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Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Andrew Warren to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Warren, Andrew. Dunes : dynamics, morphology, history / Andrew Warren. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4443-3969-7 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-4443-3968-0 (pbk.) 1. Sand dunes–History. 2. Geomorphology. 3. Sand dunes–Environmental aspects. GB631.W36 2013 551.3′75–dc23 2012050118 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover image: Sand dune © Isabella Pfenninger / iStockphoto Cover design by Workhaus Set in 10/12pt Plantin by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 1 2013 Contents List of Figures xi Acknowledgements xv Introduction 1 Part One <10m2; <10 years 5 1 Wind and Sand 7 Wind versus Bed 7 The Law of the Wall 8 Improving the wind/bed model 9 Lift-Off 12 Holding down by gravity 12 Holding down by cohesion 12 Raising by lift 13 Raising by drag 13 Raising by bombardment 14 Thresholds 14 Grain size 16 The slope of the bed 17 The dynamics of water content 17 Crusts 19 Pellets 20 Sand in Motion 20 Saltation 20 Streamers and other medium-scale patterns of saltating sand 22 VI CONTENTS Reptation 22 Creep 23 Other near-surface activity 23 Suspension 24 The vertical distribution of load and grain size 24 The saturation length 24 The fetch effect 26 The response of a loose bed to erosion by the wind 27 The Transport Rate 27 Shapes, densities and mixtures of size 29 Hard surfaces 30 Rough surfaces 30 Moisture, temperature and humidity 31 Rain 31 References 31 2 Ripples 32 Subtypes 35 Models 36 Flow response 36 Gravity wave 36 Saltation length 37 Shadow zone 37 Mathematical 37 Pattern 38 3 The Form and Behaviour of Free Dunes 39 Definitions 39 Early Stages 39 Start 39 Minimum size 40 The Profile of a Fully Grown Dune 41 To e 4 1 Windward slope (or ‘stoss slope’) 43 Crest 45 Lee slope 46 Movement 53 Turnover time, bulk transport 56 Size 56 Flow-hierarchy models 57 Grain-size models 57 The time/supply model 58 References 58 CONTENTS VII Part Two 1000 to 10,000m2; 100 to 1000 years 59 4 Pattern in Free Dunes 61 Definitions 61 Wind-Directional Regimes 62 Global winds 62 Local wind systems 62 The Classification of Wind-Directional Regimes 65 Wind-Directional Regimes and Dune Pattern 66 Transverse Dunes 66 Two-dimensional pattern: vertical and downwind 67 Two-dimensional pattern: horizontal and transverse to the wind 68 Self-organisation 69 Barchans 71 Quasi-transverse patterns 75 Linear Dunes 80 Introduction 80 Models of formation 82 Sand Sheets 88 Dunes with Distinctive Sand 90 Gravel dunes 90 Zibars 91 Clay dunes 92 Lunettes 92 Gypsum dunes 93 Diatomite sands 93 Volcanic sands 93 Snow and ice dunes 94 Niveo-aeolian deposits 94 References 94 5 Forced Dunes 96 Dunes Built around Bluff Obstacles 96 Climbing and echo dunes 96 Flanking and lee dunes 97 Cliff-top and falling dunes 99 Dunes on Gently Sloping Terrain 99 Reference 99 6 Dunes and Plants 100 Wind, Sand and Plants 100 Rigid objects 100 Spatial pattern 101 VIII CONTENTS Porosity 102 Flexibility 102 Plants as living things 103 The broader time/space framework 104 Dunes among Plants 104 Nebkhas 104 Blowouts 107 Parabolic dunes 109 References 111 7 Coastal Dunes 112 Coastal Dunes and Climate 112 The Beach–Dune System 114 Exclusively Coastal Dunes 117 Embryo dunes 117 Fore-dunes (‘frontal dunes’ or ‘retention ridges’) 118 Tsunamis 120 Coastal sand sheets 120 References 121 Part Three >0.3mm; <2,200,000,000 years 123 8 Sand Seas 125 Terms 125 Large

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