Les Rohingya De Birmanie Stéphane Dovert

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Les Rohingya De Birmanie Stéphane Dovert Les Rohingya de Birmanie Stéphane Dovert To cite this version: Stéphane Dovert. Les Rohingya de Birmanie. Edité sous le pseudonyme de Gabriel Defert. Aux lieux d’être, 302 p., 2007, Mondes contemporains. halshs-00409512 HAL Id: halshs-00409512 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00409512 Submitted on 10 Aug 2009 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Les Rohingya de Birmanie Arakanais, musulmans et apatrides Du même auteur Timor-Est, le Génocide Oublié − Droit d'un peuple et raisons d'États, L'Harmattan, collection Recherches asiatiques, Paris, 1992, 323 p. L’Indonésie et la Nouvelle-Guinée-Occidentale − Maintien des frontières coloniales ou respect des identités communautaires, L’Harmattan, collection Recherches asiatiques, Paris, 1996, 454 p., Prix Jeanne Cuisinier 1996. © Aux lieux d’être, 2007 ISBN 2-916063-28-5 Les Rohingya de Birmanie Arakanais, musulmans et apatrides Gabriel Defert À Louis et Violaine ainsi qu’à tous ceux qui, demain, devront assumer nos héritages. Photo de couverture : « fillette au thanaka » par Thomas de Van Photos intérieures : Christophe Quirion, Dragan Janekovic, Thomas de Van, personnel UNHCR, Sébastien Ruggiero, Gabriel Defert Cartes et graphiques : KZM Mise en pages : KZM et Juliette Panossian Corrections orthographiques : Éléonore Defert, Grégoire Rochigneux, Brigitte Agenet-Piravinich Avant-Propos Il est des reconnaissances discrètes. Ce sera le cas des nôtres. Cet ouvrage doit beaucoup à ceux qui m’ont informé, soutenu, aidé, corrigé. Ils comptent parmi les meilleurs connaisseurs de la Birmanie en général ou des Rohingya en particulier. Chercheurs birmans et étrangers, responsables d’associations humanitaires, fonctionnaires internationaux, diplomates ; des amis pour nombre d’entre eux… Ils se reconnaîtront mais ils ne doivent pas être reconnus. La pérennité de leur travail passe par leur anonymat dans un contexte où ils ne sont jamais supposés dire ce qu’ils savent. Le régime de Rangoun / Nay Pyi Daw ne les tolère qu’à ce prix, postulant, peut-être à tort, que savoirs et réflexions collectives jouent contre lui, qu’ils lui sont en tous cas inutiles, à plus forte raison s’ils émanent de l’Occident. Ce livre n’a donc pas été une entreprise tout à fait solitaire, mais, in fine, son contenu n’engage que son auteur. Car s’il est riche d’apports extérieurs, son alchimie est très personnelle. L’ambition a moins été d’informer que de faire réfléchir. On a voulu donner à penser les Rohingya, mais aussi ceux qui les gèrent et ceux qui, depuis l’Occident, se veulent les arbitres objectifs d’un monde dont ils pensent trop souvent maîtriser et l’ordre moral et l’avenir. Il me faut enfin dire ici un mot de mon épouse ; de celle qui, tour à tour, contextualise et décontextualise ma réflexion. Parce qu’elle sait aussi bien invoquer la norme intellectuelle que m’en abstraire, elle a poussé mon regard à la distance ; à chercher les impermanences et à ne pas prendre pour acquis ce que nos conditionnements nous offrent pour tels. Gabriel Defert Le 15 novembre 2006 9 10 Conventions Réflexion à la fois orientée sur son objet et sur le regard qu’on lui porte, ce livre attache une importance particulière aux conventions. La terminologie utilisée constitue donc une part de la discussion elle-même. Les ethnonymes, les dénominations nationales, mais aussi les catégorisations d’ordre politique et social font l’objet de plusieurs développements. En revanche, nos essais de transcription du birman, de l’arakanais, du bengali, voire de l’arabe, ne participent d’aucune doctrine particulière. Faute de normalisation, les graphies diffèrent considérablement selon les sources. Pour les patronymes attachés à l’histoire arakanaise, on a adopté les transcriptions proposées par Jacques Leider. Pour les noms musulmans on a privilégié les options offertes par les auteurs de culture bengalie dont ils sont de toute évidence hérités. Dans les cas où les diverses transcriptions en usage divergeaient trop les unes des autres, on a parfois fait le choix d’en proposer deux. Hors des noms propres, on a repris la pratique de nos informateurs, sachant que seule la version originale dans les alphabets correspondants aurait pu véritablement nous éviter les atermoiements qui ont été les nôtres. 11 Carte 1 L’Environnement régional contemporain 12 INTRODUCTION DROITS DE L’HOMME, DROIT DES PEUPLES, DROITS HISTORIQUES, DROIT A LA SOUVERAINETE NATIONALE, DROITS DES ROHINGYA… OU DE LA CONFRONTATION DES LEGITIMITES La Birmanie offre, par la perception que l’Occident a de ses dirigeants, un cadre conceptuel simple. Parce que le régime militaire au pouvoir depuis 1962 est conçu comme l’« Oppresseur », le bon droit est défini par le simple fait de s’y opposer ou, tout simplement, d’en être la victime. L’opposition nationale couronnée par le prix Nobel de la paix en 1991 et les minorités opprimées constituent les deux expressions politiques les plus symboliques du légitime. Parce qu’elles seraient représentatives dans leur cadre géopolitique respectif, on en oublierait presque leur propre complexité. Masquées par la généralité du destin tragique qui est posé comme leur, elles sont sanctifiées du bénéfice de l’augure (« Lorsqu’elles pourront… ») ou, tout aussi souvent, de celui du destin contrarié (« Si elles avaient pu… »). L’emprise du « Méchant » génère le « Gentil » dont on arbore les « droits » sans toujours se donner la peine de mesurer leurs contradictions. La Birmanie est une nation plurielle dont le régime aujourd’hui au pouvoir à Rangoun / Nay Pyi Daw s’emploie sans cesse à rappeler, par intérêt mais non sans raisons, l’intrinsèque fragilité. Le fait est que depuis l’indépendance, les forces centrifuges n’ont pas manqué, sanctionnées par une brutalité qui ne remonte pas à l’arrivée au pouvoir des militaires, mais plus sûrement à l’indépendance de 1947. L’aspiration des Shan ou des Karen, même exprimée majoritairement au sein de leur communauté, a toujours pesé de peu de poids à l’échelle d’une nation dont on ne leur a pas véritablement demandé s’ils voulaient en être les constituants. A l’instar de ce qui a pu se produire ailleurs dans la région1, les voix des minorités nationales semblent ainsi avoir été solubles dans la démocratie 1 Notamment en Indonésie, autre Etat-Nation « pluriethnique », institué dans le cadre géopolitique forgé par la colonisation. L’indépendance y a été acquise en 1949 sous la forme d’une république unitaire en abstraction des revendications particularistes formulées 13 LES ROHINGYA DE BIRMANIE avant même de l’être dans la dictature; comme si droits de l’Homme et droit des peuples n’avaient pas nécessairement la même polarité ; comme si, pour peu que l’on change de cadre spatial de légitimation, ce qui était démocratique à une échelle ne l’était pas à une autre et réciproquement. Si on limite trop souvent notre analyse de la Birmanie à ce que les Anglo- Saxons résument par l’acronyme BBMR (Burmese Brutal Military Regime), c’est aussi que la dictature, établie depuis près d’un demi-siècle, alimente les tensions contre lesquelles elle prétend constituer un rempart. La répression politique de 1988 a entraîné la mort de plusieurs centaines de personnes et conduit à l’internement de plusieurs milliers d’autres. Elle a surtout profondément affecté le pays (son système éducatif, mais aussi son appareil productif et son intégration internationale) et aggravé les fractures entre les différents composants de la société. Désireux d’incarner l’unité nationale, le State Law and Order Restoration Council (Slorc), rebaptisé State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) en 1997, a choisi un modèle unique en négation de la diversité. La démocratie étant présentée comme facteur de dissonance, l’opposition n’est tolérée qu’a minima au gré des pressions étrangères. De même, au-delà des quelques spectacles folkloriques concédés en guise de patrimoine culturel aux minorités, c’est plus que jamais l’identité bamar2, incarnée par l’État, dans des régions comme Aceh ou les Moluques. La démocratie parlementaire établie par Djakarta s’est ainsi imposée par la force, comme l’a fait, à partir de 1957, la « démocratie dirigée » du président Soekarno (qui a intégré la Nouvelle-Guinée occidentale en abstraction des aspirations de sa population) ou la dictature militaire du général Suharto. De 1965 à 1998, cette dernière s’est opposée avec vigueur à toutes les velléités régionalistes, annexant au territoire national le Timor oriental portugais dont la population venait de se prononcer pour l’indépendance (sur ces sujets voir notamment Jacques Leclerc, « Remarques sur l’idéologie du territoire national en Indonésie », in Culture et Développement, vol. VII, n °2, 1975, p. 283-317 et Françoise Cayrac-Blanchard, Stéphane Dovert et Fréderic Durand (éds), Indonésie – Un demi-siècle de construction nationale, L’Harmattan, collection Recherches asiatiques, Paris, 2000, 352 p., Gabriel Defert, L’Indonésie et la Nouvelle-Guinée-Occidentale – Maintien des frontières coloniales ou respect des identités communautaires, L’Harmattan, collection Recherches asiatiques, Paris, 1996, 454 p. et Gabriel Defert, Timor Est, le Génocide Oublié − Droit d'un peuple et raisons d'Etats, L'Harmattan, collection Recherches asiatiques, Paris, 1992, 323 p.). 2 Groupe majoritaire en Birmanie que l’on peut également retrouver sous la forme Bama ou Myanma. Si la langue française ne distingue pas en l’occurrence l’ethnicité de la nationalité (« Birman » est utilisé dans les deux cas), les Anglo-Saxons ont la possibilité 14 INTRODUCTION qui doit servir d’identité nationale dans un schéma où les hiérarchisations raciales s’imposent comme des évidences.
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