Tussen De Plooien Van De Geschiedenis Onderhandeling Van Herinnering En Integratie Bij De Gurkhas, De Molukkers En De Harkis

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Tussen De Plooien Van De Geschiedenis Onderhandeling Van Herinnering En Integratie Bij De Gurkhas, De Molukkers En De Harkis TUSSEN DE PLOOIEN VAN DE GESCHIEDENIS ONDERHANDELING VAN HERINNERING EN INTEGRATIE BIJ DE GURKHAS, DE MOLUKKERS EN DE HARKIS Aantal woorden: 51.505 Wouter Reggers Studentennummer: 01400196 Promotor: Prof. dr. Berber Bevernage Masterproef voorgelegd voor het behalen van de graad master in de geschiedenis Academiejaar: 2017 - 2018 Inhoudstafel INLEIDING ..................................................................................................................................... 1 LUIK 1 – UITLIJNING VAN HET ONDERZOEK ....................................................................... 6 CONCEPTUEEL KADER & METHODOLOGIE ..................................................................................... 6 HERINNERING – CONCEPTUELE BENADERING EN METHODOLOGISCHE UITDAGINGEN ............................................. 6 FACTOREN VAN VERGELIJKING ................................................................................................................. 18 AFBAKENING VAN HET ONDERZOEK .............................................................................................. 29 DE GURKHAS ....................................................................................................................................... 29 DE MOLUKKERS ................................................................................................................................... 34 DE HARKIS .......................................................................................................................................... 43 VERANTWOORDING VAN DE VERGELIJKING ................................................................................................. 47 LUIK 2 – COMPARATIEVE ANALYSE ..................................................................................... 50 INHOUD VAN DE HERINNERINGSPOLITIEK ...................................................................................... 50 DE GURKHAS ....................................................................................................................................... 51 DE MOLUKKERS ................................................................................................................................... 66 DE HARKIS .......................................................................................................................................... 84 TUSSENTIJDSE CONCLUSIE & VERGELIJKING ................................................................................................ 94 DE ACTOREN ................................................................................................................................... 96 INTERNE ORGANISATIE ........................................................................................................................... 97 DE NATIESTAAT EN HAAR MINDERHEDEN ................................................................................................. 104 TRANSNATIONALE BANDEN ................................................................................................................... 110 INTERNATIONALE CONTEXT ......................................................................................................... 114 DE MEMORY BOOM ............................................................................................................................ 114 HET MENSENRECHTENDISCOURS ............................................................................................................ 117 OVERIGE INTERNATIONALE FACTOREN ..................................................................................................... 120 CONCLUSIE ............................................................................................................................... 123 Inleiding Migratie en de omgang met minderheden staan vandaag hoog op de politieke en publieke agenda. Niet zelden legt men de focus van het debat over de aanpak van aankomende migranten en reeds in het land verblijvende minderheden bij zaken die doorgaans sterke en emotionele reacties uitlokken: de noties van identiteit, incorporatie en de al dan niet wenselijk geachte 1 multiculturaliteit. Toch zijn deze discussies en bezorgdheden allerminst nieuw. Europa kent een lange geschiedenis van migratie, hoewel men dit in Europese natiestaten nog vaak onvoldoende erkent en migranten doorgaans geen deel uitmaken van het nationale narratief.1 In dit onderzoek vergelijk ik dergelijke minderheden, die in dit geval na het uiteenvallen van de koloniale imperia terechtkwamen in het land van de voormalige kolonisator.2 De wisselwerking tussen die minderheden en de staatsoverheden, die ontstaat bij de onderhandelingen over de incorporatie van minderheden in het nationaal narratief van het moederland, staat hier centraal. Meer bepaald voer ik in dit artikel een vergelijkende studie uit van drie verschillende casussen: de Algerijnse harkis in Frankrijk, de Molukkers in Nederland en de Nepalese gurkhas in het Verenigd Koninkrijk. Hoewel het hier gaat om zeer uiteenlopende casussen, met zowel variërende geschiedenissen als een verschillend tijdskader, illustreren ze een gelijkaardige problematiek: ze tonen hoe minderheden, die ondanks – of net omwille van – de (post)koloniale banden met het moederland geen onderdeel uitmaken van het nationale narratief, op uiteenlopende manieren hun verhaal op de politieke agenda trachten te brengen. De nadruk van dit onderzoek ligt in de eerste plaats op hoe zij hun verleden, hun erfgoed, inzetten om die politieke claims kracht bij te zetten. Deze focus op herinnering, die kadert binnen een bredere context van studies die herinnering koppelen aan incorporatie en burgerschap, wordt aangevuld met een onderzoek naar andere contextuele factoren die een mogelijke invloed kunnen uitoefenen op het streven van deze groepen naar politieke erkenning. Op die manier zal ik trachten een antwoord te bieden op de centrale onderzoeksvraag, die we kunnen opsplitsen in drie onderdelen. Welke factoren kunnen we onderscheiden als betekenisvolle variabelen in deze drie casussen? Op welke manier hebben die factoren het verloop van de casus beïnvloed? En uiteindelijk zal ik proberen een voorlopige hypothese te geven met betrekking tot het laatste luik van de onderzoeksvraag: waarom zijn de casussen op die manier verlopen? Uiteraard zal het onmogelijk zijn de complexiteit van zulke processen geheel te vatten en te verklaren, maar desalniettemin is het waardevol om aan te tonen hoe het verloop van de casussen en de wisselwerking tussen de geselecteerde factoren een rol heeft gespeeld in de resultaten van deze processen. 1 Mareike König en Rainer Ohliger, “Facing Migration History in Europe: Between Oblivion and Representation”, in Enlarging European Memory: Migration Movements in Historical Perspective, reds. Mareike König en Rainer Ohliger (Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 2006), 13. 2 Hier is een kleine verduidelijking omtrent de gebruikte terminologie aangewezen: het land van de voormalige kolonisator kan hier worden aangewezen als het ontvangstland, het land van aankomst of het voormalig moederland, met betrekking tot het koloniale verleden. De voormalige kolonie zelf zal dan aangeduid worden door het land van herkomst of het vaderland, zijnde waar de immigrant zelf geboren is, of waar zijn of haar voorouders geboren zijn. In het geval van de Algerijnse harkis is dus Algerije het vaderland, en Frankrijk het (voormalig) moederland. 2 Vooraleer ik verder ga met het uitwerken van het opzet en de invulling van dit artikel, wil ik graag kort de drie werken aanhalen waaraan ik schatplichtig ben voor een groot deel van de inspiratie voor mijn onderzoek. Zowel conceptueel en methodologisch als wat de casussen betreft, wijkt mijn onderzoek af van die drie studies, maar toch heeft het lezen ervan mij geholpen om een richting te vinden voor mijn onderzoek. Ten eerste is er het onderzoek van Berber Bevernage en Koen Aerts, Haunting Pasts: Time and Historicity as Constructed by the Argentine Madres de Plaza de Mayo and Radical Flemish Nationalists. Het is mogelijk hier enkele gelijkenissen te zien met het opzet van mijn onderzoek. In hun studie vergelijken Bevernage en Aerts ook twee op het eerste gezicht ongerelateerde casussen. Het verband zit daar ook in het feit dat beide groepen ernaar streven om een ‘bezwaarlijk’ verleden levend te houden, soms tegen de wil van de meerderheid van de natie in. In dit artikel maken zij dus ook duidelijk dat de dominante narratieven nooit helemaal ongecontesteerd zijn, en dat minderheden steeds uitdagingen bieden voor de dominantie van die narratieven.3 Verder wijkt dit onderzoek uiteraard af van het artikel. Waar Bevernage en Aerts zich focussen op rituelen van dodenherdenking om onderzoek te doen naar de gehanteerde historiciteitsregimes en ‘closure’ als inzet van de strijd zien, focust mijn onderzoek zich op immigranten en minderheden, en neem ik het streven naar incorporatie en erkenning als inzet.4 Ten tweede bouwt mijn onderzoek enigszins verder op een vraag die Irial Glynn en J. Olaf Kleist stellen aan het einde van hun boek History, Memory and Migration: Perceptions of the Past and the Politics of Incorporation. In dat werk koppelen zij enerzijds herinnering aan migratie en anderzijds herinnering aan incorporatie van migranten, twee relaties die ook in dit onderzoek centraal staan. Zij roepen op tot verder comparatief onderzoek: “Detailed and conceptualised comparisons between different societies and countries would contribute enormously to analysing the memory-migration
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