Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 byguest on 25 September 2021 2019 LEONARDO, Vol. 52, No.5,pp.468–473, 468 ABSTRACT tific mindset, aesthetic thinking thinking joyous aesthetic and mindset, tific thinking. - engineering/scien an assuming zone, the in being themes: cognitive abilities and tendencies, presented as four primary logical case study,participantsstudy case seven narrativesoflogical phenomeno a as research this Framing thinking. of ways their informs involvement concurrent their how derstand music in a work-avocation framework, in order to classical better un- and science computer of disciplines the combine who individuals of lives everyday rather the at look deeper a offers article innovations.This their and personae known involving evidence anecdotal through and music in erties literature mostly through the presence of mathematical prop two disciplines have been approached in the current research common ways of thinking [2–4]. The affinitiesbetween of these manifestations two are music and mathematics/science that notion general the following [1], avocation serious a as music classical play who computerscientists of lives the in tendencies and capacities cognitive presents article This Music Avocations ShareTheirThinking Computer ScientistswithSerious l a r e n e g ods basis. Using qualitative research and thematic analysis meth regular a ondisciplines two phenomenon embracing the of 2011, in which the participants relive their experiences of this in conducted interviews open-ended through constructed behind theirmusicalpassionsdespitepragmaticcareerconsiderations. interestsandcallsforsuchindividualsnottoleave with interdisciplinary individuals rich thinkingtoolkit,thisstudymotivateseducatorstosupport scientific mindset,aestheticthinkingandjoyousthinking.Withsucha themes:beinginthezone,assuminganengineering/ of fourprimary from whichtheessenceoftheirthinkingskillsisextractedinform areconstructedthroughopen-endedinterviews, of sevenparticipants Using qualitativeresearchandthematicanalysismethods,narratives of computerscientistswhoplayclassicalmusicasaseriousavocation. presentsthecognitivecapacitiesandtendenciesinlives This article Varda with thisissue. See www.mitpressjournals.org/toc/leon/52/5 forsupplementalfilesassociated MA

02445, [5], these narratives are analyzed to identify common common identify to analyzed are narratives these [5],

Shaked

U.S.A. V

(computer R A

Email: A e l c i t r d

scientist,

[email protected]. a h S

musician, a

educator), d e k

65

Williston

Road,

Brookline,

are - - - minimizes the voices and experiences of the people who who people the of experiences and voices the minimizes it science/mathematics, and music of seemingly disciplines two different these between affinities the acknowledge pose of practicing piano performance in a scientific manner. [18] analyzes Beethoven and Mozart compositions Chang forand (1906–1978) Gödel theofmathematics the through pur Bach’s techniques refracts [17] Hofstadter science, modern developmentof the in force a as music describes [16] Pesic Bartok (1881–1945), Beethoven (1770–1827) and Mozart(1685–1750), (1756–1791). Bach of those as such compositions, orunconscious) presence ofmathematics musicclassical in respectively. porary), Rothsteinexplores[15](conscious the (contemSolomon and- (1933–2003) Lewin (1916–2011),bitt Bab composers/music-theorists by [14] fractals of use the compositions [13], on electronic/computerized music and on music in groups mathematical of presence the on expands ematicians - math of significant proportion a that notion common The Mu The tone system [10], 12- Schoenberg’s[1874–1951] (e.g. music composing in and [9]) scale Pythagorean (e.g. formation scale in (1821–1894), physician/physicistbyHelmholtz acoustics in mathematics of uses Forexample,describe WilsonFauvel,and [8] Flood music.of mathematicalproperties explores the hand,other the on literature, mathematical-oriented The temporary). (1922–2001)and computer-scientist/composer Dabby (con - Xenakis mathematician/engineer (1909–2010), Bing poser cardiologist/com (1883–1969), Ansermet tician/composer mathematician/composer Nevalinna (1895–1980), mathema (1879–1955), chemist/doctor/composer Borodin (1833–1887), provide names of such personae: physicist/violinist Einstein scientists, and artists by shared commonly are believe they skills cognitive the of analysis their through [7], Bernstein Root- M.M. and Root-Bernstein R.S. music. of properties mathematical the to and innovations, their and personae scientist/musician known involving evidence anecdotal to substantiatedquantitatively,attributedlargelynot been has Although both anecdotal and mathematical literature literature mathematical and anecdotal both Although s i c

[6] and scientists have affinities for music, while while haveaffinities scientistsmusic, for and [6] i https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_a_01445 a n S n

Xenakis’s stochastic c ien t i st —The Co —The

music [11]). Graves [12] m pound pound ©2017 ISAST P uzzle - - - - live(d) in these two worlds, blends mathematicians with When you’re sitting on the stage, all that music is physically scientists and does not address the more contemporary flowing through you, the vibrations are moving through math-based discipline of computer science. Driven by these you. . . . You are in a sea of people and you are all moving perspectives, this article attempts to capture the voices of together and you’re responding to each other. . . . It’s a very such people and present their ways of thinking. powerful experience. . . . It’s at the moment . . . it’s almost like an out of body experience. . . . It’s almost like . . . you’re Methodology not doing it yourself, you’re looking down on yourself and this stuff is just coming out. —ethan This study was framed as a phenomenological case study [19,20] of seven computer scientists [21,22] who have persisted These accounts of feeling hyper-focused and in the zone with serious classical music-making. The desired subject pro- resemble the state of flow described by Csíkszentmihályi file included a minimum of 10 years of work experience as [28]. Reaching that mental state of being in the zone provides a computer scientist [23], a desired, although not required, gratification, empowerment and happiness. formal degree in computer science (or their mathematics You write . . . 100 lines of code and you run it, and there equivalent for the more senior participants) and classical mu- it is, you see it. . . . There’s this wonderful direct feedback sic performance as serious avocation. Apart from gender vari- that’s very gratifying . . . very empowering. . . . ability, there was no requirement for variation by social class, You’re playing and ah, you’re experiencing at the age or demography. The resulting group of seven participants moment. . . . The application of producing sound, or was composed of two females and five males, 40–80 years whatever you’re producing as an artist, comes back to old [24]. The relatively small female-to-male ratio reflects you instantly. . . . It’s gratifying. . . . You are producing the reported small female-to-male ratio of computer-science something that for me was very empowering. —ethan graduates in the western world, let alone the proportion of Csíkszentmihályi demonstrated that flow experienced at working female computer scientists (with over 10 years’ ex- work, as well as leisure-induced flow, directly contribute to perience) who also seriously study a musical instrument. The happiness and work satisfaction. interviews were conducted in person and in English, lasting Evident from the above disclosures is the possibility that approximately two and a half hours for each participant. the capability of being in the zone originated during the The interview questions covered family and educational participants’ engagement in music-making and have later background, early music exposure and other interests in the transferred to their computer-science engagement. While subject’s youth, work experiences, coping with concurrent such a transfer process might occur without the individuals’ engagement in the two disciplines, music-making informing awareness [29,30], researchers [31,32] have speculated that thinking in computer-science work and vice versa, career analogical reasoning [33] as well as abstraction resulting from decisions, learning experiences and mentors, and emotional extensive experiences in the source domain [34] play impor- aspects of involvement with the two disciplines. The tran- tant roles in such transfers. scribed interview data was then thematically analyzed within and across participants based on processes described by Engineering/Scientific Mindset Glesne [25] and Creswell [26] (i.e. drawing phrases that rep- Through their reflections on childhood interests, school proj- resent concepts per participant, grouping common concepts ects, work assignments and music endeavors, musical com- across participants into more abstract “meaning units,” and puter scientists implied using skills typically associated with interpreting these “meaning units” and their interrelation- an engineering way of thinking, in both music and computer- ships to create themes). science activities. These skills include an analytical way of Four primary themes with their associated subthemes have thinking and visual processing of information. been identified: being in the zone, assuming an engineering/ scientific mindset (analytical mind [emergence, expression], Analytical Mind spatial/visual [27] abilities), aesthetic thinking and joyous Analytical skills emerged in these individuals during child- thinking. Although each primary theme is created across at hood via their passions for playing and building with con- least five participants, it is often demonstrated in this article struction toys such as Lego blocks. with fewer representative participants due to space limitations. I always loved building things. . . . I had Legos. . . . I would be playing with them a lot . . . always building things. Being in the Zone —ernie While solving computer-science problems at work or when I spent a lot of time playing, building buildings with performing music, study participants reflect on being in- Lincoln logs; my father was always doing something tensely motivated and focused at their activities, often de- fascinating, [like] taking a car apart. . . . All the scribing this mental state as “being in the zone.” neighborhood kids . . . would congregate, . . . so we took When I’m really engrossed in thinking about solving a apart . . . the engine in a VW Bug a bunch of times. —meg computer-science problem it’s just the same when I was Ernie’s and Meg’s reflections on their creative tinkering engrossed in a performance, and you kind of get in the are substantiated by Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein [35], zone. . . . It’s just kind of like you’re hyper-focused. —meg who find that playing with classical construction toys helps

Shaked, Computer Scientists with Serious Music Avocations Share Their Thinking 469

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021 kids become designers and inventors through the unlimited We rehearse doing the project multiple times, and I call opportunities these toys provide for imagination. Indeed, Er- that the dress rehearsal. . . . I’m the type that takes the nie incorporated a Lego-based, piano-roll scrolling motor in planning down to, I call it the build level, where everyone the innovative music-recognition system he developed with knows what they’re going to do. his mentor while at the MIT Media Lab. —ethan, using gestalt thinking when managing software These analytical skills have been expressed through several development, analogous to orchestrating music thinking modes: pattern-oriented, divide-and-conquer and Presence of patterns in musical compositions has been gestalt. While practicing music of classical and romantic pe- discussed by researchers attempting to relate the disciplines riods, which lends itself to patterns, these individuals would of mathematics and music [37]. Such pattern-recognition ac- learn to identify patterns. tivity is perceived as one of the skills used by creative people, If you just start playing it initially, you’re like: I don’t know as it is essential in discoveries when one perceives new con- where this is going, is this atonal or what? But then you nections between seemingly unrelated things [38]. Given the look at it more closely and then you realize like . . . it has above individuals’ fascination with structural objects at an tonalities, it’s just changing it every beat . . . it has this early age, and admitting to an analytical predisposition, it is scale, it’ll play four notes of a scale in C major, and the possible they were endowed with an innate analytical ability next is F sharp major and C major and F sharp major. . . . that Gardner [39] terms mathematical-logical intelligence, or My personality and the fact that I’m very analytical and that this ability has modularized early on [40]. the fact that I’m drawn to computer science and building Spatial/Visual Abilities and engineering, definitely . . . has an influence over how I In addition to analytical qualities, these musical computer- think about music and how I think about practicing. scientists have been endowed with visual skills. —ernie, on practicing contemporary music I was a very good artist, was obsessively interested in maps, Then it suddenly became necessary to . . . look at music and so I would draw maps . . . not trace them but just sort structured, especially piano music, analytically. . . . Piano of draw them freehand. . . . I was the best student at solid music really consists of multiple parts very often and geometry. . . . I had very good spatial understanding. recognizing that structure was very important. —meg, on her map drawing, geometry, —sol, viewing music analytically while and directional navigation programming his innovative music editor to help composers capture their musical ideas I have the part, I just imagine, I look at the tricky parts, When the problem does not yield to obvious patterns, and I just plot out which way I should do it. . . . There are these individuals sometimes resort to divide-and-conquer typically four physical drums . . . each drum has a different problem-solving. range, and you have to figure out . . . if I’m gonna get from these four notes, and I need another note very fast, which It seems random, I don’t see any patterns . . . there’s no one of these am I going to use. particular scale. . . . What do engineers do? They break it —stan, simulating his orchestral timpani role down into smaller problems. at home without the presence of the timpani —ernie, on practicing a complex contemporary musical piece I have memorized so many sonatas and concertos that I can dial up something if I’m stuck in the airport. That’s kind of what you do with computer science or when —ethan, storing and retrieving you’re doing engineering. . . . You have a big problem. . . . graphical representations of music We have to take this huge big elephant problem and turn it into elephant burgers . . . and that’s what really makes I’m standing at the blackboard under intense pressure, it something that you can attack a big problem and be and what I’m seeing is the pages. I am seeing this two- successful. —meg, on developing complex genomic systems dimensional stuff with a lot of equations. . . . That’s from all those years of . . . music memorization that you have this Individuals would also think in gestalt mode [36]. way of storing graphic images. I could only go so far with the detail and just had to —ethan, storing and retrieving images of step back and see how it fits in with the rest. . . . I could mathematical equations during an oral exam stop counting at that point, whereas before that, I was Recent studies have shown the importance of visual think- counting like mad to get the exact rhythm. . . . It was quite ing, in addition to analytical thinking, weakening Arnheim’s remarkable, because it made what had been the hardest part [41] claim regarding superiority of analytical ability over vi- of the piece for me the easiest one, because I could just sense sual ability. These studies show that visual ability is trainable what was going on, what it was supposed to sound like. [42], is important for certain technical occupations like en- —stan, comprehending the rhythm gineering and understanding chemistry [43], and is the most of a 20th-century music piece significant predictor of people’s ability and success in inter- Until I step back and try to picture it . . . to grasp the whole acting with computers [44]. Moreover, through biographi- thing at once, it is when I feel comfortable with it. cal accounts, R.S. Root-Bernstein [45] shows that visual —stan, comprehending complicated mathematical proofs thinking has been a central thinking tool in the discovery

470 Shaked, Computer Scientists with Serious Music Avocations Share Their Thinking

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021 and development of technological advances that have had tic domains, and often includes analogies to these domains a long-term impact on society. Spatial/visual abilities have (e.g. poetry). been found to be highly correlated with scientific success Ethan views aesthetics in music through his discovery of [46] and contributory to creativity [47]. As music-makers a composition’s structural organization, as in Myaskovsky’s practice these spatial/visual skills simultaneously with aural cello sonata: and kinesthetic skills, it makes musical computer-scientists He has the melody playing along, and underneath it is this especially creative [48]. Although several studies, triggered inverted sixth, parallel sixths being played, sometimes by by the controversial Mozart Effect study [49], have reported the piano, sometimes by the piano and the cello. —ethan positive associations between formal music listening and spatial/visual abilities [50], and between music learning and Discovery has been explored as theme of aesthetics in spatial/visual abilities [51–56], the evidence for a causal link both music and mathematics [68,69] and is present in the is still vague. accounts of scientists and mathematicians (e.g. Gauss’s [1777–1855] flash of lightning when grasping he succeeded Aesthetic Thinking to prove a theorem [70]) and musicians (e.g. Hadamard’s Aesthetic thinking has been historically practiced and val- [71] assertion of Mozart seeing his symphonies in his mind ued more in artistic rather than in scientific accounts [57,58]. before putting them down on paper). However, testimonials by known mathematicians and scien- Miro and Meg’s sense of aesthetics in computer science is tists like mathematician Poincaré [59], mathematician Had- reflected in their concern for both flexible architecture and amard [60], astrophysicist Chandrasekhar [61] and biologist/ usability [72]. physiologist R.S. Root-Bernstein [62] speak to the appeal of They couldn’t expand gracefully, adapt to requirement aesthetic themes in their work and identify aesthetics as a changes. . . . Look at these big genomics projects, they have motivator for their pursuit of science. R.S. Root-Bernstein tons, dozens of people. . . . If you can’t express what you [63] also claims that scientific inventions have the potential to need, what’s going on, why it’s important, make people care evoke aesthetic responses similar to those evoked by the arts. about it . . . you’re sunk. —meg Participants have expressed various aesthetic qualities I was very much insisting that, ok, “To be usable it has through playing music (e.g. emotions, organization) and to have this . . . a musician is going to demand that.” The building computer systems (e.g. design elegance, flexibility, result was a program usable by many different kinds of user interface considerations). In addition to expressing plea- musicians. —miro sure from the effects of these aesthetic qualities, participants have acknowledged their contribution in the practice of these One of my executive coaches . . . told me that I always had disciplines, thus increasing productivity (e.g. in music: en- to be very careful about modulating the information to hancing music memorization, bonding with audience; in com- the audience I was presenting to, and I said, “Well, I know puter science: intuitive user interfaces, robust system design). what that is, that’s performing.” —meg, on simplifying her computer Emotionally it’s very satisfying to be playing music. . . . architecture presentations You can really connect with the listeners. If I’m performing a piece for kids, I do it slightly differently. —ernie, on the emotional dimension of a musical piece —meg, accommodating her audience when performing I also think of engineering as sort of having a technical This theme of simplicity has been considered an important thing but then the result can be beautiful too. . . . If you’re theme of aesthetics [73] (e.g. mathematical proofs that use programming something, there’s an elegant way to do it. a minimum of additional assumptions; structural clarity of —ernie, believing that software programs can the classic sonata). be written to be efficient as well as elegant It was so exciting there, because the Media Lab is about Joyous Thinking computer science and art, or about how society “should” Ethan, Miro, Ernie, Meg and Delia also express their happi- use computers. . . . They think about sorta how technology ness and satisfaction when making music, especially when affects society and people. . . . It’s much more humanistic. integrated with parallel work pursuits. —ernie, on the artistic and humanistic aspects of computer science from the user’s perspective Music makes me very happy. . . . It’s very important to me in many ways. . . . It helps me pull things from the other The area of software programming has developed its side. —ethan own aesthetics over the past several decades. Knuth [64], a computer scientist and self-taught musician, and Billington I kind of need to have music in my life. I need to have [65] have raised aesthetic considerations in the writing of computers. . . . I’ve got to have pets. . . . I think I’m happier algorithms, programming languages and programs, while having all three. —miro MacLennan [66] was equally concerned with design of com- Overall I think I’m pretty happy. . . . I have these two puter user interfaces. A collection of accounts by computer different experiences that most people don’t have or . . . professionals on the role of aesthetics in computer science I think having the two just makes the world much more [67] bears a resemblance to the role aesthetics plays in artis- interesting. —ernie

Shaked, Computer Scientists with Serious Music Avocations Share Their Thinking 471

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021 We went to Hobart and William Smith Colleges. . . . It institutions to encourage and support individuals with in- was to celebrate J.S. Bach’s, ah, birthday. . . . It was just a terdisciplinary interests through offering programs designed really fantastic life experience, where I felt . . . completely especially for music and computer-science combinations. transported. . . . I came back to the job, and this was like This study also calls for such individuals not to leave an exhausting start up job, I mean I worked a billion hours behind or minimize their musical interests despite their a week, but I came back to the job and I felt more rested, it pragmatic choice of a more stable and financially reward- was as if I’d had a three-week vacation at the beach. —meg ing computer science vocation but rather combine them in I feel good when I do this mixture, not only work, work, parallel to their practical career. work. —delia This study can help educators to better understand learn- ing experiences that make individuals with computer science This aligns with observations made by leisure research- inclinations happier, challenged, more productive and cre- ers [74] regarding the possibility of increased happiness and ative professionals through their practice and performance reduced stress, respectively, as a result of engaging in leisure of music and through combining the two fields in an inter- in addition to work. disciplinary fashion. Finally, this study can help reaffirm (neuro)scientific re- Conclusions and Contributions search on cognitive skills used in the disciplines of music- This article describes a rich cognitive toolkit available in making and computer science, or provide new directions for the lives of computer scientists with serious music-making such research. avocations. As such, this study can motivate educational

Acknowledgments 11 Xenakis’s stochastic music used probability theory to determine the duration, pitch, timbre and dynamics of the music. I would like to thank Linda Dacey, Diana Dabby and Caroline Heller for help with the design of the overall study. 12 D. Graves, “The Use of Mathematics in Selected Aspects of Music,” unpublished doctoral dissertation (The Union of Experimenting Colleges and Universities, Cincinnati, OH, 1981). References and Notes 13 Mathematical group (e.g. the set of integers): an algebraic structure 1 The overall study discusses two additional primary themes: (1) Par- consisting of a set of elements and an operation on these elements, ticipation within musical groups; (2) Combining the two disciplines. such that the application of the operation yields results satisfying The study also discusses secondary themes such as career conflicts some mathematical conditions. and important role of good mentors. The study is described in V. Shaked, “The Meaning of Music-Making for Computer Scientists 14 Fractals: self-similar patterns, generated by applying an iterative for- with a Serious Music-Making Avocation: A Phenomenological Case mula to some basic structure, multiple times. Fractals exist in nature, Study,” doctoral dissertation (Lesley University, Cambridge, MA, mathematics, music, etc. 2013). 15 E. Rothstein, Emblems of the Mind: The Inner Life of Music and Math- 2 W.S. Boettcher, S.S. Hahn and G.L. Shaw, “Mathematics and Music: ematics (New York: Times Books, 1995). A Search for Insight into Higher Brain Function,” Leonardo Music 16 P. Pesic, Music and the Making of Modern Science (Cambridge, MA: Journal 4 (1994) pp. 53–58. MIT Press, 2014). 3 R.S. Root-Bernstein, M. Bernstein and H.E. Garnier, “Correlations 17 D.R. Hofstadter, Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New between Avocations, Scientific Style, Work Habits and Professional York: Basic Books, 1979). Impact of Scientists,” Creativity Research Journal 8, No. 2, 115–137 (1995). 18 C.C. Chang, Fundamentals of Piano Practice (Charleston, SC: Book- Surge Publishing, 2007). 4 R.S. Root-Bernstein, “Music, Creativity and Scientific Thinking,” Leonardo 34, No. 1, 63–68 (2001). 19 C. Moustakas, Phenomenological Research Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994). 5 Sociolinguistic analysis, used for analyzing language within its 20 E. Husserl, The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental sociocultural context, has supplemented the thematic analysis in the Phenomenology (Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1999). overall study. 21 A two-participant pilot study was performed to confirm the validity 6 As recently as 35 years ago, computer science was typically housed of the design of my study. within mathematics departments in academia. 22 Study Participants*: Ernie (male, clarinetist), Stan (male, timpanist), 7 R.S. Root-Bernstein and M.M. Root-Bernstein, Sparks of Genius: Delia (female, pianist and clarinetist), Sol (male, pianist; self-learner The Thirteen Thinking Tools of the World’s Most Creative People (New in music and computer science), Miro (male, pianist), Meg (female, York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001). flutist), Ethan (male, oboist and cellist). 8 J. Fauvel, R. Flood and R. Wilson, eds., Music and Mathematics: From Pilot Study Participants*: Dave (male, euphonium/baritone player), Pythagoras to Fractals (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003). Martin (male, pianist). 9 In a Pythagorean scale, the frequency relationships of all intervals is *All computer scientists; names changed for privacy. 3:2 (perfect fifth). 23 Computer scientists work on programming applications, and on 10 12-tone system: a method of musical composition, where all 12 notes the theoretical side of computer systems (e.g. algorithm and data- of the chromatic scale are given approximately equal importance. structure design, systems architecture, computational complexity).

472 Shaked, Computer Scientists with Serious Music Avocations Share Their Thinking

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021 24 Participants were found mostly via word of mouth and the Boston 52 E.G. Schellenberg, “Music and Nonmusical Abilities,” Annals of the Piano Amateurs Association. The BPAA, founded in 2001, provides New York Academy of Sciences 930 (2001) pp. 355–371. performance opportunities, master classes, competitions and work- shops for adult amateur pianists. 53 L. Hetland, “Listening to Music Enhances Spatial-Temporal Reason- ing: Evidence for the ‘Mozart Effect,’ ” in E. Winner and L. Hetland, 25 C. Glesne, Becoming Qualitative Researchers: An Introduction (New eds., Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, No. 3–4, 105–148 (2000). York: Longman, 1999). 54 J.E. Gromko and A.S. Poorman, “The Effect of Music Training on 26 J.H. Creswell, ed., Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Preschoolers’ Spatial-Temporal Task Performance,” Journal of Re- Among Five Approaches, 2nd Ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica- search in Music Education 46, No. 2, 173–181 (1998). tions, 1998). 55 S.J. Lamb and A.H. Gregory, “The Relationship between Music and 27 The ability to generate, retain, retrieve and transform spatial/visual Reading in Beginning Readers,” Educational Psychology 13, No. 1, images. 19–27 (1993). 28 M. Csíkszentmihályi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience 56 D.J. Nelson and A.L. Barresi, “Children’s Age-Related Intellectual (New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 1990). Strategies for Dealing with Musical and Spatial Analogical Tasks,” Journal of Research in Music Education 37, No. 2, 93–103 (1989). 29 D.N. Perkins and G. Salomon, “Teaching for Transfer,” Educational Leadership 46 (1988) pp. 22–32. 57 C.P. Snow, Two Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1960). 30 D.N. Perkins and G. Salomon, Transfer of Learning. International 58 H. Leder et al., “A Model of Aesthetic Appreciation and Aesthetic Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd Ed. (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992). Judgments,” British Journal of Psychology 95, No. 4, 489–508 (2004). 31 D. Gentner, “Structure-Mapping: A Theoretical Framework for 59 H. Poincaré, The Foundations of Science, G. Halsted, trans. (New Analogy,” Cognitive Science 7 (1938) pp. 155–170. York: Science Press, 1946). 32 K.J. Holyoak and P. Thagard, “Analogical Mapping by Constraint 60 J. Hadamard, Essay on the Psychology of Invention in the Mathemati- Satisfaction,” Cognitive Science 13 (1989) pp. 295–355. cal Field (Princeton Univ. Press, 1945; New York: Dover Publications, 1954). 33 A theory of analogical thinking in which three constraints of simi- larity, structure and purpose jointly create coherence in analogical 61 S. Chandrasekhar, Truth and Beauty: Aesthetics and Motivations in thinking. Science (Chicago, IL: Chicago Univ. Press, 1987). 34 M.L. Gick and K.J. Holyoak, “Schema Induction and Analogical 62 R.S. Root-Bernstein, “The Sciences and Arts Share a Common Cre- Transfer,” Cognitive Psychology 15 (1983) pp. 1–38. ative Aesthetic,” in A.I. Tauber, ed., The Elusive Synthesis: Aesthetics and Science (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996) 35 Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein [7]. pp. 49–82. 36 An overall big picture of a situation, where one can see how the 63 R.S. Root-Bernstein, “Aesthetic Cognition,” International Journal of smaller details/patterns fall in together. the Philosophy of Science 16 (2002) pp. 61–77. 37 Fauvel, Flood and Wilson [8]; Graves [12]; Rothstein [15]; Chang [18]. 64 D.E. Knuth, “Computer Programming as an Art,” Communications 38 Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein [7]. of the ACM 17, No. 12, 667–673 (1974). 39 H.E. Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences 65 D. Billington, The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of Structural (New York: Basic Books, 1998). Engineering (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1985). 40 A. Karmiloff-Smith, “Précis of Beyond Modularity: A Developmen- 66 B.J. MacLennan, Aesthetics in Software Engineering (Technical Re- tal Perspective on Cognitive Science,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences port UT-CS 06579) (Knoxville, TN: Department of Computer Sci- 17, No. 4, 693–745 (1994). ence University of Tennessee, 2006). 41 R. Arnheim, A Plea for Visual Thinking. New Essays on the Psychology 67 S. Lammers, Programmers at Work: Interviews with 19 Programmers of Art (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986). Who Shaped the Computer Industry (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 2006). 42 S.A. Sorby, “Educational Research in Developing 3-D Spatial Skills for Engineering Students,” International Journal of Science Education 68 Rothstein [15]. 31 (2009) 459–480. 69 R. Wannamaker, Science and Music: An Aesthetic Economy (Master’s 43 H.D. Barke, “Chemical Education and Spatial Ability,” Journal of thesis) (York University, Toronto, 2001). Chemical Engineering 70, No. 12, 968–971 (1993). 70 Rothstein [15]. 44 K.L. Norman, “Spatial Visualization—A Gateway to Computer- 71 Hadamard [60]. Based Technology,” Journal of Special Educational Technology 12, No. 3, 195–206 (1994). 72 MacLennan [66]. 45 Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein [7]. 73 Rothstein [15]. 46 Root-Bernstein, Bernstein and Garnier [3]. 74 J. Zuzanek, “Work, Leisure, Time Pressure and Stress,” and J.T. Haworth, “Work, Leisure and Well-Being,” in J.T. Haworth and A.G. 47 Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein [7]. Veal, eds., Work and Leisure (London: Routledge, 2004) pp. 123–144. 48 Root-Bernstein [4]. 49 F.H. Rauscher, G.L. Shaw and K.N. Ky, “Music and Spatial Task Per- Manuscript received 6 June 2016. formance,” Nature 365 (1993) p. 611. 50 L. Hetland, “Learning to Make Music Enhances Spatial Reasoning,” Varda Shaked, PhD, Adjunct Professor, PreK–12 Educa- in E. Winner and L. Hetland, eds., Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, tional Leadership Doctoral Program, Endicott College; per- No. 3–4, 179–238 (2000). forming pianist. 51 K. Hui, “Mozart Effect in Preschool Children?”Early Child Develop- ment and Care 176, Nos. 3–4, 411–419 (2006).

Shaked, Computer Scientists with Serious Music Avocations Share Their Thinking 473

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021 CALL FOR PAPERS

STEAM Initiative on Education: Leonardo Special Section

Guest Co-Editors: Tracie Costantino (RISD) and Robert Root-Bernstein (Michigan State University)

The STEAM movement, focused on integrating arts (broadly encompassing visual and performing arts, crafts and design) into science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education is well underway. We are avid advocates of this movement but worry that integration of arts and sciences into curricula from K–12 through graduate and professional education is not supported by sufficiently rigorous pedagogical studies. If STEAM is to succeed, it must be underpinned by pedagogical principles, methods and materials of high quality and reliability. Toward that end, the Editors of Leonardo have decided to create a STEAM Initiative on Education that will devote a section of the journal to innovative, inspiring and important studies of STEAM pedagogies.

In the spirit of interdisciplinarity, we explicitly welcome diverse methodologies such as mixed methods designs and novel assessment methods designed to meet the special needs of STEAM educators. We particularly welcome studies employing well-designed, randomized classroom controls and utilizing well-validated learning measurement standards, but Leonardo recognizes that one of the challenges of STEAM integration is that it may require new approaches to teaching and learning. We therefore welcome articles that are focused on the development and testing of novel approaches and methods for purveying and evaluating integrated learning.

Manuscript Submissions We are seeking manuscripts up to 2,500 words. See leonardo.info/authors-journals for detailed instructions.

To submit a paper, upload the manuscript and art at editorialexpress.com/Leonardo.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/leon_a_01445 by guest on 25 September 2021