THE WAY OF THE GURKHA: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE GURKHAS’ POSITION IN THE BRITISH ARMY Thesis submitted to Kingston University in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Mulibir Rai Faculty of Arts and Social Science Kingston University 2018 1 2 CONTENTS The thesis contains: Documentary: The Way of the Gurkha Script/Director/Presenter/Editor/Cinematographer: Mulibir Rai Cast: Mulibir Rai, Karan Rai, Sarbada Rai, Deshu Rai, Shanta Maya Limbu, Kesharbahadur Rai, Yamkumar Rai, Dipendra Rai, Rastrakumar Rai, Bambahadur Thapa, Tiloksing Rai, Lt Col JNB Birch, Maj R Anderson, Gajendra K.C, Sophy Rai, Chandra Subba Gurung, Lt Col (retired) J. P. Cross, Major (retired) Tikendradal Dewan, Gyanraj Rai, Padam Gurung, D.B. Rai, Recruit intake 2012. Genre: Documentary Run time: 1:33:26 Medium: High definition Synopsis – The documentary is divided into two parts. In the first part, the researcher, in 2012 returned to his village of Chautara in Eastern Nepal where he was born, raised and educated for the first time in 13 years. He found many changes in the village - mainly in transport and information technology, but no improvement in the standard of English teaching which nowadays, unlike in the past, is one of the necessities required for joining the British Army. Hence, the hillboys pay a significant amount of money to the training academies in the cities to improve their English. In the end, only a few out of thousands of candidates achieve success. They fly to the UK and receive nine months training at Catterick Garrison Training Centre before joining their respective regiments as fully-fledged Gurkha soldiers. 3 The second part primarily deals with the “campaign for justice for the Gurkhas” and the implications of a new immigration policy for Gurkhas1 that allows the Gurkhas to stay in the UK after four years of service in the British Army. The documentary concludes with singing and dancing by the Gurkha veterans. The song tells the story of how Gurkhas fought the Germans in Monte Cassino in World War Two. Still from The Way of the Gurkha - The researcher (right) on the way back to his village 1 New immigration policy is laid down in Appendix of Immigration rules for Armed Forces. Available online: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/immigration-rules/immigration-rules-appendix-armed-forces 4 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to: My parents Nangchhi Rai and Maya Lachchhi Rai and My principal supervisor, the late Mick Kennedy 5 6 Table of Content Chapter 1: WHAT IS A GURKHA? ..................................................................... 21 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 21 1.2 Etymology of the word ‘Gurkha’ .................................................................. 24 1.3 History of Nepal as a Developing Country .................................................. 25 1.4 History of Recruiting and Service (1815 – 1857) ......................................... 26 1.5 The Sepoy Mutiny (1857): The Loyalty Test to The Gurkhas ...................... 29 1.6 Relevance of the British Army Values and Standard to Gurkhas Virtue Ethics in Habitus .............................................................................................................. 35 1.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 35 1.6.2 Analysis of Hillboy Virtue As It Can Be Demonstrated Within the Theoretical Framework of Habitus .................................................................... 36 1.6.3 Values and Standards of the British Army ............................................ 42 1.6.4 Loyalty .................................................................................................. 43 1.6.5 Courage – It is Better To Die Than Be a Coward ................................. 45 1.6.6 Selfless Commitment ............................................................................ 50 1.7 Gurkha Families’ Cultural Values ................................................................ 52 1.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 55 Chapter 2: REPRESENTATIONS OF GURKHA EXPERIENCE (LITERATURE REVIEW) .......................................................................................................... 57 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 57 2.2 Overview ..................................................................................................... 58 7 2.3 Analysis on Lionel Caplan’s Oriental Perspective on Gurkhas .................... 61 2.4 Scholarly Analysis of Theory of Martial Race and the Gurkha Recruiting ... 65 2.5 Why Gurkhas Want to Join the British Army – An Academic Analysis ........ 70 2.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 70 2.5.2 Push-Pull Strategy and Gurkha Recruitment ........................................ 72 2.5.3 Pull Factor ............................................................................................ 78 2.6 Western Perspective: Subaltern Gurkhas ................................................... 79 2.7 Film and Documentary ................................................................................ 89 2.8 Original Contribution to Knowledge ............................................................. 91 2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 92 Chapter 3: Methodology – Documentary Filmmaking .................................... 95 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 95 3.2 Specificity of Audio-Visual Language .......................................................... 96 3.3 Filmmaking Context .................................................................................... 97 3.3.1 Autobiography ...................................................................................... 97 3.3.2 Autoethnography .................................................................................. 99 3.4 First Serving Gurkha Filmmaker ................................................................ 101 3.5 Application of Theoretical Framework to a Methodological Approach to Filmmaking ......................................................................................................... 103 3.5.1 Tactics in Filmmaking Practice ........................................................... 105 3.5.2 Tactical Timeframe ............................................................................. 106 3.5.3 Tactical Crew ...................................................................................... 108 8 3.6 Why Documentary for This Project? .......................................................... 108 3.7 Documentary Filmmaking Approach: Historical Background and Documentary Genre ........................................................................................... 111 3.8 Documentary Modes: Hybrid Approach .................................................... 113 3.9 Microanalysis of Nichols’ Modes in the Way of the Gurkha ....................... 117 3.9.1 Expository Mode ................................................................................. 117 3.9.2 Participatory Mode .............................................................................. 123 3.9.3 Poetic Mode ........................................................................................ 125 3.9.4 Performative Mode ............................................................................. 128 3.9.5 Observational Mode ........................................................................... 131 3.9.6 Reflexive Mode ................................................................................... 133 3.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 134 Chapter 4: ANALYSIS OF THE WAY OF THE GURKHA ................................ 139 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 139 4.2 Thematic Content of The Way of the Gurkha: Gurkha Discipline, Training and Their Hierarchical Position in the British Army ............................................. 139 4.2.1 Gurkhas’ Position as Subaltern: From Historical and Experiential Point of View ........................................................................................................... 140 4.2.2 Subaltern Gurkhas Within Michael Foucault’s Theory of Disciplinary Power ........................................................................................................... 145 4.2.3 Gurkha Justice Campaign – Resistance to Power from Subaltern Position ........................................................................................................... 152 4.2.4 Contemporary relationship between the Gurkhas’ Subaltern and the British Colonials .............................................................................................. 159 9 4.3 Gurkhas’ Folk Memories and Emotional Accounts .................................... 169 4.3.1 Folk Memory ....................................................................................... 169 4.3.2 Emotional Accounts ............................................................................ 174 4.4 Gurkha