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Article Tenacious Tendrils: Replicating Nature in South Italian Vase Painting

Keely Heuer

Department of Art History, SUNY New Paltz, New Paltz, NY 12561, USA; [email protected]

 Received: 22 February 2019; Accepted: 27 May 2019; Published: 6 June 2019 

Abstract: Elaborate floral tendrils are one of the most distinctive iconographic features of South Italian vase painting, the red-figure wares produced by Greek settlers in and Sicily between ca. 440–300 B.C. They were a particular specialty of Apulian artisans and were later adopted by painters living in Paestum and Etruria. This lush vegetation is a stark contrast to the relatively meager interest of Archaic and Classical Athenian vase painters in mimetically depicting elements of the natural world. First appearing in the work of the Iliupersis Painter around 370 B.C., similar flowering vines appear in other contemporary media ranging from gold jewelry to pebble mosaics, perhaps influenced by the career of Pausias of Sicyon, who is credited in ancient sources with developing the art of flower painting. Through analysis of the types of flora depicted and the figures that inhabit these lush vegetal designs, this paper explores the blossoming tendrils on South Italian vases as an evocation of nature’s regenerative powers in the eschatological beliefs of peoples, Greek and Italic alike, occupying southern Italy.

Keywords: South Italian; vase painting; Apulian; floral; eschatology

1. Introduction Flora first appeared on painted Greek ceramics during the Bronze Age, when it served as the vase’s primary decoration, exemplified by and Late Minoan Floral Style vase painting. An interest in vegetal-inspired themes arose again during the 7th century B.C., inspired by contacts with the visual culture of the Near East and Egypt, but its function had shifted to a secondary role, often serving as fill or ornament around figures that became the primary decorative focus (e.g., rosettes; Cook 1997, pp. 42–43; Boardman 2001, p. 32). This trend continued into the black-figure and red-figure vase painting of the Archaic and Classical periods when stylized floral ornaments, such as palmettes, palmette-lotus chains, ivy, laurel leaves with berries, and lotus buds, could frame a figural panel as well as decorate subsidiary areas of the vase, such as on the neck or under the handles.1 Occasionally Greek vase painters of the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. included vegetation in their figural scenes, such as trees and bushes, to indicate a natural landscape, but despite their interest in rendering details of human anatomy, there was little interest in similar exactitude when depicting the natural world.2 Stylistically quite different from the plant-based motifs used by the vase-painters of the Aegean and Greek mainland are the elaborate blossoming tendrils often emerging from an acanthus calyx that were a specialty of artisans in the region of Apulia (corresponding to the “heel” of the Italian peninsula)

1 The most extensive discussion of the use of vegetal ornament in Greek vase painting, with a particular focus on Attic vases, is (Jacobsthal 1927, especially pp. 159–98). 2 Certain Attic black-figure vase painters like Exekias, however, did put greater emphasis upon indicating natural landscapes through their inclusion of animals, trees, bushes, mounds of earth, and rocks, yet there is little naturalism in their rendering (Nelson 1977, pp. 14–19, 27–31; Hurwit 1991, pp. 40–55; Holmberg 1992). Floral motifs, however, do appear in other media in , namely akroteria and anthemia grave starting in the third quarter of the 5th century B.C.

Arts 2019, 8, 71; doi:10.3390/arts8020071 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 33

Stylistically quite different from the plant-based motifs used by the vase-painters of the Aegean Artsand2019 Greek, 8, 71 mainland are the elaborate blossoming tendrils often emerging from an acanthus 2calyx of 30 that were a specialty of artisans in the region of Apulia (corresponding to the “heel” of the Italian peninsula) (Figure 1). Such floral designs occur on over 1000 pieces in the catalogs of Apulian vases (Figureassembled1). Suchby Arthur floral designsDale Trendall occur on and over Alexander 1000 pieces Cambitoglou. in the catalogs3 This of Apulianmotif isvases part assembledof a larger 3 byphenomenon Arthur Dale found Trendall in the and red-figure Alexander pottery Cambitoglou. workshops Thisof the motif Greek is settlements part of a larger of Magna phenomenon Graecia foundand Sicily, in the which red-figure were potteryrepeatedly workshops inspired of by the their Greek ecological settlements surroundings, of Magna Graecia from the and speckled Sicily, which and weresinuous repeatedly rocks on inspiredCampanian by theirvases ecological that appear surroundings, to represent forms from the of igneous speckled breccia and sinuous and cooled rocks lava on 4 Campanianflows, respectively vases that4, both appear geological to represent features forms of of the igneous region’s breccia volcanically and cooled active lava landscape flows, respectively (Trendall, both1967, geologicalp. 227), to featuresthe wide of range the region’s of recognizable volcanically species active of sea landscape life found (Trendall on the 1967fish ,plates p. 227), made to the in wideApulia, range Campania, of recognizable and Paestum species (McPhee of sea and life foundTrendall on 1987, the fish 1990; plates Kunisch made 1989; in Apulia, Donati Campania,and Pasini and1997). Paestum The lush (McPhee flora on and Apulian Trendall vase 1987 is remarkable, 1990; Kunisch not only1989 for; Donati its detail, and Pasinibut because 1997). it The is populated lush flora onwith Apulian a variety vase isof remarkablefigures, unlike not only other for itsvege detail,tal decoration but because and it isornament populated in with earlier a variety Greek of figures,vase-painting. unlike otherClose vegetalstudy of decoration the motif’s and use, ornament including in earlierthe personages Greek vase-painting. that inhabit Closethese studytendrils of theand motif’s the other use, imagery including paired the personageswith them, thatreveals inhabit that these this lush tendrils flora and was the intended other imagery as an evocation paired with of them,nature’s reveals regenerative that this lushpowers flora and was intendedthe eschatological as an evocation beliefs of nature’sof peoples, regenerative Greek and powers Italic and alike, the eschatologicaloccupying Magna beliefs Graecia. of peoples, Greek and Italic alike, occupying Magna Graecia.

Figure 1. , Louvre K 35 Apulian chous, Salting Pa Painter,inter, ca. 360 B.C. Boreas and Oreithyia among floralfloral tendrils emerging fromfrom anan acanthusacanthus calyx.calyx. ImageImage © RMN, Hervé Hervé Lewandowski.

3 Floral tendrils appear on a total of 1071 Apulian vases published in (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 1982, 1983, 1991–1992). 3 Other Floralsimilar tendrils pieces appear with on the amotif total haveof 1071 continuously Apulian comevases topublished light since in the (Trendall early 1990s and on Cambitoglou the art market as1978, well 1982, as in controlled1983, 1991–1992). excavations. Other For thesimilar purpose pieces of this with study, the however,motif have Trendall continuously and Cambitoglou’s come to work light has since been the used early as a 1990s broad sampleon the pool.art market as well as in controlled excavations. For the purpose of this study, however, Trendall and 4 For examples of the spotted breccia, see the rock to which Andromeda is chained on the Berlin inv. 3238 (Cambitoglou’sTrendall 1967, p. work 227, no. has 8, pl.been 89, used 1–3) and as a the broad vases sample of the Spotted pool. Rock Group (ibid., pp. 234–45; Trendall 1973, pp. 189–90; 4 Trendall For examples 1983, pp. of 120–21).the spotted For a breccia, lava flow, see see the Adolphseck, rock to which Schloß Andromeda Fasanerie 164 (isTrendall chained 1967 on, p.the 312, hydria no. 619, Berlin pl. 123, inv. 6) by3238 the (Trendall Caivano Painter. 1967, p. 227, no. 8, pl. 89, 1–3) and the vases of the Spotted Rock Group (ibid., pp. 234–45; Trendall 1973, pp. 189–90; Trendall 1983, pp. 120–21). For a lava flow, see Adolphseck, Schloß Fasanerie 164 (Trendall 1967, p. 312, no. 619, pl. 123, 6) by the Caivano Painter.

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2. A Phenomenon Blossoms Floral tendrils first appear as secondary decoration on the necks of volute- attributed to the Iliupersis Painter, dated to ca. 370–360 B.C.5 It is on this shape that the motif was most frequently painted6 (Figure2). Within a generation, flowering vines occur on the necks, shoulders, and a narrow band around the belly of other large shapes—amphorae7, loutrophoroi8, and hydriai9 (Figures3 and4). The motif became a primary decorative element around 360–350 B.C., concentrated at first in the work of the Salting Painter, the Painter of the Dublin , and their associates. Perhaps a forerunner is the Salting Painter’s in London, which features an embracing couple, likely Dionysos and Ariadne, on a couch, below which are sumptuous floral tendrils rising from an acanthus calyx and spreading out laterally to either side.10 Soon after, the floral décor took over nearly the entire surface of the vase, becoming a setting for the primary figural decoration on small-scale shapes including pelikai (jars)11 and situlae (wine buckets)12 (Figure5). On certain small shapes, particularly alabastra 13, squat lekythoi14, and bottles15, the floral décor may well have referred to the scent of the perfumed oil possibly contained in them.16 No clear differentiation between the types of flowers painted on large and small vases is apparent.

5 E.g., London, F 277 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/5, p. 193); Boston 1970.235 (ibid., 8/11, p. 194); and St. Petersburg 567 = St. 878 (ibid., 8/12, p. 194). 6 Within the sample pool, 596 volute-kraters feature floral tendrils. 7 Such as on the shoulders of 8935 from Canosa (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 13/4, p. 338) and London, British Musuem F 331 (ibid., 13/5, p. 338), both attributed to the Varrese Painter, ca. 360–350 B.C. The is the second most frequent shape on which flowering vines appear, occurring on 166 examples in Trendall and Cambitoglou’s publications. 8 For example, the in the central band on the body of Naples 3242 attributed to the Group of Ruvo 423 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/44, p. 404) and on the shoulders of Berlin F 3239 and F 3240 by the Darius Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/22 and 18/23, p. 490). The motif occurs on 75 loutrophoroi and 48 barrel-amphorae within the sample pool. 9 See the band around the belly of Naples Stg. 37 by the Varrese Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 13/30, p. 342). Floral tendrils are painted on 14 pieces in the sample pool. 10 London, V&A 2493.1910 (ibid., 15/6, p. 396, pl. 137, 5–6). 11 E.g., Kassel T. 561 (ibid., 16/78, p. 430; CVA Kassel 2 pls. 77 and 78, 1–2) and Louvre K 100 (ibid., 16/80, p. 430), both related in style to the Chini Painter. A total of 16 pelikai with the motif are in Trendall and Cambitoglou’s catalogs. Other small shapes on which the floral tendrils repeatedly occur are oinochoai (24 examples), kantharoi (22 pieces), and mugs (10 examples). 12 For example, Ruvo 1372 (ibid., 15/36, p. 402) and Dublin 1880.1106 (ibid., 15/37, p. 402, pl. 142, 1–2) by the Painter of the Dublin Situla. The motif occurs on only four situlae, and it appears with the same frequency on kylikes, pyxides, lekythoi, and askoi. 13 Such as on Munster 678 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 21/11, p. 606, pl. 232, 2) and Lecce 719 (ibid., 21/19, p. 606; CVA Lecce 2 IV Dr pl. 46, 6–8), both attributed to the Alabastra Group. A total of 22 alabastra decorated with floral tendrils are in the sample pool. 14 As on Cambridge, Fogg Art Museum 1972.235 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 21/33, p. 608) and Taranto 117116 (ibid., 21/40, p. 608). Ten squat lekythoi with the motif are found in Trendall and Cambitoglou’s publications. 15 The only two bottles in the sample pool are Karlsruhe B 43 (ibid., 21/31, p. 608; CVA Karlsruhe pl. 71, 1) and Metaponto 27545 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 21/32, p. 608, pl. 233, 6). 16 For an overview of perfume manufacturing and distribution in the Classical world, see (Reger 2005). Arts 2019, 8, 71 4 of 30 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 33

FigureFigure 2. 2.Boston, Boston, Museum Museum of of Fine Fine Arts Arts 1970.235 1970.235 Apulian Apulian volute-, volute-krater, Iliupersis Iliupers Painter,is Painter, ca. ca. 365–355 365–355 B.C. FemaleB.C. Female head in head floral in surround floral surround (neck), (neck), group ofgrou twop youthsof two andyouths three and women three assembledwomen assembled in a garden in a in thegarden presence in the of presence (body). of Eros Photograph (body). Photograph© Museum © ofMuseum Fine Arts, of Fine Boston. Arts, Boston.

FigureFigure 3. 3. Malibu,Malibu, J. Paul Paul Getty Getty Museum Museum 86.AE.680 86.AE.680 Ap Apulianulian , loutrophoros, Painter Painter of MNB of MNB 1148, 1148,ca. ca.330 330 B.C. B.C. Siren Siren in in floral floral surround surround (neck), (neck), Zeus and and Leda Leda (body). (body). Digital Digital image image courtesy courtesy of of the the Getty Getty OpenOpen Content Content Program. Program.

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FigureFigure 4. 4. Basel, Basel,Basel, Antikenmuseum Antikenmuseum Antikenmuseum S S 21 S21 21ApulianApulian Apulian loutrophor loutrophoros,os,os, LaodamiaLaodamia Laodamia Painter, Painter, Painter, ca. ca. 360–350 360–350 ca. 360–350 B.C. B.C. Eros Eros B.C. Erosmovingmoving moving to to left left to in left in floral infloral floral setting setting setting (neck),(neck), (neck), red-figurered-figure red-figure female female headhead head inin in floralfloral floral setting setting setting (shoulder), (shoulder), (shoulder), death death death of of AlcestisAlcestis (upper (upper band band on on body), body), frontalfrontal femalefemale head in in added added white white in in floral floralfloral surround surround (central (central band band onon body),body), body), woman woman woman seated seatedseated on klismosonon klismosklismos with with twowith women two women on either onon side eithereither (lower sideside band (lower(lower on body).band band on Photographon body). body). ©PhotographPhotographAntikenmuseum © © Antikenmuseum Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Basel Basel undund Ludwig. SammlungSammlung Ludwig.

FigureFigure 5. 5.Ruvo, Ruvo, Museo Museo Nazionale Nazionale Jatta Jatta 1372 1372 Apulian Apulian situla, situla, Painter Painter of of the the Dublin Dublin Situla, Situla, ca. ca. 360–350 360–350 B.C. NikeFigureB.C. amid 5. Ruvo, floweringamid Museo flowering tendrils Nazionale tendrils above Jatta above an 1372 acanthus an Apulianacanth calyx.us situ calyx. Photographla, PainterPhotograph of provided the provided Dublin by theSitula,by the Ministero Ministeroca. 360–350 per i BeniB.C.per Nike Culturali,i Beni amid Culturali, Soprintendenza flowering Soprintendenza tendrils per above i Beni per Archeologician iacanth Beni Archeologicius calyx. della Puglia,Photograph della Archivo Puglia, provided fotografico, Archivo by thefotografico, Taranto. Ministero perTaranto. i Beni Culturali, Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Puglia, Archivo fotografico, Taranto.

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The useArts 2019 of flowering, 8, x FOR PEER tendrilsREVIEW continued to follow these two patterns—as secondary6 of 33 decoration on monumental shapes and as part of the primary decoration on small vases—until the early third The use of flowering tendrils continued to follow these two patterns—as secondary decoration century B.C., when Apulian red-figure vase production ceased. The motif spread elsewhere within on monumental shapes and as part of the primary decoration on small vases—until the early third Italy, but itcentury never B.C., enjoyed when theApulian same red-fi popularitygure vase production as it did inceased. the regionThe motif of spread Apulia. elsewhere It occasionally within occurs in the vase-paintingItaly, but it never of Campania enjoyed the17 same, from popularity where as the it did Etruscans, in the region who of colonizedApulia. It occasionally the region occurs alongside the Greeks, likelyin the borrowed vase-painting the of motif Campania for17 their, from own where painted the Etruscans, wares who18 (Figure colonized6). the The region Apulian alongside penchant for the Greeks, likely borrowed the motif for their own painted wares18 (Figure 6). The Apulian floral vines also revealed the origins of the Painter, whose name vase, uncovered in a Paestan penchant for floral vines also revealed the origins of the Aphrodite Painter, whose name vase, tomb in 1967,uncovered features in a thePaestan goddess tomb in in 1967, a translucent features the garmentgoddess in holding a translucent a tympanon garment holding and standing a on a thistle flowertympanon in the and presence standing ofon twoa thistle . flower19 Itin isthe believed presence thatof two he Erotes. emigrated19 It is tobelieved Paestum that fromhe Apulia between 340emigrated and 330 to Paestum B.C., and from he Apulia must between have quickly340 and 330 realized B.C., and that he must his skillhave quickly in detailed realized florals that was not his skill in detailed florals was not appealing to Paestan clientele, as this is his only surviving piece to appealing to Paestan clientele, as this is his only surviving piece to feature them. feature them.

Figure 6. FigureNew 6. York,New York, Metropolitan Metropolitan MuseumMuseum of ofArt Art 07.286.33 07.286.33 Etruscan Etruscan , skyphos,Tondo Group, Tondo ca. Group, 325–300 B.C. Female head in profile to left in floral setting. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of ca. 325–300Art. B.C. Female head in profile to left in floral setting. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Floral motifs strikingly similar to those on Apulian vases occur in other contemporary media, including southern Italian molded 20, gold jewelry produced in Taranto (the single Greek 17 See the floral21 tendrils flanking a female head in three-quarter view to left on the shoulder of the Campanian settlement inhydria Apulia) Louvre, K and 276 pebbleattributed mosaic to the floors Pa foundinter (Trendall in a variety1967, p. 406, of no. locations 301, pl. 160, including 1). Pella, Durrës 18 Such florals are most frequently found on vases of the Clusium Group and Tondo Group, both of which believed to have been based in Chiusi, although some of the earlier Clusium Group may have been made in Volterra. For examples, refer to the pair of skyphoi New York 07.286.33 and 51.11.1 (De Puma 2013, p. 17 See the floral211) tendrils and Sydney, flanking Nicholso a femalen Museum head in 6847 three-quarter (Harari 1995). view to left on the shoulder of the Campanian hydria Louvre K 276 attributed19 Paestum to the 20303 Libation (Trendall Painter 1987, (Trendall pp. 21, 1967 237–8,, p. no. 406, 963, no. pl. 301, 145). pl. For 160, more 1). information on the Aphrodite 18 Such floralsPainter, are most see frequently (Greco 1970). found The on only vases other of thePaestan Clusium vase-pai Groupnter and to include Tondo floral Group, deco bothration of whichin their believed work is to have been based in Chiusi,the Floral although Painter, some one ofof thethe earlierlast Paestan Clusium red-figure Group artists, may named have been for the made flowering in Volterra. tendrils For surrounding examples, refer to the pair of skyphoithe Newfemale York head 07.286.33 on the reverse and 51.11.1 of a bottle (De Puma found 2013 in Tomb, p. 211) 5 (1954) and Sydney, at Contrada Nicholson Andriuolo Museum in Paestum 6847 (Harari 1995). 19 Paestum 20303(Paestum (Trendall 5426: 1987 Trendall, pp. 21, 1987, 237–8, pp. 333–34, no. 963, no. pl. 586, 145). pl. For218b,c). more information on the Aphrodite Painter, see (Greco 1970). The only other Paestan vase-painter to include floral decoration in their work is the Floral Painter, one of the last Paestan red-figure artists, named for the flowering tendrils surrounding the female head on the reverse of a bottle found in Tomb 5 (1954) at Contrada Andriuolo in Paestum (Paestum 5426: Trendall 1987, pp. 333–34, no. 586, pl. 218b,c). 20 Seen particularly on arulae (portable altars) such as Capua inv. 5324 (Bedello Tata 1990, pp. 59–60, pl. X, 2–3), Capua 5320 (ibid., pp. 62–63, pl. XII, 1), and Trieste inv. 2333/34 (Van der Meijden 1993, p. 331, pl. 16), and the floral thymiateria bases found primarily in the sanctuaries of at Paestum (Stoop 1960, pl. IV, 4 and V, 1). 21 Such as on the gold diadem from Crispiano, Contrada Cacciavillani dated to the first half of the 4th century B.C. (Taranto 54.114, found in 1934—De Juliis 1984, pp. 118–19) and the gold Herakles knot diadem with pendants from Ginosa Marina, Contrada Chiaradonna (Taranto 22.406, found in 1927—ibid., pp. 121–22) of the late 4th or early 3rd century B.C. For discussion of floral decoration in Greek gold jewelry, see (Williams and Ogden 1994, pp. 41–43). Arts 2019, 8, 71 7 of 30

(ancient Epidammus), Vergina, and Sicyon (Robertson 1965, pp. 72–79; Petsas 1965; Robertson 1967; and Salzmann 1982, pp. 14–19. 28. 51–52. 90. 105–8. 112–5)22 (Figures7–9). Roberston and Garc ía argued that these complicated patterns of flowering vines were derived from the flower paintings of Pausias of Sicyon, who was inspired by the garlands woven by his love Glycera (Pliny, NH 21, 4, 35, and 125; Robertson 1965, pp. 82–83; Robertson 1975, pp. 485–86; García 2015, pp. 23–25 and 57–67). Pausias’ flourit appears to have been around 370–360 B.C. (Harari 1995, p. 205; García 2015, pp. 3–11), nearly simultaneous with the earliest appearance of floral tendrils on Apulian vases, suggesting that the motif either developed simultaneously and independently in various areas of the Greek world or artisans in Taranto may have been the original source.23 To my knowledge, no examples of the motif definitively predate those occurring on South Italian vases. A further source of inspiration for the rising interest in the vegetal realm during the first half of the 4th century B.C. might be the botanical scholarship of Theophrastus of Eresus (ca. 372/1–287/6 B.C.), author of Enquiry into Plants and Causes 24 Artsof Plant 2019, 8 Phenomena,, x FOR PEER REVIEW who succeeded his teacher Aristotle as the head of the Lyceum in Athens.8 of 33

Figure 7. Paestum,Paestum, Museo Museo Archeologico Archeologico Nazionale Floral thymiaterion base from the southern urban sanctuary, late 4th century B.C.B.C. Author’sAuthor’s photo.

22 Franks(2018, pp. 151–56 and 174–77) proposes that the popularity of the floral tapestry style mosaics is due to their being well suited to the space of the andron as they do not privilege any viewing angle, are readable even when the sightline is obscured, and can easily accommodate other figural themes within them. She argues that their inclusion within the sympotic space may have been intended to evoke in the minds of the banqueters a rustic or primordial paradise. 23 Michael Pfrommer and François Villard in particular have argued in favor of southern Italian influences on Macedonian art, pointing in particular to the similar tendril decoration found in both areas (Pfrommer 1982, pp. 129–32; Villard 1998, pp. 218–20). Others, however, have expressed doubts regarding their proposal (e.g., Drougou 1987, p. 313 and Vokotopoulou 1990, pp. 40–41), Nalimova(2017) favors the development of floral imagery in multiple areas of the Greek world, namely southern Italy, Attica, and the Argolid that in turn influenced Macedonian visual culture. 24 For further information on Theophrastos and the impact of his scholarship in the study of botany and medicine, see Scarborough 1978; Morton 1981, pp. 29–43; Lloyd 1983, pp. 119–35; Greene and Egerton 1983, pp. 128–211; Baumann 1993, pp. 15–18; and Hardy and Totelin 2016, pp. 8–10. Figure 8. Taranto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale inv. 54114 Gold diadem decorated with floral tendrils and acanthus calyx from Crispiano, Contrada Cacciavillani, first half 4th century B.C. Author’s photo.

Figure 9. Pella, House of the Abduction of Helen: Stag Hunt Mosaic, ca. 340/330—320/310 B.C. Author’s photo.

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Figure 7. Paestum, Museo Archeologico Nazionale Floral thymiaterion base from the southern urban Arts 2019Figuresanctuary,, 8, 71 7. Paestum, late 4th centuryMuseo ArcheologicoB.C. Author’s Nazionale photo. Floral thymiaterion base from the southern urban8 of 30 sanctuary, late 4th century B.C. Author’s photo.

Figure 8. Taranto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale inv. 54114 Gold diadem decorated with floral Figuretendrils 8.8. and Taranto,Taranto, acanthus Museo Museo calyx Archeologico Archeologico from Crispiano, Nazionale Nazionale Contrada inv. inv. 54114 54114Cacciavillani, Gold Gold diadem diadem decoratedfirst halfdecorated with4th floralcentury with tendrils floral B.C. andtendrilsAuthor’s acanthus and photo. calyxacanthus from calyx Crispiano, from ContradaCrispiano, Cacciavillani, Contrada Cacciavillani, first half 4th centuryfirst half B.C. 4th Author’s century photo. B.C. Author’s photo.

Figure 9.9. Pella, House of the Abduction of Helen:Helen: Stag Hunt Mosaic, ca. 340/330—320/310 340 /330—320/310 B.C. B.C. Author’sFigure 9. photo.Pella, House of the Abduction of Helen: Stag Hunt Mosaic, ca. 340/330—320/310 B.C. Author’s photo. 3. The Garden’s Inhabitants

Most of the flowering tendrils on Apulian vases are occupied by various figures that overwhelmingly adhere to particular types. The first group consists of mythological entities that repeatedly appear on grave monuments throughout the Greek world as early as the Archaic period, including Amazons25, sphinxes26, and sirens27 (Figure3). The presence of characters connected with the sepulchral realm is not surprising as nearly all South Italian vases are uncovered in mortuary contexts. Many Apulian volute-kraters, amphorae, and loutrophoroi were clearly intended to function solely as grave goods due to their perforated bases, preventing them from serving as a container for

25 e.g., Oxford 1945.55, an attributed to the Chini Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 16/74, p. 429), and on the neck of the obverse of St. Petersburg inv. 1711 = St. 371 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/71, p. 471), a volute-krater by the Loebbecke Painter. 26 See the sphinxes in floral settings on the necks of these volute-kraters: University of Mississippi, David M. Robinson Memorial Collection krater attributed to the Loebbecke Painter (ibid., 17/69, p. 470) and Geneva HR 44 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 17/77, p. 135, pl. XXXII, 3–4). 27 Sirens are found in floral surrounds on a variety of shapes including the volute-krater Naples 3255 (inv. 81934, Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/42, p. 496), the loutrophoros Bari 5591 (ibid., 28/107, p. 928), and a pelike once on the French Market by the Painter of the Siren Citharist (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 18/334b, p. 87). For the use of , sirens, and sphinxes in Greek funerary iconography, see Richter and Guarducci 1961, pp. 6–7; Kurtz and Boardman 1971, pp. 86 and 134–35; Woysch-Méautis 1982, pp. 83–87. 134–36. 91–99. 137–140; Ridgway 1993, pp. 232–34; Tsiafakis 2003; Langridge-Noti 2003, pp. 144–45; Cook et al. 2005, pp. 34–35 and 42–64; and Russenberger 2015, pp. 231–97. Arts 2019, 8, 71 9 of 30 the living.28 Dionysian subjects, including the god himself29, his consort Ariadne30, and his followers (satyrs31 and /maenads32, also occur in floral surrounds. Dionysos was a vegetation deity closely linked with victory over death, exemplified by the retrieval of his mortal mother, Semele, from Hades33, and his own physical resurrection according to the mystery aspects of his cult.34 Winged or flying creatures, reminiscent of the many species of insects and birds that hover over blossoms in nature, are also common in the presence of flowering tendrils. Sometimes they may be part of a narrative, including Bellerophon’s triumph over the Chimaera35 and divine abductions that resulted in immortality for the god’s beloved, such as Boreas and Oreithyia36 or Zeus and Ganymede37 (Figure1). The ability to fly suggests a liminal status, the capacity to exist between earth and sky, and thus might have been seen as appropriate for objects intended to accompany the dead in the journey between mortal life and the hereafter. Indeed, , the personification of death (Vermeule 1979, pp. 148–52; Bazant 1994), and the eidolon (the soul of the deceased separated from the body)38 are depicted as winged (Siebert 1981; Peifer 1989; De Velasco 1995, pp. 73–91; Vollkommer 1997; Bardel 2000; Oakley 2004, pp. 211–13). The soul is even occasionally shown as a bird, such as the soul-bird hovering over the dying Prokris on a -krater by the Hephaistos Painter in London39, and the frequent presence of birds on Attic grave stelai, often shown as pets in their owners’ hands, may allegorically reference the departure of the soul from the corpse (Woysch-Méautis 1982, pp. 39–53 and 110–24; Clairmont 1993, pp. 81–84; Oakley 2003, pp. 180–81).40 The birds occupying the blossoming vines on Apulian vases might be interpreted similarly.41 Given the vases’ funerary context, other flying figures in floral surrounds could reference the overcoming of death, such as the appearance of in his chariot on the necks of three volute-kraters, who could perhaps serve as a symbol of

28 In Taranto, these large vases were used as grave markers (Lippolis 1994, pp. 109–28; Fontannaz 2005, p. 126) and were particularly favored grave goods in the elite Italic rock-cut chamber tombs of central and northern Apulia. The Italic demand for these monumental pieces is likely what led two of the most prominent Apulian workshops of the third-quarter of the 4th century B.C., led by the and Baltimore Painters, to establish themselves in the native communities of Ruvo and Canosa respectively (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, p. 450; Robinson 1990; Carpenter 2003). 29 Seen on the neck of a volute-krater attributed to the Bassano Group in a private collection in Naples (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 30/20, p. 1020–21, pl. 393). 30 The divine couple appear together on the pelike London, V & A 2493.1910 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/6, pl. 137, 5–6) and on the shoulder of an amphora possibly by the Darius Painter once on the French market (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/47c, p. 148). 31 A silen holding a cithara appears on one side of an alabastron once on the Roman market (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 21/22, p. 606, pl. 232, 7). 32 Such as on Dublin 1880.1106 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/37, p. 402, pl. 142, 1–2) and Canberra, Australian National University U.H. 6 (ibid., 16/79, p. 430). 33 See Apollodorus, Bibliotheca III, 38; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica 4.25.4; Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.37.6; and Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 251. 34 Refer to Kern, Orphicorum fragmenta fr. 210, Diodoros Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica 3.62.6; and Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 167. The most recent discussions of the cult of Dionysos in Magna Graecia, along with substantial earlier bibliography, may be found in Casadio and Johston 2009. For representations of Dionysos in Apulian vase-painting, see Carpenter 2011. 35 For example, see the interior of the patera attributed to the Patera Painter’s workshop from Altamura now in Taranto (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 23/295, p. 764) and on the neck of a volute-krater attributed to the Baltimore Painter in a German private collection (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 27/22-2, p. 273). Another example of a narrative with a flying protagonist surrounded by flowering vines is the representation of Phrixos on the Ram on the fragment of the neck of a volute-krater in Taranto (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/42a, p. 497). 36 Refer to the chous Louvre K 35 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/11, p. 396, pl. 139, 1), where the figures are dwarfed by the floral decoration surrounding them. 37 Ganymede’s abduction by Zeus in the form of an eagle occurs on the neck of a volute-krater attributed to the Baltimore Painter in a Swiss private collection (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 25/1, p. 795–96). 38 Eidola most frequently appear on late Archaic and Classical white ground lekythoi, but they do appear on occasionally on other Attic shapes. 39 London, British Museum E 477, ca. 460–430 B.C. (ARV2 1114, 15). See also (Vermeule 1979, p. 18). 40 In Euripides’ Hippolytus, Theseus compares the dead Phaedra to a bird that has vanished from the hand (828–29), and in his Consolation to his Wife, written on the occasion of his toddler daughter’s death, Plutarch compares the soul to a captured bird who becomes domesticated and used to this mortal life (611e). For an earlier association of birds with the deceased in Attica, see their inclusion in prothesis scenes on Geometric vases and resting on the corpse in the terracotta model of an ekphora found at Vari of the early 7th century B.C. (Garland 1985, pp. 26, 32–33). 41 e.g., on the shoulder of Taranto 7014 from Ceglie del Campo (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 28/48, p. 916). Arts 2019, 8, 71 10 of 30 daily regeneration and hoped-for continuation of the deceased in the afterlife42 (Figure 10). Similarly, Nike’s repeated presence in lush flora on Apulian vases of varying shapes might visually embody Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 33 victory over the grave through nature’s regenerative powers wielded by the divine43 (Figure5).

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Boston 03.804 03.804 Apulian Apulian volute-krater, volute-krater, close to the Varrese Painter, ca. 340 B.C. ( a) Helios in floralfloral surround (neck) and de deathath of (body). ( (bb)) Eros Eros seated seated on on flower flower in in floral floral setting setting (neck) (neck) and youth with horse horse in in naiskos surrounded surrounded by by thr threeee women women and and three three youths youths with with offerings offerings (body). (body). Photographs © MuseumMuseum of of Fine Fine Arts, Arts, Boston. Boston.

Eros isis thethe most most frequent frequent full-length full-length figure figure enclosed enclosed in blossoming in blossoming tendrils tendrils and seated and onseated flowers, on flowers,occurring occurring on nearly on 80 nearly examples, 80 examples, sometimes sometimes in the presence in theof presence his mother, of his Aphrodite mother, (FigureAphrodite 10). 44 (FigureLikewise, 10). women Likewise, appearing women aloneappearing in floral alone settings in floral might settings also bemight interpreted also be interpreted as the goddess. as the goddess.Eros’ presence44 Eros’ may presence refer tomay Aphrodite’s refer to Aphrodite’s repeated associations repeated associations with flowers, with such flowers, as her such tears as over her tearsAdonis’ over death Adonis’ as the death origin as of the anemones origin of (Giesecke anemones 2014 (Giesecke, p. 53), and2014, her p. art 53), of and using her of art floral of scentsusing of to floral scents to enhance physical comeliness.45 Another possibility is that when selecting to include the god’s image on these funerary objects, Apulian vase-painters and their Greek and Italic clientele considered42 Boston 03.804 Eros’ (ibid., role17 as/75, a primordial p. 742), Swiss creative private collection force, documented (Trendall and first Cambitoglou in ’s 1982, Theogony 18/41, p. 496, (116–22) pl. 177), and New York private collection (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 28/86b, p. 174, pl. 33, 2 and 34, 2). On the last of the three, andHelios, especially wearing emphasized a short red tunic in and the with Orphic rays above cosmogon his head,y rises (Guthrie instead from1935, a flowerpp. 83–84. in a floral 95–97; setting. Kerényi While I believe1950 pp. the72–75; full length West figures 1983, in p. floral 70; surroundsEdmonds very 2013, likely pp. have 163–65). funerary46 connotations, Perhaps it mywas view thought opposes that that Eros’ of Schauenburg, powers couldwho be pointed called toward upon the to presenceensure ofthe Helios continuation and Phrixos of and life the after Ram death. in such contexts,Plato describes which he didEros’ felt conception did not have demonstrable sepulchral associations. See Schauenburg 1957, pp. 208–9. 43 For example on the situla Ruvo 1372 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/36, p. 402), the amphora Berlin 3242 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/235, p. 524), and the volute-krater Trieste S 494 (ibid., 25/2, p. 796). 44 A single woman in a floral surround is found on eleven vases in the sample pool, such as Kassel T. 561 (Trendall and 44 ACambitoglou single woman 1978, 16in/ 78,a floral p. 430) surround and Kiel, Kunsthalleis found on B 562elev (Trendallen vases and inCambitoglou the sample 1983pool,, 27 such/60b, p.as 157,Kassel pl. XXX,T. 561 2). (TrendallOn several and occasions Cambitoglou swans, another 1978, possible 16/78, referencep. 430) and to Aphrodite, Kiel, Kunsthalle also appear B 562 in a floral(Trendall setting and in ApulianCambitoglou vase-painting, 1983, such as several volute-kraters once on the market in Basel (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 17/20-8, pl. 116), London 27/60b,(ibid., 22 /p.561b, 157, p. 217,pl. pl.XXX, LVI, 2). 7), On and Newseveral York occasions (ibid., 27/67e, swan p. 284).s, another possible reference to Aphrodite, also appear in a floral setting in Apulian vase-painting, such as several volute-kraters once on the market in Basel (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 17/20-8, pl. 116), London (ibid., 22/561b, p. 217, pl. LVI, 7), and New York (ibid., 27/67e, p. 284). 45 For example, in her seduction of Anchises: Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 58–67 (trans. Martin L. West, 2003, Loeb Edition, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, pp. 164–65). 46 This concept was perhaps even jokingly referred to by Aristophanes in his Birds (693–701).

Arts 2019, 8, 71 11 of 30 enhance physical comeliness.45 Another possibility is that when selecting to include the god’s image on these funerary objects, Apulian vase-painters and their Greek and Italic clientele considered Eros’ role as a primordial creative force, documented first in Hesiod’s Theogony (116–22) and especially emphasized in the Orphic cosmogony (Guthrie 1935, pp. 83–84. 95–97; Kerényi 1950; West 1983, p. 70; Edmonds 2013, pp. 163–65).46 Perhaps it was thought that Eros’ powers could be called upon to ensure the continuation of life after death. Plato describes Eros’ conception as taking place in the garden of Zeus during the banquet celebrating the birth of Aphrodite47, and mythical seductions repeatedly happen in fertile flowery meadows or gardens, including the hieros gamos of Hera and Zeus48 and the abductions of Persephone49 and Europa50. Eros’ regular ties to the vegetal realm in literature as well as visual culture, as Cabrera has pointed out, suggest that flora was considered both by-product of the god’s procreative powers and the ideal setting for reproduction to occur (Cabrera 2005, pp. 153–55). However, most occupants of the extravagant Apulian floral tendrils are isolated heads rather than full-length figures, typically truncated at the base of the neck and rising from flowers or acanthus leaves.51 The most frequent variations, appearing on over 700 vases, are those of women (Figures2 and4). Occasionally they are flanked by Erotes, perhaps identifying the head as that of Aphrodite, but such easy recognition is relatively rare.52 Generally, the female heads are indistinguishable from their mortal and divine full-length counterparts on South Italian vases, and even when they are given possible indications of immortal status, such as polos-crowns53 or a nimbus54, they are still too indeterminate to afford more specific conclusions (Figure 11).

45 For example, in her seduction of Anchises: Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 58–67 (trans. Martin L. West, 2003, Loeb Edition, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, pp. 164–65). 46 This concept was perhaps even jokingly referred to by Aristophanes in his Birds (693–701). 47 Plato, 203b-c. Here Eros’ parents are Poros (Resource) and Penia (Poverty). 48 , XIV, 347–351. Another example of sexual relations set in a lush floral surround is ’s liaison with Medusa (see Hesiod, Theogony 279). 49 Homeric Hymn to , 1–21. A narcissus flower here is blamed for distracting with its seductive scent and beauty, giving the opportunity to sieze her by force. Cabrera(2005, p. 159) argues that the collection of fruits and flowers by girls on the cusp of marriage is a metaphor for their nuptials, in which they too will be “gathered” and moved to a new home. She proposes that this collection was understood as a precursor to the journey to salvation after death. 50 Hesiod, fr. 140 (Merkelbach and West 1967) and Bacchylides, Fragmenta 10. 51 Heads in floral surrounds occur over six times as often as their full-length counterparts, occurring on 910 vases in Trendall and Cambitoglou’s publications. For the use and significance of the isolated head in South Italian vase-painting, see Heuer 2011 and Heuer 2015. I disagree with García’s assertion (García 2015, pp. 61–67) that this motif was drawn directly from Pausias’ famed portrait of Glycera with her floral garlands, as it is currently impossible to determine whether the painting predates the first appearance of heads in floral surrounds on Apulian vases and the abbreviation of the human form is a rarity in Greek art, but rather is a proclivity of Italic visual culture. 52 For female heads flanked by Erotes, refer to Naples 3221 (inv. 81954, Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/43, p. 497) and Ruvo 1092 (ibid., 23/226, p. 753) for examples. 53 See Parma C. 96 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/64, p. 408) and Bonn 3025 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 29/116c, p. 362). 54 As seen on Bologna 567 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 23/19, p. 728) and St. Petersburg 578 (St. 354, ibid., 23/21, p. 728). Arts 2019, 8, 71 12 of 30 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 33

Figure 11. Bologna,Bologna, Museo Museo Civico Civico Archeologico Archeologico G 475 G 475 Apulian Apulian volute-krater, volute-krater, Patera Patera Painter, Painter, ca. 340–330ca. 340–330 B.C. B.C.Female Female head headin three-quarter in three-quarter view to view left surrounded to left surrounded by nimbus by and nimbus flanked and by flanked floral tendrilsby floral (detail tendrils of (detailneck on of obverse neck on side). obverse Author’s side). Author’sphoto. photo.

Heads of youths or bearded men are likewise challenging for the same reasons as are heads of indeterminate gender,gender, like like the the winged winged heads heads that that resemble resemble Nike Nike as much as much they they do Eros, do Eros, a popular a popular figure 55 figurein Apulian in Apulian vase-painting vase-painting often shownoften shown in highly in highly effeminate effeminate guise guise(Figure55 (Figure 12). Another 12). Another head head type typeof unclear of unclear sex is sex one is that one wears that awears Phrygian a Phrygian cap, which cap, haswhich been has interpreted been interpreted as an Amazon, as an Amazon, ArtemisBendis, an Bendis, Arimasp, an Paris,Arimasp, and evenParis, and even56, theOrpheus latter perhaps56, the latter even aperhaps reference even to , a reference which, to withOrphism, its promises which, with of a blissfulits promises hereafter of a forblissful its adherents, hereafter seemsfor its toadherents, have found seems particularly to have found fertile particularlyground in southern fertile ground Italy and in Sicily.southern57 (Figure Italy and13) WithSicily. the57 exception(Figure 13) of With the few the heads exception of of the or few in floral settings58, the vague identity of the heads seems to have been wholly intentional.

55 For example, see the winged head on the reverse of a volute-krater by the Baltimore Painter now in a 55 For example, see the winged head on the reverse of a volute-krater by the Baltimore Painter now in a private collection privatein Naples collection (Trendall andin Naples Cambitoglou (Trendall 1982 ,and 27/27, Cambitoglo p. 866, pl.u 325, 1982, 2). On27/27, the ambiguityp. 866, pl. of 325, winged 2). On heads the inambiguity South Italian of wingedvase-painting: heads (Cambitoglou in South 1954Italian, p. 121;vase-painting: Schauenburg 1957(Cambitoglou, p. 212; Schauenburg 1954, p.1962 121;, p. 37;Schauenburg Schauenburg 19741957,, pp. p. 169–86; 212; Schauenburg 1981 1962,, pp. p. 467–69; 37; Schaue Schauenburgnburg 1974, 1982, pp. 250–5;169–86; and Schauenburg Schauenburg 1984b1981,, pp. 155–57).467–69; Schauenburg 1982, 56 Examples include Vatican W4 (inv. 17162, Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/60, p. 408), Bari 6270 (ibid., 16/41, p. 417, pl. 154, 1-2),pp. 250–5; and Ruvo and 409 Schauenburg (Trendall and 1984b, Cambitoglou pp. 155–57). 1982, 17 /40, p. 463). For the identification of heads wearing Phrygian caps in 56 ExamplesSouth Italian include vase-painting: Vatican (Schauenburg W4 (inv. 17162, 1974, pp. Trendall 171–72 and and 174–85; Cambitoglou Schmidt 1975 1978,, pp. 15/60, 130–32; p.Schauenburg 408), Bari 6270 1981 ,(ibid., p. 468; 16/41,Schauenburg p. 417, 1982 pl., pp. 154, 253–55; 1-2), Schauenburg and Ruvo 1984a 409, p.(Trend 364; andall Kossatz-Deißmannand Cambitoglou 1990 1982,, pp. 517–20).17/40, p. 463). For the 57 identificationA brief bibliography of heads of Orphism: wearing (Rohde Phrygian 1907, pp.caps 335–61; in South Guthrie Italian 1935 ; vaseMead-painting: 1965; Orfismo (Schau inenburg Magna Grecia1974, 1975pp.; Detienne 1979; Edmonds 2013). The presence of Orphic worship in Magna Graecia is supported by ancient texts that closely 171–72associate and the cult174–85; with theSchmidt Pythagorean 1975, movementpp. 130–32; in MagnaSchauenb Graeciaurg (Herodotus1981, p. 468; 2.81; Schauenburg Diogenes Laertius 1982, 8.8). pp. Pythagoras 253–55; Schauenburgemigrated from 1984a, Samos top. Croton364; and around Kossatz-Deißmann 520 B.C. and is believed 1990, pp. to have 517–20). died in Metaponto at the end of the sixth century 57 AB.C. brief His followersbibliography established of Orphism: so-called (Rohde clubhouses 1907, throughout pp. 335–61; southern Guthrie Italy and1935; Sicily Mead until 1965; ca. 450–415 Orfismo B.C., in when Magna they were destroyed during an outbreak of civil unrest (Polybius 2.39). The most concrete evidence for the practice of Orphism in Grecia 1975; Detienne 1979; Edmonds 2013). The presence of Orphic worship in Magna Graecia is Magna Graecia is provided by the famous inscribed gold lamellae, or tablets, found in tombs in Lucania at Hipponium, supportedThurii, and Petelia;by ancient see (Kern texts 1922 that; Pugliese closely Carratelli associate 1988 ,the pp. 162–70;cult with Maddoli the 1996Pythagorean, pp. 495–96; movement Pugliese Carratelli in Magna 2003; GraeciaGraf and (Herodotus Johnston 2007 2.81;; Bernab Diogenesé and Jim Laertiusénez San Crist8.8).ó Pybalthagoras 2008). emigrated from Samos to Croton around 520 58 B.C.For aand head is of believed Pan, refer to to have Vatican died AA 2in (inv. Metaponto 18255, Trendall at the and end Cambitoglou of the sixth 1978 century, 8/13, p. B.C. 194), His and followers for satyrs, see St. Petersburg 583 = St. 816 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/63, pp. 468–69) and New York, Fleischmann coll. F 99 established(Trendall and so-called Cambitoglou clubhouses 1991–1992 ,throughout 18/293b, p. 162, southern pl. XLI, 3).Italy and Sicily until ca. 450–415 B.C., when they were destroyed during an outbreak of civil unrest (Polybius 2.39). The most concrete evidence for the practice of Orphism in Magna Graecia is provided by the famous inscribed gold lamellae, or tablets, found in tombs in Lucania at Hipponium, Thurii, and Petelia; see (Kern 1922; Pugliese Carratelli 1988, pp. 162–70; Maddoli 1996, pp. 495–96; Pugliese Carratelli 2003; Graf and Johnston 2007; Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal 2008).

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 33

Arts 2019,heads8, 71 of satyrs or Pan in floral settings58, the vague identity of the heads seems to have been wholly 13 of 30 intentional.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 33

comments regarding on the body of a volute-krater in Boston61 (Figure 10), the death of Figure 12. Boston 89.376 Apulian oinochoe (shape 1), White Sakkos Painter, ca. 320–310 B.C. Winged FigureHippolytos 12. Boston by 89.376the Darius Apulian Painter oinochoe on a volute-krater (shape 1), White in London Sakkos62 Painter, (Figure ca. 13), 320–310 or the B.C.gradually Winged head in three-quarter view to left emerging from a flower and flanked by floral tendrils. Photograph head in three-quarter view to left emerging from a flower and flanked by floral tendrils.63 Photograph © petrifying© Museum Niobe of Fineweeping Arts, atBoston. the tomb of her lost children on a loutrophoros in Malibu. (Figure 14). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In only one instance is such a head inscribed, labeled as Aura (“Breeze”) on the neck of a volute-krater now in the British Museum.59 Either the meaning of the heads was so recognizable to the ancient viewer that further iconographic or written identifiers were deemed unnecessary or the ambiguity was desirable, perhaps to allow for greater flexibility in interpretation and function dependent upon the user’s ethnic and religious background in the cultural melting pot of pre-Roman Italy and Sicily.60 Nevertheless, the image of a head springing forth from vegetation and surrounded by it does visually imply that the iconographic combination has to do with concepts of the cyclical continuation of life, a crucial component of nature and eschatological beliefs. This interpretation is greatly strengthened by examining the types of scenes painted in conjunction with floral tendrils on Apulian vases. Flowering vines and their inhabitants often occur as secondary decoration on large-scale vases whose primary décor consists of illustrations of mythological stories involving the demise of one or more individuals, such as the beheading of Thersites at the hand of for his disparaging

58 For a head of Pan, refer to Vatican AA 2 (inv. 18255, Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/13, p. 194), and for satyrs, see St. Petersburg 583 = St. 816 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/63, pp. 468–69) and New York, Fleischmann coll. F 99 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/293b, p. 162, pl. XLI, 3). 59 London, British Museum F 277: (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/5, p. 193). 60 Refer to Heuer (forthcoming).

Figure 13. London, British Museum F 279 Apulian volute-krater, Darius Painter, ca. 340–320 B.C. Head wearingFigure Phrygian13. London, cap British rising Museum from red F 279 flower Apulian in floral volute surround-krater, Darius (neck) Painter, and the ca. death 340–320 of HippolytosB.C. (body). PhotographHead wearing© PhrygianThe Trustees cap rising of the from British red flow Museum.er in floral surround (neck) and the death of Hippolytos (body). Photograph © The Trustees of the British Museum.

The rescue of figures from certain death, either through heroic intervention or the granting of immortality (sometimes via forcible abduction by a deity), are also paired with floral tendrils. For example, a female head in a floral surround appears above Perseus saving Andromeda on a loutrophoros by the Darius Painter in Naples64 and above Aphrodite and Persephone pleading for Adonis’ life in the upper register of another loutrophoros by the same hand in New York65 (Figure

61 Boston 03.804—from Ceglie del Campo, possibly by the Loebekke Group (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/75, p. 742). 62 London, British Museum F 279: (ibid., 18/17, p. 487). 63 Malibu 82.AE.16—attributed to the Painter of Louvre MNB 1148 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 20/278a, p. 100, pl. XIX, 1–2. An illustration of the same scene with floral tendrils also appears on Taranto 8935 from Canosa and Naples 3246 (inv. 82267), earlier amphorae by the Varrese Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 13/4, p. 338 and 13/22, p. 341, respectively). 64 Naples 3225 (inv. 82266), from Canosa (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/58, p. 500). Other vases with female heads among flowering vines and the rescue of Andromeda include Bari 5591 (ibid., 28/107, p. 928), a hydria by the Darius Painter once on the Zurich market (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 18/63a, p. 78, pl. XI, 3–4), and a hydria in a German private collection attributed to the Baltimore Painter (ibid., 27/60a, p. 156, pl. XXX, 1). 65 New York 11.210.3 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/20, p. 489, pl. 174, 2).

Arts 2019, 8, 71 14 of 30

In only one instance is such a head inscribed, labeled as Aura (“Breeze”) on the neck of a volute-krater now in the British Museum.59 Either the meaning of the heads was so recognizable to the ancient viewer that further iconographic or written identifiers were deemed unnecessary or the ambiguity was desirable, perhaps to allow for greater flexibility in interpretation and function dependent upon the user’s ethnic and religious background in the cultural melting pot of pre-Roman Italy and Sicily.60 Nevertheless, the image of a head springing forth from vegetation and surrounded by it does visually imply that the iconographic combination has to do with concepts of the cyclical continuation of life, a crucial component of nature and eschatological beliefs. This interpretation is greatly strengthened by examining the types of scenes painted in conjunction with floral tendrils on Apulian vases. Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 33 Flowering vines and their inhabitants often occur as secondary decoration on large-scale vases whose15). The primary lush flora décor also consists appears of illustrationsin conjunction of mythological with representations stories involving of the Underworld the demise of and one its or inhabitants,more individuals, exemplified such asby the the beheading Underworld of Thersites Painter’s atname-vase the hand ofin AchillesMunich fordepicting his disparaging Orpheus 61 beforecomments the palace regarding of Hades Penthesilea and Persephone, on the body perhaps of a volute-krater with a family in Boston of Dionysian(Figure or 10Orphic), the deathinitiates of 62 besideHippolytos him, by in the the Darius presence Painter of onSisyphos, a volute-krater Tantalos, in Londonand Herakles(Figure taking 13), or Kerberos, the gradually among petrifying other 63 denizensNiobe weeping of the afterlife at the tomb66 (Figure of her 16). lost children on a loutrophoros in Malibu. (Figure 14).

Figure 14.14. Malibu,Malibu, J. J. Paul Paul Getty Getty Museum Museum 82.AE.16 82.AE.16 Apulian Apulian red-figure red-figure loutrophoros, loutrophoros, Painter Painter of Louvre of LouvreMNB 1148, MNB ca. 1148, 330 B.C.ca. 330 Winged B.C. femaleWinged wearing female awear polosing and a polos terminating and terminating tendrils in tendrils floral surround in floral (neck)surround and (neck) the mourning and the mourning of Niobe in of a Niobe naiskos in with a na Pelopsiskos with and Pelops Hippodamia and Hippodamia driving up indriving a chariot up in to aurge chariot her toto stop urge grieving her to (body).stop grieving Digital (body). image courtesyDigital image of the Gettycourtesy Open of Contentthe Getty Program. Open Content Program.

59 London, British Museum F 277: (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/5, p. 193). 60 Refer to Heuer(forthcoming). 61 Boston 03.804—from Ceglie del Campo, possibly by the Loebekke Group (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/75, p. 742). 62 London, British Museum F 279: (ibid., 18/17, p. 487). 63 Malibu 82.AE.16—attributed to the Painter of Louvre MNB 1148 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 20/278a, p. 100, pl. XIX, 1–2. An illustration of the same scene with floral tendrils also appears on Taranto 8935 from Canosa and Naples 3246 (inv. 82267), earlier amphorae by the Varrese Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 13/4, p. 338 and 13/22, p. 341, respectively).

66 Munich 3297 (J. 849), from Canosa (ibid., 18/282, p. 533, pl. 194; Cabrera 2018). Other depictions of the Underworld paired with figures or heads in floral surrounds occur on Karlsruhe B 4 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 16/81, p. 431); Bari, Perrone coll. 14 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/225, p. 523); Altamura, Museo Archeologico Nazionale A 10192 (ibid., 23/293, p. 763); Bari 2396 (ibid., 27/16, p. 863); St. Petersburg inv. 1716 = St. 426 (ibid., 27/19, p. 864); a volute-krater by the Baltimore Painter in a Swiss private collection (ibid., 27/22a, p. 865, pl. 325, 1); Kiel B 585 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 29/A1, p. 351); and Matera, Museo Archeologico Nazionale “D.Ridola” 164510 (ibid., 29/A2, p. 351).

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The rescue of figures from certain death, either through heroic intervention or the granting of immortality (sometimes via forcible abduction by a deity), are also paired with floral tendrils. For example, a female head in a floral surround appears above Perseus saving Andromeda on a loutrophoros by the Darius Painter in Naples64 and above Aphrodite and Persephone pleading for Adonis’ life in the upper register of another loutrophoros by the same hand in New York65 (Figure 15). The lush flora also appears in conjunction with representations of the Underworld and its inhabitants, exemplified by the Underworld Painter’s name-vase in Munich depicting Orpheus before the palace of Hades and Persephone, perhaps with a family of Dionysian or Orphic initiates beside him, in the presence of Sisyphos, Tantalos, and Herakles taking Kerberos, among other denizens of the afterlife66

Arts(Figure 2019 ,16 8, ).x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 33

Figure 15.15. NewNew York, York, Metropolitan Metropolitan Museum Museum of Art of 11.120.3a,bArt 11.120.3a,b Apulian Apulian loutrophoros, loutrophoros, Darius Painter,Darius Painter,ca. 340–330 ca. 340–330 B.C. Female B.C. head Female in floral head surround in floral surro emergingund fromemerging acanthus from (lid), acanth femaleus (lid), head female rising head from risingflower from and flower flanked and by flanked floral tendrils by floral (shoulder), tendrils (shoulder), male deity male (Hades? deity Zeus?) (Hades? adjudicating Zeus?) adjudicating between betweenPersephone Persephone and Aphrodite and Aphrodite regarding Adonis’regarding immortality Adonis’ immortality (upper register (upper on body), register grave on stelebody), between grave steleyouths between and women youths (lowerand women register (lower on body). register Image on body).© The Image Metropolitan © The Metropolitan Museum ofMuseum Art. of Art.

64 Naples 3225 (inv. 82266), from Canosa (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/58, p. 500). Other vases with female heads among flowering vines and the rescue of Andromeda include Bari 5591 (ibid., 28/107, p. 928), a hydria by the Darius Painter once on the Zurich market (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1983, 18/63a, p. 78, pl. XI, 3–4), and a hydria in a German private collection attributed to the Baltimore Painter (ibid., 27/60a, p. 156, pl. XXX, 1). 65 New York 11.210.3 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/20, p. 489, pl. 174, 2). 66 Munich 3297 (J. 849), from Canosa (ibid., 18/282, p. 533, pl. 194; Cabrera 2018). Other depictions of the Underworld paired with figures or heads in floral surrounds occur on Karlsruhe B 4 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 16/81, p. 431); Bari, Perrone coll. 14 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/225, p. 523); Altamura, Museo Archeologico Nazionale A 10192 (ibid., 23/293, p. 763); Bari 2396 (ibid., 27/16, p. 863); St. Petersburg inv. 1716 = St. 426 (ibid., 27/19, p. 864); a volute-krater by the Baltimore Painter in a Swiss private collection (ibid., 27/22a, p. 865, pl. 325, 1); Kiel B 585 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 29/A1, p. 351); and Matera, Museo Archeologico Nazionale “D.Ridola” 164510 (ibid., 29/A2, p. 351).

Figure 16. Munich, Staatliche Antikensammlungen inv. 3297 Apulian volute-krater from Canosa, Underworld Painter, ca. 330–320 B.C. Female head in floral band above and Helios in quadrigae below (neck) and Underworld scene featuring Persephone and Hades in their palace (body). Photograph provided by the Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek München, Photo: Renate Kühling.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 33

Figure 15. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 11.120.3a,b Apulian loutrophoros, Darius Painter, ca. 340–330 B.C. Female head in floral surround emerging from acanthus (lid), female head rising from flower and flanked by floral tendrils (shoulder), male deity (Hades? Zeus?) adjudicating Arts 2019between, 8, 71 Persephone and Aphrodite regarding Adonis’ immortality (upper register on body), grave16 of 30 stele between youths and women (lower register on body). Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Figure 16.16. Munich, Staatliche Antikensammlungen inv. 3297 3297 Apulian Apulian volute-krater from from Canosa, Underworld Painter,Painter, ca. ca. 330–320 330–320 B.C. B.C. Female Female head head in floral in bandfloral aboveband Seleneabove and Selene Helios and in quadrigaeHelios in belowquadrigae (neck) below and Underworld (neck) and sceneUnderworld featuring scene Persephone featuring and Persephone Hades in their and palace Hades (body). in their Photograph palace provided(body). Photograph by the Staatliche provided Antikensammlungen by the Staatliche und Antikensammlungen Glyptothek München, und Photo: Glyptothek Renate Kühling.München, Photo: Renate Kühling. Even more frequent is the pairing of floral tendrils with scenes of figures bearing offerings around funerary monuments, either in the form of a naiskos, a small -like shrine, or, less often, a rectangular stele, seen on hundreds of Apulian vases67 (Figure 10). Often the placement of the vegetal décor on the neck and shoulders of vases makes it appear as though it springs forth from the top of the grave marker itself, a visual expression of life coming forth from death. On Apulian and Campanian vases, grave markers occasionally take the form of a statue of the deceased standing on a rectangular base framed by spiraling vines68 (Figure 17).

67 One of the earliest examples is on Bari 1394, a volute-krater associated with the Iliupersis Painter, who was the first to paint this type of funerary scene in South Italian red-figure. On it, a frontal female head with long, loose curly hair is surrounded by spiraling tendrils on the neck directly above a grave stele topped by a helmet on the body of the vase, which is surrounded by women and men bringing offerings (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/101, p. 203). A few other examples of floral vines above grave naiskoi are London, British Museum F 282 by the Varrese Painter (ibid., 13/27, p. 341–42), Bonn 100 by the Lycurgus Painter (ibid., 16/14, p. 417, pl. 150, 1–2), Bari 20054 by the Gioia del Colle Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/1, p. 457), and Malibu 80.AE.40 by the Patera Painter (ibid., 23/15, p. 728). 68 For an Apulian example, see St. Petersburg 567 = St. 878 by the Iliupersis Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 8/12, p. 194; Lohmann 1979, p. 209, pl. 9, 1). For a Campanian piece, refer to the hydria New York 06.1021.230 by the Olcott Painter (Trendall 1967, p. 411, no. 342, pl. 165, 3). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 33

Even more frequent is the pairing of floral tendrils with scenes of figures bearing offerings around funerary monuments, either in the form of a naiskos, a small temple-like shrine, or, less often, a rectangular stele, seen on hundreds of Apulian vases67 (Figure 10). Often the placement of the vegetal décor on the neck and shoulders of vases makes it appear as though it springs forth from the top of the grave marker itself, a visual expression of life coming forth from death. On Apulian andArts 2019 Campanian, 8, 71 vases, grave markers occasionally take the form of a statue of the deceased standing17 of 30 on a rectangular base framed by spiraling vines68 (Figure 17).

Figure 17. NewNew York, York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 06. 06.1021.2301021.230 Campanian hydria, hydria, Olcott Olcott Painter, Painter, ca. 360–330 360–330 B.C. B.C. Funerary Funerary statue statue of of a a bride bride within within an an arbor arbor of of tendrils tendrils flanked flanked by by youths youths and and women. women. Image © TheThe Metropolit Metropolitanan Museum Museum of of Art. Art.

Similar floralsflorals and tendrilstendrils occuroccur in,in, onon6969, andand besidebeside7070 funerary naiskoi; naiskoi containing plant-motifs occur on at least 53 Apulian vases and first first appear in the work of the Lycurgus Painter during the mid-4th century B.C. ((LohmannLohmann 19791979,, pp.pp. 115, 127–30; Schauenburg 1957,1957, pp. 198–202; 198–202; Jucker 19611961,, p. 214) 214)71 (Figure(Figure 18).18). Starting Starting in in the the late late 4th 4th century century B.C., B.C., naiskoi naiskoi made made of of local local limestone limestone were built in the cemeteries of Taranto (Klumbach 1937; Bernabò Brea 1952; Carter 1970; Carter 1973;

Carter 1976), and at least several had floral decoration that strongly resembles their earlier painted 67 One of the earliest examples is on Bari 1394, a volute-krater associated with the Iliupersis Painter, who was ceramic counterparts.72 (Figure 19) A floral scroll frieze with a female head in the center, nearly identical the first to paint this type of funerary scene in South Italian red-figure. On it, a frontal female head with to thoselong, loose seen incurly bands hair onis surrounded the bellies ofby Apulian spiraling amphoraetendrils on andthe neck loutrophoroi, directly above was a carved grave stele in relief topped in the by entrya helmet passage on tothe a body 4th century of the vase, B.C. chamberwhich is surroun tomb uncoveredded by women in the and Palazzo men bringing Palmieri offerings garden (Trendall in Lecce (Bendinelliand Cambitoglou 1915, pp. 1978, 10–11, 8/101, 18–19, p. 203). 23–24). A few other examples of floral vines above grave naiskoi are London, British Museum F 282 by the Varrese Painter (ibid., 13/27, p. 341–42), Bonn 100 by the Lycurgus Painter (ibid., 16/14, p. 417, pl. 150, 1–2), Bari 20054 by the Gioia del Colle Painter (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 69 17/1,E.g., on p. the457), base and of theMalibu naiskos 80.AE.40 on the obverse by the ofPatera New YorkPainter 1995.45.1 (ibid., ( Trendall23/15, p. and 728). Cambitoglou 1983, 18/16d, p. 72). 6870 For example,an Apulian on Trieste example, 7598 (Trendall see St. and Petersburg Cambitoglou 567 1982 =, 28St./312, 878 p. 950,by pl.the 372, Iliupersis 5–6). Painter (Trendall and 71 CambitoglouLohmann records 1978, 53 Apulian,8/12, p. six194; Lucanian, Lohmann and 1979, two Campanian p. 209, pl. pieces.9, 1). For E.g., a Florence Campanian 4048 (ibid.,piece, 17 refer/59, p. to 467); the London,hydria NewBritish York Museum 06.1021.230 F 353 (ibid., by 19the/129, Olcott pl. 208, Painter 6); and (Trendall Bologna G1967, 327/ 514p. 411, (ibid., no. 20 342,/225, pl. p. 583).165, 3). 72 69 See the late 4th–early 3rd century wall reliefs Taranto inv. 51387 (from Chiesa di Sant’Antonio in Taranto) and Taranto inv. E.g.,51388 on (from the Corso base Piemonteof the naiskos in Taranto). on the A later obverse example of isNew the piercedYork 1995.45.1 sima from (Trendall Via degli Angioini and Cambitoglou in Taranto (Taranto 1983, 18/16d,inv. 20929). p. 72). The dating of the Tarentine limestone naiskoi continues to be debated, with the earliest placed between 330 70 Forand example, 300 B.C. and on productionTrieste 7598 continuing (Trendall possibly and Cambitoglou as late as the 1982 second 28/312, century p. 950, B.C.; pl. see 372, (Lippolis 5–6). 1987; Lippolis 1990, 71 Lohmannpp. 15–71; andrecords Lippolis 53 Apulian, 2007). Based six Lucanian, on extant archaeological and two Campanian remains, thepieces. earliest E.g., naiskoi Floren occurringce 4048 (ibid., on vases 17/59, do not p. replicate contemporary stone monuments in Apulia, although the sculptural motifs within the naiskoi echo subjects found on Attic grave stelai of the late fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Todisco has recently proposed that the Tarentine monuments were inspired by earlier representations on Apulian vases, a motif perhaps initially influenced by mainland Greek grave monuments and developed to meet the needs of Italic aristocratic patrons (Todisco 2017; Todisco 2018). For a broader discussion of the various types of Tarentine funerary markers and the various subject matter seen in funerary sculpture, see (Lippolis 1994, pp. 109–28). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 33

were built in the cemeteries of Taranto (Klumbach 1937; Bernabò Brea 1952; Carter 1970; Carter 1973; Carter 1976), and at least several had floral decoration that strongly resembles their earlier painted ceramic counterparts.72 (Figure 19) A floral scroll frieze with a female head in the center, nearly identical to those seen in bands on the bellies of Apulian amphorae and loutrophoroi, was carved in Arts 2019relief, 8, 71in the entry passage to a 4th century B.C. chamber tomb uncovered in the Palazzo Palmieri18 of 30 garden in Lecce (Bendinelli 1915, pp. 10–11, 18–19, 23–24).

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 33

sign of initiation needed by the deceased to enter into a paradisiacal afterlife blessed by Dionysos and Eros, as well as a symbol of the promised immortal transformation of the believers through death.75 Painted floral garlands and suspended wreaths decorate the walls of southern Italian tombs, especially at Paestum (Pontrandolfo and Rouveret 1992, pp. 33–36 and Andreae 2007, pp. 46–47) 76 (Figure 20), and particularly distinctive are the flowering plants, including lilies and rock-roses in a barrel-vaulted tomb in Taranto, which are reminiscent of the blossom types on Apulian vases (Pontrandolfo 1990, p. 379; Pontrandolfo 1996, p. 470; Lippolis 1994, p. 135).77 At times, the deceased were buried wearing elaborate wreaths and floral diadems strongly resembling the draftsmanship of Apulian vase-painters, such as that found in the tomb of the Daunian aristocratic woman Opaka Sabaleida, dated to the late 3rd century B.C. (De Juliis 1984, pp. 122–24)78 (Figure 21). Indeed, descriptions of the underworld itself often include flowers. In the , the dead in Hades are said to occupy fields of asphodel, a plant belonging to the lily family (11.539; 11.573; 24.13).79 Pindar describes the islands of the blessed, the afterlife awaiting the virtuous, as a

place where “flowers of gold are ablaze, some from radiant trees on land, while the water nurtures Figureothers;Figure 18.andBologna, 18. these Bologna, they Museo Museoweave Civico Civico garlands Archeologico Archeologico for their G Ghands 327 327 Apulian Apulian and crowns amphora,amphora, for Pain Paintertheirter heads”of of Würzburg Würzburg (Olympian 853, 853, ca.2, 340–33073–75).ca. Even340–330 B.C. Naiskosin B.C.a comedic Naiskos containing rendition containing vegetation of vegetation Hades, and thistle Aranistophanesd thistle flower flower with notes with woman Persepho woman holding ne’sholding blossoming mirror mirror and and branchgrove withand flowerybranch suspended with meadows suspended fillet on full left filletof and roses on youth left (Frogs and holding youth 441 and ho handledlding 449). handled patera patera on right. on right. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

Youths and women flanking these tomb monuments frequently bring branches and flowers73 (e.g., the youth on the lower right on the reverse of Figure 10), a practice that corresponds well with literary references to vegetation being laid in graves (Sophocles, Elektra 896; Euripides, Trojan Women 1144 and 1247).74 Cabrera (2005, pp. 160–62) has interpreted the offering of such flowers as a

467); London, British Museum F 353 (ibid., 19/129, pl. 208, 6); and Bologna G 327/514 (ibid., 20/225, p. 583). 72 See the late 4th–early 3rd century wall reliefs Taranto inv. 51387 (from Chiesa di Sant’Antonio in Taranto) and Taranto inv. 51388 (from Corso Piemonte in Taranto). A later example is the pierced sima from Via degli Angioini in Taranto (Taranto inv. 20929). The dating of the Tarentine limestone naiskoi continues to be debated, with the earliest placed between 330 and 300 B.C. and production continuing possibly as late as the second century B.C.; see (Lippolis 1987; Lippolis 1990, pp. 15–71; and Lippolis 2007). Based on extant archaeological remains, the earliest naiskoi occurring on vases do not replicate contemporary stone monuments in Apulia, although the sculptural motifs within the naiskoi echo subjects found on Attic grave stelai of the late fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Todisco has recently proposed that the Tarentine monuments were inspired by earlier representations on Apulian vases, a motif perhaps initially influenced by mainland Greek grave monuments and developed to meet the needs of Italic aristocratic patrons

(Todisco 2017; Todisco 2018). For a broader discussion of the various types of Tarentine funerary markers FigureandFigure 19.the various Taranto,19. Taranto, subject Museo Museo matter Archeologico Archeologico seen in fune Nazionale raryNazionale sculpture, in inv.v. see 51388 51388 (Lippolis Limestone Limestone 1994, funerarypp. funerary 109–28). monument monument wall wall 73 relief Suchrelief with as with acanthuson acanthusMunich calyx calyxL 345 and and (Trendall flowering flowering and tendrils tendrils Cambit fromfromoglou Corso Corso 1978, Piemonte Piemonte 15/76, inp. inTaranto,411), Taranto, Bari late late10094th—early 4th—early(Trendall 3rd and 3rd Cambitogloucentury B.C. 1982, Author’s 17/12, photo. p. 459), and London, British Museum F 280 (ibid., 23/273, p. 761). century B.C. Author’s photo. 74 Such offerings of flowers were originally not only expressions of piety, but also a symbol of the beauty of 73 Youths and women flanking these tomb monuments frequently bring branches and flowers (e.g., thethe youth deceased. on theSee (Lohmann lower right 1979, on pp. the 119–20) reverse for discussion of Figure of 10 flowers), a practice mentioned that in funerary corresponds epigrams. well with literary75 references To support her to interpretation, vegetation being Cabrera laid points in graves to exam (Sophocles,ples of Eros on Elektra Apulian 896; vases Euripides, where the god Trojan holds Women a 1144 andflower, 1247). sometimes74 Cabrera enormous(2005, pp.in scale, 160–62) that hashe occasionally interpreted offers the otoff eringmortals, of such such as flowers on Vienna as a623 sign of (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 20/299, p. 592, pl. 227, 1) and Naples, private coll. 11 (ibid., 19/86, p. 554, pl. 207, 4). 76 For example, Paestum, Andriuolo necropolis tomb 53 (east slab) and Paestum, Arcioni necropolis tomb 271 73 Such as(east on Munichslab). Spiral L 345 tendrils, (Trendall wreaths, and Cambitoglou garlands, 1978and, palmettes 15/76, p. 411), occur Bari in 1009Campanian (Trendall painted and Cambitoglou tombs as well.1982, 17/12, p. 459),Refer and to London, (Benassai British 2001, Museum pp. 26–29, F 280 45–46, (ibid., 50–54, 23/273, 71–79, p. 761). 137–43, 146–51). 74 Such77 o Taranto,fferings oftomba flowers a camera were originally 16, 4th century not only B.C. expressions of piety, but also a symbol of the beauty of the deceased. See (Lohmann78 Taranto 1979 inv., pp. 22.437. 119–20) for discussion of flowers mentioned in funerary epigrams. 79 See also (Baumann 1993, p. 68). Asphodel’s root systems are not damaged during wildfires, which allows the plant to multiply rapidly in land recently cleared by fire. Various species are indigenous to southern Italy (e.g., asphodelus fistulosis, asphodelus microcarpus and asphodelus albus), but they do not appear to have been painted by Apulian artisans. Refer to (Pignatti 2011, vol. 3, pp. 344–47).

Arts 2019, 8, 71 19 of 30 initiation needed by the deceased to enter into a paradisiacal afterlife blessed by Dionysos and Eros, as well as a symbol of the promised immortal transformation of the believers through death.75 Painted floral garlands and suspended wreaths decorate the walls of southern Italian tombs, especially at Paestum (Pontrandolfo and Rouveret 1992, pp. 33–36 and Andreae 2007, pp. 46–47)76 (Figure 20), and particularly distinctive are the flowering plants, including lilies and rock-roses in a barrel-vaulted tomb in Taranto, which are reminiscent of the blossom types on Apulian vases (Pontrandolfo 1990, p. 379; Pontrandolfo 1996, p. 470; Lippolis 1994, p. 135).77 At times, the deceased were buried wearing elaborate wreaths and floral diadems strongly resembling the draftsmanship of Apulian vase-painters, such as that found in the tomb of the Daunian aristocratic woman Opaka Sabaleida, dated to the late 3rd century B.C. (De Juliis 1984, pp. 122–24)78 (Figure 21). Indeed, descriptions of the underworld itself often include flowers. In the Odyssey, the dead in Hades are said to occupy fields of asphodel, a plant belonging to the lily family (11.539; 11.573; 24.13).79 Pindar describes the islands of the blessed, the afterlife awaiting the virtuous, as a place where “flowers of gold are ablaze, some from radiant trees on land, while the water nurtures others; and these they weave garlands for their hands and crowns for their heads” (Olympian 2, 73–75). Even in a comedic rendition of Hades, Aristophanes notes Persephone’s blossoming grove and flowery meadows full of roses (Frogs 441 and 449). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 33

FigureFigure 20. Paestum, 20. Paestum, Arcioni Arcioni necropolis: necropolis: Tomb Tomb 271,271, east slab slab painted painted with with suspended suspended flower flower garland garland over assortedover assorted small small vases, vases, birds, birds, and and a a phiale phiale containing containing eggs eggs (?), (?), ca. ca. 400–375 400–375 B.C. B.C. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

75 To support her interpretation, Cabrera points to examples of Eros on Apulian vases where the god holds a flower, sometimes enormous in scale, that he occasionally offers to mortals, such as on Vienna 623 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 20/299, p. 592, pl. 227, 1) and Naples, private coll. 11 (ibid., 19/86, p. 554, pl. 207, 4). 76 For example, Paestum, Andriuolo necropolis tomb 53 (east slab) and Paestum, Arcioni necropolis tomb 271 (east slab). Spiral tendrils, wreaths, garlands, and palmettes occur in Campanian painted tombs as well. Refer to (Benassai 2001, pp. 26–29, 45–46, 50–54, 71–79, 137–43, 146–51). 77 Taranto, tomba a camera 16, 4th century B.C. 78 Taranto inv. 22.437. 79 See also (Baumann 1993, p. 68). Asphodel’s root systems are not damaged during wildfires, which allows the plant to multiply rapidly in land recently cleared by fire. Various species are indigenous to southern Italy (e.g., asphodelus fistulosis, asphodelus microcarpus and asphodelus albus), but they do not appear to have been painted by Apulian artisans. Refer to (Pignatti 2011, vol. 3, pp. 344–47).

Figure 21. Taranto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale inv. 22437 Gold, carnelian, garnet, and colored enamel diadem from the Tomba degli Ori at Canosa containing the burial of an aristocratic Daunian woman named Opaka Sabaleida, late 3rd—early 2nd century B.C. Author’s photo.

4. Horticulture for the Hereafter? The connection between the funerary realm and flowers and spiraling tendrils for the occupants of ancient Apulia is demonstrated by the vegetation’s appearance in a wide variety of media in mortuary contexts. The effort expended by the region’s vase-painters in creating such complicated floral motifs would suggest that the species they selected to represent was far from accidental, possibly serving as a pictorial language of flowers alluding to the sepulchral function of their products and expressing the hopes of the deceased and their survivors for a continuation of life beyond the grave. Certain native Mediterranean florae are readily identifiable on vases, such as thistles80 and oak acorns81 (Figures 5 and 19). While these plants are noted in ancient texts as

80 See for example on Ruvo 1372 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/36, p. 402), Louvre K 72 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/65, p. 469), and Taranto 51381 (ibid., 18/42a, p. 497). On native thistle species of Italy: Pignatti 2001, vol. 3, pp. 143–67. Lohmann suggests that the thistles in Apulian vase-painting might instead

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Arts 2019, 8, 71Figure 20. Paestum, Arcioni necropolis: Tomb 271, east slab painted with suspended flower garland 20 of 30 over assorted small vases, birds, and a phiale containing eggs (?), ca. 400–375 B.C. Author’s photo.

Figure 21.FigureTaranto, 21. Taranto, Museo Museo Archeologico Archeologico Nazionale Nazionale inv. inv. 22437 22437 Gold, Gold, carnelian, carnelian, garnet, garnet, and colored and colored enamel diadem from the Tomba degli Ori at Canosa containing the burial of an aristocratic Daunian enamel diadem from the Tomba degli Ori at Canosa containing the burial of an aristocratic Daunian woman named Opaka Sabaleida, late 3rd—early 2nd century B.C. Author’s photo. woman named Opaka Sabaleida, late 3rd—early 2nd century B.C. Author’s photo. 4. Horticulture for the Hereafter? 4. Horticulture for the Hereafter? The connection between the funerary realm and flowers and spiraling tendrils for the occupants Theof connectionancient Apulia between is demonstrated the funerary by the realm vegetation’s and flowers appearance and spiraling in a wide tendrils variety for of themedia occupants in of ancientmortuary Apulia is contexts. demonstrated The effort by expended the vegetation’s by the regi appearanceon’s vase-painters in a wide in creating variety such of mediacomplicated in mortuary contexts.floral The motifs effort would expended suggest by that the region’sthe species vase-painters they selected into creatingrepresentsuch was complicatedfar from accidental, floral motifs would suggestpossibly thatserving the as species a pictorial they language selected of to flowers represent alluding was farto the from sepulchral accidental, function possibly of their serving as products and expressing the hopes of the deceased and their survivors for a continuation of life a pictorial language of flowers alluding to the sepulchral function of their products and expressing beyond the grave. Certain native Mediterranean florae are readily identifiable on vases, such as the hopesthistles of the80 and deceased oak acorns and81 (Figures their survivors 5 and 19). for While a continuation these plants ofarelife noted beyond in ancient the grave.texts as Certain 80 81 native Mediterranean florae are readily identifiable on vases, such as thistles and oak acorns (Figures805 and See for 19 example) . While on Ruvo these 1372 plants (Trendall are and noted Cambit inoglou ancient 1978, texts 15/36, asp. 402), potential Louvre sourcesK 72 (Trendall of food, and albeit for the impoverishedCambitoglou 1982, (Alcock 17/65, p.2006 469),, and pp. Taranto 47–48, 51381 55–56), (ibid., and18/42a, for p. their497). On medicinal native thistle qualities, species of Italy: such as the Pignatti 2001, vol. 3, pp. 143–67. Lohmann suggests that the thistles in Apulian vase-painting might instead healing of wounds and stimulation of milk production, neither has a clear symbolic or mythological association with funerary practices or eschatological beliefs.82 Other flower types painted on Apulian vases might have been inspired by plants with multiple health benefits known since antiquity, such as the “tiered” flowers that resemble the chandelier-like sage blossoms, such as Salvia argentea (Pignatti 2011, vol. 2, pp. 502–7; D’Andrea 1982, p. 82; and Baumann 1993, pp. 123–24)83 (Figure 22). However, in most instances, the stylized manner in which the flora on Apulian vases is drawn or the combination of features characteristic of multiple floral genera makes it challenging to identify particular species. For example, the flowers with a high sepal and between six and twelve petals with rounded or rectangular tips often highlighted in added white, could have been inspired by features of a variety of southern Italian wildflowers such as a member of the Silene genus (Baumann 1993, pp. 126–27)84 or the white-tipped petals of the Chrysanthemum coronarium (Pignatti 2011, vol. 3, p. 87) (Figure 23). Some vegetation, such as when different types of flowers spring forth from each other (for example,

80 See for example on Ruvo 1372 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/36, p. 402), Louvre K 72 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 17/65, p. 469), and Taranto 51381 (ibid., 18/42a, p. 497). On native thistle species of Italy: Pignatti 2011, vol. 3, pp. 143–67. Lohmann suggests that the thistles in Apulian vase-painting might instead be safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), a plant found in many Egyptian tombs that was used for oil and to produce a red dye (Lohmann 1979, p. 121). 81 E.g., on the lid of the loutrophoros New York 11.210. 3 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/20, p. 489) and the neck of the volute kraters Berlin 1984.41 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/41b, p. 147). For information on oak species indigenous to southern Italy, see Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, pp. 115–20. 82 The milk thistle (Silybum marianum), which grows abundantly throughout the Italian peninsula and Sicily, was particularly noted in antiquity for its healing qualities and simulation of lactation. For significance of the oak in : (Jashemski and Meyer 2002, p. 157; Giesecke 2014, pp. 93–95). 83 The plant was believed to have such miraculous healing properties that the Latin name for the species was salvia, from the Latin “salvere” (to be in good health). 84 Such as Silene italica (Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, p. 242), Silene vulgaris (ibid., p. 246), Silene latifolia (ibid., p. 252), or Silene dioica (ibid., pp. 252–53). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 33

potential sources of food, albeit for the impoverished (Alcock 2006, pp. 47–48, 55–56), and for their medicinal qualities, such as the healing of wounds and stimulation of milk production, neither has a clear symbolic or mythological association with funerary practices or eschatological beliefs.82 Other flower types painted on Apulian vases might have been inspired by plants with multiple health benefits known since antiquity, such as the “tiered” flowers that resemble the chandelier-like sage blossoms, such as Salvia argentea (Pignatti 2011, vol. 2, pp. 502–7; D’Andrea 1982, p. 82; and Baumann 1993, pp. 123–24)83 (Figure 22). However, in most instances, the stylized manner in which the flora on Apulian vases is drawn or the combination of features characteristic of multiple floral genera makes it challenging to identify particular species. For example, the flowers with a high sepal and Arts 2019, 8, 71between six and twelve petals with rounded or rectangular tips often highlighted in added white, 21 of 30 could have been inspired by features of a variety of southern Italian wildflowers such as a member of the Silene genus (Baumann 1993, pp. 126–27)84 or the white-tipped petals of the Chrysanthemum in Figure 11coronarium), may be(Pignatti flights 2011, of vol. the 3, painter’s p. 87) (Figure fancy, 23). fantasticalSome vegetation, creations such as perhapswhen different thought types appropriateof for a divineflowers or otherworldly spring forth from garden each other setting. (for example, in Figure 11), may be flights of the painter’s fancy, fantastical creations perhaps thought appropriate for a divine or otherworldly garden setting.

(a) (b)

Figure 22.Figure(a) Basel, 22. ( Antikenmuseuma) Basel, Antikenmuseum S 26 ApulianS 26 Apulian hydria, hydr Ganymedeia, Ganymede Painter, Painter, ca.ca. 330–320330–320 B.C. B.C. Naiskos Naiskos containing flowers flanked by women with fans and fillets. Photograph © Antikenmuseum containing flowers flanked by women with fans and fillets. Photograph © Antikenmuseum Basel und Basel und Sammlung Ludwig. (b) Silver sage (Salvia argentea). Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia SammlungArts 2019Commons. Ludwig., 8, x FOR PEER (b) REVIEW Silver sage (Salvia argentea). Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.23 of 33

be safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), a plant found in many Egyptian tombs that was used for oil and to produce a red dye (Lohmann 1979, p. 121). 81 E.g., on the lid of the loutrophoros New York 11.210. 3 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, 18/20, p. 489) and the neck of the volute kraters Berlin 1984.41 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/41b, p. 147). For information on oak species indigenous to southern Italy, see Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, pp. 115–20. 82 The milk thistle (Silybum marianum), which grows abundantly throughout the Italian peninsula and Sicily, was particularly noted in antiquity for its healing qualities and simulation of lactation. For significance of the oak in ancient Greece: (Jashemski and Meyer 2002, p. 157; Giesecke 2014, pp. 93–95). 83 The plant was believed to have such miraculous healing properties that the Latin name for the species was salvia, from the Latin “salvere” (to be in good health). 84 Such as Silene italica (Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, p. 242), Silene vulgaris (ibid., p. 246), Silene latifolia (ibid., p. 252), or Silene dioica (ibid., pp. 252–53).

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 23.Figure(a) London, 23. (a) London, British British Museum Museum F 277 F 277 Apulian Apulian volute-krater, volute-krater, Iliupers Iliupersisis Painter, Painter, ca. 370–350 ca. 370–350 B.C. B.C. Head of Aura (labeled) emerging from flower flanked by tendrils. Note the flower in the upper Head of Aura (labeled) emerging from flower flanked by tendrils. Note the flower in the upper right with white-tipped petals. Photograph © The Trustees of the British Museum. (b) Silene italica. right withPhotograph white-tipped courtesy petals. of Wikimedia Photograph Commons.© The (c) Chrysanthemum Trustees of thecoronarium British. Photograph Museum. courtesy (b) Silene italica. Photographof Wikimedia courtesy ofCommons. Wikimedia Commons. (c) Chrysanthemum coronarium. Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. One exception is the acanthus, from which floral tendrils regularly emerge85 (e.g., Figures 2 and 5). This plant has a long tradition in funerary art, seen on Attic marble anthemia stele starting in the third quarter of the 5th century B.C. (Kurtz and Boardman 1971, p. 124)86, as well as on funerary monuments painted on Classical Attic white-ground lekythoi87 (Figure 24). According to Vitruvius’ anecdotal story, an acanthus plant growing above the grave of a girl who died before marriage was the source of Callimachus’ inspiration for designing the Corinthian column (De Architectura 4.9–10; Jashemski and Meyer 2002, pp. 85–86). There is good reason to believe that other flowers on Apulian

85 For example, on Louvre K 35 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/11, p. 396, pl. 139, 1); Dublin 1880.1106 (ibid., 15/37, p. 402, pl. 142, 1–2); and once Melbourne, Geddes coll. A 5:11 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/334b1, p. 165). 86 Initially the acanthus was not the primary element of decoration of the anthemion and was overshadowed by the finial palmette. Soon the luxurious foliage began predominate and the leaves were almost cut free from the stone. For the significance of acanthus on grave stelai, refer to Froning 1985. See (Jucker 1961) for the later use of acanthus calyxes in Roman funerary portraits. 87 E.g., Berlin 2680 (Oakley 2004, p. 123); Athens, National Musem 1380 (ibid., p. 134); and Athens, National Museum 14517 (ibid., p. 183). An acanthus column marking a grave appears on Athens, 1136 (ibid., p. 199).

Arts 2019, 8, 71 22 of 30

One exception is the acanthus, from which floral tendrils regularly emerge85 (e.g., Figures2 and5). This plant has a long tradition in funerary art, seen on Attic marble anthemia stele starting in the third quarter of the 5th century B.C. (Kurtz and Boardman 1971, p. 124)86, as well as on funerary monuments painted on Classical Attic white-ground lekythoi87 (Figure 24). According to Vitruvius’ anecdotal story, an acanthus plant growing above the grave of a girl who died before marriage was the source of Callimachus’ inspiration for designing the Corinthian column (De Architectura 4.9–10; Jashemski and Meyer 2002, pp. 85–86). There is good reason to believe that other flowers on Apulian vases referenced plants whose behaviors and properties make them well-suited for mortuary imagery. Trendall and Cambitoglou typically identified the flaring, trumpet-shaped flowers on which heads often emerge or full-length figures either stand or sit upon as a type of convolvulus (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, p. 190; Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, pp. 436. 722. 724. 858)88, although they might also be another type of bindweed, such as the Calystegia sylvatica or Calystegia sepium89, both prolific in southern Italy (Pignatti 2011, vol. 2, pp. 385–86) (Figure 25). Both are fast-growing climbers native to southern Europe with flowers that open to full bloom in the early morning with the dawn and close at dusk before falling off the vine to allow the seedpod to grow. This action could have been appealing as a metaphor for a cycle of life and death, following the sun’s daily path across the sky.90 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 33

Figure 24.FigureNew 24. York, New Metropolitan York, Metropolitan Museum Museum of of Art Art 25.78.30 25.78.30 Upper Upper portion portion of th ofe Attic the Atticmarble marble stele stele of of Kallidemos topped by a double palmette flanked by two half-palmettes, all rising from spiral Kallidemos topped by a double palmette flanked by two half-palmettes, all rising from spiral tendrils tendrils emerging from an acanthus calyx, ca. 350–325 B.C. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of emerging fromArt. an acanthus calyx, ca. 350–325 B.C. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

85 For example, on Louvre K 35 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, 15/11, p. 396, pl. 139, 1); Dublin 1880.1106 (ibid., 15/37, p. 402, pl. 142, 1–2); and once Melbourne, Geddes coll. A 5:11 (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1991–1992, 18/334b1, p. 165). 86 Initially the acanthus was not the primary element of decoration of the anthemion and was overshadowed by the finial palmette. Soon the luxurious foliage began predominate and the leaves were almost cut free from the stone. For the significance of acanthus on grave stelai, refer to Froning 1985. See (Jucker 1961) for the later use of acanthus calyxes in Roman funerary portraits. 87 E.g., Berlin 2680 (Oakley 2004, p. 123); Athens, National Musem 1380 (ibid., p. 134); and Athens, National Museum 14517 (ibid., p. 183). An acanthus column marking a grave appears on Athens, Kerameikos 1136 (ibid., p. 199). 88 For discussion of convolvulus in ancient sources: (Jashemski and Meyer 2002, pp. 96, 103). 89 The trumpet shape of the Calystegia is a bit taller and more pronounced with rounder edges to the petals, although the Convolvulus althaeoides and the Convolvulus elegantissimus also might be plausible identifications (Pignatti 2011, vol. 2, pp. 389–90). 90 Another close relative to the Calystegia and Convolvulus is the Ipomoea genus, the seeds of several varieties of which, particularly Ipomoea violacea, contain the tryptamine lysergic(a) acid amide (LSA), which has psychedelic and hallucinogenic effects when ingested. The ground seeds are known to have been used for divinatory purposes, particularly in Mesoamerica (Hofmann 1963, 1971; Amor-Prats and Harborne 1993). A member of the same family, Ipomoea sagitta, grows in Apulia, but there is no evidence for it having been used as an ancient narcotic. For the use of hallucinogens in the Classical world, refer to (Camilla and Ruck 2017).

(b) (c)

Figure 25. (a) Melbourne, National Gallery of Victoria D88–1969 Apulian volute-krater, Ganymede Painter, ca. 330–320 B.C. Female head in three-quarter view to left wearing saccos emerging from a flower surrounded by floral tendrils (detail of neck on obverse side). Author’s photo. (b,c) Large Bindweed (Calystegia silvatica). Photographs courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 33

Figure 24. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 25.78.30 Upper portion of the Attic marble stele of Kallidemos topped by a double palmette flanked by two half-palmettes, all rising from spiral Arts 2019tendrils, 8, 71 emerging from an acanthus calyx, ca. 350–325 B.C. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of23 of 30 Art.

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 25. (a)) Melbourne, National Gallery Gallery of of Victoria D88–1969 Apulian volute-krater, Ganymede Painter, ca. 330–320 330–320 B.C. B.C. Female Female head head in in three-quar three-quarterter view view to to left left wearing wearing saccos saccos emerging emerging from from a flowera flower surrounded surrounded by by floral floral tendrils tendrils (detail (detail of of neck neck on on obverse obverse side). Author’s Author’s photo. photo. ( (bb,,cc)) Large Bindweed ( Calystegia silvatica ). Photographs Photographs courtesy courtesy of of Wikimedia Wikimedia Commons.

Trendall recognized the many smaller flowers as either dianthus or rock-roses (Trendall and Cambitoglou 1978, p. 190; Trendall and Cambitoglou 1982, pp. 436 and 858) (Figure 26). The former grows abundantly in Apulia91, and certain species had sacral connotations in the Greek world (Baumann 1993, pp. 81, 84; Jashemski and Meyer 2002, p. 108; and Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, pp. 265–73). Rock-roses are also indigenous to the region, such as Cistus creticus and Cistus salviifolius (Pignatti 2011, vol. 2, pp. 120–23), and they are remarkable for their fast renewal after wildfires, often becoming the first plant to germinate after a conflagration, the heat of which softens or cracks the seeds’ hard coating (Thanos et al. 1992; Ferrandis et al. 1999). This unique trait similarly has potential symbolic meaning as decoration on a funerary object since it is plant that quickly remerges from soil that otherwise is empty or “dead.” Nevertheless, either identification is problematic as both of these flower species have five petals, and the edges of dianthus petals are ragged, whereas the flowers so frequently painted on Apulian vases have four, round-edged petals. A more plausible interpretation is that they are poppies, several species of which, including the sleep-inducing (and potentially fatal) opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), are native to the central Mediterranean region (Pignatti 2011, vol. 1, pp. 354–35)

91 For example, Dianthus balbisii, Dianthus rupicola, Dianthus carthusianorum, and even the distinctive local type, Dianthus tarentinus. Arts 2019, 8, 71 24 of 30

(Figure 27). The narcotic effects of the plant’s latex may well have been viewed as a suitable allegory for death as a blissful, painless sleep, and thus appropriate subject matter for a funerary vase.92 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 33

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 26.26.( a()a Pinks) Pinks (Dianthus (Dianthus tarentium tarentium). Photograph). Photograph courtesy courtesy of Wikimedia of Wikimedia Commons. Commons. (b) Sage-leaved (b) Sage-leavedrock rose (Cistus rock salviifoliusrose (Cistus). Photographsalviifolius). Photograph courtesy of Wikimediacourtesy of Commons.Wikimedia (Commons.c) Boston, Museum(c) Boston, of MuseumFine Arts 76.54of Fine Apulian Arts 76.54 oinochoe Apulian (type oinochoe 1), close to (type or by 1), the close Baltimore to or Painter, by the ca.Baltimore 330–320 B.C.Painter, Female ca. 330–320head in profileB.C. Female to left emerging head in fromprofile flower to left flanked emergi by floralng from tendrils. flower Photograph flanked by© Museumfloral tendrils. of Fine PhotographArts, Boston. © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

92 Lohmann also identifies these flowers as poppies (Lohmann 1979, p. 121). On poppies in ancient Greece and Italy: Baumann 1993, p. 72; Jashemski and Meyer 2002, pp. 137–39; Jannot 2009, pp. 84–85; and Fabbri 2017.

Figure 27. Apulian poppy (Papaver apulum). Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 33

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 26. (a) Pinks (Dianthus tarentium). Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. (b) Sage-leaved rock rose (Cistus salviifolius). Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. (c) Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 76.54 Apulian oinochoe (type 1), close to or by the Baltimore Painter, ca. Arts 2019330–320, 8, 71 B.C. Female head in profile to left emerging from flower flanked by floral tendrils.25 of 30 Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Figure 27. ApulianApulian poppy poppy ( Papaver apulum ).). Photograph Photograph courtesy courtesy of of Wikimedia Wikimedia Commons.

5. Conclusions Whether intended to evoke the characteristics of specific plant species relevant to the sepulchral sphere in the minds of the ancient viewer or not, it is difficult to deny the visceral abundance of life suggested by the flowering tendrils in Apulian vase-painting reminiscent of literary descriptions of divine and paradisiacal gardens. The full-figures that occupy these intricate floral surrounds repeatedly have clear mythological and iconographic ties with mortuary iconography, such as sphinxes, sirens, Amazons, and Nike, or refer to narratives of mortals gaining eternal life including Dionysos, Oreithyia, and Ganymede. Eros and Aphrodite—the most frequent individuals surrounded by lush flora on Apulian vases—also have a potent guise in Magna Graecia and Sicily, closely linked with the cult of Persephone (Prückner 1968; Zuntz 1971, pp. 156–57; Torelli 1977, pp. 175–78; Kilmer 1977, pp. 197, 262–63; Sourvinou-Inwood 1978; Costabile 1991, pp. 127–50; Schmitt 2016, pp. 71–92, 345).93 Even the heads, as incomplete figures emerging from the vegetation, effectively embody the very essence of hope for life after death itself—a desired, yet unfulfilled outcome that mirrors the regenerative cycle of nature (Heuer 2018, pp. 302–4). This interpretation is further strengthened by the consistency of the types scenes paired with the floral décor when it is utilized as a secondary decorative motif, either mythological narratives involving the concept of death, including triumph over it through immortality (such as scenes depicting Dionysos), or mourners gathered around tomb monuments. Indeed, the Greek and Italic populations of Apulia might well have agreed that death itself was no match for the tenacious tendrils that bloomed eternally on their funerary vases.

Funding: This project was funded through the generous support of a SUNY New Paltz Research and Creative Projects Award and a Dean’s Professional Development Award. Acknowledgments: All images not created by the author were supplied by and used with the permission of the respective museums to which these objects belong. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

References

Alcock, Joan P. 2006. Food in the Ancient World. Westport: Greenwood Press.

93 Aphrodite also seems to have had a chthonic guise in mainland Greece as well, suggested by the presence of Erotes around a female figure emerging from the ground in anodos scenes painted on Attic vases: Buschor 1937, p. 17; Rumpf 1950–51, p. 168; Metzger 1951, pp. 72–73; Langlotz 1954, pp. 7–8; and Sgouropoulou 2000. Arts 2019, 8, 71 26 of 30

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