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The Vestal Virgins and Power –Tradition and Change in Third Tampere University Dissertations OUTI SIHVONEN The Vestal Virgins and Power Tradition and Change in Third Century Rome ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Social Sciences of Tampere University, for public discussion in the auditorium K 103 of the Linna building, Kalevantie 5, Tampere, on the 29 August 2020, at 12 o’clock. i ACADEMIC DISSERTATION Tampere University, Faculty of Social Sciences Finland Responsible Christian Krötzl supervisor Tampere University or/and Custos Finland Supervisor(s) Katariina Mustakallio Tampere University Finland Pre-examiner(s) Maijastina Kahlos Arja Karivieri University of Helsinki Stockholm University Finland Sweden Opponent(s) Helène Whittaker University of Gothenburg Sweden The originality of this thesis has been checked using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service. Copyright ©2020 author ISBN 978-952-03-1670-9 (pdf, Trepo) http://urn.fi/URN:978-952-03-1670-9 PunaMusta Oy – Yliopistopaino Vantaa 2020 ii Abstract This dissertation studies the social influence of the Vestal virgins, virgines Vestales, in the third century Rome. The cult of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, was an essential part of the Roman state religion and the six Vestal virgins were the only female priesthood of the pontifical college. They were trained to the profession of the priestesses from the early years on of their childhood, and they were required to stay for thirty years in the cult’s service. For that term they achieved an independent status receiving great privileges. However, remaining chaste was obligatory under penalty of death – an unchaste Vestal was buried alive within the city walls. Although the Vestals are profoundly studied in the earlier research, their capacity as the influential women is a neglected theme. In order to find out the impact and extent of their agency, the thesis analyses their privileges, their economic benefits and capacity as the independent women of élite. The key questions are: for what purposes, and for whose benefit, did these women use their privileged position and religious power? The temporal focus of this study is third century society which fell into the political and social crisis. Therefore I discuss how the crisis effected to their public roles as the priestesses and benefactresses. In contrast to the Vestals’ active role as benefactresses, a question of their significance and social value in imperial politics is studied thoroughly. As the notable figures of the society, the priestesses were the intermediaries between their clients and the imperial house. However, their prominent status was also used as an instrument for manifesting imperial politics and power. The main materials are the literary as well as epigraphic sources which are analysed with qualitative methods and with a social-historic approach. The numerous honorary inscriptions dedicated to the priestesses during the third century are the important material, which is not studied yet thoroughly in the context of the third century crisis. During this epoch, production of inscriptions declined but the habit of donating them to the Vestals did not suffer such development. The numismatic material provides an important evidence of the Vestals’ relationships with the imperial house. It is shown that the Vestals course of life was an essential for development of their social status and agency. The different stages of female course of life – puella, nupta and matrona – were represented by the six priestesses living in the household of the Atrium Vestae. The most influential figure in their cultic institute was the chief Vestal, virgo Vestalis maxima, under whose leadership the cult functioned. Her relationship with the imperial women was based on the amicitia, friendship, which was possible between the equals. The achievements of a virgo Vestalis maxima were manifested in the honorary inscriptions which the dedicators designed to display a Vestal’s public role as well as iii their own position. The honorary texts have been interpreted as monotonous and formal but the Vestals are praised with different tones and characterizations. Some of the chief Vestals appear as the dutiful benefactresses while some are praised for their religious and sacred character. These specializations create interesting differences among the Vestals and their public images. One of my main findings is that a Vestal represented her family also during her priesthood, and therefore the status and influence of her family had an effect to her honorary position as a priestess and to the economic benefits which she received. Despite of the times of crisis, their economic position remained secured. Thus, the third century Vestals continued to act influential benefactresses for their biological family members and clients. Taking care of the eternal fire of the state hearth – which was in practice the imperial home altar – the Vestals represented the imperial power. While the third century emperors were often absent from the capital and their term in office was short lived in most cases, the Vestals stayed many decades in their office representing continuity and stability of the Roman state. The significance of my thesis is to demonstrate the various roles of the priestesses and show the scale of the social agency of the élite women in the society which was in the stage of transformation and crisis. iv Tiivistelmä Tutkimus käsittelee Vestan neitsyiden, virgines Vestales, yhteiskunnallista vaikutusvaltaa 200-luvun Roomassa. Vestan eli kotilieden jumalattaren kultti oli tärkeä osa Rooman valtion uskontoa ja kuusi Vestan neitsyttä, vestaalia, olivat ainoa naispuolisia papisto pontifex-pappien kollegiossa. He tulivat kulttiin jo lapsina oppiakseen papittaren ammatin, jossa heidän oli palveltava seuraavat kolmekymmentä vuotta. Tuona aikana he saavuttivat huomattavan itsenäisen aseman ja laajat privilegiot. Neitseinä pitäytyminen oli kuitenkin pakollista koko virkauran ajan kuolemanrangaistuksen uhalla – siveetön vestaalin joutui elävänä haudatuksi kaupungin muurien sisäpuolelle. Vaikka aiempi tutkimus on käsitellyt vestaaleita laajasti, heidän roolinsa vaikutusvaltaisina naisina on jätetty tutkimuksessa vähäiselle huomiolle. Tutkimuksessa analysoin erityisesti heidän privilegioitaan osana uskonnollista virkaa, heidän taloudellisia etuoikeuksiaan ja asemaansa itsenäisinä eliitin naisina. Näin ollen työni keskiössä on kysymys, mihin tarkoituksiin ja keiden hyödyksi nämä naiset käyttivät etuoikeutettua asemaansa ja uskonnollista vaikutusvaltaansa. Käsittelen heidän yhteiskunnallista toimintaansa 200-luvun Roomassa, joka joutui tuolloin yhteisöä laajasti koskettaneeseen kriisiin. Tästä johtuen tarkastelen, miten kriisi vaikutti heidän julkiseen rooliinsa papittarina ja patronoina. Vastakkaisena teemana vestaalien aktiiviselle roolille tutkimus keskittyy toisaalta kysymykseen miten heidän keskeisyys ja yhteiskunnallinen arvo hyödynnettiin keisarillisessa politiikassa. Yhteisönsä huomattavina jäseninä vestaalit toimivat välittäjinä klienteillensä, jotka hakivat keisarin huomiota ja hyväksyntää. Vestaalien huomattava yhteiskunnallinen arvoasema ja symboliarvo valjastettiin osaksi keisarin politiikkaa ja vallan manifestaatiota. Pääasiallinen lähdeaineistoni koostuu kirjallisista ja epigrafisesta materiaalista, jota tutkin kvalitatiivisin metodein ja yhteiskuntahistoriallisesta näkökulmasta käsin. Lukuisat kunniapiirtokirjoitukset, joita papittarille omistetiin 200-luvulla, ovat työssäni tärkeä aineisto. Tätä materiaalia ei ole vielä tutkittu perin pohjin 200-luvun kriisi-ajan tematiikan pohjalta. Piirtokirjoitusten määrä supistui tuolloin, mutta vestaalien kunniapiirtokirjoitusten määrässä tämä kehityssuunta ei ole näkyvissä. Käytän työssäni myös numismaattista aineistoa, joka on tärkeä materiaali tutkittaessa papitarten suhteiden muutoksia keisariperheen kanssa. Tutkimus osoittaa että vestaalien elämänkaaren eri vaiheet olivat merkittäviä tekijöitä, joiden kautta sosiaalinen status ja toimijuus kehittyivät. Naisen elämänkaari eri vaiheineen – puella, nupta ja matrona – tuli esille kuuden papittaren muodostamassa taloudessa Atrium Vestae -talossa. Johtava vestaali, virgo Vestalis maxima, oli vaikutusvaltaisin hahmo, jonka alaisuudessa kultti toimi. Hänen v suhteensa keisarillisiin naisiin perustui ystävyyteen (amicitia), joka oli mahdollista vertaisten kesken. Johtavan vestaalin saavutuksia esiteltiin kunniapiirtokirjoituksissa, joiden laatijat manifestoivat vestaalin statusta siinä missä omaa asemaansa. Kunniapiirtokirjoitusten on tulkittu noudattavan monotonista ja kaavamaista formulointia, mutta vestaaleja ylistetään hyvinkin eri sävyin ja luonnehdinnoin. Jotkut vestaaleista esitellään velvollisuudentuntoisiksi hyväntekijöiksi ja toisia ylistetään erityisesti heidän uskonnollisuuden ja pyhyyden vuoksi. Painotukset luovat kiinnostavia eroja vestaalien keskuuteen ja julkiseen kuvaan. Eräs työn pääasiallisista löydöksistä on, että vestaali oli perheensä edustaja myös pappeutensa aikana. Tästä syystä hänen perheensä asema ja vaikutusvalta vaikuttivat hänen kunnia-asemaansa papittarena ja myös taloudellisiin etuihin. Huolimatta kriisiajasta vestaalien taloudellinen asema pysyi turvattuna ja näin ollen vestaalit pystyivät antamaan taloudellista tukeaan biologisen perheensä jäsenille ja klienteilleen. Vestaalit edustivat itse asiassa keisarillista valtaa, sillä heidän hoitamansa kotiliesi oli käytännössä keisarillinen kotialttari. Kun 200-luvun keisarit olivat usein poissa pääkaupungista ja heidän valtakautensa jäin usein suhteellisen
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