1 the Paris Plan and Its Failure 2 Towards a New Explanation of The

Home , Douglas Pike, Martin Shaw (composer)

Notes

1 The Paris Plan and Its Failure 1. Douglas Pike, ‘The Cambodian Peace Process: Summer of 1989’, Asian Survey, XXIX, no. 9 (September 1989), 842, 847. 2. See: Cambodia: An Australian Peace Proposal. Working Papers Prepared for the Informal Meeting on Cambodia, Jakarta, 26–28 February 1990. (Canberra: Department of Foreign Affairs, Australia, 1990.) The Australian Plan was reproduced in: Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, and Sorpong Peou, eds., Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents (Millwood, New York: Kraus International Publications, 1991). Subsequent references will be to that text. 3. The peace agreement was in fact a series of accords comprising: the Final Act of the Paris Conference on Cambodia, an Agreement on a Comprehensive Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, an Agreement Concerning the Sovereignty, Independence, Territorial Integrity and Inviolability, Neutrality and National Unity of Cambodia, and a Declaration on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. See: United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Information Notes (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1992) (CDPI/1306, September 1992), and Frederick Z. Brown, ‘Cambodia in 1992. Peace at Peril,’ Asian Survey, XXXIII, no. 1 ( January 1993), 83–90. 9. See: Stephen R. Ratner, ‘The Cambodian Settlement Agreements,’ American Journal of International Law, 87, no. 1 ( January 1993), 12–18. 10. A.K.P. Mochtan, ed., Cambodia. Toward Peace and Reconstruction ( Jakarta: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1993), iii.

2 Towards a New Explanation of the Collapse of the Paris Plan 1. Stephen Gill, ‘Epistemology, Ontology and the ‘Italian School,’ in Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Stephen Gill, ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), (Cambridge Studies in International Relations no. 26), 21. This volume probably presents the most pertinent of these writings. Of particular interest is: Robert W. Cox, ‘Gramsci, Hegemony and International Relations: An Essay in Method.’ This essay was originally published in Millennium, 12, no. 2 (1983), 162–75. 2. Robert W. Cox, ‘Gramsci, Hegemony and International Relations: An Essay in Method,’ 56–7. 3. Stephen Gill, ‘Epistemology, Ontology and the ‘Italian School,’ 28. 4. Robert W. Cox, ‘Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory,’ in Neorealism and its Critics, Robert O. Keohane, ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 208. This text was originally published in: Millennium, 10, no. 2 (Summer 1981), 126–55.

176 Notes 177

5. Cox, ‘Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory,’ 218. 6. Ibid., 218–19. 7. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence. Volume Two of A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987). 8. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 1. 9. Other authors have attempted the same type of study, but their work has lacked the brilliance and the detail of Giddens’ writings. See, for instance, Michael Mann, States, War and Capitalism. Studies in Political Sociology (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988) and Martin Shaw, ‘War and the Nation-State in Social Theory,’ in Social Theory of Modern Societies. Anthony Giddens and his Critics, 129–46, David Held and John B. Thompson, eds (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 10. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 65. 11. Ibid, 87. 12. Ibid, 94. 13. Bob Jessop, ‘Book Review: A. Giddens’ The Nation-State and Violence,’ Capital and Class, no. 29 (Summer 1986), 217. 14. For instance, in Robert Jervis, ‘Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma,’ World Politics, 30, no. 2, 167–214, and Helga Haftendorn, ‘The Security Puzzle: Theory-Building and Discipline-Building in International Security,’ International Studies Quarterly, 35, no. 1 (March 1991), 3–18. 15. Martin Shaw, ‘War and the Nation-State in Social Theory,’ 138. 16. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 14. 17. Ibid, 140. 18. Ibid, 135. 19. Ibid, 249. 20. Other authors have underscored the relation between the expansion of capitalism and the centralization of the means of violence in the structures cre- ated by the emergence of the nation-state. See, for instance: Charles Tilly, ‘War Making and State Making as Organized Crime,’ in Bringing the State Back In, Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Theda Skocpol, eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990–1990 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). The originality of Giddens’ work lies in its ability to demonstrate that the elaboration of certain mechanisms of control of violence were part of the emergence of capitalism itself since capitalist practices entail the evacuation of violence from economic exchanges. In this sense, his analysis provides a deeper understanding of the role of violence in shaping the capitalist aspect of the modern order in Western societies. 21. Sheldon Wolin, ‘Violence and the Western Political Tradition,’ American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, XXXIII (1963), 20. 22. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 4. 23. Ibid, 308. 24. Anthony Giddens, ‘A Reply to my Critics,’ in Social Theory of Modern Societies. Anthony Giddens and his Critics, 267. 25. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 160. 178 Notes

26. Thom Workman, The Social Origins of the Iran-Iraq War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993), 14. 27. See, for instance: Ruth H. Howes and Michael R. Stevenson, eds., Women and the Use of Military Force (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993). 28. Bradley S. Klein, ‘The Textual Strategies of the Military: Or Have You Read Any Good Defense Manuals Lately?’ in International/Intertextual Relations. Postmodern Readings of World Politics, James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro, eds. (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1989). 29. Sheldon S. Wolin, ‘Violence and the Western Political Tradition.’ 30. Abdulgaffar Peang-Meth, ‘Understanding the Khmer: Sociological-Cultural Observations,’ Asian Survey, XXXI, no. 5 (May 1991), 445. 31. Niels Mulder, Inside Southeast Asia (Bangkok: Duang Kamol, 1992), 97. 32. Ibid, 118. 33. S.J. Tambiah, World Conqueror and World Renouncer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). 34. Donald G. McCloud, System and Process in Southeast Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), 72. 35. See: Than H. Vuong, ‘Les colonisations du Viêt-nam et le colonialisme vietnamien,’ Etudes internationales, XVIII, no. 3 (September 1987), 545–71. 36. Alain Forest, Le Cambodge et la colonisaiton française. Historie d’une colonisation sans heurts (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1980). 37. ‘… c’est justement parce que l’une des fonctions du Cambodge dans le contexte colonial indochinois est de rapporter de l’argent par le biais de l’impôt sans prob- lème que l’oeuvre coloniale fut limitée.’ Alain Forest, Le Cambodge et la colonisation française. Histoire d’une colonisation sans heurts (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1980), 252. 38. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (revised edn) (London: Verso Books, 1991). 39. Ibid, 175. 40. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 272. 41. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, xiv. 42. ‘Ce n’est pas la notion de race qui fonde la spécificité cambodgienne, mais la notion de tradition.’ Alain Forest, Le Cambodge et la colonisation française, 464. 43. ‘Ces dernières [les autorités françaises] occupent tout le terrain de l’initiative et de l’action publique, n’exigeant des Cambodgiens, à quelque niveau qu’ils soient, qu’approbation, obéissance et soumission, et cantonnant les autorités dans le domaine du traditionnel et, plus précisément, du religieux … il en résulte une perte complète du sens des responsabilités et la non-émergence d’un certain sens de l’Etat chez un fonctionnariat qui échappe désormais à toute sanction de la part des administrés; ce qui signifie, dans le concret, la continu- ation, plus discrète cependant, des practique concussionnaires et arbitraires.’ Alain Forest, Le Cambodge et la colonisation française, 489. Though this does not explain the weakness of the French administrative apparatus and its consequences, it is possible to note that the reliance on Vietnamese administrators in Cambodia throughout the colonial period also played a role in preventing the emergence of a bureaucratic class in Cambodia. 44. Nayan Chanda, The Political Economy of Cambodia (New York: The East Asian Institute, Columbia University, 1990), 7. Notes 179

45. Nayan Chanda, The Political Economy of Cambodia, 13. Chanda is comment- ing on the Chinese community’s behavior in the early 1980s, but the remark also applies to deeper trends. 46. Alain Forest, Le Cambodge et la colonisation française, 51. 47. David P. Chandler, A History of Cambodia (2nd edn) (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), 12. 48. Ibid, 58. The emphasis is in the original text. 49. On these concepts, see: Abdulgafar Peange-Meth, ‘Understanding the Khmer.’ For two brilliant analyses of the relation between factionalism and the nature of Cambodian politics, see: Marie Alexandrine Martin, ‘La paysannerie khmère et le processus démocratique,’ in Les Cambodgients face à eux-mêmes?, Christian Lechervy and Richard Petris, eds. (Paris: Fondation pour le progrès de l’homme, 1992); François Ponchaud, ‘Elections et société khmère,’ in the same volume. For an interesting contrast on the notion of factionalism, see Pye’s study of the nature of factional struggles in China: Lucien Pye, The Dynamics of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, 1981). 50. I have not come across studies which deal specifically with these approaches to peace. They certainly reflect, however, comments made in many analyses of Cambodian politics. See, for instance: Serge Thion, ‘The Cambodian Idea of Revolution,’ in Revolution and Its Aftermath in Cambodia, David Chandler and Ben Kiernan, eds. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983); Michael Leifer, ‘Power-sharing and peacemaking in Cambodia?’ SAIS Review, 12, no. 1 (Winter–Spring 1992), 139–52; Sheri Prasso, ‘Cambodia. A Heritage of Violence,’ World Policy Journal, XI, no. 3 (Fall 1994), 71–7. 51. Serge Thion, ‘The Pattern of Cambodian Politics,’ International Journal of Politics, XVI, no. 3 (Fall 1986), 129. (This special issue of International Journal of Politics was devoted to ‘Cambodia: Politics and International Relations’ and was published under the direction of David A. Ablin and Marlowe Hood.)

3 Peace in the Post-Cold War Order 1. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex I, Section A, Article 2, Paragraphs (c) and (e). 2. See, among others: Trevor Findlay, ‘Peacemaking in Cambodia. The First Post-Cold War UN Success Story?’ (Ottawa, Canadian Centre for Global Security, 1993); Paul Isoart, ‘L’Organisation des Nations Unies et le Cambodge,’ Revue générale de Droit international public, 97, no. 3 (1993), 645–88; M.H. Lao, ‘Obstacles to Peace in Cambodia,’ Pacific Review, 6, no. 4 (1993), 389–95; Raoul M. Jennar, ‘Plaidoyer pour le Cambodge,’ Politique Internationale, 61, (Fall 1993), 421–8; Gary Klintworth, ‘Cambodia 1992. Hopes Fading,’ Southeast Asian Affairs, 1993, 113–29. 3. On this theme, see: Cambodia Canada Development Program, Peace, Security and Development in Cambodia (Montreal: Cambodia Canada Development Program, 1994); Raoul M. Jennar, ‘UNTAC: ‘International Triumph’ in Cambodia?’ Security Dialogue, 25, no. 2 (June 1994), 145–56; Terence Duffy, ‘Toward a Culture of Human Rights in Cambodia,’ Human Rights Quarterly, 16, no. 1 (February 1994), 82–104; Michael W. Doyle, UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia. UNTAC’s Civil Mandate (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). 180 Notes

4. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (New York: Department of Public Information, United Nations, 1992). 5. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, 11. 6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, 32. The report defines peacemaking as the ‘action to bring hostile parties to agreement, essentially through such peaceful means as those foreseen in Chapter VI of the Charter of the United Nations.’ It defines peacekeeping as ‘the deploy- ment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the parties concerned, normally involving United Nations military and/or policy personnel and frequently civilians as well.’ For its part, preventive diplomacy is defined as an ‘action to prevent disputes from aris- ing between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur.’ An Agenda for Peace, 11. 7. See: Paris Conference on Cambodia, Declaration on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia, 23 October 1991. 8. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Article 6. 9. Speech of Dennis McNamara at the Vienna Conference on Human Rights, June 1993. 10. On the expansion of peacekeeping operations, see: Marrack Goulding, ‘The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping,’ International Affairs, 69, no. 3 (1993), 451–64, and Laurence Martin, ‘Peacekeeping as a Growth Industry,’ The National Interest, no. 32 (Summer 1993), 3–11; Alan James, ‘Peace- keeping in the Post-Cold War Era,’ International Journal, L, no. 2 (Spring 1995), 241–65; William J. Durch, ed., The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993). On peace-building and UNTAC, see: Pierre Lizée, ‘The Challenge of Conflict Resolution in Cambodia,’ Canadian Defense Quarterly, 23, no. 1 (1992), 35–44. 11. C.R. Mitchell, ‘Conflict, War and Conflict Management,’ in International Relations: A Handbook of Current Theory, Margot Light and A.J.R. Groom, eds. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985), 129–30. 12. A useful survey of this type of mechanism is found in: Julius Stone, ‘International Conflict Resolution,’ in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences II, David L. Sills, ed. (New York, London: Macmillan and Free Press, 1968), 507–13. The best recent book on negotiations is most probably: H. Peyton Young, ed., Negotiation Analysis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). See, also: Paul R. Pillar, Negotiating Peace (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). 13. See: Johan Galtung, Essay in Peace Research, I–V, (Copenhagen and Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Christian Ejlers and Humanities Press, 1975–79). 14. Edward E. Azar, ‘Protracted International Conflicts: Ten Propositions,’ in International Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice, Edward E. Azar and John W. Burton, eds. (Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books, 1986), 29. Also see: Edward E. Azar, ‘Peace Amidst Development: A Conceptual Agenda for Conflict and Peace Research,’ International Interactions, 6, no. 2, 123–43. The best recent survey on this theme is: Janie Leatherman and Raimo Väyrinen, ‘Conflict Theory and Conflict Resolution: Directions for Collaborative Research Policy,’ Cooperation and Conflict, 30, no. 1 (March 1995), 53–82. Notes 181

4 Tous les chemins mènent à Paris 1. Nicholas Regaud, Le Cambodge dans la tourmente. Le troisième conflit indochinois (Paris: Fondation pour les études de défense nationale et L’Harmattan, 1992). 2. Ibid, 14. 3. ‘The conflict in and over Kampuchea has been both generated and rein- forced by an interlocking structure of relationships.’ Michael Leifer, ‘Obstacles to a Political Settlement in Indochina,’ Pacific Affairs, 58, no. 4 (Winter 1985–86), 627. 4. Michael Leifer, Cambodian Conflict – The Final Phase? (London: Institute for the Study of Conflict, 1989), 12. (Conflict Studies, no. 221.) 5. On this point, see: Pierre Lizée, Le temps comme stratégie: Le conflit kam- puchéen, 1978–1988. Unpublished master’s thesis, Université Laval, 1989. 6. The best study of the events of this period is: Frank Frost, ‘The Cambodia Conflict: The Path Towards Peace,’ Contemporary Southeast Asia, 13, no. 2 (September 1991), 119–62. Also see: Charles McGregor, ‘China, Vietnam, and the Cambodian Conflict’, Asian Survey, XXX, no. 3 (March 1990), 266–83. 7. ‘Jusqu’à maintenant, et ceci je le déplore, un certain nombre de personnes s’effor- cent d’induire l’opinion publique mondiale en erreur, en affirmant que la guerre au Cambodge aurait été provoquée par la présence des troupes vietnamiennes dans ce pays, et que le problème cambodgien serait un problème entre le Vietnam et le Cambodge, en passant sous silence les crimes de génocide de Pol Pot, lesquels étaient à l’origine du soulèvement et de la lutte populaires qui bénéficiaient de l’assistance des troupes de volontaires vietnamiens pour libérer la nation cambodgienne.’ Intervention de S. Exc. M. Hun Sen, Président du Conseil des Ministres, Ministre des Affaires Etrangères et Chef de la Délégation de l’Etat du Cambodge à la Conférence International sur le Cambodge. Paris – 30 Juillet 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 31–2. 8. Speech by Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia to the Paris International Conference on Cambodia Paris 30 July 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 4. 9. Address by H.E. Mr. Khieu Samphan to the Paris International Conference on Cambodia. 31 July 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 21, 24. 10. ‘La Conférence de Paris ne doit pas être détournée de son objet qui est l’agression et l’occupation de Cambodge par des forces étrangères avec toutes les conséquences qui en découlent.’ Intervention de Son Excellence Son Sann, Président du Front National de Libération du Peuple Khmer et Premier Ministre du Gouvernement de Coalition du Kampuchéa Démocratique à la Conférence Internationale de Paris sur le Cambodge, du 30 Juillet au 5 Septembre 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 14. 11. ‘… pour réaliser la réconciliation nationale sur la base du droit à l’autodétermi- nation du peuple cambodgien et pour assurer une solution politique juste, nous 182 Notes

proposons que soit maintenu le statu quo politique et militaire jusqu’à l’achève- ment des élections générales.’ Intervention de S. Exc. M. Hun Sen, Président du Conseil des Ministres, Ministre des Affaires Etrangères et Chef de la délégation de l’État du Cambodge à la Conférence Internationale sue le Cambodge. Paris – 30 Juillet 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 34. 12. Speech by Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia to the Paris International Conference on Cambodia Paris 30 July 1989. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 7. 13. Organization of Work: Text Adopted by the Conference at its 4th Plenary Meeting, on A1 August 1989. In Cambodia – The Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 129–30. 14. Tommy T.B. Koh, ‘The Paris Conference on Cambodia: A Multilateral Negotiation that ‘Failed’,’ Negotiation Journal ( January 1990), 84. 15. Statement of the Paris Conference (Issued 30 August 1989). In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 484. 16. Nicolas Regaud, Le Cambodge dans la tourmente. Le troisième conflit indochinois 1979–1991, 14. 17. Carlyle A. Thayer, ‘Comrade Plus Brother: The New Sino-Vietnamese Relations,’ The Pacific Review, 5, no. 4 (1992), 402. 18. Kevin Rowley, ‘The Cambodian Conflict after the Vietnamese Withdrawal 1989–91,’ unpublished paper. Hawthorne, Victoria: Swinburne Institute of Technology, September, 1991. 19. Carlyle A. Thayer, ‘Comrade Plus Brother: The New Sino-Vietnamese Relations,’ 404. 20. Frank Frost, ‘The Cambodia Conflict: The Path Towards Peace,’ Contemporary Southeast Asia, 13, no. 2 (September 1991), 138. 21. Cambodia: An Australian Peace Proposal. Working Papers Prepared for the Informal Meeting on Cambodia. Jakarta, 26–28 February 1990. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 498. 22. Senate Daily Hansard (Australia), 6 December 1990, quoted in: Frank Frost, ‘The Cambodia Conflict: The Path Towards Peace,’ 141–2. 23. Summary of Conclusions of the Meeting of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council on the Cambodian Problem. Paris, 15–16 January 1990. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Peou, eds., 487–8. 24. See: Press Statement: Conclusion of Consultations of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council on Cambodia, 11–12 February 1990, Statement on Cambodia: The Five Permanent Members of the Security Council, Paris, March 12 1990, and Letter Dated 29 May 1990 from the Representatives of China, France, The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United State of America to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General. In Cambodia – The 1989 Paris Peace Conference. Background Analysis and Documents, Amitav Acharya, Pierre Lizée, Sorpong Notes 183

Peou, eds., 489–97, and Letter Dated 19 July 1990 from the Representatives of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General (United Nations, General Assembly, Security Council: Document A/45/353; S/21404; 23 July 1990). The text cited is the one issued after the May meeting. 25. Stephen J. Solarz, ‘Cambodia and the International Community,’ Foreign Affairs, 69, no. 2 (Spring 1990), 115, 112. 26. Letter Dated 30 August 1990 from the Permanent Representatives of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General (United Nations, General Assembly, Security Council: Document A/45/472; S/21689, 31 August 1990). Annex, Statement of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council of the United Nations on Cambodia. 27. Letter Dated 30 August 1990 … 28. See: Indochina Digest, no. 90–20, 25 May–1 June 1990. 29. Letter Dated 30 August 1990 …, Annex, Statement of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council of the United Nations on Cambodia, Appendix, Framework for a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Section 1, Articles 1, 2 and 3. 30. Letter Date 30 August 1990 …, Annex, Statement of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council of the United Nations on Cambodia, Appendix, Framework for a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Section I, Articles 8 and 10. 31. Proposed Structure for the Agreements on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, (Adopted 23 November 1990), Annex 1, Proposed Mandate for UNTAC, Section A, Civil Administration, Article 2. 32. Proposed Structure for the Agreements on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodian Conflict, Annex 1, Proposed Mandate for UNTAC, Section B, Military Functions. 33. Proposed Structure for the Agreements on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex 1, Proposed Mandate for UNTAC, Section A, Civil Administration, Articles 4, 5, 7, and 8. 34. Proposed Structure for the Agreements on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex 5, Principles for a New Constitution for Cambodia, Article 4. 35. Explanatory Note (issued on 22 December 1990), (United Nations, Security Council, Document A/46/61, S/22059, 11 January 1991. 36. See, among others: Bangkok Post, 1 February 1991. 37. Quoted in: Ben Kiernan, ‘The Making of the Paris Agreement on Cambodia, 1990–1991,’ unpublished paper, 1991. 38. Mike Yeong, ‘Cambodia 1991. Lasting Peace or Decent Interval?’ in South- east Asian Affairs, 1992 (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1992), 110. 39. Bangkok Post, 7 June 1991. 40. The quote is found in: Alan Boyd, Australian, 14 June 1991. It is reproduced in: Kevin Rowley, ‘The Cambodian Conflict After the Vietnamese With- drawal, 1989–1991,’ unpublished paper. Hawthorne, Victoria: Swinburne Institute of Technology, September 1991. 184 Notes

41. Final Communiqué of the Meeting of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia in Pattaya (Thailand), June 24–26, 1991 (Permanent Mission of Cambodia to the United Nations, Document 044/91, June 26, 1991), Section I, Articles 1, 3, 7, and 10. 42. Final Communiqué of the Informal Meeting of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia, (Permanent Mission of Cambodia to the United Nations, Documents 047-91, 17 July 1991), Section II, Article 1. 43. Communique of the Perm-5 Meeting, Beijing, 18 July 1991. 44. Final Communiqué of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (Permanent Mission of Cambodia to the United Nations, 29 August 1991), Section I, Article 3. 45. Final Communiqué of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia, Section I, Article 3. 46. Final Communique of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia, Section I, Article 2. 47. Mike Yeong, ‘Cambodia 1991. Lasting Peace or Decent Interval?’, 116. 48. Communique of the P-5, Pattaya, Thailand, 30/08/1991. 49. Proposed Structure for the Agreements on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Section IV, Declaration on Rehabilitation and Recon- struction in Cambodia. 50. ‘… un accord entre Vietnamiens et Chinois pour les grandes lignes, et entre Khmers pour les détails.’ Thaddée In, ‘Cambodge, an I,’ Politique Interna- tionale, no. 54 (Winter 91/92), 280.

5 The Paris Plan 01. Paris Conference on Cambodia, Final Act of the Paris Conference on Cambodia (CPC/91/2/Rev.2), 23 October 1991. 02. Paris Conference on Cambodia, Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict (with annexes on the Mandate for UNTAC, Military Matters, the Elections, the Repatriation of Cambodian Refugees and Displaced persons, and Principles for a New Cambodian Constitution) (CPC/91/3/Rev.1), 23 October 1991. 03. Paris Conference on Cambodia, Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict (with annexes on the Mandate for UNTAC, Military Matters, the Election, the Repatriation of Cambodian Refugees and Displaced Persons, and Principles for a New Cambodian Constitution) (CPC/91/4/Rev.1), 23 October 1991. 4. Paris Conference on Cambodia, Declaration on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia (CPC/91/5/Rev.1), 23 October 1991. 05. Final Act of the Paris Conference on Cambodia. Articles 10 and 11. 06. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part I, Arrangements During the Transitional Period, Section I, Transitional Period, Article 1. 07. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part I, Arrangements During the Transitional Period, Section III, Supreme National Council, Articles 3, 4, and 6. 08. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex I, UNTAC Mandate, Section A, General Procedures, Article 2, Paragraphs a, b, and e. Notes 185

9. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex 1, UNTAC Mandate, Section B, Civil Administration, Articles 1, 2, 3, and 4. 10. Steven R. Ratner, ‘The Cambodia Settlement Agreements,’ American Journal of International Law, 87, no. 1 ( January 1991), 15. Ratner underscores the legal preeminence of the SNC over UNTAC by noting how ‘the portion of the mandate of UNTAC describing its electoral functions refers only to the Elections Annex, and not to that part of the mandate describing UNTAC’s relationship with the SNC … the mechanism for the relationship between UNTAC and the SNC (requiring the Special Representative [of the UN Secretary-General] to comply with the SNC’s advice when unanimous and consistent with the settlement) states, however, that it “will be used to resolve all issues relating to the implementation of [the] Agreement”’. (Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Annex 1, UNTAC Mandate, Section A, General Procedures, Article 2)21. 11. Steven R. Ratner, ‘The Cambodia Settlement Agreements,’ 24. 12. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part 1, Arrangement During the Transitional Period, Section V, Cease-fire and Cessation of Outside Military Assistance, Articles 11, and Annex 2, Withdrawal, Cease-fire and Related Measures, Article V, Ultimate Disposition of the Forces of the Parties and of Their Arms, Ammunition and Equipment. 13. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part II, Elections, and Annex 3, Elections, Article 2. 14. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part III, Human Rights, Article 15, Paragraph 2. 15. Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, Part VII, Principles for a New Constitution for Cambodia, Article 23, and Annex 5, Principles for a New Constitution for Cambodia, Article 4. 16. Declaration on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia, Articles 6 and 12. 17. Agreement Concerning the Sovereignty, Independence, Territorial Integrity and Inviolability, Neutrality and National Unity of Cambodia, Article 1, Paragraph b, and Article 2, Paragraphs b and c. 18. United Nations, Security Council, S/RES/718 (1991), 31 October 1991. 19. United Nations, Security Council, S/RES/717 (1991), 16 October 1991. 20. On the involvement of the Phnom Penh regime, see, for instance: Philip Shenon, ‘Battered Khmer Rouge Aide Vows to Return to Cambodia,’ The New York Times, December 4, 1991, A4. 21. Communique of the Supreme National Council, 3 December 1991 (FBIS-EAS- 91–233, 4 December 1991). 22. Communique of the Cambodian Supreme National Council, 30 December 1991 (FBIS-EAS-91–251, 31 December 1991). 23. See, for instance: ‘Cambodia’, in Asia 1993. Far Eastern Economic Review Yearbook, Michael Malik, ed. (Hong Kong: Far Eastern Economic Review, 1993). The following February, the first of many attacks against the personnel of the United Nations took place. The Khmer Rouge were believed to be responsible in most cases. See: ‘Cambodian Guerrillas Wound U.N. Officer,’ New York Times, February 27, 1992, A4. 24. John Cruickshank, ‘The UN’s Next Job: Mission in a Minefield,’ Globe and Mail, 25 October 1991, A17. 186 Notes

25. United Nations, Security Council, S/RES/745 (1992), 28 February 1992. 26. United Nations, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Information Notes, (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1992) (DPI/1306, September 1992). Also see: Frederick Z. Brown, ‘Cambodia in 1992. Peace at Peril,’ Asian Survey, XXXIII, no. 1 ( January 1993), 83–90. 27. Interview with Jacques Bekaert, Bangkok, 15 July 1992; Interview with Sukhumbandh Paribatra, Bangkok, 9 July 1992. 28. Interview with Jacques Bekaert, Bangkok, 15 July 1992. 29. ‘Cambodia – Economy-Infrastructure,’ in Asia 1993 (Hong Kong: Far Eastern Economic Review, 1993), 98. 30. ‘Cambodia – Economy-Infrastructure,’ 100; FBIS-EAS 92–180. Also see: Jean- Pierre Tuquoi, ‘Une fièvre économique trompeuse,’ Le Monde, 26 May 1992. 31. For an informed comment on the actual effect of the economic changes sought by UNTAC on the Cambodian economy, see: Robin Davies, ‘UNTAC and the Cambodian Economy: What Impact?’ Phnom Penh Post, 29 January–11 February 1993, 4–5. 32. Interview with journalist Mary Kay Magistad, Bangkok, 21 July 1992. 33. ‘Peace, Khmer Style,’ Far Eastern Economic Review, 10 September 1992, 6. 34. United Nations Document S/24578, 21 September 1992. 35. Interview with journalist Mary Kay Magistad, 21 July 1992. 36. Richard Betts, John Bresnan, Frederick Z. Brown, James W. Worley, Donald Zagoria, Time is Running Out in Cambodia (New York: Columbia University, East Asian Institute, 1992), 6. 37. ‘Cambodia – Politics/Social Affairs,’ in Asia 1993 (Hong Kong: Far Eastern Economic Review, 1993), 98. 38. Xinhua, September 20, 22, 23, 1992, FBIS-CHI 92–184/185. 39. United Nations Security Council Resolution 792, 30 November 1992. 40. See, for instance, Philip Shenon, New York Times, 12 January 1992. 41. FBIS-EAS 93–12/14/15, Reuters, 13, 15, 21 January 1993. 42. See: AFP, 24 January 1993, FBIS-EAS-93-014, 25 January 1993; Nayan Chanda and Nate Thayer, ‘Give Me a Chance,’ Far Eastern Economic Review, 4 February 1993. 43. Nate Thayer, ‘Sihanouk Poised to Take Control,’ Phnom Penh Post, January 29–February 11 1993, 1. 44. Chanda and Thayer, Interview with Prince Sihanouk, ‘Give Me a Chance,’ 22. 45. ‘A cause des controverses et manoeuvres politiciennes autour de cette question des élections présidentielles, je me vois obligé de renoncer à participer auxdites élections présidentielles. La validité des résultats des élections “untactistes” de Mai 1993, au Cambodge, est totalement rejetée et sévèrement condamnée par [les Khmers rouges] et sera rejetée (cela est facile à prévoir ou prédire) par la plupart des Partis ou Factions vaincus auxdites élections, lesquels Partis ou Factions diront qu’ils “ont perdu la compétition électorale à cause de la ‘partialité’ de l’UNTAC, d’une participation trop nombreuse d’électeurs et électrices Vietnamiens déguisés en Khmers, de la non participation des Khmers d’outre-Mer […], etc …”. En ma qualité de Président du C.N.S., je reconnaîtrai officiellement la validité de ces élections législatives de Mai 1993 et leurs résultats homologués par l’UNTAC. Mais je ne participerai pas aux élections présidentielles, quelle qu’en soit leur date, car mon Pays, le Cambodge, et le peuple cambodgien, après Notes 187

Mai-Juin 1993, auront besoin d’un NORODOM SIHANOUK neutre et non-engagé (dans des élections contestées par beaucoup de Khmers) pour stopper l’achemin- ment fatal du Kampuchéa vers une partition irréversible et vers une guerre civile mortelle pour la nation et la race khmère. Ce n’est qu’en me plaçant nettement au-dessus des factions et des partis politiques et en dehors des élections “untacistes” que je serai en mesure d’assurer, le moment venu, le sauvetage du “navire Kampuchéa naufragé”.’ Declaration of Norodom Sihanouk, Phnom Penh, 14 February 1993. 46. Interview with Chanserey Mum, Phnom Penh, 20 May 1993. 47. First Progress Report of the Secretary-General on UNTAC, UN Document S/23870, 1 May 1992. 48. Second Progress Report of the Secretary-General on UNTAC, UN Document S/24578, 21 September 1992. 49. Third Progress Report of the Secretary-General on UNTAC, UN Document S/25154, 25 January 1993. 50. Fourth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on UNTAC, UN Document S/25719, 3 May 1993.

6 L’Après-UNTAC 1. Akashi Press Conference, Phnom Penh, 22 May 1993. 2. Sheri Prasso (Agence France-Presse), ‘Phnom Penh Cries Foul Over Vote Count. UNTAC denies charges of irregularities, rejects call for halting release of results,’ The Nation, 1 June 1993, A1–A2. 3. Interviews with Canadian diplomat David Sproule, Phnom Penh, 19 and 26 May 1993. Canada was involved in these discussions as a member of the ‘Core Group’, a group of countries particularly implicated with the P-5 in the implementation of the Paris Plan. 4. See: Report of the Secretary-General on the Conduct and Results of the Election in Cambodia, UN Document S/25913, 10 June 1993. 5. ‘Sihanouk Scraps Government, Takes III. Prince’s son vetoes power-sharing plan that critics called a ‘constitutional coup’,’ The Nation, 5 June 1993, A1. 6. Nate Thayer, ‘Sihanouk Back at the Helm,’ Phnom Penh Post, 18 June–1, 2 July. Also see: Ker Munthit, ‘Chakrapong-led Secession Collapses,’ Phnom Penh Post, 18 June–1, 2 July. 7. Thayer, ‘Sihanouk Back at the Helm,’ 1, 2. 8. Interview with Raoul Jennar, Toronto, 2 November 1993. 9. Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, Chapter 1, Article 1. 10. Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, Chapter 2, Article 9. 11. Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia,Chapter 14, Article 138.

8 The Lessons of the Cambodian Peace Process 1. Hugh Smith, ed., International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994). 2. Lyndall McLean, ‘Civil Administration in Transition: Public Information and the Neutral Political/Electoral Environment,’ in International Peace- keeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, Hugh Smith, ed. (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994), 55. 188 Notes

3. Mark Plunkett, ‘The Establishment of the Rule of Law in Post-Conflict Peacekeeping,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experi- ence, Hugh Smith, ed. (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994), 76. 4. Hugh Smith, ‘Prospects for Peacekeeping,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, Hugh Smith, ed. (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994), 211. 5. Sorpong Peou, Conflict Neutralization in the Cambodia War. Turning the Battlefield into a Ballot Box (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1997). 6. Lieutenant General John Sanderson, ‘Introduction,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, Hugh Smith, ed. (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994), ix. 7. On this issue, see: Ian Pennell, ‘Non-Governmental Organisations in Humanitarian Operations,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, Hugh Smith, ed. (Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994), 131–6. 8. Raymond Cohen, Negotiating Across Cultures. Communications Obstacles in International Diplomacy (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1991), 19, 30. 9. Ibid, 25. Cohen refers to: Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture (New York: Anchor Press, 1976). 10. Maurice Keens-Soper, ‘The Liberal Disposition of Diplomacy,’ International Relations, V, no. 2 (November 1973). 11. These distinctions have been studied in many cross-cultural contexts, but mainly with regards to negotiations between Japan and the US. In particular, see: Mushakoji Kinhide, ‘The Cultural Premises of Japanese Diplomacy,’ in The Silent Power: Japan’s Identity and World Role, Japan Centre for International Exchange, ed. (Tokyo: Simul Press, 1976), and Rocichi Okabe, ‘Cultural Assumptions of East and West. Japan and the United States,’ in Intercultural Communication Theory, William B. Gudykunst, ed. (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1983), 21–44. 12. Stephen E. Weiss, ‘Negotiating with “Romans”: A Range of Culturally- Responsive Strategies’ (unpublished). 13. Weiss, Negotiating with ‘Romans’. Many other authors have argued that the reconciliation of cross-cultural dissimilarities should encompass an understanding of what Weiss terms the ‘negotiation of the negotiation’. For instance, see: June Ock Yum, ‘Network Theory in Intercultural Communica- tions,’ in Theories in Intercultural Communication, Young Yun Kim and William B. Gudykunst, eds. (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1988), 239–58.

10 The Dynamics of the 1998 Elections 1. Supplement to An Agenda for Peace. Position Paper of the Secretary-General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations, Document A/50/60-S/1995/1, 3 January 1995 (New York: Department of Public Information, United Nations, 1995). 2. Ibid, article 36. 3. Ibid, article 37. 4. Ibid, articles 38, 43, 45, and 46. Notes 189

5. Ibid, article 48. 6. Ibid, article 53. 7. See: Pierre P. Lizée, ‘Cambodia in 1995. From Hope to Despair,’ Asian Survey, XXXVI, no. 1 ( January 1996), 83–8. 8. See: Pierre P. Lizée, ‘Cambodia in 1996: Of Tigers, Crocodiles and Doves,’ Asian Survey, XXXVII, no. 1 ( January 1997), 65–71. 9. Nate Thayer, ‘The Deal That Died,’ Far Eastern Economic Review, August 21, 1997, 14–16. 10. ASEAN Statement on Cambodia, 10 July 1997. 11. Michael Richardson, ‘ASEAN Admits Burma, Laos. Cambodia Waits,’ International Herald Tribune, 24 July 1997. 12. House of Representatives Resolution 195, passed on 28 July 1997. 13. Murray Hieber, ‘ASEAN – All for One,’ Far Eastern Economic Review, 7 August 1997, 26. Tony Kevin, the Australian Ambassador to Phnom Penh in fact expressed support for Hun Sen. In a much-publicized leaked memo to Canberra, the Ambassador described the Cambodian leader as a ‘democrat at heart’ who was the only person able to bring sustained stability to Cambodia. On this point, see: Reuters, 13 July 1997. 14. UPI, 10 July 1997. 15. See: ‘Blame the Leaders. The UN Says it Again: It Can’t Impose Peace,’ Far Eastern Economic Review, 17 July 1997, 17, 20. 16. See, for instance: Claudia Rizzi, ‘Tokyo Bid Prompts Offers But No Talks,’ Phnom Penh Post, 21 November–4 December 1997, 1, 3. 17. AFP, 6 October 1997. 18. James Eckardt and Chris Fontaine, ‘Hun Sen Dwells in Development as CPP Campaigns,’ Phnom Penh Post, 17–23 July, 1998, 8, 19. 19. Samreth Sopha and Elizabeth Moorthy, ‘FUNCINPEC Relies on Royalty, Anti-VN Rhetoric,’ Phnom Penh Post, 17–23 July, 1998, 9. 20. Eric Pape and Chea Sotheacheath, ‘On the River with Rainsy in Search for Votes,’ Phnom Penh Post, 22 May–4 June, 1998, 14–15. 21. See, for instance: James Eckardt, ‘Rainsy of the Mekong: Rickety Boats and MSG Jokes,’ Phnom Penh Post, 17–23 July, 1998, 9, 13, where Rainsy declares that he knows that Hun Sen can ‘prevent [his] victory’ and that it is thus ‘impossible’ for him to win the elections. 22. See, for instance: ‘CPP Master Plan for Poll Victory,’ Phnom Penh Post, 5–18 June, 1998, 1–2. 23. See, for instance: Matthew Grainger, ‘Campaign “Hunting Season” Begins,’ Phnom Penh Post, 3–16 July, 1998, 1, 3. 24. See, for instance: Matthew Grainger, ‘UN Blasts CPP’s Domination of State- Run Media,’ Phnom Penh Post, 3–16 July: 1998, 4. 25. Matthew Grainger, ‘US Set to Give $7M for Election,’ Phnom Penh Post, 10–23 April, 1998, 1–2. Japan contributed about US$11 million to the elctions, and the European Union about the same amount. 26. Matthew Grainger, ‘Former Ambassador Says His Observers Will Balance US Opinion,’ Phnom Penh Post, 24–30 July, 1998, 4. 27. Matthew Grainger, ‘Foreign Observers Gagged Until after Polls,’ Phnom Penh Post, 19 June, 2 July 1998, 4. 28. ‘CPP May Go Solo in Next Government,’ Phnom Penh Post, 7–20 August, 1998, 1, 12. 190 Notes

29. See: Peter Schier, ‘How the Seat Allocation Formulas Make all the Difference,’ Phnom Penh Post, 21 August–3 September 1998, 6–7. 30. ‘How Powerful the People? Lessons for Democracy Square,’ Phnom Penh Post, 4–17 September, 1998, 1, 5. 31. AFP, 17 September 1998.

11 Global Governance and the Nature of International Conflict Resolution 1. The journal has been published since 1995 by Lynne Rienner Publishers in cooperation with the United Nations University and the Academic Council on the United Nations System (ACUNS). The journal deals with the concept of global governance itself – see: Lawrence S. Finkelstein, ‘What is Global Governance’, vol. 1, no. 3 (September–December 1995), 367–72 – and also with the ramifications of the concept in other areas of research – see: Peter Uvin and Isabelle Biagiotti, ‘Global Governance and the ‘New’ Political Conditionality,’ vol 2, no. 3 (September–December 1996), 377–400. 2. The work of James N. Rosenau is quite emblematic of this strand of research. See, for instance, his Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier. Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, Cambridge Studies in International Relations: 53 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); ‘Governance, Order and Change in World Politics,’ in Governance Without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge Studies in International Relations: 20, James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel, eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); ‘Governance in the 21st Century,’ Global Governance, 1, no. 1 ( January–April 1995), 13–44. Other major texts include: Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New Global Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); and David Held, Democracy and the Global Order. From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Stanford University Press, 1995). One should also note the work of the Commission on Global Governance. The Commission was estab- lished in 1992 at the instigation of Willy Brandt, the former West German Chancellor, with the aim of ‘contributing to the improvement of global governance. It [was intended to] analyze the main forces of global change, examine the major issues facing the world community, assess the adequacy of global institutional arrangements and suggest how they should be reformed or strengthened.’ Its report was published as: The Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood. The Report of the Commission on Global Governance (Oxford University Press, 1995). The quote is con- tained in Annex A of this text. 3. Robert W. Cox, ‘Structural Issues of Global Governance: Implications for Europe,’ in Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Gill, 259–60. 4. Ibid, 260. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation. The Political and Economic Origins of our Time (Boston: Beacon, 1957 [1944]). 8. Cox, ‘Structural Issues of Global Governance,’ 261. Notes 191

9. Ibid, 262. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. James N. Rosenau, ‘The Relocation of Authority in a Shrinking World,’ Comparative Politics, 24 (April 1992), 253–72. 13. Rosenau, ‘Governance, Order, and Change in World Politics,’ 4. 14. Ibid, 5. 15. Ibid, 15–16. 16. Ibid, 14–15. 17. Ibid, 14. 18. Ibid. 19. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, 5. 20. Ibid, 291. 21. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, ‘Overview,’ in The United Nations and Cambodia. 1991–1995, The United Nations, Blue Book Series, vol. II (Department of Public Information: United Nations, New York, 1995), 3. 22. Agenda for Peace, article 17. 23. Ibid, articles 17 and 19. 24. Ibid, article 19. 25. Ibid, article 16. 26. Ibid, Section VII. 27. Andrew S. Natsios, ‘An NGO Perspective,’ in Peacemaking in International Conflict. Methods and Techniques, I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 338–9. Also see: J. Lewis, Rasmussen, ‘Peacemaking in the Twenty- First Century: New Rules, New Roles, New Actors,’ in the same volume; Thomas G. Weiss and Larry Minear, eds., Humanitarianism Across Borders. Sustaining Civilians in Times of War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997); John Paul Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997). Bibliography

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Part II The 1993 Elections Alagappa, Muthiah. ‘The Cambodian Conflict: Changing Interests,’ Pacific Review, 3, no. 3 (1990), 266–71. Becker, Elizabeth. ‘The Progress of Peace in Cambodia.’ Current History, 88 (April 1989), 169–72, 200–1. ——‘Stalemate in Cambodia.’ Current History, 86 (April 1987), 156–9, 186. Bekaert, Jacques. ‘A Nasty Little War: Cambodia,’ International Defense Review, 22 (March 1989), 289–92. Brown, Frederick Z. ‘Cambodia in 1992: Peace at Peril.’ Asian Survey, XXXIII, no. 1 ( January 1993), 83–90. ——‘Cambodia in 1991: An Uncertain Peace.’ Asian Survey, XXXII, no. 1 ( January 1992), 89–96. Bui, Xuan Quang. ‘Regard(s) nouveau(x) sur les origines du conflict Cambodge- Vietnam,’ Communisme, no. 14 (2e trimestre 1987), 49–76. 198 Bibliography

Chanda, Nayan. ‘Civil War in Cambodia?’ Foreign Policy, 76 (Fall 1989), 26–43. ——‘Cambodia in 1987: Sihanouk on Center Stage,’ Asian Survey, 28 ( January 1988), 105–15. ——‘Cambodia in 1986: Beginning to Tire,’ Asian Survey, XXVII, 27 ( January 1987), 115–24. ——Brother Enemy: The War After the War. San Diego, California: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986. ——‘Vietnam in 1983: Keeping Ideology Alive,’ Asian Survey, XXIV, no. 1 ( January 1984), 28–36. Chang, Pao-min. ‘Kampuchean Conflict: The Continuing Stalemate,’ Asian Survey, XXVII, no. 7 ( July 1987), 748–63. ——‘The Sino-Vietnamese Conflict and its Implications for ASEAN,’ Pacific Affairs, 60, no. 4 (Winter 1987/8), 629–48. ——Kampuchea Between China and Vietnam. Singapore University Press, 1985. ——‘The Sino-Vietnamese Conflict over Kampuchea,’ Survey, 27 (Autumn–Winter 1983), 177–206. ——‘Kampuchea in Chinese and Vietnamese Policies: The Root of the Conflict,’ Studies in Comparative Communism, XVI, no. 3 (Autumn 1983), 203–21. ——‘Some Reflections on the Sino-Vietnamese Conflict over Kampuchea,’ International Affairs, 59, no. 3 (Summer 1983), 381–9. ——‘Beijing versus Hanoi: The Diplomacy over Kampuchea,’ Asian Survey, 23, no. 5 (May 1983), 598–618. Chen, King C. ‘The Impact of the Changing Sino-Soviet Relationship on Indochina,’ in Changes and Continuities in Chinese Communism (vol. 1), Yu-min Shaw, ed. Boulder, London: Westview Press, 1988. Eiland, Michael. ‘Cambodia in 1985: From Stalemate to Ambiguity,’ Asian Survey, 26 ( January 1986), 118–25. ——‘Kampuchea in 1984: Yet Further from Peace,’ Asian Survey, 25 ( January 1985), 106–13. Elahi, Mahmood-i. ‘Neutralization Through Aseanization: A Way Out from Kampuchea Stalemate,’ Asian Profile, 16 (February 1988), 67–77. Emmerson, Donald K. ‘The Stable War: Cambodia and the Great Powers,’ Indochina Issues, no. 62 (December 1985). Esterline, John H. ‘Vietnam in 1986: An Uncertain Tiger.’ Asian Survey, XXVII, no. 7 ( July 1987), 748–63. Etcheson, Craig. ‘Civil War and the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea,’ Third World Quarterly, 9, no. 1 ( January 1987), 187–202. Evans, Grant and Kelvin Rowley. Red Brotherhood at War. Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos since 1975. New York: Verso, 1990. Findlay, Trevor. Peacemaking in Cambodia. The First Post-Cold War UN Success Story? Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Global Security, 1993. Frieson, Kate. ‘The Political Nature of Democratic Kampuchea,’ Pacific Affairs, 61 (Fall 1988), 405–27. Frost, Frank. ‘The Cambodia Conflict: The Path Towards Peace,’ Contemporary Southeast Asia, 13, no. 2 (September 1991), 119–62. Gunn, Geoffrey, C. and Jefferson Lee. Cambodia. Watching Down Under. Institute of Asian Studies. IAS Monographs No. 047. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, 1991. Bibliography 199

Haas, Michael. ‘The Paris Conference on Cambodia, 1989,’ Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 23, no. 2 (1991), 42–53. Hémery, Daniel. ‘Viet-Nam-Cambodge-Chine: la guerre des frontières,’ Collectif. Problèmes des frontières dans le tiers-monde. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1982. Hervouet, Gérard. La Reinsertion difficile du Vietnam dans le système international: Une Perspective canadienne. Ottawa: Institut Canadien pour la Paix et la Securité Internationales, 1988. In, Thaddée. ‘Cambodge, an I,’ Politique internationale, no. 54 (Hiver 1991/2), 273–89. Jeldres, Julio, A. ‘Cambodia’s Fading Hopes,’ Journal of Democracy, 7, no. 1, ( January 1996), 148–57. Joyaux, François. ‘Réflexions sur la politique chinoise en indochine,’ Collectif. La Politique Asiatique de la Chine. Paris: Fondation pour les Etudes de Défense Nationale, 1986. Kelly, James A. ‘The United States in Southeast Asia: A Political Security Agenda,’ Washington Quarterly, 12 (Autumn 1989), 113–21. Kiernan, Ben. ‘The Making of the Paris Agreement on Cambodia, 1990–1991,’ unpublished paper, 1991. Kiljunen, Kimmo, ed. Kampuchea: A Decade of Genocide. New York: Praeger, 1984. Koh, Tommy T.B. ‘The Paris Conference on Cambodia: A Multilateral Negotiation that ‘Failed’,’ Negotiation Journal, no. 1 ( January 1990), 81–7. LaCouture, Jean. Survive le peuple cambodgien. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1978. Lash, Jean and Timothy Stone. ‘Cambodia in Isolation,’ International Perspectives (May–June 1987), 21–34. Lau, Teik Soon. ‘ASEAN and the Cambodian Problem,’ Asian Survey, 22 ( June 1982), 548–60. Leifer, Michael. ‘The Stakes of Conflict in Cambodia,’ Asian Affairs, XXI, no. II ( June 1990), 155–61. ——Cambodian Conflict. The Final Phase? London: Institute for the Study of Conflict, Conflict Studies, no. 221 (May 1989), 1–28. ——‘Obstacles to a Political Settlement in Indochina,’ Pacific Affairs, 58, no. 4 (Winter 1985–6), 626–6. ——‘The Balance of Advantage in Indochina,’ World Today, 38 ( June 1982), 232–8. ——Conflict and Regional Order in Southeast Asia. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1980. Lizée, Pierre ‘The Evolution of Great Power Involvement in Cambodia,’ in Southeast Asia in the New World Order: The Political Economy of a Dynamic Region, David Wurfel and Bruce Burton, eds. London: Macmillan, 1996. McAuliff, John and Mary Byrne McDonnell. ‘Ending the Cambodian Stalemate,’ World Policy Journal, 7 (Winter 1989–90), 71–105. Mochtan, A.K.P., ed. Cambodia. Toward Peace and Reconstruction. Jakarta: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1993. Munier, Bruno. ‘La Chine et le Kampuchéa,’ L’Afrique et L’Asie modernes, 156 (Spring 1988), 62–74. ——‘Kampuchéa: Vers un déblocage?’ Studia Diplomatica, 40, no. 6 (1987), 719–26. Muscat, Robert. Cambodia: Post-Settlement Reconstruction and Development. New York: East Asian Institute, Columbia University, 1989. 200 Bibliography

Peang-Meth, Abdulgaffar. ‘The United Nations Peace Plan, the Cambodian Conflict, and the Future of Cambodia,’ Contemporary Southeast Asia, 14, no. 1 ( June 1992), 33–46. Pedler, John. ‘Cambodia: Danger and Opportunity for the West,’ World Today, 45, no. 2 (February 1989), 19–21. Pike, Douglas. ‘The Cambodian Peace Process: Summer of 1989,’ Asian Survey, 29, no. 9 (September 1989), 842–52. ——Vietnam and the Soviet Union: Anatomy of an Alliance. Boulder: Westview Press, 1987. Platero, Marion Calvo. ‘La neutralisation de l’Asie du Sud-Est: entre le rêve et la réalité,’ L’Afrique et l’Asie modernes, no. 145 (été 1985), 56–64. Porter, Gareth. ‘Cambodia: Sihanouk’s Initiative,’ Foreign Affairs, 66, no. 4 (Spring 1988), 809–26. ——‘China in Southeast Asia,’ Current History (September 1986), 249–52, 278–9. Randall, Stephen, J. ‘Peacekeeping in the Post-Cold War Era: The United Nations and the Cambodian Elections of 1993,’ Contemporary Security Policy, 16, no. 2 (August 1995), 174–91. Ratner, Stephen R. ‘The Cambodian Settlement Agreements,’ American Journal of International Law, 87, no. 1 ( January 1993). Regaud, Nicolas. Le Cambodge dans la tourmente. Le troisième conflit indochinois 1979–1991. Paris: Fondation pour les études de defense nationale – L’Harmattan, 1992. ——‘Cambodge: Quelle nouvelle donne?’ Politique étrangère, 53, no. 4 (Winter 1988), 943–54. Roberts, David. ‘Cambodia: Problems of a UN-brokered Peace,’ The World Today, 48, no. 7 ( July 1992), 129–32. Rosenberger, Leif. ‘The Soviet-Vietnamese Alliance and Kampuchea,’ Survey, 27 (Autumn–Winter 1983), 207–31. Rowley, Kevin. ‘The Cambodian Conflict after the Vietnamese Withdrawal, 1989–1991,’ Unpublished paper. Hawthorne, Victoria: Swinburne Institute of Technology, September, 1991. Sieng, Lapresse. ‘Cambodia: Twelve Years of Suffering,’ International Freedom Review, 1 (Summer 1988), 65–74. Sihanouk, Norodom. Chroniques de guerre et d’espoir. Paris: Hachette, 1979. Smith, Roger B. ‘Cambodia in the Context of Sino-Vietnamese Relations,’ Asian Affairs, 16, no. 3 (October 1985), 273–87. Sola, Richard. ‘Chine-Indochine: de l’interaction à l’antagonisme. Première par- tie – La Chine en guerre: le conflit du Tonkin en 1979,’ Défense nationale, 42 (octobre 1986), 109–25. Stern, Lewis. ‘Cambodia: Diplomacy Falters,’ Current History, 89 (March 1990), 109, 135–38. Thayer, Carlyle A. ‘Comrade Plus Brother: The New Sino-Vietnamese Relations,’ The Pacific Review, 5, no. 4 (1992), 402–6. Thee, Marek. ‘The China-Indochina Conflict: Notes on the Background and Conflict Resolution – The Case of Neutrality,’ Journal of Peace Research, XVII, no. 3 (1980), 223–33. ——‘Red East in Conflict: The China/Indochina War,’ Journal of Peace Research, 16, no. 2 (September 1979), 93–100. Bibliography 201

Turley, William S. ‘The Khmer War: Cambodia After Paris,’ Survival, XXXII, no. 5 (September/October 1990), 437–53. Van Der Kroef, Justus M. ‘Cambodia: The Vagaries of a ‘Cocktail’ Diplomacy,’ Contemporary Southeast Asia, 9, no. 4 (March 1988), 300–20. ——‘The Endless Aftermath of Conquest: Indochina’s Refugees and Their World,’ Crossroads, no. 23 (1987), 15–27. ——Dynamics of the Cambodian Conflict. London: Institute for the Study of Conflict, 1986. ——‘Delayed Peace: The Case of Cambodia,’ Bulletin of Peace Proposal, 17, no. 1 (1986), 59–70. ——‘Kampuchea: The Road to Finlandization, 1983,’ Asian Profile, 13, no. 3 ( June 1985), 221–41. ——‘The Kampuchean Conflict: Edging Towards Compromise,’ Asian Affairs: An American Review, 12, no. 1 (Spring 1985), 1–24. ——‘Cambodia: Whose Vietnam?’ Asia Pacific Community, no. 28 (Spring 1985), 105–18. ——‘Kampuchea: Diplomatic Gambits and Political Realities,’ Orbis, 28 (Spring 1984), 145–62. Vickery, Michael. Cambodia, 1975–1982. Boston: South End Press, 1984. ——Kampuchea: Politics, Economics and Society. London: Frances Pinter, 1986. Vuong, Than H. ‘Les colonisations du Vietnam et le colonialisme vietnamien,’ Etudes internationales, XVIII, no. 3 (septembre 1987), 545–71. Wanandi, Jusuf. The Cambodian Conflict. Tokyo: International Institute for Global Peace, 1990. Yeong, Mike. ‘Cambodia 1991. Lasting Peace of Decent Interval?’ in Southeast Asian Affairs, 103–19. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1992.

Part III Beyond the 1993 Election (1) Peacekeeping and Peace-Building Goulding, Marrack. ‘The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping,’ International Affairs, 69, no. 3 (1993), 451–64. James, Alan. ‘The History of Peacekeeping: An Analytical Perspective,’ In Peacekeeping: Norms, Policy and Process. (1993 Peacekeeping Symposium), 23–36. Toronto: York Centre for International and Strategic Studies (in cooperation with the Department of National Defense), 1993. Lizée, Pierre. ‘The Challenge of Conflict Resolution in Cambodia,’ Canadian Defense Quarterly, 23, no. 1 (September 1993), 35–44. Martin, Laurence. ‘Peacekeeping as a Growth Industry,’ The National Interest, no. 32 (Summer 1993), 3–11. Pennell, Ian. ‘Non-Governmental Organisations in Humanitarian Operations,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, 131–5. Hugh Smith ed. Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994. Peou, Sorpong. Conflict Neutralization in the Cambodia War. From Battlefield to Ballot Box. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1997. Plunkett, ‘The Establishment of the Rule of Law in Post-Conflict Peacekeeping,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, 65–78. Hugh Smith ed. Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994. 202 Bibliography

Sanderson, John. ‘Introduction,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, vii-xiii. Hugh Smith ed. Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994. Smith, Hugh, ed. International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience. Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994. ——‘Prospects for Peacekeeping,’ in International Peacekeeping. Building on the Cambodian Experience, 201–14. Hugh Smith ed. Canberra: Australian Defense Studies Centre, 1994.

(2) Models of Negotiation Bell, David V.J. ‘Political Linguistics and International Negotiation,’ Negotiation Journal, 4, no. 3 ( July 1988), 233–46. Cohen, Raymond. ‘International Communications: An Intercultural Approach,’ Cooperation and Conflict, 22 (1987), 63–80. ——Negotiating Across Cultures: Communication Obstacles in Inter-national Diplomacy. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1991. Der Derian, James. On Diplomacy. A Genealogy of Western Estrangement. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987. Keens-Soper, Maurice. ‘The Liberal Disposition of Diplomacy,’ International Relations, V, no. 2 (November 1973), 231–6. Mushakoji, Kinhide. ‘The Cultural Premises of Japanese Diplomacy,’ in The Silent Power: Japan’s Identity and World Role. Japan Center for International Diplomacy, ed. Tokyo: Simul Press, 1976. Ock Yum, June. ‘Network Theory in Intercultural Communication,’ in Theories in Intercultural Communication, 239–58. Young Yun Kim and William B. Gudykunst, eds. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1988. Rocichi Okabe. ‘Cultural Assumptions of East and West. Japan and the United States,’ in Intercultural Communication Theory, 21–44. William B. Gudykunst, ed. Beverly Hill: Sage Publications, 1983. Weiss, Stephen. ‘Negotiating with “Romans”: A Range of Culturally-Responsive Strategies’ (unpublished).

Part IV The 1998 Elections (1) Dynamics of the 1998 Elections Lizée, Pierre. ‘Cambodia in 1996: Of Tigers, Crocodiles and Doves,’ Asian Survey XXXVII, no. 1 ( January 1997), 65–71. ——‘Cambodia in 1995: From Hope to Despair,’ Asian Survey XXXVI, no. 1 ( January 1996), 83–8.

(2) Global Governance Commission on Global Governance. Our Global Neighborhood. The Report of the Commission on Global Governance. Oxford University Press, 1995. Cox, Robert W. ‘Structural Issues of Global Governance. Implication for Europe,’ in Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations. Stephen Gill, ed. Cambridge University Press, 1993. Falk, Richard. On Humane Governance. Towards a New Global Politics. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995. Bibliography 203

Finkelstein, Lawrence S. ‘What is Global Governance?’ Global Governance 1, no. 1 (September–December 1995), 367–72. Held, David. Democracy and the Global Order. From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance. Stanford University Press, 1995. Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997). Natsios, Andrew S, ‘An NGO Perspective’, in Peacemaking in International Conflict. Methods and Techniques, I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 338–9. Rasmussen, J. Lewis. ‘Peacemaking in the Twenty-First Century: New Rules, New Roles, New Actors’, in Peacemaking in International Conflict. Methods and Techniques, I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997). Rosenau, James. Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier. Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World. Cambridge Studies in International Relations: 53. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ——‘Governance in the 21st Century,’ Global Governance 1, no. 1 ( January–April 1995), 13–44. ——‘Governance, Order, and Change in World Politics,’ in Governance Without Government. Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge Studies in International Politics, 20. James Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. ——‘The Relocation of Authority in a Shrinking World,’ Comparative Politics 24 (April 1992), 253–72. Uvin, Peter, and Isabelle Biagiotti. ‘Global Governance and the “New” Political Conditionality,’ Global Governance 2, no. 3 (September– December 1996), 377–400. Weiss, Thomas G. and Minear, Larry, eds. Humanitarianism Across Borders. Sustaining Civilians in Times of War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997). Index

ASEAN, 54, 71, 74, 143–4, 157–8 National Election Committee, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 157 161 Agenda for Peace, An, 48, 153, nationalism, 33–5 168–71 Pailin, 156 Agreement Concerning the Phnom Malai, 156 Sovereignty, Independence, Red Solution, 61, 62, 64, 72, Territorial Integrity and 80–1 Inviolability, Neutrality and society, 30–4, 44–5, 109–10 National Unity of Cambodia, state, 30, 32, 35, 37, 40, 42 90, 97 Vietnamese invasion, 53, 57 Agreement on a Comprehensive Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), Political Settlement of the 11, 116, 156, 159–61 Cambodian Conflict, 90–3 Canada, 158 Ahmed, Rafeeuddin, 71 capitalism, 23–6, 29, 36, 44, Alatas, Ali, 112 82–4, 119, 143, 166–8, 172 Anderson, Benedict, 32–3, 34 capitalist class, 36, 106 Annan, Kofi, 158 Coalition Government of Australia, 158 Democratic Kampuchea Australian Plan, 9–10, 62, 64, (CGDK), 54, 56, 58–9, 64 66–8, 78, 80 Chakrapong, Prince, 126, 128 Evans, Gareth, 65, 67–8, 112 Chanda, Nayan, 36 Azar, Edward E., 50 Chandler, David P., 37 China, 53–5, 59, 61, 63–4, 71–4, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 168 80–1, 158 Red Solution, see Cambodia, Cambodia Red Solution bourgeoisie, 30, 36–7, 83, 109, Sino–Soviet relations, 53, 55, 119 63 Buddhism, 3, 30, 37–8, 40, 41 Sino–Vietnamese relations, see Brahmanism, 30, 37 Vietnam, Sino-Vietnamese bureaucracy, 35, 82, 84, 106, relations 108 Cohen, Raymond, 146–7 cantonment, 77, 117 Cold War, 71, 150, 163 Chinese community, 36 conflict colonial period, 31, 33, 36 nature of, 49–50, 144–6 Constitution, 70, 96 resolution, 49–50, 80, 107, demobilization, 109–10 135–7, 144–8, 149–50, 154, economic activity, 97–8, 103, 159, 162, 167–70, 172–5 108–10, 119, 143 Cox, Robert, 15, 18, 163–4, 166 hyperinflation, 109 industrialization, 108–10 Declaration on the Rehabilitation monarchy, 40–4, 88, 127, 136 and Reconstruction of National Assembly, 78, 156, 161 Cambodia, 82, 90, 95, 103

204 Index 205

École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 34 Japan, 158–9, 172 Economic and Social Commission Jayavarman VII, 37 for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 96 Khieu Samphan, 57, 73, 100 elections Khmer Rouge, 11, 30, 36, 54, 58, July 1998, 2, 155, 159–62, 169, 61–2, 64–7, 71–3, 78, 171–3 99–101, 110–15, 117, 120, May 1993, 2, 78, 124–7, 162, 125, 127–8, 156–7, 161 169, 172–3 Klein, Bradley, 27 European Community (Union), 161, 172 Leifer, Michael, 53–4

Final Act of the Paris Conference on Mitchell, C. R., 49 Cambodia, 90–1 Morley, James W., 111 Forest, Alain, 31–2, 34, 35, 37 Mulder, Niels, 31 Framework Document, 6, 68–71, 73, 90 Nam Tien, 31 France, 56, 59, 112, 158 nation-state, 19, 21, 23, 29, 32–3, Front Uni National pour un 35, 82, 163, 167 Cambodge Indépendent, Neutre, Western models, 19, 21, 29, 32 Pacifique et Coopératif nationalism, 32, 34 (FUNCINPEC), 11, 99, 125–8, negotiations, models of, 145–8, 156–7, 159–61 149–50 Nhek Bun Chay, 156 Galtung, Johan, 50 non-governmental organizations Giddens, Anthony, 19–22, 25–6, (NGOs), 171–2 29, 33, 103, 167 Norodom Sihanouk, Prince, 11, Gill, Stephen, 166 34, 54, 56, 58, 65, 73–6, 79, global governance, 2, 163–6, 84, 88, 92, 99–100, 113–15, 168–70, 172–5 120, 122, 126–7, 161 globalization, 163–4, 167, 169–70 Sihanoukists, 62, 65, 87, 100, Gorbachev, Mikhail, 53, 55 100, 120, 125 Gramscian school, 15–16, 18, Norodom Sirivudh, Prince, 155–6 25–6, 166 Gouvernment d’Union Nationale du Permanent Five Members of the Cambodge (GUNC), 58 United Nations Security Council (P5), 63, 65–9, 71–5, Heng Samrin, 54 77, 79–80, 82, 84, 88, 90, 92, human rights, 10, 96, 116 94–7, 102, 112, 170 Hun Sen, 56–8, 67, 71–3, 75, 78, Paris, 46, 63 99–100, 127, 155–9, 161 Paris Agreement, 3, 10–12, 16, 43–6, 59, 86–9, 90–3, 95–100, Implementation Plan, 71, 73, 104–5, 110, 118–20, 124, 134 75–6, 80, 82, 92, 95 Paris Conferences International Control Mechanism First Conference, 53–60, 74, 88 (ICM), 58 Second Conference, 60–80, 88, 90 Jakarta Informal Meeting, 55, 73, Pattaya Meeting, 63, 73–9, 84, 87, 80 92–3, 97 206 Index peace, 13–9, 23–4, 43–5, 60, Ung Huot, 157 72–3, 80, 85–6, 104–7, 133–4 United Nations, 63–4, 68–9, Cambodian conception, 13, 71–2, 77, 82, 90–1, 97, 30–2, 39–43, 85–6, 93, 99–101, 105, 115, 140–1, 104, 122 153, 170 Western conception, 13, 19–24, United Nations Advanced 85–6, 93, 104, 120–1 Mission in Cambodia peace-building, 48–50, 139–42, (UNAMIC), 99 144–5, 153–5, 174–5 United Nations Secretary-General, peacekeeping, 48, 101–2, 139–42, 99–100, 102, 115, 117–18, 153 145, 153–4 United Nations Secretary- Pean-Meth, Adulgaffar, 30 General’s Special Peou, Sorpong, 141 Representative in Cambodia, Pike, Douglas, 9 46, 69–71, 76, 92, 94, 100, Pol Pot, 56, 99, 141, 156–7, 161 111–12, 125, 134 Polanyi, Karl, 164 United Nations Transitional Post-Cold War order, 101, 150, Authority in Cambodia 163, 165–70, 175 (UNTAC), 10–12, 46–7, 68–71, 74, 77–9, 81–2, 84–6, Rainsy, Sam, 155–6, 160–1 92–8, 100–10, 115, 124, 140, Ranariddh, Prince, 126–8, 155–9, 142–3 161 civil administration, 67–8, 115, Ratner, Stephen R., 93–5 140 Regaud, Nicolas, 53, 59 human rights unit, 49, 160 Rosenau, James N., 164–6 McNamara, Dennis, 49 Sanderson, John, Lieutenant- Samphan, Khieu, 156 General, 142 Sary, Ieng, 156–7 United States, 53–4, 61–2, 65–6, Shaw, Martin, 21–2 71–2, 87, 114, 122, 158, 160, Siem Reap, 161 172 Smith, Hugh, 140 Solarz, Stephen, 66 Vietnam, 30–1, 53, 61, 63–4, 72–3 Son San, 54, 57–8, 62–5, 78, 87, invasion of Cambodia, 53, 57 110–11, 120 Sino–Vietnamese relations, 62, Son Sen, 157 64, 88–9 Soviet Union, 53, 61 Vietnam War, 36 Communist Party, 63 Vietnamese Communist Party, Sino-Soviet relations, see China, 55, 155 Sino-Soviet relations violence, 14–15, 43–5, 83, 85, Supreme National Council of 103–5, 115, 155, 166–7, 169, Cambodia, 11, 46, 67–71, 173–5 73–5, 79, 81, 85–6, 91–5, Cambodian conception, 30–43 97–8, 99–102 contextual, 39–40, 147 surveillance, 21–3, 26, 28–9 instrumental, 39 Western conception, 19–29 Ta Mok, 157 Vladivostock (speech), 53, 55, 61, Tambiah, S. J., 31, 157 63 Thailand, 30–1, 88, 93, 100, 156, 158 Wolin, Sheldon S., 22, 29 Thion, Serge, 44 Workman, Thom, 27