solifluction, 3, 219–226 thaw consolidation ratio, 291 laboratory simulations, 221 thawing-degree days (TDD), 30, 137, rates of movement, 221, 225 197–198 sediments, 223–225 thawing ground, 169–171, 290–293 and slopewash, 276 thaw-lake cycle, 191, 293 ‘solle’ see Pleistocene thermokarst thaw lakes solution, 205–208 and depressions, 187–192 speleothems, evidence for relict permafrost, ice-cover breakup, 259 297, 307 oriented nature, 191–192 spring-fed flow regime, 254 see also surface thaw-related processes and landforms, water hydrology 183 springs, 79, 81, 392 ‘thaw-sensitive’and ‘thaw-stable’, 112 ‘spungs’ see Pleistocene thermokarst thaw ‘sinks’, 185, 188, 338 steam-pipe thawing, Klondike, 420, 421 thaw-stable (non-frost-susceptible) granular Stefan equation, 84–85, 136–137, 170, 324 materials, 379–380, 387 stepped slope profiles, 281, 283 thaw strain and thaw settlement, ‘stone runs’,Falkland Islands, 3, 296 169–172 stone tilting, 237–239 see also frost heave thaw unconformities, 129–131 stratified slope deposits, 346, 347, 349 thermal conductivity, 78, 88 stripes, sorted and non sorted, 245, 246 thermal-contraction-crack polygons, ‘sub-cutaneous’ karst model, 206 141–151, 152

k k

514 Index

thermal-contraction-cracking, 15, 141, tors 144, 147, 149–151 cold-climate, 197, 278, 280, 298, climatic significance, 149–151 347–349 coefficients, thermal expansion and Pleistocene, 347, 348–349 contraction, 141, 144 tourism, 374, 397 controls, 147 Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), frequency, 147, 150 Alaska, 415, 418 sound, 15, 150–151 transient layer, 83–84 thermal diffusivity, 78 transportation, 374, 399–411 thermal erosion, 176–177, 265 tree line and timberline, 3–6, 17, 21, 42, fluvio-thermal erosion, 176–177, 284 45–46, 53–55, 56 thermal abrasion, 176 tundra (forest-tundra, steppe-tundra, thermo-erosional wash, 176 shrub-tundra), 3, 18–19, 39, 42 thermal expansion, volumetric and thermal, tundra, flora and fauna, 41, 49–52, different rock types, 141, 142, 203 309–312 ‘thermal’ offset, 30–31 see also ground climates u thermal semi-conductor effect, Udachnaya kimberlite mine, Yakutia, 420 embankments, 403–404, 406 upfreezing, 33, 117, 236–237 ThermalStateofPermafrost(TSP), ‘upland silt’ see loess-like silt 104–105, 106 urbanization, 392–396 see also human thermo-erosional undercutting, 265 occupance thermo-erosional wash, 233 see also utilidors, 384, 385 k slopewash k thermokarst, 169–191, 233, 265, 293, 349, v 375–378 vegetation see ecosystems, arctic and causes, 171–176 subarctic depressions, Pleistocene, 335–336 ‘vegetation’ offset see ground climate and global climate warming, 174 vein ice, 117–118 involutions, 177–178, 349 ventifacts, 269–271, 359–360 involutions and ‘sediment-filled pots’, ‘viviers’ (fish ponds), Hautes Fagnes, Pleistocene, 336–338 Belgium, 334 lakes, 187–192 lake-basin development, 189 w landscapes, 181–182, 185–186 waste-drilling-fluids, 411–415, 420 man-induced, 375–378 water supply and sewage treatment, ponds, bedrock, 189, 190 384–385, 392, 393–394 sediments and structures, 177–181 weathering see cold-climate weathering thermokarst-cave ice, 118 see also pool ice wedges thermo-planation, 233 see also slopewash active, inactive and ancient, 328 thermosyphons, 383, 390–392, 402, 407, anti-syngenetic, 156 422 composite, 179 Thompson, Manitoba, Canada, 95, 109, epigenetic, 154 390 ice and sand, 151–156 ThompsonDrive,Fairbanks,Alaska, rejuvenation, 154–155 390–392 syngenetic, 154 thufur, 158, 246 see also patterned ground types, 151–156 Thule air base, Greenland, 410–411 wetland flow regime, 254 see also surface timberline see tree line water hydrology

k k

Index 515

wind, 14, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 54–55, wind-blown sand, 268 267–274, 352, 353–360 winter roads, 401–402 abrasion, 55, 269–270 action, Pleistocene, 352, 355–360 y Antarctica, 14, 22, 26, 267 Yakutsk, Siberia, Russia, 10, 14, 376, deflation, 271 393–394, 395, 399–400 desiccation, 42 yedoma and ‘muck’ deposits, 122, katabatic, 14, 25, 269 353–355, 419 andorientedthaw-lakes, 192 Yellowknife, NWT, Canada, 387–389, 419 scalloping and polishing, 352, 360 (see also rock varnish) z wind-blown silt (loess) see loess and zero-annual amplitude, 14, 71, 73, 108, 113 aeolian silt ‘zero curtain’ effect, 33, 34

k k

k