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Lives, Livelihoods & Diaspora: The Migration Experiences & Livelihood Strategies of Professional Nepali Migrants & Their Families in the UK PRAKASH KHANAL PhD JULY 2020 Lives, Livelihoods & Diaspora: The Migration Experiences & Livelihood Strategies of Professional Nepali Migrants & Their Families in the UK PRAKASH KHANAL PhD Thesis submitted to: School of Archaeology, Geography and Environmental Sciences (SAGES) July 2020 2 DECLARATION I declare that the work contained in this thesis has not been submitted for any other award and that it is all my own work. I also confirm that this work fully acknowledges opinions, ideas and contributions cited from the work of others. ------------------------------------- Prakash Khanal 3 DEDICATION To my mother RAMA DEVI KHANAL, my first teacher. She continues to inspire me and remains my great Guru to this day. 4 Acknowledgements I consider myself fortunate for having received the opportunity to know and learn from the late Professor Rob Potter, my first supervisor. I did not know him for very long, but I set out on this journey of lifelong learning when he decided to take me as one of his students from his hospital bed in 2010. He also introduced me to his colleague Sally Lloyd-Evans, my second supervisor, who provided her intellectual guidance and support to guide me through the thick and thins of the academic world. I owe her a great debt of gratitude for her thoughtfulness, her attention to detail and her unwavering support without which I would not have succeeded in completing this pedagogic adventure that has made me inquisitive about knowledge in all its manifestations. I would also like to thank all the staff members at the School of Archaeology, Geography and Environmental Sciences (SAGES) for their kind help and support in various capacities. I would like to give special thanks to my research participants from the Nepali Community, both those who migrated to the UK and continue to live there, as well as those Nepali migrants who have returned to Nepal after living sometime in the UK and other countries in the west. They have shared their experiences as well as details about their personal lives with me; without their support the research would not have been possible. Finally, I thank my family for their encouragement and patience as I navigated my way through my research, my wife for her professional and emotional support and my sons for their continued confidence in me. 5 ABSTRACT This doctoral research is designed around two interrelated aims: Firstly, it aims to explore the livelihood opportunities and strategies of professional first and second generation Nepali migrants and their families in the UK, in order to understand the importance of education, knowledge, social networks and employment in shaping their social mobility and other livelihood outcomes. Secondly, it examines how a small sample of return migrants have transferred their qualifications, knowledge, labour market experiences and social and professional networks to develop new livelihood strategies in Nepal and the research considers how this knowledge transfer may contribute towards the future development prospects of Nepal. Drawing on qualitative in-depth interviews with 40 Nepali participants, 30 residents in the UK and 10 returnees in Nepal, the research draws on livelihoods approaches to explore how the everyday lives and social mobility of professional Nepali migrants are shaped by both tangible improvements in higher education and professional knowledge, as well as more intangible assets, such as entrepreneurism, that have the potential to contribute to Nepali development on return. The research also assesses the important contributions migrants’ make towards the future development prospects of Nepal and it concludes with suggestions for further research and recommendations to support the Nepali diaspora. It is hoped that this research will fill a much needed gap in the empirical research and published scholarship on the professional Nepali diaspora community in the UK. 6 Table of Contents Declaration Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction to the Research Agenda ……………………………………15 1.1 Introduction …………………….………………………………....….... 15 1.2 Livelihood Strategy ………………………………………………...….. 18 1.3 Diaspora and Development ……………………………………………. 19 1.4 Personal Motivation for the Research ……………………………….… 20 1.5 Research Context ….……………………………………….………...… 22 1.6 Aims of the Study and Key Research Questions …..………………...… 24 1.7 Structure of the Thesis …………...………… ………………..……...… 25 Chapter 2 International Migration of Skilled Professionals: Reflections on Theoretical Concepts …………………………………….. 27 2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………….…..... 27 2.2 Defining the scope of the literature review …………………………….. 30 2.3 Globalisation and International Migration …………….……………….. 32 2.4 Theories of Migration – a brief review ………………………….……... 35 2.4.1 The Network Theory …………………………………………..…. 37 2.5 Livelihoods and Migration ……………...………….…………………... 40 2.6 Skilled/Professional Migration ………………………………….……… 45 2.6.1 De-skilling and discrimination ………………….……………..… 48 2.7 Benefits of Migration …...……………….…...…………………....….… 49 2.7.1 Benefits of migration to the host country ...…………...….………. 49 2.7.2 Benefits of migration to the home country …………………...….. 50 7 2.7.3 Development potential and diaspora ……………………….…... 52 2.7.4 Provision of dual citizenship …………………………….…....... 55 2.8 Return Migration ………………………………………………………...… 55 2.8.1 Theoretical concepts relating to return migration ………………. 57 2.8.2 Return migration and knowledge transfer …………………….… 59 2.9 Conclusion ……………………………………………………….……..…… 61 Chapter 3 Nepali Migration to the UK: Background and Context ……….….……. 62 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….…. 62 3.2 History of Nepali Migration …………………………………………..... 63 3.2.1 Nepal opens up ……………………………………………….….. 65 3.3 History of Nepali Migration to the UK ………………………………… 68 3.3.1 Family migration/reunion ………………………………………... 73 3.3.2 Intergenerational Impact of Migration – deepening of family bonding …………………………………………………… 74 3.3.3 Children’s education and international training ………………..… 75 3.3.4 Student migration ………………………………………………… 76 3.4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………….... 78 Chapter 4 Methodological Considerations ….…………………………………..….…79 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………..….…79 4.2 Research Philosophy ……………………………………………….……79 4.3 Researcher’s Positionality – Insider/Outsider Perspective.………….…. 81 4.4 Research Design and Methodology ……………………………… …… 85 4.4.1 Qualitative Methods ………………………………………...…… 85 4.4.2 Recruitment and Sampling (UK and Nepal) ………………….…. 88 4.4.3 Interviews – semi-structured interviews ………………………… 89 4.4.4 Interview Questions ……………………………………………... 91 4.5 The Study Area ……………………………………………………….... 93 4.6 Pilot Study ………………………………………………….…....…..… 94 4.7 Fieldwork in the UK ………………………………………….……..…. 94 4.8 Fieldwork in Nepal…………………………………………………....... 98 8 4.9 Interview Transcription …………………………………………….….. 99 4.10 Data Coding and Analysis …………………………………………… 101 4.11 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………….…… 103 4.12 Limitations and Challenges of the Study ……………………….…… 104 4.13 Conclusion ………………………………………………….………. 105 Chapter 5 The Demographic and Socio-economic Background of Nepali Migrants in the UK …………………………...…………….… 107 5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………… 107 5.2 Demographic Background to the Research Participants…………….… 107 5.3 Socioeconomic Profile of the Research Participants …………………. 111 5.4 Motivations to Migrate to the UK ………………...………………..… 112 5.5 What others say ………………………………………………….…… 117 5.6 Socio-economic Profile of Return Migrants ………………………..... 121 5.7 Conclusion ………………………………………………......…..…… 125 Chapter 6 The Livelihood Experiences and Strategies of Professional Nepali Migrants in the UK: Work and Careers…….…… 127 6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………… 127 6.2 Livelihood Experiences of First Generation ……………….…………. 128 6.2.1 Livelihood Experiences of Nepali Doctors …………….………. 130 6.2.2 Livelihood Experiences of Nepali Nurses ………...….…...…… 131 6.2.3 Livelihood Experiences of Nepali Care Workers ……...…..…. 132 6.2.4 Livelihood Experiences of Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs …………………………………………….…… 133 6.2.5 Livelihood Options of Other Professionals ………...…...….… 135 6.3 Livelihood Experiences of the Second Generation ………….……..… 135 6.4 Experiences of Livelihoods shared by Migrant Professionals …...…... 136 6.4.1 Doctors’ experience ………………………………....…..….… 136 6.4.2 Nurses’ experience ………………………………….…....…... 138 Case Study – 1: Reflections of hardships of Nepalis nurses ….….… 140 6.4.3 Carers’ experience …………………………………….……… 146 9 Case Study – 2: Inspiring Parents …………………………………. 148 6.4.4 Entrepreneurs’ experience ………………………………...…. 150 6.4.5 Other professionals’ experience ……………………………... 153 6.4.6 Migration experiences of second-generation ………………… 155 6.5 Livelihood Affected by Constraints………………. ………….…….…159 6.6 Livelihoods and Community Support ………………………. …….….162 6.7 Conclusion ………………………………………………….….......… 166 Chapter 7 The Life Chances and Livelihoods of Migrant’s Children: Education, Careers and Social Mobility .……………….…...….......…. 169 7.1 Introduction …………………………………………………….……. 169 7.2 Historical Context of Education in Nepal. ………………………..…. 171 7.3 Children’s Education as a Motivation for Migration …………..……. 173 7.3.1 Parental aspiration and children’s education ………….....…. 176 7.4 Parental Sacrifice ……………………………………………….….... 178 7.4.1 Children’s safety and wellbeing …………………….….… 181 7.4.2
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