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The Effect of Loggingand Invasion of Acacia Mearnsii On THE EFFECT OF LOGGINGAND INVASION OF ACACIA MEARNSII ON REGENERATION OF OCOTEA USAMBARENSIS IN CHOME NATURE RESERVE, TANZANIA JOHN RICHARD A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, MOROGORO, TANZANIA. 2016 ii EXTENDED ABSTRACT The East African Camphor (Ocotea), a canopy tree species and an important component of Chome Nature Reserve (CNR)which used to occupy more than 50% of the forest canopy is seriously declining in density. Although the species is illegally logged for timber, the main concern of ecologists is the declining regeneration and death of individuals in all age classes. Increasing selective logging and tree cutting for fuel wood are implicated to impair recovery of Camphor forests by changing suitable habitats for its growth and initiating severe heart wood decay through broken branches and injuries, thus creating entry points for the decay fungi. In addition, establishmentof Acacia mearnsii,an invasive tree in forest edges and its subsequent expansion in disturbed areas pose additional threats to the recovery and restoration of the Ocotea forests. Paucity of quantitative evidence of the influence of selective logging on regeneration and advance growth of Ocoteaand the spread of decay fungi from mature to young Ocotea individuals, poses significant gap in our understanding of the ecology of Ocotea and management of the problem. Similarly, lack of estimates of coverage and costs to control the invasive tree A. mearnsii retards conservation efforts that would have been taken to maintain and restore the forest with native tree species. Therefore, this study was carried out with the overall objective of assessing the effect of logging and invasion of A. mearnsii on regeneration of Ocotea usambarensis so as to generate knowledge that is needed for restoration and conservation of CNR. In this study, the influence of logging on regeneration and population structure of Ocotea was examined in 62 plots of 10 m wide by 100 m long. The spread of heart wood decay from mature individuals to root suckers were assessed from 31 pairs of parent - suckers of Ocotea. Also, the iii areainvaded byA. mearnsii in CNR wasmarked and tracked using the Global Positioning System device and estimated using the Quantum Global Information System. Control costs were estimated using established figures and rates from similar studies on management of A. mearnsiifromSouth Africa.Results indicated that the effect of selective logging was crucial in determining the regeneration and population structure of Ocotea. It is also noteworthy that Ocoteais rarely regenerating in disturbed areas below 1500m above sea level due to changes in their suitable habitat after severe logging. The study also indicated that, heart wood decay does not spread from parent individuals to suckers through the adjoining roots. With regard to coverage and cost to control A. mearnsii invasion which threatens restoration of Ocotea forest, it was found that the equivalent condensed area occupied by A. mearnsii is about 210 ha (i.e. 1.5% of the reserve area) and the total costs for mechanical clearing of the invaded area was estimated at TZS 164.64 million. It is recommended that, before embarking into mechanical control operations, experimental plots on clearing should be set to assess other externalities that may need management consideration during scaling up. To promoteregeneration, advance growth and hence recovery of Ocotea forest, ongoing conservation activities in CNR need to be supplemented with enrichment planting and slashing of brambles to free few regenerating sapling of Ocotea. iv DECLARATION I, JOHN RICHARD, do hereby declare to the Senate of Sokoine University of Agriculture that this thesis is my own original work done within the period of registration and that it has neither been submitted nor being concurrently submitted in any other institution. ____________________ ___________________ John Richard Date (PhD Candidate) The above declaration confirmed by ____________________ ___________________ Prof. Salim. M.S. Maliondo Date (Supervisor) v COPYRIGHT No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or Sokoine University of Agriculture in that behalf. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I am grateful to the Government of Tanzania through the Commission of Science and Technology (COSTECH) for financial support which enabled me to accomplish this study successfully. In the course of the study, I received support from many people to whom I am very grateful. Firstly, I want to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Salim S.M. Maliondo and the late Prof. Seif S. Madoffe, my supervisors, who gave me invaluable academic support needed in this work. Although on very rough roads, both of them managed to travel and visit the study area, participated in the designing of the study, and have continuously provided constructive comments on the manuscripts and inspired the whole write-up. I am indebted to members of College of Forestry Wildlife and Tourism of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), who reviewed early versions of the manuscripts and gave valuable criticisms and suggestions on major and minor improvements. Special thanks are also due to the SUA PhD club under the same College, who willingly attended my seminar presentations and took an active interest in my work. Their constructive advice is greatly appreciated. Special thanks are also forwarded to curators and staff in Herbarium of Lushoto Silviculture Research Centre, in particular Mr. Magogo, N. H. and Mndolwa,A. for helping me to identify many plant specimens that I collected during the study. My deep gratitude is also directed to Ms. Hellen, M. of the plant pathology laboratory at SUA for her unfailing willingness to assist me with isolation, culturing and vii identification of large taxa of fungi from collected wood cores. I am also much obliged to staff of Chome Nature Reserve, particularly Mr. Godfrey, M. for his assistance during field work, but also the communities adjacent to Chome Nature Reserve who were ready to share with me the history of forest exploitation and their views on conservation of the reserve especially, from illegal logging. I also wish to acknowledge the Director General of Tanzania Forestry Research Institute for granting me a four-year study leave. Apart from the moral support, the Institute also provided me with office facilities, field equipment and transport which enabled me to explore the landscapes of South Pare Mountains. Special thanks are also due to Prof. Brian W. van Wilgen of the Centre for Invasion Biology, South Africa who provided me with several literature and experience on management of alien invasive plants in South Africa; his assistance is reflected in Chapter 5 of this thesis. Lastly, but not least, I wish to express my sincere thanks to my wife Fortunata, our daughters Joyline and Josephine and our son Richard, who passionately prayed and waited for me to finish my studies and join the family. Glory is to God, for giving me strength, energy and good health to accomplish this study which I sincerely hope that it will contribute to conservation of the beautiful Chome Nature Reserve. viii DEDICATION To the Almighty God, who created such a wonderful world for us to study and enjoy ix TABLE OF CONTENTS EXTENDED ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... ii DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... iv COPYRIGHT.......................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... vi DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. xiv LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................................ xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. xvi CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background Information ....................................................................................1 1.2 Logging and Regeneration of Ocotea usambarensis ..........................................3 1.3 Post-disturbance Recovery in Montane Forests ..................................................5 1.4 Heart wood Decay in Ocotea usambarensis .......................................................7 1.5 Invasive Alien Species in Protected Areas .........................................................9 1.6 Problem Statement and Justification ................................................................10
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