Obstacles in Tourism Growth: the Case of Alexandra Township, Johannesburg

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017).

Obstacles in tourism growth: The case of Alexandra Township, Johannesburg

AYANDA DLADLA

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment for the Degree of

Masters of Tourism and Hospitality Management

at the

College of Business and Economics

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Prof. Llewellyn Leonard

2019

ANTI-PLAGIARISM DECLARATION

University of Johannesburg

Department: School of Tourism and Hospitality

Title: Obstacles in tourism growth: The case of Alexandra Township, Johannesburg

Name: Ayanda Dladla

Student number: 201125084

Course: Masters of Tourism and Hospitality Management

Supervisor: Prof. Llewellyn Leonard

1. I hereby declare that this study is my own original work. 2. Where the secondary material has been used (either from a printed or online source), it was carefully acknowledged and referenced in accordance with the department requirements. 3. I understand what plagiarism is and am aware of the department’s policy in this regard. 4. This research project is submitted for the degree of Master at the School of Tourism and Hospitality at the University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg. 5. It is a compulsory requirement according to the university for a student to obtain a master degree. 6. I confirm that the research had never been submitted to any academic institution for any purpose.

Signature______Date___19 December 2019______

ABSTRACT

This research sought to examine the challenges facing the growth of tourism in the township of Alexandra in Johannesburg, and to propose possible recommendations to address these challenges. It further attempted to investigate the role of tourism as a tool for poverty relief. According to previous studies, Alexandra is one of the poorest urban areas in South Africa, and has a very weak, albeit growing, tourism sector. Research reveals that the township is characterised by high levels of poverty, hunger, unemployment, low income households, poor living conditions, informal and backyard dwellings, poor housing and sanitation, environmental problems, limited access to municipal services, and high crime rates.

When South Africa attained democracy in 1994, tourism was identified as a potential tool for economic growth and social development, and is valued for its role in reducing poverty, supporting existing and new Small, Micro and Medium Enterprises (SMMEs), and creating jobs. However, several studies have found that Alexandra is falling behind other townships in terms of tourism growth, for example Soweto has emerged as a well-known destination since 1994, while township tourism has been a more recent phenomenon in Alexandra.

Over the years, the government, along with other stakeholders, has implemented various projects in an effort to develop tourism, yet despite some improvements, the township still encounters challenges resulting in an underdeveloped tourism sector. It was thus important to conduct a study on tourism development to understand the obstacles towards tourism growth, as the government identified the tourism potential in Alexandra in 2001. As there is limited published research on township tourism in Alexandra, this research intended to help create an enabling foundation to understand the obstacles to tourism growth in Alexandra. The study engaged in semi-structured interviews with key informants (i.e. government, the private sector, civil society, and Non- Government Organisations) to understand these challenges. The results indicate that a lack of skills, a lack of SMME development, crime and the poor marketing of Alexandra as a tourism brand are a few important constraints. The study also found that Alexandra has potential to be a strong tourism destination, with developments already implemented since 2001, although these developments have been limited. To boost tourism to benefit the community, the provincial government thus needs to increase its intervention in those areas that are hindering tourism growth.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep appreciation to my supervisor, Prof. Llewellyn Leonard, who has guided me throughout my research. Thank you for all the necessary and useful suggestions and advice while I wrote this study.

I would also like to extend my deep appreciation to the Gauteng Tourism Authority in Johannesburg, particularly to Ester Hlapa, Monica Ngwenya, and Natasha Johnson. Thank you for giving me your valuable time and contributing to this research by guiding me and recommending the right people to contact as informants when I was planning the fieldwork.

My appreciation also goes to Namhla Zulu of the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller in Johannesburg, for all the assistance she offered relating to SMMEs in Alexandra.

In Alexandra, thanks are due to Miss Pasha at the Alexandra Tourism Association, for all the assistance and time she provided me to connect me with several key role players, including business owners and organisations that are engaged within the local tourism industry.

To a fellow student and a close friend, Linda Mjiyakho, thank you for your help and companionship when I was travelling around Alexandra conducting the interviews.

Lastly, I would like to thank Thabo Mopasi, the owner of the Detwapotleng Business Enterprise and a member of the Alexandra Heritage Team, for sharing his knowledge about the history of Alexandra. Although my interview with him took place in the latter stages of my research, he was the one who welcomed and introduced me into the township. Thank you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ANTI-PLAGIARISM DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES ix ANNEXURES x DEFINITIONS xi ABBREVIATIONS xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Research statement 4 1.3 Main research question 5 1.3.1 Sub-research questions 5 1.4 Research aims 5 1.5 Research objectives 5 1.6 Scope of the study 6 1.7 Ethical considerations 6 1.8 The history of Alexandra 8 1.8.1 Alexandra before the democratic transition 8 1.8.2 The township of Alexandra in a post-apartheid South Africa 10 1.8.2.1 Socio-economy for Alexandra 12 1.9 Conclusion 16 1.10 Outline and structure of the study 16 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 The tourism industry as a tool for economic growth and development 17 2.2.1 Tourism development on a global scale 17 2.2.2 Tourism development in Africa 19 2.2.3 Tourism development in South Africa 21 2.3. Difference between slum and township tourism 24 2.4. The development of slum tourism 25 2.4.1. The development of slum tourism around the world 25 2.4.2. The development of slum tourism in Asia 28 2.4.3. Development of tourism in the slums of Africa 29 2.4.4. The development of township tourism in South Africa 32 2.5. Ethical consumption and consideration in the practice of township tourism 37 2.6. The nature of slum tourism 39 2.7. Criticisms and challenges associated with slum tourism around the world 40 2.8. Advantages of township tourism in South Africa 42 2.9. Challenges and criticisms of township tourism in South Africa 43

2.10. Attempt to address issues of voyeurism in the tourism sector in South Africa 46 2.11. The development of the township of Alexandra since the apartheid regime 47 2.11.1. Previous and present developmental programmes for Alexandra 47 2.11.2. The Master Plan 48 2.11.3. The Urban Renewal Plan 49 2.11.4. The Urban Renewal Programme 51 2.11.5. The Alexandra Renewal Project 52 2.12. Township tourism development in Alexandra 54 2.12.1. Tourism growth in Alexandra in post-apartheid South Africa 54 2.12.2. The role of government and tourism development projects in Alexandra 53 2.12.3. Development of tourism SMMEs for poverty reduction in Alexandra 58 2.13. Key challenges of the tourism industry in the township of Alexandra 60 2.13.1. Lack of community participation due to a lack of knowledge and skills 60 2.13.2. Slow development and progress of SMMEs and lack of government support 61 2.13.3. Shortage of accommodation facilities and demand (low occupancy) 62 2.13.4. Lack of tourism facilities and other tourist activities 63 2.13.5. The lack of employment opportunities created by the tourism industry 63 2.13.6. Tourism development and the issue of crime in Alexandra 64 2.13.7. Issues related to environmental problems 65 2.14. The gap in knowledge about tourism development in Alexandra 66 2.15. Conclusion 67 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 Methodological approach 68 3.2.1 Qualitative research approach 68 3.2.2 Research techniques for the study 70 3.2.2.1 Semi-structured interviews 70 3.2.2.2 Drafting of guiding questions for semi-structured interviews 72 3.2.2.3 Identification of research informants (snowball sampling method) 73 3.2.2.4 One-on-one interviews 74 3.2.3 List of semi-structured interviews conducted 75 3.3 Research design for the study 77 3.3.1 Description of the research site 77 3.3.2 Target study population 78 3.3.3 Methods used to access and select the most relevant informants 79 3.3.3.1 Purposive and heterogeneous sampling 79 3.3.4 Tools utilised in the process of collecting data 79 3.3.4.1 Digital recording 79 3.3.4.2 Transcribing method 80 3.3.5 Secondary sources used in the results/analysis 81 3.4 Technique for analysing the data 82

3.4.1 Content analysis 82 3.4.2 The selection and identification of common themes 86 3.5 Ethical considerations 87 3.6 Conclusion 89 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS 90

4.1 Introduction 90 4.1.1. Linkage between the findings and literature review 90 4.2 Theme one: Indirect tourism challenges and potential for tourism in Alexandra 91 4.2.1 Challenges of the Alexandra Renewal Project (ARP) and worsening social conditions facing civil society 91 4.2.1.1 The prevailing environmental problems in hindering tourism potential 92 4.2.1.2 Lack of environmental awareness and enforcement of environmental laws 93 4.2.1.3 The issue of the shortage of land and space 95 4.2.1.4 Overcrowding and congested spaces in Alexandra 97 4.2.1.5 Lack of leadership, corruption and mismanagement of funds in government 99 4.2.1.6 Lack of maintenance of the infrastructure as to promote tourism growth 101 4.2.1.7 The impact of crime and growth on the tourism industry in Alexandra 102 4.2.2 The role of the government to address social conditions: the work of the ARP 104 4.2.2.1 Government’s response to the issue of unemployment 107 4.2.3 Alexandra’s potential and opportunities for tourism development 108 4.2.4 How indirect challenges affecting tourism growth in Alexandra? 110 4.3 Theme two: Initiatives implemented to develop tourism in Alexandra since 2001 112 4.3.1 The role of civil society in promoting the tourism industry 112 4.3.1.1 The social history project as community-based initiative 112 4.3.1.2 Cycling and walking tours and ‘get-off-bus’ campaign as community initiative113 4.3.2 The role of government in supporting tourism: The ARP and ATDP programmes 115 4.3.2.1 The provision of municipal services to improve the tourism industry 116 4.3.2.2 Government initiatives to address the environmental problems 118 4.3.2.3 Coming together of the community and government to end crime 119 4.3.2.4 Development of the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre 122 4.3.2.5 The development of heritage sites in Alexandra 123 4.3.2.6 Improving tourism and community’s participation through skill development 126 4.3.2.7 The role of government to support SMMEs in Alexandra 128 4.3.2.8 Empowerment of women through tourism development in Alexandra 132 4.3.3 Role of the private sector towards township tourism development in Alexandra 134 4.3.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organisations to improve tourism in Alexandra 135 4.4 Theme three: The direct challenges for the tourism industry in Alexandra 138 4.4.1 Lack of knowledge and skills for tourism 138 4.4.2 Lack of SMME growth as a challenge for tourism 140 4.4.3 Lack of marketing of the township as a tourism destination 143 4.4.4 Lack of tourism facilities and supporting attractions 143 4.4.5 Unequal distribution of wealth and lack of jobs created by the tourism industry 145

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4.4.6 The lack of participation of women and disabled people in the tourism industry 147 4.5 Conclusion 148 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 149

5.1 Introduction 149 5.2 Discussion of theme one: Indirect challenges as a factor for the lack of tourism development in Alexandra while the potential for tourism growth is identified 149 5.2.1 Indirect challenges as a factor for the lack of tourism development in Alexandra 149 5.2.1.1 The environmental problems and poor sanitation in Alexandra 149 5.2.1.2 The problem of crime in affecting tourism development 151 5.2.1.3 Shortage of space and public land for development of tourism facilities 152 5.2.1.4 Lack of maintenance of infrastructure and illegal electric connections 152 5.2.1.5 Lack of leadership and mismanagement of funding within the ARP 153 5.2.2 Potential for tourism growth and opportunity for socioeconomic growth 153 5.3 Discussion of theme two: The development of tourism through various initiatives 156 5.3.1 The role of government-led projects: The ARP and ATDP 156 5.3.1.1 The government’s support for SMMEs within tourism 158 5.3.1.2 Government’s initiatives to provide training for skill development 161 5.3.1.3 The government and community to address crime 163 5.3.1.4 Government and community in the development of heritage sites 164 5.3.1.5 The government’s role to improvement of municipal services 165 5.3.1.6 Government in addressing environmental challenges and raise awareness 166 5.3.1.7 Government in promoting the participation of women and the disabled 167 5.3.2 The role of the community in promoting tourism 169 5.3.3 The role of the private sector in the development of tourism 171 5.3.4 The role of NGOs in the development of tourism 172 5.4 Discussion of theme three: The direct challenges for the tourism industry in Alexandra 173 5.4.1 A lack of skills and knowledge 174 5.4.2 The lack of SMME growth 175 5.4.3 The lack of commercialisation of heritage and culture as tourism products 176 5.4.4 The inability of tourism to create job opportunities in Alexandra 177 5.4.5 The lack of facilities and other tourism activities in Alexandra 178 5.4.6 The unequal distribution of benefits 179 5.4.7 Lack of participation, particularly amongst women and the disabled 181 5.5 Conclusion 182 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 183

6.1 Conclusion 183 6.1.1 Summary of the findings 183 6.2 Recommendations 186 REFERENCES 188

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Location of Alexandra Township in Johannesburg 6 Figure 2: The Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 23 Figure 3: Nelson Mandela’s home in Soweto 29 Figure 4: Bicycle tours by Mulaudzi Alexandra Tours 32 Figure 5: The young people of Alexandra get tourism training from a government project 53 Figure 6: Heritage site, the King’s Cinema 54 Figure 7: The township of Alexandra’s polluted Jukskei River 62 Figure 8: Jukskei River pollution 86 Figure 9: The shacks surrounding a church building in Alexandra 93 Figure 10: A foreign national being attacked by group of men in Alexandra 97 Figure 11: The women’s and men’s hostels, with improved infrastructure (roads, street lights and pedestrian way) in Alexandra 98 Figure 12: The Alexandra Heritage Centre Building 108 Figure 13: An improved section in Alexandra with newly built RDP houses, hostels, street lights, pedestrian pathways, and tired roads 110 Figure 14: South African army on duty for crime prevention in Alexandra 113 Figure 15: A heritage site, the Anglican Mission School in Alexandra 117 Figure 16: young people getting certificates after tourism training 120 Figure 17: De Grandiose, a well-established bar and restaurant in Alexandra 123 Figure 18: Street traders selling fruits and vegetables and accessories outside the Pan African Mall in Alexandra 135

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Interviewee information 72 Table 2: The heritage sites in Alexandra 117

ANNEXURES

ANNEXURE A: RESEARCHER’S PROFILE AND PERMISSION LETTER 192 ANNEXURE B: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESIDENTS (GUIDING QUESTIONS) 193 ANNEXURE C: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS (GUIDING QUESTIONS) 194 ANNEXURE D: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SMALL, MEDIUM, AND MICRO ENTERPRISES (SMMEs) (GUIDING QUESTIONS) 196 ANNEXURE E: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONs AND PRIVATE SECTOR (GUIDING QUESTIONS) 197

DEFINITIONS

Attraction: refers to a place or asset of a particular area, which draws visitors because of its features, providing them with meaningful experience for relaxation, religious, cultural or educational benefits (Butler, 2010).

Community based tourism: a form of tourism that seeks to promote the involvement of local people within tourism related developments in order to realise the resulting benefits through visitor expenditure in the local economy (Ashley & Roe, 2002).

Cultural tourism: refers to a segment within tourism that mainly deals with host destinations offering tangible and intangible cultural assets (including experiencing the normal way of life of the local people, including their heritage and culture, geographical areas, art, architecture, religion, etc.) for visitors’ consumption during a holiday trip to that particular destination (Booyens, 2010).

Day visitor: refers to a person visiting a particular tourism destination away from their normal environment for only a day, which does not involve the use of accommodation for sleeping over during the trip (Butler, 2010).

Destination: refers to a place whereby people normally go with a desire to relax as tourists because of the attractions (i.e. heritage and culture, geographical areas, art, architecture, religion), which provide them with a meaningful experience.

Developed countries: all countries that are completely industrialised, have fast economic growth, depend on the latest technologies, and have high Human Development Indices (HDI) (Telfer, 2002).

Developing countries: all nations with fewer industries and low Human Development Indices (HDI) (Telfer, 2002).

Domestic tourists: all people of a particular country travelling from one place to another for tourism purposes for less than a year within one country, which is their home of origin (Telfer, 2002).

International tourists: all people of a particular country travelling from one place to another country for tourism purposes for less than a year (Telfer, 2002).

Least developed countries: all countries that the United Nations has declared to have the lowest economic growth, Human Development Indices (HDI) and social development (Telfer, 2002).

Mass tourism: a form of tourism that is commonly practiced throughout the world which promotes the large scale development of hotels, airports, resorts and restaurants and involves many people travelling (Telfer, 2002).

Overnight visitor: refers to a person visiting a particular tourism destination away from their normal environment for more than a day (Butler, 2010).

Previously disadvantaged communities: a group of people, particularly Africans that were disadvantaged as a result of the racially divisive laws of the apartheid government (Butler, 2010).

Pro-poor tourism: a form of tourism that promotes an inclusive and environmentally considerate tourism development, where poverty alleviation, job creation and SMME development is considered important for the benefit of host-community residents (Butler, 2010).

Slum tourism: a form of tourism that is also known as poverty tourism, which has gained momentum throughout the world, particularly in third world countries, whereby people travel to the most marginalised places in urban spaces to learn the way of life and cultures of the local people (Blakeman, 2015).

Sustainable development: a kind of development which is driven by three major principles - maintaining and ensuring social cohesion, economic growth, and environmental protection - for the purpose of meeting present human needs while conserving natural resources for future generations to meet their own needs (Sharpley, 2002).

Sustainable tourism: a form of tourism that promotes the development of facilities, infrastructure, and activities for the utilisation of visitors at a destination while causing less harm to the environment and its resources (Sharpley, 2002).

Third world countries: nations with limited industry, underdeveloped infrastructure and weak economies (Butler, 2010).

Tourism: the practice whereby people engage themselves in travelling from their environments to unfamiliar environments for the purpose of a holiday to seek new experiences (Butler, 2010).

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Township tourism: a form of tourism, particularly in South Africa, involving people visiting marginalised and previously disadvantaged townships with a desire to explore the way of life and diverse cultures of local people (Butler, 2010).

Visitor: refers to a person visiting a particular tourism destination, which is outside their own environment, for leisure, business, education, or health purposes for a period of less than a year (Butler, 2010).

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ABBREVIATIONS

ABF Alexandra Business Forum ACA Alexandra Caterers Association ACCS Alexandra Community Crime Survey AEMF Alexandra Environmental Management Framework AEAP Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme AETP Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme AFVA Alexandra Fruit and Veg Association AHBA Alexandra Hair and Beauty Association AHC Alexandra Heritage Centre AHT Alexandra Heritage Team AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AJRRP Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme ANC African National Congress ARP Alexandra Renewal Project ASA Alexandra Sewing Association ASA Alexandra Spaza Association ATA Alexandra Tourism Association ATAP Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme ATBA Alexandra Tourism Business Association ATDP Alexandra Tourism Development Project ATN Alexandra Tourism Node ARR Alexandra Route of Rhythm ATTP Alexandra Tourism Training Programme AYTHTP Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Programme BEEP Black Economic Empowerment Programme BLAs Black Local Authorities CBOs Community-Based Organisations CBT Community-Based Tourism DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DTI Department of Trade and Industry GALXCC Greater Alexandra Chamber of Commerce and Industries GDP Gross Domestic Product GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy GEP Gauteng Enterprise Propeller GNU Government of National Unity GPG Gauteng Provincial Government GTA Gauteng Tourism Authority HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HMF Heritage Management Framework HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IPDs Integrated Development Programmes ISRDS Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy JMC Joint Management Committee JOC Joint Operation Centre

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JTC Johannesburg Tourism Company KEL Khula Enterprises Limited LDCs Least Developed Countries LED Local Economic Development MTSF Medium-Term Strategic Framework NLBSA National Lottery Board of South Africa NEF National Empowerment Fund NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIDS National Income Dynamic Study NPO Non-Profitable Organisation NTSS National Tourism Sector Strategy PPT Pro-Poor Tourism RDP Reconstruction and Developmental Programme SAMAF South Africa Micro-Credit Apex Fund SEDA Small Enterprises and Development Agency SMMEs Small, Micro, and Medium Enterprises SSC State Security Council ST-EP Sustainable Tourism for Eliminating Poverty UDF Urban Development Framework UDS Urban Development Strategy UN United Nations UNMDGs United Nations Millennium Development Goals UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization URP Urban Renewal Programme UYF Umsobomvu Youth Fund

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Tourism research in South Africa, and across the world, has shown that tourism is crucial for transforming poor communities and is advantageous for marginalised urban and rural areas in terms of generating income for development (Agupusi, 2007; Findley and Ogbu, 2011; Banks and Armstrong, 2012). For many countries, including both less developed and developed nations, the practice of tourism has increasingly been connected with development, transformation and sustainability. For example, Nieftagodien (2013) and De Geest (2013) stated that the tourism industry generates about 235 million job opportunities in the world annually, which is either direct or indirect employment. This means that for every 12 people in the labour force, one is employed within the tourism sector (Sharpley, 2002; Telfer, 2002). In addition, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (2011) pointed out that tourism represents approximately 5 percent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). With the shift to a more sustainable, inclusive and community- based form of tourism, township tourism has gained popularity in South Africa. Within this niche segment of tourism, sustainable tourism development is key (Ashely and Roe, 2002), however the creation of jobs and poverty alleviation are still critical. Butler (2010) and Mengich (2011) stated that townships, such as Soweto, Langa and Alexandra, have become areas of focus for township tourism development in South Africa.

The concept of township tourism in South Africa emerged after the democratic transition in 1994, with international visitors wanting to travel across the country in order to experience the way of life of ordinary South Africans. The National Tourism Sector Strategy (2011) clearly pointed out that tourism is significant as an economic growth and development tool, and that positive macroeconomic and microeconomic impacts result from tourism development, particularly for previously disadvantaged communities. These economic growth impacts include tourism’s contribution towards GDP, support for SMME growth, and the creation of job opportunities (Findley and Ogbu, 2011). Township tours had been practiced for more than 20 years in South Africa, with tours being conducted by small tourism companies for international visitors (Butler, 2010; Mengich, 2011). Today, township tourism has grown as a segment of tourism to boost both domestic and international tourism. In comparison to mainstream tourism,

township tourism is increasingly being seen as a niche within the tourism industry as an example of pro-poor tourism (National Tourism Sector Strategy, 2011).

For this study, the main focus was on tourism development in Alexandra. While studies have revealed that township tourism began to gain popularity after the transition to democracy, Butler (2010) noted that townships such as Soweto and Langa emerged as the most preferred destinations, especially due to prominent anti-apartheid leaders having resided in Soweto. Alexandra realised its tourism growth opportunity recently, with the Gauteng provincial government investing in the area to grow tourism (Mabotja, 2012; Rogerson, 2012a). As township tourism has been a growing focus as an economic development strategy and tool for growth in the historically disadvantaged areas, the provincial government in 2001 identified Alexandra as an area requiring urgent redevelopment. Naidoo (2010) and Mabotja (2012) stated that over the years, the provincial government has been implementing multi-million Rand projects to develop Alexandra and promote tourism. According to Mabotja (2011), these projects have included the Alexandra Renewal Project (ARP) and the Alexandra Tourism Development Project (ATDP), which were launched to promote Alexandra as a ‘must visit’ destination in Johannesburg. According to Agupusi (2007) and Mabotja (2011), these projects have achieved some success with regards to the development of Alexandra and the promotion of the tourism sector.

Development to improve social conditions has included the construction and improvement of infrastructure (roads and railways, pedestrian walkways, street lights, electricity and water supply), the provision of better housing through the Reconstruction & Development Programme (RDP), the renovation of public schools and libraries, and an improvement in sanitation and sewage management (Ashely and Roe, 2002). With regards to the tourism sector, several developments have taken place since 2001, including the identification and development of heritage sites in Alexandra, the completion of the Pan African Mall, improved public transport facilities, the development of recreational parks and theatres, and the renovation of a casino (Mngomeni, 2014). In addition, the number of locally-owned and run small enterprises (such as bed and breakfasts and transport facilities) has grown, environmental awareness has improved, and culture related activities have grown (Butler, 2010). As a result, Alexandra is slowly emerging a tourism destination on its own terms through the foundational work of the ARP and ADTP.

Alexandra was selected as a study area for this research because it is an impoverished township in Johannesburg where township tourism, and tourism in general, is growing. The township has also been the subject of limited research compared to Soweto. Soweto is considered to be a township that possesses a rich history and heritage (Dlamini, 2009; Nieftagodien, 2013), which has successfully managed to emerge as a flourishing township destination in South Africa. Similar to Alexandra, the township is known to be a historic site in Johannesburg, which experienced forced removals and harsh treatment from the apartheid regime (Sinwell, 2005). However, the history and heritage of Alexandra were largely forgotten (Butler, 2010) until 2001.

Despite some noticeable improvements in Alexandra, Petesch (2013) noted that tourism still encounters many challenges preventing growth and development in Alexandra. Even though the ARP delivered some improvements, the projects have had their own issues (Sinwell, 2005). According to Roefs, Naidoo, Meyer, and Makalela (2003) and Mabotja (2012), corruption and the mismanagement of government funding have delayed development in Alexandra, thus Rogerson (2004a) revealed that the township still has to implement development in order to become a well- known township area (such as Soweto) across the country in terms of tourism growth. As a result of lack of proper leadership in government, Alexandra has remained one of the poorest townships in South Africa. The township is characterised by high rates of households living in poverty, hunger, unemployment, low income families, poor living conditions, informal dwellings, a lack of housing and sanitation, environmental problems, poor service delivery, and high crime rates (Petesch, 2013; Smith, 2013). In addition, Kaplan (2004) stated that the job opportunities created through the tourism industry in Alexandra are predominantly found in the informal sector, which are mostly low income, semi-skilled and unskilled jobs.

Visser and Hoogendoorn (2011) argued that the efforts put forward so far to address the challenge of the inequitable practice of tourism have not been able to create a link between township tourism and reduction of poverty in practice. Dlamini (2009) and Smith (2013) further contended that while Alexandra is pursuing tourism development, the area exhibits a poor understanding and knowledge of tourism, slow business growth, and limited tourism facilities. As a result, there is a growing concern that tourism-related developments are occurring at a very slow pace (Nieftagodien, 2013). It is uncertain, however, what the micro politics or local problems are that are affecting tourism

development, and what level of interface exists between the government, the private sector, civil society and local residents.

The purpose of this research was to investigate, in detail, the challenges facing Alexandra regarding tourism development. This was done using a qualitative research approach by conducting semi-structured interviews with key informants (i.e. government, the private sector, civil society, and local residents). The study examines the role of various stakeholders working to address the tourism challenges, ultimately contributing to poverty relief and growing local businesses, amongst other benefits. This research sought to significantly contribute to the academic development by paying attention to one of the neglected townships in the academic arena.

1.2.Research statement

The study focus on the development tourism in Alexandra. Across the world, pro-poor tourism has been encouraged as a catalyst to develop tourism for socio-economic growth and prosperity in the most magirnalised areas. Thus, the study focuses on the obstacles for tourism growth in the township of Alexandra, Johannesburg. Over the past eighteen years, the Gauteng provincial government had introduced various efforts through its developmental projects to assist the township towards the development of tourism, for the benefit of the community. Thus, the study focuses on the successes and mostly the challenges of the work done by the Alexandra Renewal Project and Alexandra Tourism Development Project, as government-led initiatives for tourism development in Alexandra since 2001.

In addition, tourism development in Alexandra is a very broad task involving the role of other several stakeholders (i.e. community, private sector, and the Non-governmental Organisations), and such task include tackling issues of skills development, environmental challenges, problem of crime, lack of tourism knowledge and skills, lack of tourism facilities and activities, lack of SMME growth and commercialisation of heritage and culture for tourism development. Thus, the study focus on the various programmes to respond to these tourism growth challenges, including the Alexandra Youth Tourism and Hospitality Training Programme, Alexandra Juskskei River Rehabilitation Programme, Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme, Black Economic Empowerment Programme, and Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme, to name a few.

1.3.Main research question

Considering that the South African government identified tourism as a tool to promote development in Alexandra, and that Alexandra still faces poor economic growth and social development with an impoverished tourism industry more than 20 years into democracy, what are the tourism growth challenges experienced by Alexandra and the various social actors, and how are these social actors working together to address these challenges?

1.3.1. Sub-research questions RQ 1: What are the key tourism challenges in Alexandra, especially those faced by the local community (and civil society)?

RQ 2: How has government assistance spearheaded township tourism in Alexandra?

RQ 3: How is the private sector promoting tourism in the township of Alexandra?

RQ 4: How are the community and NGOs improving township tourism in Alexandra?

1.4.Research aims

The aim of this research is to investigate, in detail, the challenges constraining tourism growth in the township of Alexandra. The study examines the role of various stakeholders working to address the tourism challenges, ultimately contributing to poverty relief and growing local businesses, amongst other benefits. As the Gauteng provincial government officially recognised the potential for tourism in 2001, the study also aim to establish and understand the progress and/or the lack of progress with regards to tourism development in Alexandra though reflecting on the work by the Alexandra Renewal Project and Alexandra Tourism Development Project.

1.5.Research objectives

RO 1: To identify the main tourism challenges faced by the local community in Alexandra. RO 2: To determine the level of government support and effectiveness in improving township tourism in Alexandra.

RO 3: To determine the role of the private sector and NGOs in promoting township tourism in Alexandra. RO 4: To make recommendations for improving township tourism in Alexandra for the benefit of the community.

1.6.Scope of the study

Considering that the potential for tourism development has already been identified by the Gauteng provincial government, the study gives more attention to the challenges that constrain tourism growth in Alexandra. The focus is only limited from the period of 2001, particularly after the former premier of Gauteng (i.e. Mbazima Shilowa) announced the Alexandra Renewal Project to redevelop the township into a tourism destination. In other words, the study will not focus on or cover the previous attempts of the early 1990s by the private sector and local government to develop the township as a ‘must visit’ destination in Johannesburg. Following the 1994 elections in South Africa, township areas such as Soweto in Johannesburg and Langa in Cape Town had emerged as the most popular and visited destinations.

As a result of its historical background and heritage relating to the apartheid struggles, there were attempts from the private sector and local government to develop and brand the township of Alexandra as a historic destination. The purpose was to attract and provide domestic and international tourists with an authentic experience of the township in the context of a new and democratic South Africa. However, the study only focus on the tourism development in Alexandra that has been marked by the 21st century project, the Alexandra Renewal Project and the Alexandra Tourism Development Project.

1.7.Ethical considerations

of Alexandra) with the purpose of seeking permission to use the township as a study site. After engaging with the municipality’s admin officer, a student’s proof of registration and university or supervisor’s approved letter to request permission to do research was also checked. After permission was given, the municipality’s admin officer also advised that it would be wise to also start by visiting the Gauteng Tourism Authority and Johannesburg Tourism Company, which are both Johannesburg-based government agencies responsible for the development and management of tourism in Alexandra and Gauteng as a whole. Visiting the Gauteng Tourism Authority before even going to Alexandra was very beneficial as the agency has the database of the businesses and organisations the in tourism industry within Alexandra.

Going to Alexandra was then very easy to get into contact with the relevant informants as the map of the township was also provided. At the time of arrival into Alexandra, all the informants were briefed about the purpose of the visit and the research to be conducted. The most important ethical consideration is to ensure participants’ safety (i.e. protecting them from any harm or risk) and that the research project has no harm. In addition, it is argued that with regards to disclosure, it is the responsibility of a researcher to be accountable to his/her sources, and informants have a right to be advised or informed of the nature and aims of the study to be completed. The researcher was transparent about the procedures to be followed, and noted that there were no potential risks, possibility of danger, or benefits to the informants.

Disclosing this information was necessary to make sure the informants were aware before they agreed to be part of the study. In addition, to free the informants from uncertainty, they were informed that the study is for academic purpose and all information obtain from participants will be used for such purpose. In other words, all the participants were made aware that this was an academic research project, i.e. they were strongly assured that all the opinions and suggestions they disclosed were to be used only for research, and not commercial, purposes. No benefits were promised to any participants, and they were informed that their views could remain anonymous if they so wished. It is important for a researcher to be ethically considerate when dealing with a particular people and society, and that they should try to foresee any possible drawbacks and/or benefits of the research for the participants and their communities. In addition, the rights and

privacy of potential informants should never be violated, whether they wish to participate in the study or not, and the researcher has a responsibility to act with integrity.

For this study, in summary the ethical responsibility for the researcher was to:

1.8.The history of Alexandra 1.8.1. Alexandra before the democratic transition

According to Moyo (2005), Alexandra is one of the oldest townships in South Africa, with a long history dating back to the early 1900s, before it was officially confirmed as a black neighbourhood when Africans received the right to buy and own property in the area. Sinwell (2005) and Davie (2008) stated that before the township was proclaimed as a land for blacks, Alexandra was under the ownership of a white farmer, who named the area after his wife, Alexandra Papenfus. Alexandra became a black township when efforts to develop the area into a white neighbourhood failed in 1912. This was a period leading to the introduction of the Land Act in 1913, which gave less access for black Africans to acquire land in South Africa. Sinwell (2005) indicated that in the early years of apartheid (just after 1948), the administration of the area fell under the direct rule of the then Department of Native Affairs. According to Mngomeni (2014) and Moolman (2014), by period, the total number of residents living in Alexandra was approximately 30,000. The Alexandra Health Committee was also formed with the objective of managing the location. However, due to the difficulties such as the inability of the committee to collect local taxes, lack of resources, and improper management by government, Alexandra faced severe social crisis such as environmental problems caused by poor service delivery. These problems worsened when the Johannesburg City Council failed to take responsibility for the area, claiming it had no jurisdiction or official authority to make legal decisions on Alexandra (Moyo, 2005; Petesch, 2013).

Figure 1: Location of Alexandra Township in Johannesburg (Source: McKay, 2014)

Figure 1 shows Alexandra in Johannesburg, surrounded by wealthy suburbs. While the City of Johannesburg was expanding and mining was booming, the population in Alexandra continued to grow, reaching more than 100,000 people in the 1950s (Roodt, 2003; Sana, 2014). According to Davie (2003), Alexandra was not affected by the demolition undertaken by the apartheid government, i.e. unlike other freehold places inhabited by black South Africans, which were destroyed and redeveloped into suburbs reserved for white settlers, the apartheid government never bulldozed Alexandra completely. This was because the government wanted to use the area as a valuable source of labour, which was to be supplied to the white settlers to serve them in the northern suburbs of the city (Moyo, 2005). However, more than 50,000 people were relocated

against their will into places like Soweto and Tembisa (Moolman, 2014). To this day, Alexandra is still affected by crime and violence. In addition, the standard of living of residents is deteriorating as a result of the ongoing drug epidemic plaguing the youth in the township (Smith, 2013).

1.8.2. The township of Alexandra in a post-apartheid South Africa In terms of geographical space, Alexandra falls under the municipality of the City of Johannesburg, the wealthiest city, biggest commercial centre and most significant economic hub in the country. Within the City of Johannesburg, the township of Alexandra is enclosed by the country’s most wealthy and affluent suburbs such as Wendywood, Kelvin, and Sandton. Statistics show that the population of the township is around 750,000 (Johannesburg Census, 2012), up from 170,000 in 2001 (Johannesburg Census, 2001). Within the Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, Alexandra falls into Region 7, stretching approximately 16 kilometres to the north of central Johannesburg (Rolfes; Steinbrink; and Uhl, 2003). The township of Alexandra consists of several sections, including Old Alexandra, Marlboro, Setswela, East Bank, Far East Bank, Tsutsumani and River Park. The Jukskei River passes through Alexandra, dividing the township into the east and west banks. Of all the townships, Alexandra is situated in the closest proximity to Johannesburg. Studies show that the population density of the area often fluctuates due to the influx of immigration, as around 40 percent of the population move in and out the area.

Wilson (2003) stated that Alexandra is approximately 800 hectares in size, which is equivalent to 1 square mile or 7.6 square kilometres. Being well located on the north-eastern outskirts of the city along the banks of the Jukskei River, the township is adjacent to the primary roads and highways that connect major cities like Johannesburg and Pretoria (Moyo, 2005). The population of Alexandra is made up of both permanent residents and immigrants from other parts of the country and beyond, with about 70 percent of whom are under the age of 35 (Sana, 2014).

In terms of its demographic profile, Alexandra is very diverse, with its population consisting of people coming from across the country and neighbouring countries. Wilson (2013) noted that Alexandra attracts people from all walks of life, who have different cultural, educational, social, and economic backgrounds. Zulus make up the majority at 30 percent, followed by North Sotho/Pedi at 26 percent, Tswana at 12 percent and Xhosa at 10 percent. The rest of the population

is made up of Shangaan/Tsonga, South Sotho and Venda people (Wilson, 2013). With regards to gender, the township has more women (at 61 percent) than men (at 39 percent), with a ratio of 1:1.22.

Although the township is surrounded by wealthy suburbs, the lives and living standards of Alexandra’s residents are characterised by a high rate of poverty, unemployment, hunger, crime, socio-economic inequality, a lack of education, and a lack of skills (Davie, 2008). Although there is a growing number of properly built houses and infrastructure, the issue of poor housing has remained a challenge for government (Mabotja, 2011). In addition, the township is also faced with challenges of low income households, poor access to basic needs (i.e. proper sanitation, human waste management, and basic infrastructure), environmental problems, and fast and unplanned growing population (Mabotja, 2012), which has led it to become a sprawling ghetto. A recent study conducted by anthropologists in Alexandra revealed that there is a growing number of informal dwellings (over 20,000 households), with approximately 7,000 of which are living in illegal backyard dwellings (Mawela, 2008). In the period following the apartheid era, the population in the township began to grow at a very quick rate, which led to a dramatic increase in crime-related activities and drug trafficking (Moolman, 2014).

In terms of social conditions, several factors affect the residents of Alexandra. According to the Alexandra Nodal Economic Development Profile (2014/2015), the township is estimated to have 69 percent formal housing and 31 percent informal housing. Alexandra is 100 percent urban, consisting of both formal and informal settlements. Those in a formal settlement normally have proper houses (i.e. built with bricks and equipped with running water), while those in an informal settlement live in below standard housing (i.e. mainly consisting of built shacks without running water). In terms of electricity, 29 percent of the households in Alexandra do not have access to power, 14 percent are without piped water, 1 percent do not have access to sanitation (i.e. waste removal), and 59 percent lack access to a telephone (Alexandra Nodal Economic Development Profile, 2014/2015).

When it comes to education, Alexandra lags behind the rest of the province. In terms of literacy rates, studies have revealed that before 1994, 56 percent of the population has had no formal education (Agupusi, 2007), while approximately 14 percent have had only basic schooling (Mabotja, 2011) and 26 percent have completed matric. When it comes to higher education, only

4 percent of the residents in Alexandra have a tertiary qualification (Petesch, 2013). The provision of basic education has been a priority in Alexandra, as have health care facilities. Recent studies confirmed that the per capita expenditure on health care is between R300 and R500 annually (Roefs et al., 2003), while the ratio of nurses to patients is 1:21 per day, which indicates that more skilled health professionals are needed in order to improve the quality of life and life expectancy in Alexandra (Petesch, 2013). Government efforts to provide the necessary health care and education has, however, resulted in a decrease in the rates of people being infected and dying from HIV.

According to Mawela (2008), an estimated 70 percent of households in the township have one to three people, while 27 percent of households are home to four to seven people. A staggering 58 percent of all residents are young people below the age of 29 years (Statistics South Africa, 2011). This perspective shows that youth empowerment, particularly through skills development and job opportunities, must be a priority in Alexandra. Smith (2013) stated that Alexandra consists of 69 percent male-headed households, with the remainder being child- and female-headed. Studies confirm that most of the population is unemployed (Sana, 2014). According to Smith (2013), the rate of unemployment in Alexandra was at 57 percent, which is expected to grow as a result of the worsening economic condition in the country. In addition, about 22 percent of the population is documented as not being economically active. The township consists of households that are predominantly below the poverty line, i.e. they survive on an income that is far below the provincial and national average. About 40 percent of households generate an income of around R9,600, while 64 percent of households make below R19,200 annually (Butler, 2010).

1.8.2.1.Socio-economy for Alexandra Only 43 percent of the population, which is mainly people between 15 and 65 years old, are engaged in either full-time or part-time employment (Davie, 2012). The economy of the township is mostly linked to that of the City of Johannesburg, as the majority of residents tend to seek job opportunities within the city and in Sandton, which are in close proximity to Alexandra. Davie (2012) stated that the majority of residents (54 percent) in Alexandra work as unskilled labourers, with only 18 percent being skilled workers. An additional 17 percent have found employment using semi-skilled labour, 7 percent have a managerial position, and only 5 percent occupy

administrative positions. According to Kamau (2013), of those that do work, about 23 percent work in Alexandra, 21 percent have jobs in the City of Johannesburg, 20 percent work in Sandton, 14 percent work in the Greater Alexandra area, 8 percent are in Midrand, 8 percent are in Kempton Park, and the rest are dispersed across the province.

Over the past ten years, socio-economic growth, youth and women empowerment, and unemployment in Alexandra have been key priorities for the provincial government. Several sectors contribute to social development, including wholesale and retail at 20.4 percent; community services at 12.8 percent; manufacturing at 12.7 percent; financial and business services at 12.5 percent; construction at 12.1 percent; private households at 9.3 percent; transport, storage and communications account for 5.4 percent; agriculture, forestry and fishing account for 1.7 percent; and 13.1 for tourism (Alexandra Nodal Economic Development Profile, 2014/2015).

The township of Alexandra is one of the oldest township areas in Johannesburg. When looking at the urban landscape in relation to the impact caused by the apartheid system in South Africa, it is clear that black communities lag far behind in terms of development, and have limited access to the wealth and opportunities of the city. Thus, despite its close proximity to the city and affluent suburbs, the township of Alexandra is something of an anomaly (Moyo, 2005). Although the area is accessible to industrial and commercial centres, the lives and living conditions of the residents are far different from the people living in the neighbouring suburbs. Mabotja (2011) stated that the rising unemployment rate in Alexandra is alarming, as 60 percent of the economically active population is not participating in the permanent labour force. Although the 15 year Alexandra Renewal Project of 2001 tried to improve the living standards of many people in the township by creating job opportunities and supporting small businesses, the population has been growing very fast and in an unplanned manner. Since the proposed development projects have failed to bring improvements to the township, Alexandra had become one of the poorest areas in Gauteng and the country at large.

The unemployment rate for the area is estimated at 57 percent, which is far higher than the national average of 29 percent. Petesch (2013) and Smith (2013) argued that many who are unemployed and live in poverty often turn to crime as a means to survive and escape poverty, which is evident with the unmotivated youth on many street corners in Alexandra. In other words, poverty, unemployment and crime go hand in hand in the township. To try to address this situation, Dlamini

(2009) stated that the ARP has committed itself to ensuring long-term sustainable economic growth and social development to progress the living standards of the people. This is to be done by creating opportunities to boost household incomes and bring down the rate of unemployment. To foster Local Economic Development (LED) for the township, a unit within the ARP, was tasked with the responsibility of implementing a stable economic environment that has a huge amount of small businesses, which most are survivalist and operating in an informal and semi-formal sector. The unit has been significant in the facilitation of job generation and small business development. It is also valued for its provision of training and business mentorship for local people, particularly impacting the youth by encouraging black entrepreneurship. The ARP’s Local Economic Development unit has thus been a significant catalyst for enhancing local participation and creating socio-economic growth in Alexandra (Dlamini, 2009). Under the ARP, the construction of houses and infrastructure has become a significant role player in the creation of employment opportunities for local residents.

During Alexandra’s 100th anniversary, the ARP celebrated the milestone by looking back at the successful work it had completed since its launch in 2001. According to Dlamini (2009), the project’s successes included the redevelopment of a hostel along the M2, the construction of two new hostels for men and women, an upgrade of the Marlboro Gardens school grounds, and the construction of the Vasco da Gama Bridge and two footbridges, which link the East Bank settlement with the rest of Alexandra in the Jukskei River area. In addition, the project created over 2,730 job opportunities in the construction sector, with 1,278 of them being created for local people (Roodt, 2003). In terms of tourism development and SMME development within the tourism industry in Alexandra, studies have revealed that the township has up to 97 tourism establishments (including bed and breakfasts, craft shops, street traders, restaurants, etc.), which provide over 800 job opportunities to local people (Agupusi, 2007). However, Roodt (2003) noted that a large number of SMMEs are failing to serve as potential tool for achieving economic growth due to several challenges. For example, the shortage of policies to better deal with the needs of SMMEs (i.e. survivalist small businesses within the informal and semi-formal sectors) in the township is a major issue (Agupusi, 2007). In addition, there is also a need for business service providers, considering that SMMEs dominate the local economy.

The high unemployment rate in the township is a major focus of the ARP, which has committed itself to increasing job opportunities by 25 percent since 2001. Dlamini (2009) commented that the auto sector has transformed into a lucrative business, generating job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled local residents in Alexandra. Women in the township have also benefited from the auto industry; over 20 women engaged in the informal auto sector have received formal training in motor mechanics, and many others are already working throughout the township as mechanics. According to Dlamini (2009), since the birth of the ARP in 2001, a large number of people have found job opportunities in the various sectors that the project is linked to. In addition, with the skills obtained from the training programmes that the project has initiated with stakeholders, many local residents have transformed into entrepreneurs and job creators for community members. This shows the long-term impact of the project on the local community, which is evident through some household income growth and other non-economic gains. However, more work is still to be done, given the ongoing population growth and high rate of unemployment.

In terms of socio-economy, Alexandra is dominated by a number of small businesses, most of which operate at an informal, survivalist level. In order to address the small business growth challenges, the government has been creating policies and implementing initiatives for economic and social development by helping small businesses and improving infrastructure. For example, increasing the number and effectiveness of township-based small business growth agencies and training programmes would transform SMMEs into important role players for the economy and create job opportunities, as well as instil a culture of entrepreneurship among the youth in Alexandra. The township consists of informal retail sector, which provides employment opportunities to the local community, even though job scarcity is growing. Furthermore, over the years, the ARP works closely with community-based organisations to transform the township by introducing small business growth initiatives. The successes of these collaborations have included the formation of the Alexandra Manufacturers and Retail Forum, which has also become part of several associations within the township. Dlamini (2009) stated that other associations were also formed, which includes the Alexandra Welders; Alexandra Carpenters; Alexandra Sewing and Knitting; Alexandra Baking and Catering; and the Art and Craft Association. These associations are expected to play a vital role in Alexandra, such as ensuring the sustainability of SMMEs, reducing the numbers of unemployed people, and minimising poverty in the area.

1.9.Conclusion This chapter introduced the study and described its purpose and objectives in detail. In addition, the motivation and significance of the study were discussed, and the history of the study location was explained. As per this chapter, it is evident that in the last 24 years, tourism in South Africa has experienced a considerable transformation. Since the democratic transition, the country has entered into the global market to participate in the international tourism economy. Since 1994, the country has also experienced the development of township tourism, which has been developing across the country’s most underprivileged township areas, particularly those in the cities of Johannesburg (such as Soweto and Alexandra) and Cape Town (such as Khayelitsha and Langa). Although tourism in the townships began flourishing after 1994, Alexandra only began to show potential for this from 2001. With the efforts of the national and provincial governments, the township is now emerging as a tourist destination in its own right, however it also faces numerous challenges that requires attention from government and all involved stakeholders in order for the township to become a ‘must visit’ destination.

1.10. Outline and structure of the study

This thesis contains six chapters and has been organised according to the below:

Chapter 1 dealt with the introduction of the research topic and outlined the aims, objectives, and focus of the study. It further explained the importance of conducting this research and presented the background of the study and the problem statement.

Chapter 2 presents the literature review on the development of tourism in Alexandra, particularly the tourism growth challenges being experienced. Further literature on township and/or slum tourism is reviewed from a global, regional and domestic level in order to understand how other countries (such as Brazil) promote slum tourism, to explore the challenges they face, and to examine the strategies such countries put in place in order to address tourism growth issues. Focus is also placed on the ongoing debates (at the local, regional, and global levels) over slum tourism’s potential and opportunities, so as to provide a better understanding of this niche tourism segment.

Chapter 3 outlines and discusses the methodological approach and design adopted for the study, as well as the purpose and advantages of using a qualitative approach and semi-structured

interview technique, as well as the other techniques employed. It further discusses the data analysis employed (i.e. contextual analysis, coding and theme generation). Finally, the responsibilities of the researcher and ethical considerations taken into account are thoroughly explained.

Chapter 4 presents the empirical data collected from the fieldwork. This is the stage where the results gathered through dialoguing with civil society residents, government officials, private sector participants and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are presented with the identified themes.

Chapter 5 offers a critical discussion of the findings which are linked to the literature review.

Chapter 6 is the final section, which briefly discusses all the chapters of the study and presents the main conclusions. In addition, recommendations are made for practical strategies regarding how to respond to the tourism growth challenges in the township of Alexandra.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to explore and get a deep insight into township tourism by looking at the existing tourism literature in a global and local context. Reviewing the relevant literature enabled the researcher to understand the academic background and the ongoing debate on township tourism in South Africa, particularly in terms of the role of tourism and the challenges facing tourism growth in Alexandra.

2.2 The tourism industry as a tool for economic growth and development 2.2.1 Tourism development on a global scale Over the past half century, the tourism industry has grown to become one of the most powerful sectors for job and wealth creation in the world (Ashely and Roe, 2002). Studies have revealed that for both developed and less developed countries (LDCs), domestic and international tourism is a crucial part of their economies, as tourism enhances economic growth through generating revenue, employment, foreign exchange and investment, and development capital (Mitchell and Ashley, 2007). In the global context, the tourism industry has significantly contributed to development and prosperity (Sharley, 2009). According to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation’s (UNWTO) 2020 vision report, tourism growth is expected to continue, as it was forecast that the total number of all international tourist arrivals will reach one billion people by 2020. The current contribution of tourism to the world’s gross national income was 6 percent (Sharley, 2009). Tourism also accounts for one out of every six workplaces (Mirbabayev, 2011).

Sharley (2009) further noted that the tourism industry is a significant catalyst for wealth redistribution from rich countries to poor countries and disadvantaged communities through investment. In addition, since tourism exists in a globalising world, it is an ambassador of peace as it has the power to improve economic and political relationships between countries. Researchers have also found that tourism development has increasingly become a focus for many governments around the world that are looking to pursue economic growth policies (Telfer, 2002). Although studies show that the majority of tourism’s economic benefits are still enjoyed by several of the richer countries, particularly in North America and Europe, there are less developed and developing countries that are also enjoying economic benefits from the industry (Blakeman, 2015).

According to Telfer and Sharpley (2008), these countries include those in the East Asia Pacific region, the Middle East, some African countries (including South Africa and Tanzania) and Brazil, Samoa, Cambodia, and Myanmar. Roe and Khanya (2001) noted that tourism, as a travel related activity, generally refers to the peaceful movement of people across cultural boundaries, which can be either nationally, regionally, or internationally. Tourism incorporates different types of private and state enterprises, which provide people with products and services while on their travels.

Tourism and development have long had a relationship as both these concepts are integrated to share similar focus of economic and social progress (Telfer, 2002). In countries where tourism is regarded as an economic industry, tourism is used to enhance economic growth by providing much needed employment, foreign currency exchange, development capital and foreign investment (Blakeman, 2015). It is also a vital tool for redistributing wealth from rich to poor countries through tourists’ expenditure on a destination’s goods and services, and through foreign investment from richer economies into less developed countries (Telfer and Sharley, 2002). According to Telfer and Sharpley (2008), over the years, tourism has transformed from a restricted elitist activity to a more common activity that is integrated into social and economic life.

2.2.2 Tourism development in Africa

In the African context, many governments have begun to acknowledge the positive impact of the tourism industry and its contribution to the achievement of national development plans (Awang, 2009). For these countries, tourism assists with poverty alleviation and employment creation. Mitchell and Ashley (2006) argued that in countries where there is very limited potential for economic development, tourism development is linked to national poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs), while countries such as Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, South Africa and Mauritius, which have established tourism industries, reap the pro-poor benefits. The national poverty reduction strategy is part of government’s plan for the development of economic growth, which is based on full participation of the communities at grass-root levels through partnerships between countries and private sector. Pro-poor benefits, on the other side, relate to the national policies, which aim to boost economic growth through encouraging inclusive initiatives by both the government and private sector for social and economic development throughout Africa.

As a valuable economic growth sector and tool for social development in Africa, tourism continues to be an important source of income for infrastructure development, improving governments’ capacity to provide service delivery to communities and developing human resources through training (Mitchell and Ashley, 2007). In addition, tourism is valued for its potential to foster the development of the private sector and transformation of productive economic structures. For example, in Tanzania, the development of infrastructure (roads, railways, water and power supply) in rural areas has helped to more fairly redistribute tourism benefits from urban areas (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). According to Ashely and Roe (2002), if countries fail to gain from tourism or achieve pro-poor benefits, it is because the national and/or provincial governments fail to take the industry seriously, fail to create a link between tourism, development and poverty alleviation, or both.

In order to address the challenges faced by both developing countries and LDCs in Africa and across the globe, tourism was identified by the UNWTO as a strategy to attain the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (Telfer and Sharpley, 2008). According to the United Nations (UN), these goals include the alleviation of widespread poverty and hunger, combatting serious diseases, improving basic sanitation and clean water provision, improving maternal health, ensuring environmental sustainability, and improving primary education for all. A further goal is to develop a fair global partnership for development, including helping poor and landlocked countries and islands across the world to address their challenges. According to Mitchell and Ashley (2006), tourism was identified by the UNWTO in 2005 as a catalyst for achieving sustainable growth, particularly for poor countries throughout the world. For example, an indication of the increasing commitment of advancing tourism development is the work achieved by the Sustainable Tourism-Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) scheme in Africa. The use of tourism for growth in Africa was supported by many African states as well as global development agencies, including the World Bank and the British Department for Global Development (Sharpley, 2002). As a result, the potential for tourism in the sub-Sahara Africa region in terms of its contribution towards economic growth and social development is increasingly being acknowledged through the New Partnership for Africa’s Development’s (NEPAD) Tourism Action Plan for 2004 (Rogerson, 2012b)

Even in developed countries, tourism is used to develop the socio-economies of more marginalised and remote areas (Sharpley, 2002). The reason for linking tourism and poverty reduction across Africa is thus obvious; the industry is a large and evolving sector and many African countries are underdeveloped and in need of economic growth. Ashely and Roe (2002) commented that while poverty alleviation might not exactly be at the heart of the tourism agenda, unlike other service sectors or the manufacturing sector, tourism can be more pro-poor focused, labour-intensive, inclusive of women and involve informal sectors (as it supports SMMEs), and can also promote the natural and cultural assets of the poor into tourism products. Likewise, community-based tourism initiatives, as part of pro-poor tourism, are being introduced and supported by governments in Africa, as it is a form of tourism that aims to expand the participation of the host-community residents in all tourism developments that take place in their areas (Roe and Khanya, 2001). Given the above, it is clear that the extent to which tourism can create pro-poor benefits for marginalised areas depends on how much they are involved or can participate in tourism development. Therefore, in order to achieve full participation and increase benefits for the poor, the government, private sector and NGOs are crucial for formulating policies that better protect the interests of the poor and ensure that they are not being exploited by elites (Mitchell and Ashley, 2007). The comparative advantage of slum tourism in Africa is that the expenditure generated is likely to spread across the host destination’s economy, resulting in more employment opportunities being created.

2.2.3 Tourism development in South Africa The tourism industry is supported by the national, provincial and local governments as one of the most significant commercial sectors in terms of its potential for economic growth and social development (NTSS, 2011). It has been identified as an important generator of income, foreign exchange, employment, socio-economic growth, development capital, and foreign investment (Visser and Hoogendoorn, 2011). In South Africa alone, studies confirm that in 2011 tourism provides over 440,000 direct jobs and has provided training to tens of thousands of people across the country (Booyens, 2010 and Rogerson, 2012a). According to the National Tourism Sector Strategy (NTSS, 2011), between 1993 and 2010, international arrivals grew from three million to over ten million people, with more than seven million being tourists. If domestic tourism numbers

were included, this figure could double. According to Sifolo (2015), the industry provided 599,412 direct jobs in 2008, representing 4.4 percent of total employment. The drop in the creation of job opportunities between 2008 and 2011 is said to have been the result of the worldwide economic recession experienced in 2008.

According to the NTSS (2011), the Tourism Satellite Account of 2010 forecast that the direct contribution of tourism towards South Africa’s economic growth would be just over than R67 billion in 2012, which would account for 3 percent of the national GDP. As one of the country’s most significant sectors, tourism became a priority for the government’s Medium-Term Strategic Framework (MTSF) of 2009 election manifesto to achieve the National Development Plan (NDP) and to grow the economy. The MTSF prioritised the development of the tourism sector in order to address various national challenges, including generating job opportunities, creating sustainable livelihoods, providing decent training and education, providing healthcare, developing rural areas, providing food security and sustainability, addressing land reform, combating crime, addressing the issue of corruption in the government and private sector, growing an inclusive economy, and ensuring social cohesion (National Tourism Sector Strategy, 2011). Indeed, as the government also benefits from tourism, the industry enables the state to create more job opportunities, develop new infrastructure, improve public services, and equally redistribute tourism-generated income, thereby reducing economic inequalities among communities.

According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, in sub-Saharan Africa, tourism accounted for approximately 7 percent of GDP and had created over 10 million jobs in 2009 and 2010 (Rogerson, 2012a). In addition, a growth in tourism often impacts positively on other sectors like agriculture and manufacturing. However, Rogerson (2012b) argued that there is still a need for more linkages, i.e. tourism must be further integrated with other important local economic activities. Creating linkages and linking tourism with development and poverty alleviation often results in pro-poor benefits, whereby the most marginalised people also enjoy some form of benefit in their communities. As with other countries around the world, in South Africa, the tourism industry is considered to be a crucial ambassador of peaceful movement and a visible expression of globalisation that promotes political and cultural tolerance (Goodwin and Santilli, 2009).

Moreover, with the growth of tourism in the marginalised areas of South Africa, the industry has shown growth potential by transforming run-down, crime-ridden, remote and marginalised areas

such as townships, slums or shanty towns, and rural areas (Visser and Hoogendoorn, 2011). The rural settlement of KwaNdebele at KwaMhlanga in the Mpumalanga province and Venda near Tzaneen in Limpopo are good examples of marginalised areas in South Africa that are being transformed through the promotion of local culture and heritage (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007).

Visser and Hoogendoorn (2011) claimed that the country’s tourism is guided by four major approaches - responsible tourism, pro-poor tourism, local economic growth tourism, and tourism and SMME development. In the case of Johannesburg, Rogerson (2012b) noted that in terms of economic regeneration and diversification, tourism development continues to be supported by the government through various initiatives and the strengthening of partnerships with the private sector, i.e. tourism as an industry is growing. Tourism in the city has been promoted as ‘non- traditional’, and continues to be valued as a source of income and a generator of employment and economic development (Rogerson, 2012a). As a result, in township areas like Alexandra, the tourism industry has evolved since the democratic transition of 1994 into a crucial catalyst development, which is particularly valued for its economic and non-economic benefits for community residents. With the establishment of the Gauteng Tourism Authority and Johannesburg Tourism Company, which work with community-based organisations within tourism, various initiatives have been put in place to promote domestic tourism.

Thus, as historic townships with rich heritages and cultural resources, these locations have become important areas of focus for tourism development in South Africa. While previously disadvantaged communities suffered neglect and injustices, with the advent of democracy, their new-found political and economic freedom opened up huge opportunities for local residents to develop competitive tourism products and services. Rogerson (2004a) argued that despite having limited skills and knowledge, many black South Africans have joined the tourism industry as service providers through the development of SMMEs in their communities. This has enabled them to realise and reap many economic benefits, even though inequality is still a challenge. In addition, township areas have now become more accessible, providing an opportunity for black people to tell their cultural stories and histories to the world after centuries of having their rights violated and being prevented from expressing themselves (Rogerson, 2004b). The government has formed tourism policies such as the 1996 Tourism White Paper and the 2011 National Tourism Sector

Strategy (NTSS). In addition, it is introducing different kinds of initiatives (ARP and ATDP in Alexandra) for the development of infrastructure, leisure facilities, etc. They also offer financial support and skills development to SMMEs.

Despite this, Alexandra has fallen behind Soweto with regards to tourism development, as tourists often prefer Soweto as their destination when visiting areas around Johannesburg (Mabotja, 2012). According to Rogerson (2012b), Alexandra has always faced challenges that make it difficult to promote tourism in the area, including a lack of tourism-related understanding, knowledge, qualifications and skills. However, like Soweto, Alexandra was recognised by the government in its developmental strategy programme as needing urgent redevelopment (Butler, 2010). The main objectives have been to develop the township of Alexandra, to promote its culture and heritage, and to market it as a tourism brand in South Africa and beyond to international countries (Davie, 2008; Dlamini, 2009).

2.3. Difference between slum and township tourism

The term ‘slum tourism’ is universally used when referring to the form of tourism that is developed and promoted in the slums of globalizing cities, particularly in countries such as Brazil, India, Kenya, United States of America, etc. Slum tourism is growing focus as governments seek to develop marginalised communities by promoting pro-poor tourism, which in turn promotes inclusive economic growth. Within the slums of these countries, the social ills and heritage are often commodified into tourism products, and it is gaining the attention of international travelers from across the world. Township tourism, on the other side, is a term used to describe tourism development that is taking place within the marginalized urban areas of the major cities. For example, the township areas where tourism has been a focus for researchers include Alexandra and Soweto in Johannesburg, Langa and Nyanga in Cape Town, and Umlazi and KwaMashu in Durban. Thus, township tourism is similar to slum tourism but the term qualifies in the context of South Africa as a geographical space where tourism is being developed and promoted in the townships. The growing interest in visiting township areas, an opportunity has opened up for black- owned, small-scale, guided tour organisations.

2.4.Development of slum tourism

2.4.1. Development of slum tourism around the world With growing global criticism associated with the development of mass tourism, a new and more responsible form of tourism, slum tourism, has emerged, which continues to gain recognition across least developed and developing countries (Costa, 2013). As mentioned earlier, this is a growing focus as governments seek to develop marginalised communities by promoting pro-poor tourism, which in turn promotes inclusive economic growth. An increasing focus on the growth of slum tourism is also noticeable in the developed countries of North America and Europe, particularly in the slum areas of globalising cities (Klepsch, 2010). According to Costa (2013), the concept of ‘slum tourism’ firstly emerged in the marginalised areas around London in the 1880s, before spreading to other areas such as Manhattan in New York. In addition, tourism development has played a major role in the growing economy of neighbourhoods such as Harlem as a result of foreign demand (Blakeman, 2015). Booyens (2010) noted that tourism in Harlem began during the 1980s, with international visitors being transported in buses to different sites, giving residents an opportunity to become service providers.

Even though profits were limited because the buses only made a few stops, hardworking black Americans uplifted their communities with their involvement in tourism projects by sharing their black musical heritage, such as jazz, and rhythm and blues. In 2000, over 800,000 international tourists visited Harlem (Klepsch, 2010). Slum tours were also a common practice in the so-called ‘ethnic’ and ‘exotic’ neighbourhoods, which include ‘Little Italy’, ‘China Town’ and African- American districts (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). In these areas, social challenges such as poverty, crime and violence were often commodified. Thus, unlike in South Africa, the concept of slum tourism has been practiced for more than ten decades. Costa (2013) stated that it was in the 1990s that slum tours gained momentum in Asia and Africa, particularly in places like Buenos Aires in Argentina, New Delhi and Mumbai in India, Nairobi in Kenya, and Johannesburg in South Africa (Blakeman, 2015). These countries advanced their participation in tourism by expressing their history and heritage.

This highlights that tourism is increasingly being used by many countries (i.e. both developed and less developed economies) as an essential catalyst for economic growth, prosperity, and modernisation. In many run-down, crime-ridden and poor areas in countries such as Brazil, South

Africa, Mexico, Jamaica, the Caribbean and India, slum tours are developing in the most marginalised urban spaces, in a manner which diverges from the mainstream tourism into a more responsible form of tourism (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). According to Blakeman (2015), this form of tourism (also known as favela tourism, township tourism, poverty tourism, etc.) is evolving quickly; in fact, Costa (2013) stated the need for governments to develop more tourism policies in order to meet their national development goals. As a potential economic growth strategy for many countries, with its link to poverty alleviation, slum tourism has become focus of debate for the public (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). According to Mengich (2011), this has resulted in a growing controversy on issues relating to inequality, the unequal distribution of wealth, the creation of decent job opportunities, voyeurism, ethics and exploitation.

In general, a slum or township refers to an area which is located near a city which has a high number of people living in it. Mengich (2011) explained that slums or townships are often characterised by semi-standard housing, a lack of security, and in most cases large populations, crime, poverty, unemployment, and limited access to municipal services (including poor sanitation and sewage management, unsafe drinking water, etc.). Slum tourism, on the other hand, is defined as guided visits undertaken into the most disadvantaged areas of globalising cities such as Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. In Australia, for instance, research shows that slum tourism has transformed numerous crime-ridden, run-down, marginalised major urban areas into potential tourism destinations (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012).

Figure 2: The Favelas in the Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Source: Gorman, 2014)

Travelers from Europe and North America have shown the most interest in consuming slum tourism. Although it exists in some parts of the United States, most studies reveal that slum tourism is a more profitable industry in developing countries such as Brazil, Jamaica, Mexico, India, Zimbabwe, South Africa, China and the Caribbean major cities (Booyens, 2010). In addition, Dürr and Jaffe (2012) noted that in these countries, tourism transforms flagging economies by integrating them into the globalising world, which paves the way for them to enjoy representation on the universal stage, acquire new methods of doing business, and encourage innovation. Due to the growth of tourism and the existing urban inequality in developing countries, it has been forecasted that the development of slum tourism is likely to grow and become a worldwide phenomenon (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). Mengich (2011) also revealed that because of numerous challenges prevailing across globalising cities in Africa and South America, slum tourism is expected to grow, given its uniqueness and potential to foster transformation in the marginalised urban areas.

2.4.2. Development of slums tourism in Asia The development of slum tourism is also common throughout India, especially around the marginalised and underdeveloped urban areas. (De Geest, 2013). According to Rajamohan and Sundar (2014), apart from exotic places (with renowned attractions) such as New Delhi, there are many crime-ridden and poverty-stricken slums found in India. These include places such as Dharavi in Mumbai, Kusumpur-Pahari in Delhi, Tiljala in Kolkata, Borabanda in Hyderabad, and Parvati Slum in Pune (Frenzel, 2013). Due to the support they are given by government tourism policies and developmental projects, these locations are increasingly being branded as destinations, attracting western crowds and capitalising on tourists’ expenditure to boost local economies. Dharavi, for example, is one of the largest slums in India, and, just like other slum areas, it is characterised by high rates of inequality, poverty, unemployment, squalor and violence (Frenzel, 2013). This slum is popular because of its location in India; it stretches 1.75km along the Mahim River in Central Mumbai, the largest and busiest city in India. Dharavi is the most visited slum destination in the country, covering 530 acres with a total population of approximately one million people. According to Klepsch (2010), most of the residents are potters, plastic and metal recyclers, tailors, and washer men. Within the local tourism industry, the majority of businesses are small scale hotels, craft markets and tour firms, most of which are owned and run by local residents (Frenzel, 2013).

Rajamohan and Sundar (2014: 12) argued that the total tourism products within the area are estimated to be worth $500 million, which are owned by local people themselves. Banks and Armstrong (2012) stated that through hard work and determination, the residents in the slum have managed to grow and promote their tourism sector, with the majority of the enterprises in the industry being under the ownership and management of local people. This allows local people to be role players in, and owners of, their tourism industry and economy, limiting external role players from gaining more power to take over and export huge portions of the generated revenues from the local economy. According to Blakeman (2015), tourism has transformed the living conditions of the people as most of the economic benefits have remained local, contributing significantly to socio-economic growth, employment generation, and poverty alleviation.

Another slum in India where tourism is gaining attention is Kusumpur Pahari in Delhi, which currently has 15,000 accommodations (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). Rajamohan and Sundar

(2014) described Kusumpur Pahari as a potential destination for western visitors who have a desire for an authentic experience in a poverty stricken urban slum. Tiljala, found around the eastern part of the city of Kolkata, is also one of the biggest and most diverse slums in India, and is inhabited by people from across the country (Blakeman, 2015). One side is inhabited by a lower middle class population, with thousands of residents not in full-time employment and living below the poverty line level, while another side consists of an upper middle class population whose living standards and lifestyles are much better due as they have access to economic resources (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). Rajamohan and Sundar (2014) argued that Tiljala is unique in India, as it has various natural and cultural attractions (such as the lagoons of fisheries) and attracts millions of international visitors annually.

In the city of Hyderabad, Borabanda slum has also transformed into a tourism destination for thousands of domestic and international tourists, who are interested in exploring and learning about the lifestyles and local cultures there which represent the whole country. The slum is estimated to be home to approximately 5,000 people, and is surrounded by affluent suburban areas (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). However, in terms of tourism development, the slum is struggling compared to the rest of slums in the country, even though Hyderabad is known as a centre for technology and industrial development (Costa, 2013). Rajamohan and Sundar (2014) argued that an effort to attract visitors and foreign expenditure has not been made over the years, even though this is slowly changing due to government intervention and investment from the private sector. It can thus be seen that although slum areas are found throughout the major cities of India, not all of them enjoy the same tourism status.

2.4.3. Development of tourism in the slums of Africa Slum tourism on the African continent has become a major focus for tourism researchers, due to the rise of many major cities across Africa which have experience an influx of people looking for a better life (Costa, 2013). Blakeman (2015) noted that due to fast, unregulated population growth, these areas have been surrounded by shanty towns, which are often characterised by extreme poverty, poor housing and sanitation, unemployment, crime and violence.

With the rise in slum tourism in Africa’s poorest areas, Chege and Mwisukha (2013) noted that Kibera in Nairobi has emerged as one of the most toured slums in Kenya. In this slum, tourism is

linked to poverty alleviation and is being used as source of employment for local people in order to increase their net benefits. Blakeman (2015) acknowledged that the largest tour operator, Victoria Safaris, has helped to promote tourism and local participation in Kibera, and has provided many jobs to local people.

Tours seek to promote and brand the slum of Kibera as a “city of hope”. After many years of a struggling economy, local people believe that labelling it as such will free them from poverty and hardships by unlocking opportunities (Klepsch, 2010). Although the current economic situation continues to be tough for Kibera and Kenya as a whole, tourism is gradually growing to stimulate business development (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). Government intervention and private sector investment is playing an important role in this, for example Klepsch (2010) stated that the support of the private sector is noticeable in the work of Kibera Tours, a Dutch-Kenyan organisation, which conducts responsible tours and is valued for its partnerships with other small-scale and community- based organisations (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). The company focuses on promoting responsible tourism awareness and encourages volunteerism amongst people, touting the achievement of personal development as a reward. Furthermore, Roe and Khanya (2001) noted that Kibera Tours is known for sharing its profits with the poor by giving back to local communities, with its impact being realised throughout the city of Nairobi.

The organisation is also valued by local residents because of its capacity to implement business principles that are in line with responsible tourism (Klepsch, 2010). As an example, it emphasises the importance of utilising local labour and skills by providing job opportunities and entrepreneurial training (through mentorship and awareness workshops) to local residents. In addition, the company makes stops at various tourism service providers during its tours and introduces visitors to markets owned by local residents. This allows an opportunity for tourists to interact with local people and learn about the local cultures, while for residents this represents an opportunity to market their products and services to their visitors. This shows that tourism development in the Kenyan slums is pro-poor focused, because while visitors are given authentic experiences, the residents also reap noneconomic and economic benefits. For this reason, the government, NGOs, the private sector, and the community as a whole need to continue supporting tourism by promoting partnerships that offer mutual benefits.

Although the industry is growing in Africa, Chege and Mwisukha (2013) argue that the Ministries of Tourism in the African countries must create training opportunities in order to improve education and skills development and pave way for residents to benefit from tourism by developing businesses and finding decent jobs. In many African countries where tourism potential has been identified, the lack of skills is a primary challenge hindering full participation of the local residents, particularly amongst the poor and people at the grassroots level. Such countries include Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, South Africa, Malawi, Botswana, the Gambia, Mozambique, and Namibia (Ma, 2010). According to Blakeman (2015), Kibera is a good example of a slum community where poverty and unemployment is high, with many people being involved in casual work and earning a daily income of 100 shillings or less. According to Ma (2010), other key challenges facing the Kibera community is a lack of access to electricity, proper sanitation, sewage management, and safe drinking water. Such social challenges, which are also causes of environmental problems in slum areas, undermine the potential and opportunity to successfully pursue tourism growth, however Chege and Mwisukha (2013) argued that with the growing populations in the urbanised spaces throughout Africa, slums are likely to continue growing over the years, which should result in more slum tourism.

Since the majority of slum populations are involved in low income labour and unemployment is rising, many residents at host destination communities tap into tourism markets by developing and commoditising their lifestyles into consumable products. These include engaging in cultural- related activities such as arts and crafts, sport, drama and dance, and developing small businesses to serve domestic and international tourists. This has a significant impact on transforming slum communities. According to Chege and Mwisukha (2013), in Africa, countries where slum tourism growth is noticeable include Mozambique (such as Maputo), South Africa (such as Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban), Kenya (such as Nairobi), Zimbabwe (such as Harare), Botswana (such as Gaborone), Nigeria (such as Lagos and Abuja), Swaziland (such as Mbabane), Libya (such as Bengazi), and Egypt (such as Giza and Cairo). In addition, Ma (2010) argued that due to their unique locations and cultural tours (relating to historical events and stories), slum tourism is growing in Africa and attracting the attention of scholars and researchers from around the world.

2.4.4. Development of township tourism in South Africa In the period prior to South Africa’s democratic transition, the potential for tourism was primarily seen in the country’s climate and its natural attractions. Dürr and Jaffe (2012, p. 114) explained that international visitors used to come to South Africa just to explore her scenic beauty, however this changed during the early 1990s when township tourism began to gain attention due to a growing desire amongst international visitors to experience the lifestyles and cultures of local people following their long struggle for freedom (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). In other words, the development and promotion of township tourism in South Africa is a very recent phenomenon.

The development of tourism in the township areas across the country has been mostly influenced by their unique locations and diverse cultures, as well as the country’s historical and political background, which links to the legacy of apartheid (Booyens, 2010). Tourism development in the township areas of South Africa tends to differ from other countries in the global south (such as Brazil and India), whereby the slum tours are influenced by exotic environments (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007). Dürr and Jaffe (2012) argued that with the growing interest in visiting township areas, an opportunity has opened up for black-owned, small-scale, guided tour organisations. Like any other country in the global south, slum tourism in South Africa is supported by the government and promoted by tourism companies as a valuable tool that significantly contributes to the alleviation of poverty in many poor urban areas (Costa, 2013). In addition, as it is pro-poor focused and community-based, this niche tourism segment has the potential to unlock opportunities for local residents to be more effectively involved in the process of developing their local tourism industries (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007).

In South Africa, township tourism was highlighted after 1994 as being a major tool for socio- economic regeneration and the development and prosperity of the country. In addition, as recently as 2011, then-President Jacob Zuma specifically mentioned the tourism industry in the country’s policy for development during his State of the Nation Address (Visser and Hoogendoorn, 2011). The President identified the industry as being a crucial tool for the redistribution of wealth and the minimisation of economic inequalities within communities, and as a sector that will create more jobs for people. In South Africa, the tourism policy is based on five fundamental principles, which are driven by the key challenge of social and economic transformation (Visser and Hoogendoorn, 2011). According to the National Tourism Sector Strategy (2011), these principles include social

equity, environmental integrity, economic empowerment, co-operation and partnership, and sustainability, and are believed to have the potential to create sustainable tourism growth and a balanced and health economy. Butler (2010) argued that Soweto in Johannesburg and Langa in Cape Town have emerged as leading township destinations in South Africa, however as a result of economic and political freedom, as well as the national government’s commitment, Alexandra has also shown potential to become a tourism hub. This, it is hoped, will grow the economy, create jobs, and alleviate poverty.

Figure 3: The Nelson Mandela Home in Soweto (Source: Findley and Ogbu. 2011)

The above figure 3 shows the home of former president Nelson Mandela in Soweto, with tourists visiting the historic site. The house is located within the world-renowned Vilakazi Street, which is also known for being home to other important historic sites, including the former home of Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu. Rogerson (2004b) stated that with such remarkable attractions, township areas like Soweto and Alexandra have become tourism brands. In addition, the transition to democracy has transformed townships by allowing easier access to outsiders. In addition to enhancing their potential and competitiveness as tourism service providers, after being oppressed for decades by a hostile government, black South Africans now also have the opportunity to tell their histories and cultural stories to international audiences.

Residents are also able to capitalise on tourist expenditure (on the consumption of local products and services) to boost the local economy and reduce poverty levels through job creation and entrepreneurship. According to Visser and Hoogendoorn (2011), township tourism is also important for the development of domestic tourism in South Africa. The emergence of township tours in the country, along with Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), has paved the way for the black majority to open up black-owned and run tourism-related businesses.

According to Visser and Hoogendoorn (2011), in the past 24 years of democracy, tourism development in South Africa has focused on four interdependent perspectives - responsible tourism, pro-poor tourism, domestic tourism development supported by all levels of government through tourism policies and other initiatives to drive economic growth, and tourism development that is linked with poverty alleviation and SMME growth (National Tourism Sector Strategy, 2011). These perspectives are supported by various government tourism initiatives, including the 1996 Tourism White Paper and the 2011 National Tourism Sector Strategy. In addition, government institutions (such as the national and provincial Departments of Tourism) and tourism development agencies can be found across the country, which help to link tourism to Local Economic Development (LED), focusing on pro-poor and responsible development. Although township tourism is a very recent phenomenon in South Africa, several studies reveal that it is growing, and currently accounts for 25 percent of all visits (Mengich, 2011).

In initiating a shift from mass tourism to a focus on a more responsible form of tourism, township tours emphasise promoting educational and cultural tourism, which provide an authentic experience to visitors resulting in their personal growth. In places like Johannesburg and Cape Town, most of the tour firms in the townships operate on little capital, and often use mini-buses to transport tourists from the cities into the townships. However, in terms of numbers, there are more SMMEs now than there have been in the last ten years, and the formation of township-based tourism associations has improved and enhanced the potential of these companies (Butler, 2010). In Soweto and Alexandra, for instance, the formation of the Soweto Slum Tourism Association and the Alexandra Tourism Association was initiated by the residents themselves, which has increased the tourism benefits for local people (Mengich, 2011). According to Chege and Mwisukha (2013), the associations help small product owners to register their businesses and newcomers to enter the industry. They work with SMMEs such as tour operators, transport firms,

art and craft marketers, caterers, entertainers, and conference organisers. They further help product owners to access the tourism market by working with tour operators outside the country in an effort to attract international visitors.

The association is said to have four main activities:

 To attract as many tourists as possible and encourage them to pursue longer stay holidays in the township and increase their spending.  To introduce a ‘get off’ campaign, which is aimed at getting visitors to stop when touring townships on buses/coaches in order to interact with local residents, explore the local cultures and purchase locally produced goods.  To promote and market the township as a tourism brand to tourists.  To offer assistance to all local service providers.

Butler (2010) stated that in KwaZulu Natal, the townships surrounding Durban appear not to be benefiting adequately from tourism, however many believe that with the intervention of the government, the negative attitude with regards to townships may change for the better.

Figure 4: Bicycle Tours by the Mulaudzi Alexandra Tours (Source: Mulaudzi, 2013)

The above figure shows a township tour being conducted by bicycle in Alexandra. The emergence of township tours in South Africa (particularly in the previously disadvantaged major urban areas) have transformed the township communities both economically and socially. As Findley and Ogbu (2011) argued, township areas like Alexandra have finally realised an opportunity to enjoy commercial momentum because of the commodification of their local cultures and heritages. The new and rehabilitated local museums, monuments and accommodation facilities are changing the face of the township spaces into economic activities to benefit marginalised communities. Examples include tourist attractions such as the Hector Pieterson Memorial and the Orlando West Museum in Soweto, the printing press of Mahatma Gandhi and his home in the township of Inanda in Durban, as well as the Red Location Museum situated outside Port Elizabeth in the township of New Brighton (Booyens 2010).

Unlike in previous years when they suffered from neglect and exclusion, township areas in South Africa have now gained some form of national and global representation, with legitimate means to combat poverty and unemployment. In addition, government tourism policies have stimulated the potential for survivalist SMMEs (such as shebeens, spaza shops, restaurants, homestays, etc.), within the informal sector, which have become important businesses that are contributing to household incomes and socio-economic growth in the townships (Findley and Ogbu, 2011). Through local ownership and the control of enterprises, the tourism industry is enhancing the lives of the poor by increasing employment (for both skilled and unskilled residents) in the townships.

Findley and Ogbu (2011) noted that in South Africa as a whole, tourism development in the township areas has increased job opportunities, providing a choice to residents who have previously had to find employment far from home, saving them time and resources. In addition, others have returned to the townships to start businesses. This is important in order to keep most of the capital within the township areas, through spending on local products and services to spur socio-economic growth and prosperity.

The tourism sector also contributes to community construction projects in the townships, and invests in human resource development, infrastructure development and improved sanitation, amongst others (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013). Findley and Ogbu (2011) further noted that with the revenue generated by tourism, the government has been able to address some of the injustices caused by the apartheid government against black South Africans. For example, Rogerson (2012b)

stated that since 1994 there have been improvements in service delivery, such as the provision of safer public transport facilities, the renewal of infrastructure, the rehabilitation of areas with environmental problems, the provision of housing, and skill development. In 2009, for example, the Reconstruction and Development Programme provided nearly 2.4 million brick houses, as well as electricity and safe drinking water to millions of the country’s poorest people (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). In addition, according to Ramchander (2007), the inclusion of women and the disabled in tourism planning and development, including ensuring they have access to training and economic opportunities, has been a major success of the new government, even though there are still barriers hindering full inclusion.

Tourism has the potential to transform communities and improve the living conditions of the poor when responsibly developed, which is important considering that recent statistics confirming that half of the country’s population lives below the poverty line (Statistics South Africa, 2017). Chege and Mwisukha (2013: 95) argued that in this way, poverty-stricken communities showing potential for tourism continue to socially and economically progress as a result of community and government partnerships for development.

2.5.Ethical consumption and consideration in the practice of township tourism In the context of township tourism in general, the concept of ethical consumption refers to the direct purchasing of products and services that are locally produced by the people at the visited destination. According to Butler (2010), ethical consumption is normally facilitated by professional tour guides in the townships who motivate international visitors to interact with local people and spend their money on local products and services. Guides also often market local SMMEs operating in the informal sector by telling foreign visitors about the difference their expenditure makes on improving the local socio-economy and the livelihoods of the poor people in the townships. Tour guides thus have a very important role to play in facilitating ethical consumption, as they encourage high-spending visitors to travel more widely across the townships so they can spend more money on the economy. Moreover, ethical consumption goes beyond the purchasing of locally-produced products and services that are sold by the local markets, to involve the consumption of all the attractions and other related activities that shape and represent the lives and cultures of the host communities. According to Butler (2010), allowing public access into

townships to display the prevailing conditions and enable interactions with residents has been heavily influenced by the transition to democracy. This period has been important, as it enabled an opportunity and enhanced the need for local people to rewrite and tell their cultural stories and events of victimisation (while the world audience listens) during the years of oppression.

In the City of Johannesburg, the display of the squatters and shacks in the townships, particularly in Soweto and Alexandra, has become part of the Museum Africa known to be a historical museum found in Newtown (Booyens, 2010). An example of this is the purchasing of a zinc shack by the museum during the early 1990s from the Nyambose family in Thokoza on the East Rand, which has since been transformed into an art gallery that is visited by tourists from around the world. According to Butler (2010), these types of shacks are framed and decorated with colourful features telling stories that are related to historical events and the social challenges faced by residents in the townships. There are also many other contemporary homes and other structures from both ordinary people and important figures (such as political activists who previously lived in the townships), which depict the normal daily life of residents facing the worst living conditions.

In Soweto, the township tours are very much based on a routinised ‘Struggle Route’, using the historical context of the township that was once home to several political leaders and freedom fighters (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007). In 1997, when the family of Mandela in Johannesburg relocated from Orlando West in Soweto, the home was transformed into a small museum, making Vilakazi Street one of the most popular tourist destinations in South Africa (De Geest, 2013). Five years later, the Hector Pieterson Memorial and Museum was completed nearby to commemorate the student protests and the widespread violence by the state police during the Soweto uprisings of 1976.

Modern tours in the townships moralise poverty, i.e. unlike in previous years when poverty was widely perceived as being because of laziness, it is now being better understood by the world in terms of the need for development and transformation in marginalised and disadvantaged communities. For example, Butler (2010) described the Cape Care Route, which distributes brochures throughout Cape Town to tourists to raise awareness of, and encourage volunteerism and doing good for, the less fortunate. De Geest (2013) noted that the brochures also inform tourists about the work of the Route within surrounding communities, particularly its contribution towards the eradication of squalor and deprivation. This work is made possible through donations and

voluntary services, which are provided in partnership with community-based projects such as upgrading public clinics, schools, libraries, old-age and orphanage facilities, and leisure parks.

In addition, Findley and Ogbu (2011) explained that the Route also helps by connecting households to safe water and electricity supplies, providing sanitary pads to girls, giving uniforms and stationary to school learners, and providing equipment (such as computers) to community training centres. The aim of township tourism is thus straightforward in South Africa, i.e. it generates income and employment opportunities for people in the township areas, and is a strategy for poverty alleviation. Responsible ethical consumption thus provides tangible economic and non- economic benefits for residents, while tourists also get an opportunity to learn local cultures.

2.6.The nature of slum tourism Throughout the countries of the Global South, slum tourism has been evolving and now embraces the principles of an alternative form of tourism (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). In other words, this form of tourism is about promoting a green and health economy, sustainable development, and environmental awareness. Dürr and Jaffe (2012) noted that as it is pro-poor focused and community-based, slum tourism is valued for initiating responsible tourism development by implementing the principles of sustainable tourism as set out by the 2015 UNWTO. Addressing poverty and economic inequalities are the main priorities, as is ensuring meaningful and transformative experiences that fulfill the desires of both the visitors and the host-community residents (Klepsch, 2010). Mengich (2011) described slum tourism as the activity of traveling or touring a run-down area within a particular city, mainly characterised by a lack of security, semi- standard housing, and squalor, with the purpose of experiencing the place and people’s way of living in that particular setting. Slum tourism is often developed within the context of urban tourism. According to Klepsch (2010), slum tours cater for various travel budgets and range from a community-based model which involves local people, to tours that are organised by entrepreneurs who may not involve the local communities.

Mengich (2011) argued that in its original state, slum tourism normally consisted of cultural tours that aimed to retain uniqueness and authenticity by depicting the lifestyle of ordinary people in their normal spaces. In addition, slum tours are suitable for both international tourists and low- budget travelers (such as backpackers) because most of the services are available at a low price

(Roe and Khanya, 2001). This also enables the host-community residents to meet people with different cultures and lifestyles. However, in some LDCs, slum tourism is not encouraged because it often attracts low-budget tourists (Roe and Khanya, 2001). Backpackers are criticized by host- communities as they often spend little money, and thereby having little impact on a destination’s local economy (Roe and Khanya, 2001). However, Goodwin and Santilli (2009) argued that in countries where backpackers are encouraged, promoted and supported by the government, they are considered valuable for the local economy. In addition, while they may spend less, they are more likely to stay longer.

Goodwin and Santilli (2009) noted that backpackers, when travelling, often prefer nature-related (such as trekking), adventure-based (such as camel riding), and culture-related forms of tourism (which also include village stays). Roe and Khanya (2001) also commented that they tend to travel more widely than any other types of tourists, therefore backpackers contribute a lot to a destination’s economy and their expenditure is widely distributed over a large area, including the poorest communities where little other tourism takes place. Thus, slum tourism, in many respects, is a form of both pro-poor tourism and community-based tourism, which benefits people at the grassroots level. As Goodwin and Santilli (2009) noted, during a developmental process, the local communities are often consulted by tourism authorities, developers, and planners before implementing any actions. This ensures that the local community participates in decision-making, and takes the lead in developing tourism in their area. In other words, the interests of the local people are represented and protected by a local tourism board, and they are often given the lead during the development process.

2.7.Criticism and challenges associated with slum tourism around the world In many countries throughout the globe, particularly where slum tourism is growing and becoming an important part of the economy, numerous researchers and scholars have begun to voice concerns about the practice, questioning its impact on communities (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). Within most of the slum areas that are pursuing tourism development, there is a popular theoretical idea amongst the communities that tourism is all about creating change, and it is perceived as an economic growth tool to rescue flagging economies. Yet many case studies in Africa and South America prove that tourism is not progressive and transforming marginalised communities. Dürr

and Jaffe (2012) stated that instead, tourism seems to be worsening the social, economic, cultural, and environment challenges in poor and disadvantaged areas. Frenzel (2013) added that most of the slum areas showing tourism potential are unable to realise transformation simply because of unplanned developments (which creates environmental issues), a lack of government intervention, a lack of skills and knowledge about tourism, insufficient community consultation and involvement, and a failure to link tourism with poverty alleviation. This proves that not all slum environments have the potential for tourism growth. To develop and maintain a progressive tourism economy, there must be commitment and support from the community (including residents and leaders), NGOs, academics and experts, private sector entities, and national and local governments.

Rajamohan and Sundar (2014) argued that in some countries and communities, the concept of slum tourism is not as well-known or is understood differently, with some being in favour of its existence and others not. In other words, there are different perceptions about slum tourism across the globe, as many perceive it as an exploitive form of tourism, while some value and promote it as a catalyst for economic growth regeneration, prosperity, and social development.

Township tourism is very disadvantageous for some township areas in South Africa. Rajamohan and Sundar (2014) argued that while international tourists consume local products and services produced by residents, there is still a concern that multinational tour companies are not owned by local residents. In addition, when tourists come with coaches and buses only make a few stops at certain attractions and not in the most remote communities. Thus, through foreign tour companies, tourists’ contribution to the slums’ local economic growth is minimal and only concentrates on a few communities close to tourism sites. In addition, slum tours conducted within communities of the most poverty stricken individuals are criticised for being socially and culturally insensitive. In addition, slum tours are often condemned for invading people’s privacy and undermining the dignity of local residents (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). In this way they are deemed to be an unethical practice that generates funds by displaying poverty (Klepsch, 2010).

According to Gorman (2014), this also causes mental trauma for residents who are trying to live in peace without having their space invaded by wealthy outsiders, even though such tourists spend money in the area. For many local people, especially the poor, this is very demeaning (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). In this way, despite gaining more attention and popularity throughout the

world, slum tourism development will always benefit a few individuals at the expense of others. Slum tourism is also criticised for unintentionally promoting human trafficking and prostitution in urban areas (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). According to Klepsch (2010), tourists travel into slum areas just to fulfil their curiosity, i.e. not with the purpose of making a difference or gaining a cultural experience for interpersonal growth. Therefore, even though there are many communities and governments who support this form of tourism because of its economic and non-economic benefits, critics maintain that slum tourism is voyeuristic, exploitive, and imperialistic.

2.8.Advantages of township tourism in South Africa As discussed, township tourism is evolving and increasingly gaining attention from researchers in South Africa because of its benefits for communities, although it remains a much debated and controversial leisure practice (Frenzel, 2013). As with other countries across the world, the purpose of pursuing township tourism development is straightforward, i.e. it is used to generate income and employment. As one of the most supported and promoted forms of tourism in South Africa, it is clear that there are many benefits of township tourism for marginalised communities, especially around the major urban areas. Amongst other advantages, Costa (2013) argued that tourism in the township areas are no different to other forms of tourism in South Africa; the aim is to boost socio- economic growth, develop skills and infrastructure, support SMME development and create jobs. In addition, township tourism creates a platform for promoting development partnerships between host destination residents, NGOs, governments, and the private sector. Township tourism is a form of tourism promotes awareness of poverty and brings more money into local economies; some slum-tour companies donate a portion of their profits to help build or maintain parks, schools, community centres, clinics and other facilities.

Gorman (2014) noted that where the industry becomes successful and has growth potential, tourism in the townships often paves the way for business-minded local residents to create their own SMMEs, such as transport companies, tour guiding firms, restaurants, bed and breakfasts, art and craft shops, and so forth. In addition, small and micro enterprises that provide products and services to visiting tourists create employment opportunities for the local residents. According to Rajamohan and Sundar (2014), township tourism encourages previously disadvantaged individuals to be important role players in tourism and socio-economic growth through

entrepreneurship and labour. The local government also benefits from tourism, as funds are generated to improve public service delivery (such as water and power supply, sanitation facilities, telecommunications networks, and so forth) for the betterment of local residents and visitors, which in turn enhances nation building (Butler, 2010).

Visitors are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of their travels, especially in marginalised and previously disadvantaged areas in the least developed countries. For example, a London-based anti-apartheid organisation (ACTSA) has put pressure on tour operators in Britain to work with South African-based tour operators who operate on the periphery, and partnerships between the two countries has helped many emerging tour operators to market themselves on the global stage. Booyens (2010) noted that in advancing professionalism within the field of tourism in South Africa, potential tour operators are given opportunities to exhibit their products in London. Thanks to the work of the ACTSA, many affluent tourists from European countries are pledging to pay more and contribute by means of donations when visiting South Africa, if their money and donations are given to the most marginalised townships and remote and rural areas (Findley and Ogbu, 2011).

As Butler (2010: 24) noted, donations from international tourists and wealthy travelers make a huge difference to poor areas in terms of their contribution to social development and addressing environmental issues. The impact of these donations is increased by the role of local-based tour operators in the townships, as tour operators often advise international tourists to refrain from handing cash to local residents on the streets, encouraging them to rather give their money to local tourism offices, charity organisations, NGOs, schools, libraries, clinics and hospitals, churches, old-age homes and orphanages, etc. Even non-financial donations are beneficial, such as school books, blankets, stationary, school uniforms, toys, etc. (Ma, 2010). According to Butler (2010) there is also an online system - TCD - which links tourists to those in need. An example of this is the Chris Hani School in Langa, which received a donation from a Dutch couple who donated through the website while on honeymoon in South Africa (Ramchander, 2007). The donation was used to purchase computers, desks and chairs, and made a huge impact. There are also many other case studies acknowledging the importance of donations made by international tourists in South Africa, including in KwaMashu and Umlazi in Durban (Butler, 2010).

2.9.Challenges and criticisms of township tourism in South Africa According to Ma (2010: 3), township tourism is growing very fast in South Africa, however it has also remained controversial and has been criticised by various researchers. Around the world there are many communities which, for various reasons, strongly oppose the idea of allowing township tours in their areas (Ramchander, 2007). Booyens (2010) stated that most township communities feel that township tourism has no benefit for them, as it often fails to contribute to the alleviation of poverty, hunger, and unemployment. Further, locals believe that only the business owners (i.e. mostly tour operators) benefit from tourism in the township areas, particularly in Johannesburg and Cape Town (Hülsekopf, 2011). It is argued that they invite tourists into township spaces to showcase the harsh living conditions (i.e. poverty, violence and squatter camps) of the local residents for their own economic gain, while the poor have their privacy and dignity undermined (Booyens, 2010). According to Rajamohan and Sundar (2014), the only way some of the local residents get to participate or be involved in tourism is through employment, most of which is part- time and only during peak seasons. Findley and Ogbu (2011) added that there are concerns about the lack of ownership and sense of involvement amongst the poor, disabled, and women in township areas.

In addition, throughout South Africa there is a growing number of township tour companies that are owned by profit driven individuals, most of which fail to share their profits with their communities as a way of giving back (Mengich, 2011). Considering the trauma and humiliation that poor residents feel when their lives are displayed for international tourists’ enjoyment in places like Alexandra and Soweto, it is only morally acceptable for SMMEs to give back to their fellow community members (Butler, 2010). Instead of impacting on the poor, there is a concern that township tourism sometimes benefits a few local people who are able to influence and dominate this sector into their own advantage, due to their access to capital resources and other connections, enabling them to exploit the marginalized (Ramchander, 2007). In most townships, business owners and people located close to attractions where developments often takes place are likely to benefit, even though for some it may not be financial gains but through infrastructure development and other service delivery. Thus, while township tourism is showing signs of development and providing opportunities for economic growth, there is concern that western visitors who travel into marginalised urban areas in South Africa to make a difference is increasingly coming under scrutiny (Rajamohan and Sundar, 2014). As a result, when it comes to the discussions and debates

about township tourism in South Africa, it is clear that even though it is supported and promoted by both the national and provincial governments as a growth strategy for poor townships, this niche tourism segment also has negative impacts on those areas.

The lifting of international sanctions and the democratic transition following the elections of 1994 influenced millions of people to visit the country. The previously disadvantaged black townships have also become important destination for international tourists, as motivated by the desire to explore post-apartheid South Africa (Ramchander, 2007). However, according to Ramchander, the tourism industry in the country has always been structurally racialised, as black people continue to be seen engaging in the lowest paid and least stable service jobs. Since 1994, there has been very little improvement in terms of closing the gap between blacks and whites in terms of training, business opportunities, development and acquiring land, etc. According to Butler (2010), the problem seems to be worsening because of corruption, bad decisions made by politicians, the lack of consultation and involvement of indigenous people, and misuse of government funds.

Findley and Ogbu, (2011) stated that with the current economic crisis in South Africa, unemployment and poverty is gaining momentum and tourism development is only creating false hope for poor people who have been excluded for many years. The lack of capital and entrepreneurial skills among millions of black people across the country has been evident in that the majority of black-owned and -run businesses start up but then close shortly thereafter. Removing the inequalities that exist within the tourism industry throughout South Africa is one of the challenges facing the national government and other stakeholders to ensure that the incomes and other benefits that are generated are realised and enjoyed by all people. Moreover, Rogerson (2004b) stated that while government is supporting tourism growth, lack of tourism SMMEs growth in the townships of South Africa is contributing to the slow development of township tourism.

As mentioned, the majority of black-owned businesses within the tourism sector are not registered, operate with low levels of capital, and have fewer or no business skills. Rolfes at el. (2009) argued that South Africa has a very economically unequal society, which given the current economic situation and widening gap between the rich and poor, is far from being addressed. Rogerson (2004b) commented that although the government has intervened over the years to introduce numerous programmes to assist in providing financial resources to promote black

entrepreneurship, access to such state capital is very difficult for most black would-be business owners. This may be because their businesses are often in an informal or semi-formal sector, and operate at a survivalist level. As they are not registered and owners do not keep balance sheets, most also do not qualify for any government financial assistance or bank loans.

According to official statistics, township tours in Cape Town were taken by over 300,000 tourists in 2006 alone (Butler, 2010). Of all tourists visiting South Africa, 25 percent go to townships (Mengich, 2011). This highlights that township areas, like Soweto, have become ‘must visit’ destinations, along with Table Mountain, the Waterfront, wine farms, and Cape Point (Rolfes at el., 2009). During the early years of township tourism development in South Africa, the tours were conducted by poor blacks from the previously advantaged communities, who took their mini-buses from the main cities to the townships. As this segment grew and demand expanded since 1994 in Cape Town and Johannesburg, larger companies of tour operators, most of which are not owned by township locals, began providing more standardised township tours. As the influx of foreign investors into the local tourism sector continues to grow, the growth of SMMEs that are locally owned by black people are increasingly being affected. Many local tourism enterprises are losing their markets, and even shutting down, because of the domination of big international companies.

Even though the number of tourists that visit the township areas in South Africa is increasing every year, the majority of these tourists prefer to use tour operators from their home destination (Rogerson, 2012b), which is a challenge for local operators. In addition, a large proportion of the income that is generated through tourist expenditure on products and services is taken out of the local economy. Ma (2010) thus concluded that township tourism in South Africa is not entirely in the control of the host-destination communities, while Klepsch (2010) stated that there is still more to be done to involve local people, including empowering them with knowledge, understanding, skills, and other resources. In the long term this would have an important effect, as it would pave the way for locals to play a lead role in the development of this niche segment of tourism.

2.10. Attempt to address issues of voyeurism in the tourism sector in South Africa

Throughout Johannesburg (particularly Soweto and Alexandra) and Cape Town (particularly Langa and Khayelitsha), the issue regarding voyeurism as a result of the practice of township or

poverty tourism has increasingly become a concern (Costa, 2013). However, appropriate steps to address this issue have been taken by a joint partnership of the destination communities, NGOs, the government, and the private sector in the township areas (Klepsch, 2010). In Soweto and Alexandra there has been an increased implementation of walking tours, whereby tourists are encouraged to extend the time they spend in the townships, visiting homes, interacting with the local residents (listening and sharing their real-life stories) and using the products and services that are locally produced and sold (Butler, 2010). As Rogerson (2012a) noted, a new frontier in township tourism has seen international tourists staying in low budget local bed and breakfasts, eating traditional African meals, enjoying local music and dancing, and engaging with local people in Soweto.

Butler (2010) stated that such a move is very important in addressing the issue of voyeurism, as promoting walking and cycling tours across South Africa is creating better conditions and environments for tourists to meet and understand the local people. The significant role played by licensed tour operators and professionally trained tour guides cannot be denied or ignored when it comes to addressing the challenge of voyeurism; instead of sitting and travelling in buses and coaches while taking pictures of poor people around the townships, the tour guides and operators often encourage tourists to interact with the host-community residents. Township tours will also be better supported by tourists and local people if tourists are taught to be culturally, socially, and environmentally considerate and sensitive when visiting township areas. Tour operators must continue to encourage responsible visits, which are consistent with natural and community values, to gain the support of local people for shared and meaningful tourism experiences (Butler, 2010).

2.11. The Development of the township of Alexandra since the apartheid regime 2.11.1. Previous and present developmental programmes for Alexandra The government’s introduction of development programmes during the 1960s in Alexandra, which necessitated the relocation of residents and the demolition of houses, caused severe tensions between government and the community as they opposed to be moved (Moyo, 2005). As a result numerous projects failed, for example only 3 of 25 planned hostels were built (Moyo, 2005).

The issue of limited funding in the mid-1970s become a serious problem, therefore the plans regarding the construction of hostels had to be put on hold (Davie, 2003). This resulted in a lack of housing and thousands of displaced residents were left without accommodation. As a result, dissatisfaction and anger among black people in Alexandra led to violence (Mabotja, 2012), which intensified with the Soweto students’ uprising in June 1976 (Moolman, 2014). Due to social instability, the evictions, removals and expropriation of property could not go on as planned, which resulted in Alexandra being granted a reprieve in 1979 to become a residential area (Moyo, 2005). Although the democratic government has made numerous attempts to develop the area into a suburb through several developmental projects, the township had remained underdeveloped and many people live below the poverty line. According to Sinwell (2005), a lack of housing, unemployment, poor living conditions, a lack of economic activities, and poor access to municipal services are still among the major challenges that the township encounters today.

2.11.2. The Master Plan As a result of the failed development project, a new developmental project for Alexandra known as the ‘Master Plan’ was announced to the public in 1980 by Dr Piet Koornhof, who was then the Minister of Cooperation and Development (Moyo, 2005 and Sinwell, 2005). According to Davie (2003), this project planned to divide the township into seven suburbs, with a central business area or shopping centre, light industry, sports centres, recreational parks, and local offices. At the beginning of the project, local residents voiced their unhappiness about the development as they knew that a number of houses would be destroyed (Davie, 2003), which meant that people would need to be temporarily relocated into the neighbouring townships. In order to avoid any protests that would cause social instability, housing projects began and the people were assured that the Master Plan initiative would be completed within five years and would change Alexandra. Moyo (2005) explained that the township was to be developed into a ‘garden city’, and a budget of R25 million was set aside to include construction of new school sports fields, parks and a dam.

The plan was to develop 1,300 houses, give shelter to 10,000 households, and create a community infrastructure and other public facilities in Alexandra (Roefs at el, 2003). As a result of several challenges (including a lack of funding), only a portion of the work was done successfully. Phase One of the project was completed with 260 houses in the East Bank area between 1981 and 1984,

and Phases Two and Ten were finished later (Davie, 2003), however the construction of 2,200 houses was put on hold (Moyo, 2005). The residents responded with more violent actions, known as the ‘Alexandra Six Day War’, in February 1986, which resulted in 40 people being killed. Throughout the city, this was a very difficult moment for the government as the people of Alexandra demanded that the Black Local Authorities (BLAs) be disbanded and that all councillors resign immediately. Later in the year, the township of Alexandra had no local municipal administration and this marked the end of the Master Plan. Without local municipal administration and government support, Alexandra become more violent, dangerous, poor, and overcrowded (James, 2008). The area began to become a sprawling ghetto, with shacks everywhere and illegal backyard dwellings overtaking the area (Smith, 2013). Many people who were relocated and had their houses destroyed experienced the challenge of a lack of accommodation and space. As a result, the township continued to witness social, economic, and environmental problems, and not much has changed in this regard.

2.11.3. The Urban Renewal Plan Another government-funded development project, the Urban Renewal Plan, was introduced for Alexandra in 1986 as a modified version of the Master Plan, which consisted of three phases (Matthew, 2000). The intention was to continue with the developments from the point at which the Master Plan had stopped, as the need to quickly provide proper accommodation for the local people in the township remained a major focus. Moyo (2005) stated that this initiative coincided with the declaration of a State of Emergency, and the State Security Council (SSC) and its local arm, the Mini Joint Management Committee (JMC), initiated the work of planning new developments. To begin with, approximately 6,000 stands were marked, but due to a shortage of space and overcrowding, each stand could only accommodate three to seven households (Davie, 2003). The plan included clearing passageways for service lanes (by removing shacks and evicting illegal dwellers in the Jukskei River informal settlement) to open up spaces for the development of new housing projects (Petesch, 2013), however this plan resulted in another failure to improve the situation in the township, as the number of shacks began to increase, making it difficult to control the fast and unplanned population growth (Moyo, 2005).

The spread of informal dwellings led to the creation of a new settlement known as East Bank along the Jukskei River. Petesch (2013) stated that this growth in the population caused overcrowding, which led to severe pressure on the infrastructure and resources, a shortage of land space, and environmental challenges. Smith (2013) noted that the new democratic government had insufficient funding to continue with the developments, leading to the permanent cancellation of the Urban Renewal Plan. The government was also facing additional difficulties, due to an economic crisis caused by the sanctions from international community against South Africa before the new democratic government took over power. Since then, Alexandra had become one of the most impoverished areas in South Africa, with the uncompleted work serving as a reminder of the mismanagement of funds, waste and empty promises made, and the government’s failure to bring development to Alexandra.

However, the early 1990s were very important times for South Africa as a whole. According to Moyo (2005), new and inclusive policies were introduced that were guided by the principles of democracy. In 1994, a firm of town planners, civil engineers and social specialists were tasked with coming up with a Perspective Report for Alexandra (Davie, 2003), which proposed an integrated and less technocratic development programme that included preparation of development plans and locally-driven initiatives. Just like its predecessor, the new plan was tasked with focusing on reducing the population and splitting the township into developmental zones (‘superblocks’), thus double storey blocks were constructed that provided shelter to over 3,000 households (Davie, 2003).

However, in 1994 the state rejected the approach of the programme and the government planners and developers were instructed to end it. In the period just before the first democratic elections, another new programme was introduced for Alexandra, which introduced a different development framework that intended to de-densify the population of Alexandra from 770 people per hectare to 220 people per hectare (Moyo, 2005). This task required that 150,000 to 160,000 residents be removed from the area. The budget for this project was R3 billion, and both the national and Gauteng provincial government were to provide funding for all the costs, however the development was never realised. Yet another plan for developing the township was introduced following the first democratic elections in 1994, the Urban Renewal Programme.

2.11.4. The Urban Renewal Programme The Urban Renewal Programme was launched after the democratic government was appointed. According to Wilson (2013), it became the task of the newly appointed local government in Alexandra to address the injustices that took place under the apartheid regime. The work of the Urban Renewal Programme was guided by the Urban Development Framework (UDF) which was introduced in 1997, as well as the Urban Development Strategy of the Government of National Unity (GNU) developed in 1995 (Roefs et al., 2003). In addition, the UDF was introduced to work side by side with the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) and the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy (GEAR). Development was intended to focus on the upgrading of infrastructure, the provision of housing, improving the water and electricity supply, job creation, and so forth. As Roefs et al. (2003) noted, there are four major area of focus for government (including spatial integration, housing, infrastructure, and economic growth), which aim to improve urban development and institutional capacity building. Studies reveal that the URP in Alexandra followed a bottom-up approach and was influenced by local community principles.

The URP shared a similar focus on LED, which focus mostly on bettering poor communities by providing them with proper housing, improved living standards and service delivery, and better developed infrastructure (Moyo, 2005). Both the URP (and LED) put more emphasis on the de- centralisation of decision-making and participation as way to increase the involvement of the local community in major development projects. In other words, the national government gave the reins to the local people in Alexandra post-apartheid as way to address the wrongs and other challenges they faced. Thus, as initially envisioned in the RDP, the URP emphasised a bottom-up and people driven approach to development, which embraced social development and economic growth that was noticeable to the most marginalised communities in urban spaces like Alexandra (Roefs et al., 2003). To ensure that tangible development and inclusivity was successfully achieved, the programme encouraged partnerships with the private sector, local community residents, and NGOs. Their involvement was necessary to shape and implement developmental policies because resources were acquired from various role players. The Integrated Development Programmes (IDPs) also played a very important role in defining the responsibilities of the respective stakeholders and guiding the developmental stages in accordance with government policy and the Municipal Systems Act (Roefs et al., 2003).

2.11.5. The Alexandra Renewal Project The Alexandra Renewal Project (ARP) came to existence in the early 2000s when the former president of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, announced that the township needed to be redeveloped. According to Agupusi (2007), the ARP came into existence following the approval of a business plan by the provincial Department of Housing in Gauteng. The project was implemented after the local community, local and provincial governments, private sector and NGOs contributed their input (Moyo, 2005). The ARP, which was launched as a radical response following the failure of several previous attempts to develop the township, was argued to be part of the URP as well as the Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy (ISRDS), which was launched in 2001 (Davie, 2012). In terms of providing service delivery to Alexandra, the ARP has been the largest concentrated development programme in the history of the township that has managed to run for a longest time (i.e. more than 16 years), although some challenges still hinder its progress. According to Roefs et al. (2003), the ARP focused on the development of the township area as a whole, including Old Alexandra, the East Bank along the Jukskei River, the Far East Bank, the Marlboro Industrial Area, Wynberg (retail/industrial), Kew (retail/industrial), Marlboro South (an industrial and buffer area) and Marlboro Gardens, however various wards were identified which needed urgent redevelopment.

When the project was launched in 2001, the initial budget was R1.3 billion, which was to come from the national government (Dlamini, 2009). Mbeki stated that the project would, among other things, invest in the township’s economic and social infrastructure, develop its human resources and enterprises, enhance the development capacity of local government, alleviate poverty, and strengthen the criminal justice system.

According to Moyo (2005), the key objectives of the ARP, as reflected in the ARP Economic Development Strategy, include:

 bringing the rate of unemployment down by 20 percent;  addressing the crisis of environment to pave way for tourism development in Alexandra;  ensuring service delivery and the maintenance of infrastructure and other public facilities;  increasing government intervention in reducing crime and violence;  providing decent housing and sanitation facilities;  creating more opportunities for local residents; and  de-densifying the population to appropriate land.

According to Dlamini (2009), from 2001 the ARP has been running initiatives focusing on:

 Small business development programme.  Direct construction opportunities.  Training people to enter the construction industry.  An employment information centre.  An auto cluster.  A tourism cluster.  A retail cluster.

Although some improvements have taken place in the area, there are still some old and new problems facing the township (Mabotja, 2011). According to the town planner and deputy director of the ARP, Neels Letter, overcoming the challenges currently faced by the township may take an additional 25 years. Dlamini (2009) stated that in fast-tracking developments, the ARP has been receiving support from the provincial government and the City of Johannesburg. After consultation between the community and provincial government, the provision of housing and basic infrastructure was identified as a key priority, and sub-projects have also been put in place to ensure that residents realise economic gains while the projects proceed (Petesch, 2013). The completion of the Pan African Mall shows that the project is doing some economic good for the people in Alexandra, while in terms of social development, several projects have significantly contributed to the improvement of local infrastructure and the provision of public services, including improved waste management, sanitation, water and electricity supply. In addition, hundreds of houses and a few hostels (for both women and men) have been completed, and job opportunities have been created for residents within various fields of the projects (Petesch, 2013).

Dlamini (2009) further noted the impact of the ARP in terms of upgrading public schools, libraries, clinics, a business support centre and leisure parks, which have helped to uplift the township. Extension 7 has also been redeveloped, with new housing and infrastructure, a new bridge, revitalised school grounds, and two new footbridges (Sana, 2014). In March 2007, Mbhazima Shilowa, the former Gauteng Premier, extended the ARP’s mandate to conclude in March 2010. Consequently a new budget was agreed, which by that time meant the ARP amounted to R1.9 billion since 2001. Since then, the development of infrastructure and the construction of new

accommodation has been progressing in Alexandra, with support from the provincial government and the City of Johannesburg playing a critical role in ensuring service delivery.

2.12. Township tourism development in Alexandra 2.12.1. Tourism growth in Alexandra in post-apartheid South Africa

As stated earlier, the development of township tourism is a fairly new occurrence in South Africa; literature reveals that the conception began to emerge in the period following the country’s transition to democracy. As Booyens (2010) explained, township tourism in post-apartheid South Africa was hugely influenced by the first non-racial elections in 1994. However, in the case of the township of Alexandra, the potential for tourism was only recognised at a much later stage. According to Kaplan (2004), the national government officially put emphasis on developing tourism in the Alexandra area in 2001, which is why the tourism industry in the township is still in its initial growth phases. It can therefore be argued that Alexandra is far behind other township destinations like Soweto with regards to tourism development (Rogerson, 2004b). In addition, with regard to tourism development, little research has been conducted on Alexandra, resulting in a local lack of knowledge and understanding of how the tourism industry works. However, considerable work has been done to attempt to develop and promote tourism in the township, as the area has been attracting a number of both local and global travellers who visit the City of Johannesburg.

Although the township has a weak tourism sector, Rogerson (2004a) argued that the government has identified Alexandra as needing urgent development and branding as a tourism destination. As an area characterised by social, economic, and environmental challenges, the government identified tourism as a strategy for poverty relief, skill development, and employment generation. According to Agupusi (2007), the tourism sector was identified as a suitable or appropriate way in which SMMEs and LEDs can be promoted in the township. According to the recent statistics from the Local Economic Development (LED) strategy for the Alexandra, small and medium businesses has been growing between 2 and 3 percent (City of Johannesburg, 2013). This shows that the work of the Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme and Alexandra Tourism Business Association in partnership with the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller and Department of Economic

Development in Gauteng has been delivering on the mandate to improve township Entrepreneurship.

2.12.2. The role of government and tourism development projects in Alexandra As the township of Alexandra was turning 100 in 2012, plans were implemented by the government to redevelop the township to celebrate this milestone (Mabotja, 2012). According to Rogerson (2004a), the rich history and heritage of Alexandra has been essential in influencing the growth of tourism. Most of the tourism-related development activities began with the introduction of the state-funded ARP, which aimed to develop the township into a prosperous suburb and promote the tourism sector and market the township as a tourist destination in South Africa and beyond. In order to fast-track the development of tourism in Alexandra, the government appointed the Gauteng Tourism Authority (GTA) in 2001 to be responsible for improving and promoting the tourism sector (Mabotja, 2012). Within the same year, the GTA formed a partnership with the ARP in an effort to utilise the rich history and heritage in order to promote Alexandra as a historic township.

The GTA and ARP formed the Alexandra Tourism Development Project (ATDP) to assist grow and market the township as a tourism brand (Davie, 2012). As a result, Alexandra has experienced some key developments that have increasingly transformed the township to become a tourism destination on its own terms. Such improvements include the development of new infrastructure, several heritage sites, the Alexandra Tourism Association (with its Alexandra-based tourism information centre), the Alexandra Heritage Team, and an Alexandra Heritage Centre. In addition, Dlamini (2009) stated that there have been improvements with the development of small, medium, and micro enterprises, as well as culture-related activities throughout Alexandra. Mason (2014) commented that even though the ARP and ATDP have had their challenges, just like any other government-financed projects, much work has been done.

According to Dlamini (2009), these challenges include the abuse of state funds and continuing corruption, however Dlamini argues that Alexandra is no longer the same as 20 years ago when it was known as the “dark city”. The township has become more reachable because of newly

constructed roads and bridges (Mabotja, 2012), and the ATDP had played a significant role in preserving Alexandra’s history and heritage.

After the project was extended, the community was asked for their input in 2012 regarding implementing a range of development initiatives (Mngomeni, 2014). Meetings were held on the selection of important legacy places that showed potential for tourism and inclusion on the heritage site list, depending on their potential to attract visitors, fast-track economic growth angle and create job opportunities (Mabotja, 2012). It was also the ATDP that developed the Alexandra Arts and Craft market, which has improved culture-related activities around the area. Thus, it is important to note that the work of the ARP and ATDP has not gone unnoticed by the Alexandrians. Kaplan (2004) added that with the efforts of this project, the Alexandra Route of Rhythm was formed, which consists of several attractions and other places of interests throughout the neighbourhood. Recent statistics revealed that the area has 15 taverns, 5 bed and breakfasts, 11 tour guides, and about 250 people have been trained each year (Mngomeni, 2014).

Figure 5: The young people of Alexandra get tourism training from government project (Source: Naidoo, 2010)

The figure 5 shows a group of students in Alexandra being awarded with tourism certificates. Naidoo (2010) confirmed that the youth of Alexandra has been receiving free tourism-related training through the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme and the Youth in Hospitality Training Programme, which were introduced by the provincial government. In Alexandra, the

heritage centre building is a crucial architectural masterpiece, with tourism potential that will attract tourists and create more jobs if it is properly used and managed. According to Davie (2008), the Alexandra Heritage Centre was established as a tourism information office with a space for meetings and training. Within the centre there is also a restaurant and small retail outlets where only locally produced products are sold. In an effort to address the environmental problems in Alexandra, both the ARP and ATDP have significantly contributed by arranging clean-up campaigns, such as the Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme and Alexandra Environmental Awareness Campaign (Mabotja, 2012). According to Mabotja (2011), these campaigns are held every year by the City of Johannesburg, and aim to not only protect and clean up the area, but also to educate people and increase environmental awareness in Alexandra.

Figure 6: Heritage site, the King’s Cinema (Source: Mngomeni, 2014)

The figure above shows the King’s Cinema, which has been developed into a heritage site in Alexandra. Mngomeni (2014) stated that more than 100 heritage sites around the township have been identified and developed, with 31 being prioritised to be included on the Alexandra Tourism Route. In addition, well-prepared tourism development plans are ready to be implemented, with

several private sector organisations and NGOs confirming their financial support for this project, including the National Lottery. According to Moolman (2014), with the involvement of these companies and organisations, the Alexandra Heritage Centre, Mandela Yard, Kings Theatre and London Road have been successfully completed, which have really helped to position the township as a tourism destination. Yet while the ATDP has economically and socially transformed the lives of Alexandra residents (Davie, 2003), some serious constraints have remained, which are hindering the growth of the tourism industry (Mabotja, 2012).

2.12.3. Development of tourism SMMEs for poverty reduction in Alexandra According to Agupusi (2007), the transition to democracy in South Africa marked a very important period in the history of the country in terms of shaping policy and creating an inclusive economy. For the first time, previously disadvantaged communities saw a transformative black representation in parliament, and government took responsibility for creating economic opportunities for black South Africans in the townships and rural areas. This was realised with the implementation of various initiatives to encourage black people to be entrepreneurs. Agupusi explained that these included training and funding initiatives, as the development of locally owned and managed small businesses is important for ensuring socio-economic growth and the retention of money within the local area. Thus SMMEs have a very important role to play in enhancing the economic growth of the marginalised urban areas in the world. Rogerson (2004a) noted that the development of SMMEs is a practice that takes place throughout the world, and more particularly in the developing and least developed countries of the third world.

The private sector in Alexandra is currently dominated by a very large number of informal and semi-formal SMMEs, including street traders, which Agupusi (2007) argues have not created the necessary impact, i.e. they do not address the challenges of unemployment and poverty. This is caused by a lack of policy and government intervention. In Alexandra, effective and sufficient business development policy is necessary to create an enabling environment for small businesses operating within the informal and semi-formal sector. In addition, there is also a concern over the lack of small business development agencies, which would provide assistance specifically for SMMEs to promote the culture of entrepreneurship amongst Alexandra residents and offer business skills. All this is necessary to build a progressive and economically self-reliant society.

According to a poverty and inequality survey conducted in 2005 by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), 57 percent of residents in South Africa (of which 95 percent are black) are living below the United Nation’s agreed poverty level. The White Paper for Small Business Development, which came into existence in 1996, was created to identify the role of SMMEs in township and rural areas throughout the country (Agupusi, 2007), yet many townships (Alexandra in particular) remained underdeveloped with high rates of unemployment and a poor standard of living. Rogerson (2004b) and Petesch (2013) argued that this situation has been worsened over the years by the shortage or lack of economic activities that would help create more needed employment for the people, which could enable them to escape poverty.

Transport and tourism are the dominant SMME sectors in Alexandra (Agupusi, 2007). The tourism sector in Alexandra is also argued to have paved the way for women, for example the Alexandra Women's Theatre was developed in the township in 2011 by Ntshieng Mokgoro, a famous Alexandra-born multi-award winning theatre director (Main, 2010). According to Main (2010) and Mason (2014), Mokgoro is the sole owner of the Olive Tree Production Company. During her theatre launch she emphasised that the company aimed to promote women, be run by women, and be for the women of Alexandra. In addition, Main (2010) noted that with the establishment of this theatre, female actors around the township (including the poor) will be provided with an opportunity to develop their acting skills, and with their talent can make a substantial income for themselves and their families.

Another formal SMME is Mulaudzi Alexandra Tours, which is a locally-owned and managed enterprise that was established in the township in 2010 by Jeffrey Mulaudzi, a young resident of Alexandra. The company offers visitors an opportunity to experience the township’s beauty by traveling throughout the location by bicycle, and has grown from strength to strength (Mabotja, 2012).

The majority of SMMEs (including those in the tourism sector) in Alexandra are less than ten years old (Rogerson, 2004b), which highlights the need for more tourism training that will enable local residents not only to be better prepared to take up decent job opportunities in the skilled labour force, but also to become entrepreneurs and owners of tourism products. With its advantageous location in close proximity to Sandton and the City of Johannesburg, tourism has

presented opportunities by means of linkages with established role players within the industry in these areas (Mabotja, 2012).

The construction sector has also been growing in Alexandra due to the ongoing housing, infrastructure, and tourism-related development projects, which has been very important for the township as it has created opportunities for entrepreneurs within the sector. Agupusi (2007) also noted that Alexandra has a largest transport sector, which presents an opportunity for transport company owners to enter the tourism industry. With their minibuses and coaches, local residents team up with tour operators in Alexandra to offer their services in terms of transporting tourists to various historic sites. The trading sector is also promising in Alexandra, which includes survivalist SMMEs selling goods that are consumable to tourists. These include spaza shops, shebeens, street vendors, and so on, many of which are also run by women and less fortunate households. Although spaza shops and enterprises run by street vendors have little impact on the local economy and employment generation, they are important because they generate income for households. Thus tourism as a service sector should continue to be supported by the national and provincial governments, the local community, and other stakeholders as a means to alleviate poverty and create more jobs.

Agupusi (2007) noted that as tourism continues to grow, as is the case in Soweto, the more labour intensive it becomes. Thus, considering the high rates of unemployment and poverty in Alexandra, the township residents should welcome and support tourism development in their community. The provision of training for Alexandrans can help contribute to overcoming poverty, because when people have sufficient skills or qualifications, they can take advantage of high paying, decent jobs (Costa, 2013).

2.13. Key challenges of the tourism industry in the township of Alexandra 2.13.1. Lack of community participation due to the lack of knowledge and skills As Rogerson (2004b) noted, while there is a market for tourism services and products in Alexandra, the lack of skills and knowledge regarding tourism is hindering potential. In addition, according to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) in Gauteng, the absence or lack of training and education continues to be a major obstacle blocking the development of SMMEs in Alexandra.

In the case of community participation in the tourism industry, Kaplan (2004) agreed that insufficient training in Alexandra is significantly hindering further development. Approximately 250 people receive tourism training every year in the township through the state-financed Alexandra Tourism Training Programme and Youth in Hospitality Training Programme (Naidoo, 2010), however this is relatively small number of people (Davie, 2008).

2.13.2. Slow development and progress of SMMEs and lack of government support As of 2004, Alexandra had very few businesses operating within the tourism industry (Rogerson, 2004a), and despite the improvements and development of new SMMEs within the industry, the number of locally-owned and managed small businesses in the township has not been increasing and playing the vital role anticipated by the provincial government. Agupusi (2007) stated that the lack of business service providers and business agencies is also a challenge for Alexandra, which has limited the potential of SMMEs to contribute significantly to socio-economic growth, poverty alleviation, and job creation (Rogerson, 2004a). Moreover, some studies conducted on Alexandra have revealed that there is a growing concern in the area, especially amongst small business operators, about the ineffectiveness of the government agencies to provide assistance for developing SMMEs, as well as the lack of entrepreneurship among the residents. For tourism, this is caused by a lack of skills, knowledge, mentorship, and motivation.

According to Molopyane (2012), the government has committed to investing in the development of initiatives in Alexandra, with the ARP setting aside a substantial amount of its budget to help develop SMMEs. However, there is a growing concern about the mismanagement of government resources and ongoing corruption, which is resulting in slow progress and a lack of development of SMMEs in the township (Petesch, 2013). Rogerson (2004b) also noted that the lack of access to capital is a challenge facing most product owners in Alexandra; the majority of business operators describe a lack of access to funding, which is necessary for purchasing equipment, product marketing, acquiring land and better premises to grow, etc. The issue of a lack of demand or markets for tourism-related products and services is also a major challenge facing most SMME operators.

2.13.3. Shortage of accommodation facilities and demand (low occupancy) As mentioned, the inability to access the tourism market is a challenge for emerging SMME operators in Alexandra (Rogerson, 2004a). Studies have confirmed that the township has a very small accommodation sector, as only five bed and breakfasts have been documented as tourist lodging facilities. Moreover, these few number of bed and breakfasts in the area show that more accommodation facilities are need in order to promote tourism. Rogerson (2012a) further argued that bed and breakfast operators in Alexandra experience low occupancy in their establishments due to a lack of marketing. In addition, the majority of international visitors coming to the township only do day trips, with few of them overnighting. For this reason these enterprises struggle to remain afloat, and there is a lack of luxurious or preferable products and services for high-budget visitors. In other words, the accommodation-related tourism products and services that are offered in the township do not fulfil the needs or expectations of most international visitors.

An inability to access financial resources is a major issue hindering business owners from marketing themselves, purchasing stock, and upgrading their business premises in order to boost their image and be competitive. In addition, some of the more promising businesses lack the necessary financial assistance to innovate and install new technologies to boost their productivity and capacity (Rogerson, 2004a). Moreover, the shortage of accommodation facilities and lack of demand is connected to the problem of limited entrepreneurship skills and knowledge, as well as the lack of adequate infrastructure and an enabling business environment. Agupusi (2007) argued that even though there are government agencies, community training centres, and NGOs providing training for residents and SMMEs owners to promote entrepreneurship, there is still a concern over people’s very low business acumen. In addition, there is a need for training specifically to cater for tourism. Thus, despite the attempt to implement focused business courses in Alexandra, there is a shortage of managerial skills which is affecting business and tourism growth. There is thus a long journey to be undertaken if tourism is to be developed successfully in Alexandra, and business development is a crucial part of this.

There is a further concern that Alexandra has many unregistered SMMEs, which makes it difficult for product owners to receive any form of assistance from the government, particularly financial aid. In addition, the majority of SMME operators do not keep records or have business accounts, and many incur losses due to financial mismanagement, resulting in their closure. In addition,

according Agupusi (2007) and Molopyane (2012), as a result of the prevailing social and economic issues in the township, Alexandra has not been able to attract new business investors that would help revitalise the local tourism sector and other sectors.

2.13.4. Lack of tourism facilities and other tourist activities A few studies conducted on township tourism in South Africa, particularly in Johannesburg, revealed that in the mid-1990s there were some determined wealthy people in Alexandra who made an effort to introduce and promote the tourism industry in the township (Mabotja, 2012). Nieftagodien (2013) noted that as they had financial resources, they were determined to create some, if not all, of the facilities and activities required when developing an area into a tourist destination. These would have included parks, sport centres, a museum, an art gallery, restaurants, bed and breakfasts, and so on. However, the lack of skills and qualifications for tourism in the township influenced their ability to implement such developments, hindering further progress.

Mabotja (2012) added that achieving the goal of positioning Alexandra as a heritage destination has always been a challenge, as much of the history of the vibrant township has not been fully documented. In addition, although the main objective is to transform the township into a ‘must visit’ tourist destination, the development of tourism-related facilities remains slow. Soweto is still the most visited township, followed by the township of Langa in Cape Town.

2.13.5. The lack of employment opportunities created through the tourism industry According to Rogerson (2004b), Soweto has positioned itself as a world-renowned tourism destination because of its rich history and heritage, which symbolises the political struggle against white dominance in South Africa. When investigating township tourism in the context of the City of Johannesburg, it is clear that the majority of economic benefits (such as the creation of jobs) that are generated by the tourism industry are realised in Soweto. Alexandra has an unemployment rate of over 40 percent, which is far higher than the national average rate of 25 percent (Mabotja 2011), and tourism (as an economic activity) has failed to serve as a labour-intensive industry to respond to the challenge of unemployment in the area.

Dlamini (2009) argued that as the demand is very low for tourism products and services, tourism service providers struggle to improve and maintain job sustainability, while Hülsekopf (2011) stated that as a result of the seasonal nature of tourism, generating and ensuring long-lasting permanent positions within the tourism sector has remained elusive. Most SMMEs hire no more than nine people because they use their families as labour, and most owners take on the managerial role themselves (Agupusi, 2007). With such high levels of unemployment and the inability of tourism SMMEs to generate more full-time jobs, many local residents often seek better employment opportunities in the city or neighbouring suburbs such as Sandton, where the tourism sector is well-established.

2.13.6. Tourism development and the issue of crime in Alexandra

Alexandra had long been affected by issues related to serious criminal activities. According to Smith (2013), the reported crimes within the township include robberies, shop lifting, drug smuggling, rapes, vehicle hijackings, and murders. The high crime rates and drug dealing in the area have long affected the growth of the tourism sector, in part because of the difficult attracting potential business investments. Rogerson (2004a) also noted that Johannesburg and its surrounding township areas have a reputation for violence, which has made it difficult for them to market themselves. The recent attacks on foreign nationals in Alexandra has further damaged the township’s image, which other destinations have used in their favour. As crime and xenophobia has affected local businesses, entrepreneurs have urged the provincial and local governments to intervene through anti-crime prevention initiatives (Rogerson, 2004b), yet the problems persist.

2.13.7. The issue related to the environmental problems

Alexandra had long been challenged with environmental problems. According to Petesch (2013), the township experiences ecological issues because of poor living conditions, limited access to proper sanitation, and overcrowding. Alexandra is infamous for the pollution in the Jukskei River, littering, and for roads covered in sewerage (Mabotja, 2012), all of which have affected the development and promotion of tourism. This is likely to continue if the host-community residents remain environmentally inconsiderate and irresponsible. Goodwin and Santilli (2009) also argued

that tourists do not like to experience or be exposed to the social illnesses of the host-community, for example Alexandra residents have a tendency to dispose of human and other kinds of waste publicly, regardless of the damage being caused to the environment.

Figure 7: The township of Alexandra’s polluted Jukskei River (Source: Sana, 2014)

The residents of the Jukskei section in Alexandra, which runs along the Jukskei River heritage site, often use the river as a dumping site due to a lack of access to municipal services. This has led to the tourism potential and integrity of the river being threatened. As no action has been taken to address this problem, the tourism sector will remain impoverished and the township of Alexandra underdeveloped (Mabotja, 2012). Any attempt to develop and promote township tourism thus requires effort not only from the national and provincial governments, but also from the community as a whole.

While the government has invested a large amount of capital to develop and market the township as a tourism brand, the host-community residents need to establish a mutual relationship with

visitors. In addition, with the assistance of the government (which has provided the community with environmental awareness programmes), it is the locals responsibility to ensure that the environment is safe and clean. According to Sharpley (2009), the community has more ownership and control over its environment and its resources than the government and NGOs, therefore it should conserve and protect it from misuse or exploitation. As a result, Mabotja (2012) believes that there is a need to educate the community, increase environmental awareness through clean-up campaigns, and launch a fully committed programme that assists to create or instil a culture of caring for and conserving the environment and its resources. Addressing this challenge will create an opportunity for the township to implement further developments in a clean environment to accommodate tourism and attract visitors (Rogerson, 2004b).

2.14. The gap in knowledge about tourism development in Alexandra

It is a well-known fact that the tourism industry in South Africa is responsible for job creation and business development through unblocking economic opportunities in both urban and rural areas. It is for tourism that the Buvhi Tours in Alexandra is uplifting the economic and social status of the community residents. To boost tourism for community beneficiation, the Alexandra Renewal Project and Alexandra Tourism Development Project had received over one billion funding from the Gauteng provincial government since the period of 2001. However, there is a gap in knowledge when it comes to the issue relating to the extent of the challenges that is faced by the development of tourism in Alexandra. Although the township has witnessed some development over the years, there are still old and new challenges that the township continues to face, such as a lack of skills development and unfulfilled social needs, which have limited tourism development.

Most of the infrastructure and business support development programmes have resulted from the intervention of the national and provincial governments and the private sector. It is said that if it was not for the mismanagement of state funds and corruption in state-funded projects in Alexandra had resulted with an impoverishing township area with underdeveloped tourism industry. The lack of sanitation facilities and waterborne sewerage systems has created a problem for the township, and is increasingly causing hazardous conditions for the residents. While this is the case, littering and waste mismanagement by residents seem to be increasing mostly in the informal settlements. This ill social and environmental conditions are some of the serious factors hindering the growth

of tourism, considering that tourists are reluctant on visiting townships where they will be exposed to the prevailing social ills and crime.

2.15. Conclusion

The aim of this chapter was to examine the existing literature on township tourism, with a specific focus on South Africa. Particular attention was paid to the development of township tourism in Alexandra, and more specifically its tourism growth challenges. The work of the ARP and ATDP, as well as the connection between tourism and poverty alleviation, were explained, and it was seen that the development of township tourism in the previously disadvantaged communities in South Africa is not only gaining attention from researchers and scholars for academic purposes, but also from the government. Township tourism is increasingly being identified as a catalyst for sustainable development in South Africa because it is mostly community-based, which unlocks opportunities for people to empower themselves.

Within the context of township tourism, business development and ownership is mostly in the hands of the people at the bottom level of the community, even though such businesses are often SMMEs and informal. While the government is trying to promote tourism and provide the necessary assistance to businesses that are based in Alexandra, several constraints are hampering growth. Tourism is slowly becoming a tourism destination with potential to attract both domestic and international tourists, and there is potential for social and economic growth through the development and promotion of tourism in Alexandra. However, there is a need to address the discussed tourism growth challenges in order to promote an inclusive tourism for community benefication.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to outline and explain the research methodology used to conduct this study. The tools employed for the collection of information, including all the methods and types of research techniques used, are identified and explained in detail, and the advantages and purpose of deploying these methods for this particular research are discussed. Moreover, the techniques used to analyse the data are described, as is the manner that was used to find and select relevant and useful participants. Lastly, the manner in which the four selected themes were identified is discussed.

3.2 Methodological approach 3.2.1 Qualitative research approach This study employed a qualitative research approach, as it was considered a more suitable method for investigating important social and economic phenomena within a particular society. Patton and Cochran (2002) defined qualitative research as a study that consists of particular aims (which intend to understand social aspects) and methods (which rely on and produce words as data for analysis), instead of depending on numbers. Therefore, to gather relevant information, so as to effectively understand the tourism growth challenges in the township of Alexandra, the study conducted semi-structured interviews. Patton and Cochran also noted that qualitative methods are very informative because of their ability to identify the extent of the phenomenon being researched. In addition, relying on less-structured interviews enables the researcher to get into the deep details of an issue (Bailey, 2008). Barriball and While (1994) stated that this method is important for obtaining answers to question about the ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ of the researched phenomenon, as opposed to answering questions about ‘how many’ and ‘how much’, which are better suited for a quantitative methods.

Therefore, in the case of Alexandra, the qualitative method was considered the most suitable approach as it created an opportunity for the researcher to explore issues related to the topic and issue at hand, i.e. exploring obstacles to tourism growth. Since limited research has been conducted on Alexandra’s tourism sector, it was also the researcher’s aim to investigate the improvement or

lack of improvement in tourism in the area, and most particularly its potential for social development, the development of small and micro enterprises, and the creation of employment opportunities for community residents. Therefore, in order to successfully explore these issues within the tourism sector, a qualitative method was better suited to understanding such phenomena by means of conversing with various social actors who could express their own individual experiences, perspectives, and understanding of tourism development and the prevailing challenges in Alexandra.

When conducting research, there are numerous advantages and benefits linked to the use of a qualitative approach. For example, according to Tewksbury (2009), as there are always variations in terms of the type of data collected, the manner in which they are gathered and analysed, and the results that the data and analyses reveal to a researcher, the knowledge that is received as a result of employing qualitative methods enhances the researcher’s understanding. Thus, although it is often argued that utilising a qualitative method may be time consuming, it results in richer data and gives a deeper insight that enhances the relevance of the study. Tewksbury (2009) also claimed that a qualitative approach is more effective than a quantitative approach, mainly because of its potential to generate knowledge that results from rich data. In addition, at its core, a qualitative approach focuses on meanings, traits and the defining characteristics of events, people, interactions, settings/cultures and experiences.

Moreover, according to Flick (2009), in situations where nothing or a very little is known (as is the case with Alexandra’s tourism sector), it is always better for a researcher to begin with the qualitative method, because through conducting interviews with relevant people and organisations, strong and useful results related to the topic of the study are likely to be found. In addition, Patton and Cochran (2002) stated that qualitative methods allow an opportunity to develop hypotheses, which can be tested by quantitative methods. As a result, this may significantly improve one’s knowledge and understanding of social phenomenon, as was intended with this study.

Research techniques (as it provide techniques to do a study) play a very important role as they enable a researcher to carry out the task of collecting the data at the fieldwork. Qualitative research is advantageous as it incorporates a wide range of techniques, which in this study helped the researcher to better understand the tourism growth challenges from the perspectives of various participants in Alexandra. As the techniques used in this study were focussed around a qualitative

research methodology, there was no need to begin with developing a hypothesis for the study, which would have had to be proven at the end. All the interview questions followed a semi- structured interview approach, and all were open-ended. This was important for enhancing the quality of the results. Mostly, it take place on a one-on-one basis and it allowed time during the interviews between half-hour to a full hour.

3.2.2 Research techniques for the study 3.2.2.1.Semi-structured interviews

According to Barriball and While (1994), after having selected a research design and methodology, it is important to develop an interview schedule in a manner that is exploratory (so as to elicit abstract concepts like perceptions) and adequately standardised (to facilitate comparability between respondents during analysis). With regards to the collection of data, there are many different kinds of techniques that one may choose to use, including conducting surveys, interviews, focus groups, extractions, as well as secondary data sources (Harrell and Bradley, 2009). The semi- structured interview technique was chosen as an appropriate method for this qualitative research because it deals with answering questions that are informative and gives freedom to respondents to express their views. According to Harrell and Bradley, semi-structured interviews refer to discussions that take place in the form of one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a respondent, which are mainly conducted with the purpose of gathering information on a particular topic. While they can be also done by telephone, for this particular study the interviews were all conducted in person in Alexandra and the City of Johannesburg, as that was where the informants were based.

The semi-structured interview method also enables a researcher and their respondents to explore additional issues that are relevant to the research topic. Barriball and While (1994) argued that there are two primary reasons for choosing to use semi-structured interviews as a means for data gathering. The first is because it is a form of data collection method that is suitable for the exploration of respondents’ perceptions and opinions relating to a complex and/or sensitive phenomenon, and it provides an opportunity to uncover further information (which was not initially considered but is relevant to the topic) and to correctly classify answers. The second reason is if the varied professional, educational and personal histories of the sample group preclude the

use of a standardised interview schedule. Semi-structured interviews were thus considered most suitable because they are open-ended in nature, and therefore provided an opportunity for the respondents to divert from one dimension and introduce new information that was relevant to the topic, thereby enhancing the richness and relevance of the study.

Unlike a structured interview approach, semi-structured interviews do not restrict interviewees during the process of answering questions; rather, they allow them to openly voice their own understandings, perspectives, knowledge, and experiences on a particular matter or subject at hand. In other words, the questions used prompt discussions to allow for new information to surface. As McIntyre (2012) commented, the interviews conducted deal with the problem under study quickly and in detail, as a personal rapport between the moderator and respondent is created; all the respondents have an opportunity to share their individual experiences and opinions, which is not possible in a focus group setting. The main issues that the interviews focused on included the failures and/or successes of the tourism sector in Alexandra to create decent, full-time job opportunities, help alleviate the high poverty levels, and contribute to the development of new and existing SMMEs.

Barriball and While (1994) claimed that with semi-structured interviews, validity and reliability do not depend on the regular use of similar words in each question, but rather depend on producing different texts and meanings, which help to standardise the interviews and facilitate comparability. In this case, they also paved the way for the participants (particularly the unemployed and unskilled population, struggling entrepreneurs, government officials and local tourism officials) to come up with suggestions for improving the industry and uplifting the community. Therefore, it is very important, as a researcher, to have a well-prepared interview guide (i.e. guiding questions), not only to make the interviewing process easier and more convenient, but also to ensure that the collected data are much richer and fulfil the objectives of the research.

The interview guide for this research included an informal set of questions which were selected in accordance with the role that each participant played regarding the development of tourism in the area. This was done in order to discover the different perspectives and understanding of the tourism growth challenges in Alexandra. Engaging people through interviews advantaged the researcher and the study itself, as it allowed the researcher to clarify questions and collect detailed data.

3.2.2.2.Drafting of guiding questions for semi-structured interviews

During the process of drafting the guiding questions for the semi-structured interviews, consideration was paid to the problem statement, the research questions, and the objectives of the study. To obtain as much information as possible, probing questions were developed as they were best suited for collecting data. In terms of developing questions for each stakeholder participant (i.e. government, civil society, private sector, NGOs), the style of writing was important so as to ensure that all the questions were open-ended to avoid a “yes” or “no” answer. In addition, the issue of bias was considered by simply avoiding asking leading questions. Further, the use of language was important, particularly using terms that could be easily understood amongst people for whom English was not a first or home language, as is often the case in Alexandra. Being concise in developing the questions was also necessary, as was being mindful of the participants’ social, cultural and economic backgrounds when asking provocative questions.

The researcher was aware of not asking more than one question at a time within a single sentence, and asking simple questions first, leading up to the more complex ones. Beginning with easy questions in an interview helps the participant to feel comfortable because they serve as warm-up questions to help them settle down and become part of a conversation. To get as much information as possible, it was important to allow flexibility while the dialogue was taking place. As the researcher knew that time could be a limitation for some of the participants, the conversations during the interviews remained focussed. In order to allow the participants to introduce any new ideas and knowledge that the questions did not cover, they were given an opportunity towards the end of the interview to add whatever they wish to share and comment on.

The questions were tailor-made for the respective participants, for example the government officials’ questions (see Annexure C) focussed on government policies and programmes (including their implementation, effectiveness and successes) on township tourism development in South Africa, particularly in Alexandra. The questions also dealt with the government’s intervention in, and responses to, addressing the social and economic conditions in Alexandra, which affect the growth of tourism in the area. A final focus was on the government’s efforts to promote partnerships with the local community, the private sector, and NGOs (as relevant stakeholders) for tourism development.

In terms of developing questions for the civil society participants, consideration was given as to whether the locals welcome and show support for tourism development in their area. Another aspect looked at was the level of their involvement within the tourism industry. This was examined in terms of having the necessary education and skills for tourism, as well as a sense of ownership. Some questions focussed on the existence of mutual partnerships for shared benefits with other stakeholders, while the issue of challenges facing the local community members becoming part of the tourism industry was also explored. A few questions applied to all the participants, for example whether there is a link being created between the tourism industry and poverty alleviation, job creation and SMME development. Another important question aimed to get their perspective on the challenges affecting tourism development.

3.2.2.3. Identification of research informants (snowballing sampling method)

Snowball sampling is a strategy used when conducting research whereby informants, during data collection, point a researcher to other relevant people to interview during the field work. As this study used a qualitative method (which included conducting semi-structured interviews), it was very important to ensure that all the informants would be a source of information that was relevant to the research topic, purpose and objectives. For this reason, a snowball sampling style was used as a suitable and reliable method to ensure that potential participants were found with the help of initial or known informants. The author first approached the Gauteng Tourism Authority offices, (the agency of the government that is responsible for the development of township tourism in Alexandra), which is located in the City of Johannesburg. After the author interviewed the Gauteng Tourism Authority manager, Monica Ngwenya, the informant then introduced the author to two senior staff members within the department, Miss Natasha Johnson (who works in the research division) and Ester Hlapa (a tourism officer in the department), both of whom were interviewed.

Within the first week of communicating with GTA, Miss Natasha Johnson then provided the author with the contact details of Rachel Pasha, a tourism information officer at the Alexandra Tourism Association. After interviewing Rachel Pasha, the informant then provided the author with further contacts of other important people actively involved in the local tourism industry. This included SMME operators, the Alexandra Heritage Team, Alexandra Tourism Business Association officers, and other stakeholders within the township. Of these people, interviews were conducted

with three of the local tourist guides - Jeffrey Mulaudzi (a professional tour guide and owner of the Alexandra Mulaudzi Tours), Papi Mbuli (a professional tour guide from Alexandra Mulaudzi Tours), and Michell Mhlongo (a tour guide from Alexandra Cycling Tours).

Through the further assistance of Ms Pasha, the author had an opportunity to meet with Thabo Mopasi, the owner of the Ditswapotleng Business Enterprise and a member of the Alexandra Heritage Team. As a member of the Alexandra Heritage Team, Thabo Maposi was involved as a major stakeholder in the identification and development of the heritage sites around Alexandra through his business, which seeks to preserve the local history. Thabo Mopasi walked with the author around the township while viewing some of the local heritage sites that were already marked with plaques, including the home of the former president, Nelson Mandela (i.e. Nelson Mandela Yard). With Thabo Maposi’s assistance, the author was also able to talk to a number of tour operators, bed and breakfast owners, restaurant owners, street vendors, and art and craft designers. In addition, through the assistance of Ester Hlapa from the GTA, the author also had the opportunity to arrange an appointment with the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller’s information officer, Namhla Zulu.

The GEP offices are situated within the City of Johannesburg, however Namhla Zulu advised the author that there was also a GEP office based in the heart of Alexandra, at the San Kopano Resource Centre. As a senior staff member at GEP, Mrs Zulu dealt with the SMMEs throughout the Gauteng province, including the township of Alexandra. The author interviewed Mrs Zulu on issues surrounding the roles and challenges of SMMEs in Alexandra.

Moreover, through the internet, the author sourced further contacts for people involved in the tourism industry in the area. Since the government, private sector, civil society, and NGOs recognise the importance of tourism development and promotion in Alexandra and play role in that regard, the researcher considered it crucial to converse with them.

3.2.2.4.One-on-one interview

For this study, the one-on-one interview method was crucial for the collection of data. In a qualitative study, a one-on-one interview simply refers to a type of interview whereby a direct conversation takes place between an interviewer (asking questions) and an interviewee (giving

answers) (Barriball and While, 1994). In this study, the individual interviews were useful for giving insight into people’s perceptions and understandings of the tourism development and challenges in Alexandra. According to Barriball and While (1994), the structure and nature of the interview questions, interviewer-interviewee interactions, and ethical considerations (e.g. requesting consent from the interviewees to record the conversations during interviews) are very important.

As mentioned, the interviews were conducted within the township of Alexandra and the City of Johannesburg, because the City of Johannesburg and GTA have been responsible for developing tourism in Alexandra. Within the township, one-on-one interactions took place with the community residents, people in the business community, tourism organisation employees, and local government officials.

3.2.3. List of semi-structured interviews conducted The author visited the township of Alexandra and Johannesburg on numerous occasions from 13 June 2016 until 1 August 2016. While conducting the interviews, the researcher also met with two government officials (Carlyn Smith and Johan Van Vyk) from the Department of Economic Development and Tourism in Kimberley, who were working in the township. The following table contains information about the interview participants:

Names Place of Type of Population Date of Company Occupation interview informant group interview Jeffrey Alexandra Private Youth 13/6/16 Alexandra Owner, tour Mulaudzi sector Mulaudzi operator and Tours resident Papi Alexandra Local Youth 13/6/16 Alexandra Tour guide community Mbuli Mulaudzi and resident Tours Michell Alexandra Private Youth 15/7/16 Alexandra Tour Mhlongo sector Cycling operator and Tours resident

Thabo Alexandra NGO Adult 9/7/16 Ditswapotl Owner, Mopasi eng member of Business Alexandra Enterprise Heritage Team and resident Sabelo Alexandra Local Youth 23/7/16 Unemploye High school Dlalda community d learner, part-time tour guide and resident Busi Alexandra Private Youth 9/7/16 Maminos Owner and Mndebele sector Bed and resident Breakfast Natasha Johannesburg Government Youth 23/6/16 Gauteng Tourism Tourism researcher Johnson Authority Monica Johannesburg Government Adult 7/6/16 Gauteng Tourism Tourism manager Ngwenya Authority Ester Johannesburg Government Adult 7/6/16 Gauteng Destination Tourism developmen Hlapa Authority t officer

Namhla Johannesburg Government Adult 7/6/16 Gauteng Information Enterprise officer Zulu Propeller Abraham Alexandra Private Adult 30/7/16 Kings Owner and Cinema resident Mkomo sector Zanele Alexandra Local Adult 29/6/16 Bruce Manager Restaurant and resident Nkabinde community Samuel Alexandra Local Adult 23/7/16 Unemploye Pastor, d community Mndebele community leader and resident Rachel Alexandra NGO Adult 24/6/16 Alexandra Information Tourism officer and Pasha Association resident Siphiwe Alexandra Private Youth 17/7/16 Maboneng Owner and Township resident Ngwenya sector Art Experience

Carlyn Kimberly Government Youth 3/7/16 Department Tourism of officer Smith Economic Developme nt and Tourism Johan Kimberly Government Adult 23/6/16 Department Manager for of tourism Van Vyk Economic developmen Developme t nt and Tourism Shoes Alexandra Local Adult 16/7/16 Silindile Teacher for High tourism and Mndebele community School resident Ntshieng Alexandra Private Adult 17/7/16 The Olive Owner, Tree director and Mokgoro sector Theatre resident Production s Njabulo Alexandra Local Adult 1/8/16 Alexandra Assistant Heritage manager and Skhosana community Centre resident Oupa Alexandra NGO Adult 1/8/16 Alexandra Manager Tourism assistant and Mkhomo Informatio resident n Centre Table 1: Interviewee information

3.3. Research design 3.3.1. Description of the field site

The township of Alexandra is one of the poorest urban areas in South Africa, located in northern east part of Johannesburg. Being part of the City of Johannesburg, the township is enclosed by the country’s most wealthy and affluent suburbs such as Wendywood, Kelvin, and Sandton. Statistics show that the population of the township is around 750,000 (Johannesburg Census, 2012. Within the Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, Alexandra falls into Region 7, stretching approximately 16 kilometres to the north of central Johannesburg (Rolfes; Steinbrink; and Uhl, 2003). It consists of several sections, including Old Alexandra, Marlboro, Setswela, East Bank, Far East Bank, Tsutsumani and River Park. The Jukskei River passes through Alexandra, dividing the township

into the east and west banks. Of all the townships, Alexandra is situated in the closest proximity to Johannesburg. Studies show that the population density of the area often fluctuates due to the influx of immigration, as around 40 percent of the population move in and out the area.

The township is adjacent to the primary roads and highways that connect major cities like Johannesburg and Pretoria (Moyo, 2005). The population of Alexandra is made up of both permanent residents and immigrants from other parts of the country and beyond, with about 70 percent of whom are under the age of 35 (Sana, 2014). In terms of its demographic profile, Alexandra is very diverse, with its population consisting of people coming from across the country and neighbouring countries. Wilson (2013) noted that Alexandra attracts people from all walks of life, who have different cultural, educational, social, and economic backgrounds. Although the township is surrounded by wealthy suburbs, the lives and living standards of Alexandra’s residents are characterised by a high rate of poverty, unemployment, hunger, crime, socio-economic inequality, a lack of education, and a lack of skills (Davie, 2008). Although there is a growing number of properly built houses and infrastructure, the issue of poor housing has remained a challenge for government (Mabotja, 2011).

3.3.2. Target study population

The study is based on the community as a whole. However, the selection process of participants is not randomly done. Selection does not discriminate according to gender, cultural background, political and religious affiliation, preferences and interests, occupation, social and economic status, or racial classification. Instead, the selection process is guided by the importance and relevance of a participant to have at least moderate level of knowledge and understanding of the work of the Alexandra Renewal Project, Alexandra Tourism Development Project, and the course of tourism development in the context of Alexandra in general. Thus, the selection of informant within the vast population included the school learners, community leaders, pastors, business operators and owners, tour guides, residents, street traders, tour operators, members of the Alexandra Heritage Association (i.e. community-based organisation), school educator, and provincial government officials from various state institutions. As mentioned earlier, all the informants ought to have knowledge and understanding of tourism development within the township of Alexandra.

3.3.3. Methods used in accessing and selecting the right and relevant informants 3.3.3.1.Purposive and heterogeneous sampling

According to Barriball and While (1994), purposive sampling is a form of a non-probability sampling, which is often referred to as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, whereby the researcher secures informants for interviews based on their judgement as to who has sufficient knowledge of the subject being investigated. In other words, purposive sampling contains a combination of various non-probability sampling techniques. Morse (1991) also stated that there are a variety of advantages for researchers who opt to use purposive sampling, which includes that it can be vital for giving researchers different kinds of non-probability sampling techniques to work on. In this study, the type of purposive sampling technique used included heterogeneous sampling, which enabled the researcher to capture numerous perspectives from different people within the communities in Alexandra. As township tourism is a community-based form of tourism, all residents, as host communities to visitors, may be directly or indirectly involved in tourism. Thus, all local people (regardless of gender, culture, background, occupation and race) in Alexandra were of particular interest for the study, as all residents are affected by tourism development in the area. The people interviewed included teachers, business owners, employees within the tourism industry, community leaders, government officials, and school learners, all of whom shared their unique perspectives and understanding of the tourism industry in Alexandra. In this way, heterogeneous sampling was a useful technique because it created an opportunity for the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon, as he could look at the issues raised from different perspectives (Choy, 2014).

3.3.4. Tools utilised in the process of collecting data 3.3.4.1. Digital recording

For this qualitative study, a digital recorder was used to collect information from all the respondents. Harrell and Bradley (2009) stated that whilst taking notes can be time consuming and distracting, digital recording is suitable for gathering detailed data. Digital recording refers to the process of recording audio sound as a method to capture data. This method ensures that all the collected data remains in its original form, without being altered or put into a different form that might create bias (McIntyre, 2012). In other words, the digital method is important as it prevents

a researcher from being biased or changing the information provided by the interviewees. Markle; West; and Rich (2011) argued that researchers following a qualitative approach have continually transformed this method due to improvements in technology, which have enabled them to conveniently collect, analyse and present data in novel or other narrative ways, and to gather a stronger authenticity or reflection of participants’ perspectives. In the past, qualitative research was often conducted solely through handwriting (known as field notes) with pens and pencils (Harrell and Bradley, 2009). One disadvantage of this is that it is very difficult for an interviewer to keep up with the pace of an interviewee when conversing during the interview.

3.3.4.2.Transcribing method

A transcription of the digital recordings was necessary to complete this study, and it became a useful method to analyse, interpret, and report the words of the participants into findings. As Bailey (2008) stated, many researcher opt to collect information through using audio or video recording during interviews in order to end up with better results, which are then transcribed into written language and later presented and discussed in detail. As a technical task, this involve judgments about what level of detail to choose. For this research, transcribing was seen as an appropriate method as it better enabled the researcher to document all the information gleaned from the various respondents into a handwritten document. Patton and Cochran (2002) noted that transcribing is one of the most convenient methods for obtaining data, because all the information collected can be easily documented in a paper and then be saved or stored indefinitely.

Markle et al. (2011) noted that when using a qualitative approach, the transcription of interviews can be a very time consuming process of data analysis, which is not just lonely and tiring, but also intensive and tough. On the other hand, Markle et al. stated that recorded audio and video tapes have many benefits for a researcher, the main one being that the collected data remains in their original condition, which cannot be easily tampered with. However, it is important to note that the transcription of spoken data is bound to lose information, considering that while the data are translated into written language, the concrete event or emotional response is left out. This is inevitable, thus it represents a symbolic form of inherently less rich and authentic collected data.

According to Markle et al. (2011), this shows that the transcription process is likely to result in the loss of pragmatics on speech. In addition, irregularities and inefficiencies during transcription can result in inconsistencies if a researcher is rushing the process, thereby risking the quality of the transcript. Markle et al. (2011) also stated that in a transcript’s preparation stage, the use of incorrect and inadequate methods can lead to setbacks and an inability to correctly analyse and complete the study, as this creates technical errors when transforming the results into findings. Thus, this means that rushing the interview transcriptions and data analytic processes can cause inefficiencies that often backfire and delay the process of completing a study.

Belsky (2004) described transcribing as a chore that can take up to six hours for every recorded hour. Therefore, for this particular research, the digital recording method was selected as the tool for the collection of data not only because it is less time consuming, but because it is convenient, efficient, reliable, accurate, trustworthy, and reporting. This method also provided assurances to the participants that their opinions and perspectives with regards to issues concerning the tourism sector in the area were kept in their original forms without being altered (Tewksbury, 2011). Transcription then took place while I was listening to the recordings after the interviews.

In Alexandra, large numbers of people are illiterate and the majority do not use English as an everyday language of interaction or communication. According to the 2011 Johannesburg Census, the population of Alexandra is extremely diverse, with inhabitants coming from all over the country and beyond. The researcher therefore conducted some of the interviews in IsiSwati, IsiZulu, IsiXhosa, IsiNdebele, and then transcripts were translated into English. Most of the interviews took place in English however.

3.3.5. Identification and use of secondary sources Secondary data were also used for the study, which was provided by different informants, especially government departments and agencies and NGOs, during the researcher’s interviews with officials. This data were used to supplement the primary data, but they were important as they provided detailed information that was relevant to the study topic. Since the data consisted of published documents, from government departments and agencies and online sources, they were considered to be reliable and useful. Secondary data which were identified include tourism books, bibliographies, biographical works, reference books, journals, and history books. All the secondary

data were identified in accordance to their relevance and importance to the topic of the study in the context of tourism development in Alexandra.

Considering that there has been no or limited study done about tourism development in Alexandra, the secondary sources obtainable from state institutions are thereby providing comprehensive, contextualized, and reliable information on the manner in which the government (i.e. in partnership with community, private sector, and NGOs) has been working towards promoting tourism in Alexandra. Such government reports, journals, biographical works, and history books are consolidated to cover the most critical social and economic challenges that the township of Alexandra has been facing prior and post democracy. Thus, by looking the comprehensiveness and relevance of the secondary sources, it became much easy to identify secondary data in the completion of this study.

3.4. Technique for analysing the data 3.4.1. Content analysis

In general, data analysis in a qualitative research simply refers to the process whereby a researcher takes the collected information (such as those from the interviews or field notes), which is in a written form, and turns it into findings (Markle, West and Rich, 2011). In other words, it is a process or stage in which the researcher thoroughly inspects, cleans, transforms, and models the data that have been collected during the interviews, with the aim of finding relevant information. This study relied on grounded theory in order to analyse the data. Content analysis allows one to evolve a theory that can provide an explanation regarding a problem to be studied, and pave the way for how such a problem can be addressed (Charmaz, 2012). In analysing the data, content analysis helped to come up with useful suggestions, build relevant conclusions from the collected data. This was also the point at which the issues and concepts that seemed to be important to help the researcher better understand the situation were identified. Grounded theory and content analysis are somehow relating to one another as both follow coding processes

In general, grounded theory has multiple analytic strategies. According to Charmaz (2012), these include data coding (which is a task performed right at the start of data collection), comparative methods, writing memos, and conducting theoretical sampling to fill out emergent theoretical

categories and make them robust. When dealing with data analysis, it is important to note that grounded theory usually entails the use of comparative methods at all levels of the analytic process. In addition, theorists compare data with data, data with codes, codes with codes, codes with categories, and their finished analysis with relevant theoretical and research literature. As a method, coding is inductive, comparative, interactive, and iterative, as well as deductive in a later stage. In this stage, coding has two main important aspects, which separate this research method from other existing types of qualitative studies. According to Birks and Mills (2015), the initial aspect of coding is characterised by the coding of statements, actions, events, and documents, which go beyond sifting, sorting and summarising the data.

Charmaz (2012) argued that line-by-line coding is simply the labelling of each line of data, which is useful for helping the researcher see the data anew. Line-by-line coding enables researchers to engage more actively with the data and begin to conceptualise them. Charmaz added that there are several methodological stages to be considered when coding, which include:

 identifying the substantive area to be studied;  collecting data which are related to the substantive area (which are qualitative data);  open coding of the data collected;  writing of memos throughout the entire process;  sorting of memos and finding the theoretical understanding;  reading the literature and integrating it with the constructed theory through selective coding; and  writing up the theory related to the collected data.

Therefore, for this particular study, these methodological stages formed an important part of analysing the data. With regards to the phase of identifying the substantive area of interest, the previous chapters and introduction of this chapter have clearly stated the area of interest of this research, which was exploring tourism and related issues in Alexandra. The second phase, as mentioned above, is collecting data which is related to the substantive area; here the grounded theory relied on the utilisation of a qualitative method of research. It was also of great importance to gather observations about the substantive area itself, as well as activities that occur, so as to enhance the construction of the theory and to make supportive conclusions. In addition, having

access to both public and private records and documents as secondary sources enabled the researcher to collect additional information, which assisted him during the data analytic process.

The third phase in data analysis is the open coding of the information gathered from the substantive area. In general, open coding and the gathering of information go hand-in-hand, thus they happen at the same time (Urquhart, 2012; Birks and Mills, 2015). It is important to note that there can be more than one main category; the process of open coding simply implies the coding of everything (i.e. from the onset of the study) that is discovered during conversations with interviewees. According to Glaser and Strauss (2012), when open coding is performed well, the core category and concern eventually become more apparent. The core category then outlines or explains the issues or concerns being studied in the substantive area, and also reveals how the issues can be addressed in a proper manner. After the open coding, the fourth phase is writing memos. Glaser and Strauss (2012) argued that the evolution of a theory in a qualitative study is normally based in the memos, i.e. if there are fewer memos, the resulting theory is very thin.

After the memos are written, the fifth phase is to sort them, which Charmaz (2006) claimed is a very important part of developing a theory, as it is where fractured or disorganised data are put back together. Within this phase, it is also the point where new, relevant and rich ideas develop, which can then be documented in new memos, thereby resulting in memo-on-memos (Birks and Mills, 2015). Another important feature of sorting of the memos is that it creates an opportunity to develop a theory which better describes the main concern of the study (i.e. the township of Alexandra with regards to issues connected to its tourism industry). According to Evans (2013), a theory that has been developed without sorting the memos first can still be rich in ideas, however the connection between the concepts of such theory is weak. The sixth phase is to carefully read the literature and then integrate it with the constructed theory through selective coding. The last phase, if all the above mentioned phases are properly followed, involves the writing up of the theory.

Reading the notes or transcripts form a very crucial step in the process of analysing the data. Firstly, it helps by providing mechanisms for studying processes and promotes openness to all possible theoretical understandings. In addition, it also enhances the development of tentative interpretations about the data through coding and categorising, by building systematic checks and refining the researcher’s major theoretical categories (Charmaz, 2012). According to Harrell and

Bradley (2009), the process of analysing the data often begins in the field, particularly in a qualitative study at the time of conducting interviews. Unlike in a quantitative research, in a qualitative study the data that are to be analysed are text, and thus words or text are the most significant feature of qualitative analysis. As per Powell and Renner (2003), the data collected using a qualitative method often produces words and observations, rather than numbers. Thus, throughout the transcription, analytic processes, and interpretation, words are used to enhance the researcher’s understanding about the phenomenon under investigation. To adequately and effectively perform this task, complete creativity, discipline and a systematic approach must be applied.

As texts were vital features of this study, the method used to analyse the data involve transcription of interviews and examining pictures or images taken while in the field. In addition, a narrative analysis approach (i.e. story telling) was used, which according to Thorne (2000) is understood as a strategy that takes into account the extent to which a story being told is giving a real understanding and sharing detailed experiences of the tourism industry and challenges in Alexandra. In other words, the narrative analysis approach provided the interviewees with an opportunity to logically tell their whole story, according to their own perspectives and understanding of the tourism sector within the township. In other words, this study reports the findings as logically told by the participants. As Pratt (2006) noted, while a researcher is transcribing interviews and observing the field notes or records compiled, they often continue examining the data by marking important points and recording comments. This is done with the purpose of highlighting important issues and identifying contradictions and inconsistencies. It is also important to note emerging common themes, points relating to the literature, comparisons and contrasts with other data, etc. (Pratt, 2006).

As individual interviews were conducted with different respondents as a means to absorb or produce information, notes and word-for-word transcripts were used to tell all the respondents’ individual perspectives and opinions, in order to translate them into findings (Charmaz, 2006). In a qualitative research, the data are always written down or audio recorded in the field. This is the point where original comments and feelings are reconstructed or texts are transcribed (Charmaz, 2014). It is important that the original words of participants are reproduced to the best ability of the transcriber from the field notes, so that they never lose their authentic value.

3.4.2. The selection and identification of common themes This study has three main themes, which were identified following the transcription and coding of the interviews that were conducted. In the process of selecting the themes, the interview transcripts were put together on a table and carefully studied, before similar codes were placed under themes. As a result, three main themes in order of priority were identified as follows: Theme one: indirect tourism challenges and potential for tourism The informants described the social development and environmental challenges in Alexandra, and noted how these indirectly affect tourism growth. Specific attention was paid to the social conditions in the area, which involved exploring the challenges of civil society that often cause social instability. The theme looked at the efforts that the national and provincial governments have put in place in an attempt to bring development to the township and grow tourism to create opportunities for local people. This emerging theme helped the researcher to understand the township of Alexandra as a tourism destination, while giving a clear indication that the township remains underdeveloped, despite the work of the ARP.

Theme two: initiatives to improve development for tourism in Alexandra The interviewees referred to several developmental projects for tourism growth in Alexandra, including the ARP, ATDP, Social History Project, Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme, Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation, Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme, Alexandra, Entrepreneurial Training Programme, and Alexandra Environmental Management Framework. Other existing initiatives include the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme, Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Programme, Black Economic Empowerment Programme, Heritage Management Framework, Integrated Development Programmes, Medium- Term Strategic Framework, Reconstruction and Developmental Programme, Urban Development Framework, and Urban Renewal Programme. The government, community, private sector and NGOs are thus all stakeholders in the development of tourism in Alexandra.

Theme three: direct challenges for the tourism industry in Alexandra The informants referred to the direct challenges that the tourism industry has faced over the years. Even though different initiatives have been put in place to deliver development, Alexandra is still underdeveloped and has a weak tourism industry. This theme dealt with these growth challenges

in detail. Several studies have shown that not everywhere in South Africa has the potential for tourism, i.e. not every previously disadvantaged area can automatically transform to become a destination for tourists. As Alexandra has a rich and unique history and heritage, this theme focused on examining the township’s tourism growth challenges.

3.5. Ethical considerations

When conducting the study, particularly during data collection at the fieldwork, several ethical considerations were taken into account to guide the process of interviewing the key informants. Before visiting the township of Alexandra to converse with informants, a visit was paid to the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality in Johannesburg (i.e. which manages local governance of Alexandra) with the purpose of seeking permission to use the township as a study site. After engaging with the municipality’s admin officer, a student’s proof of registration and university or supervisor’s approved letter to request permission to do research was also checked. After permission was given, the municipality’s admin officer also advised that it would be wise to also start by visiting the Gauteng Tourism Authority and Johannesburg Tourism Company, which are both Johannesburg-based government agencies responsible for the development and management of tourism in Alexandra and Gauteng as a whole. Visiting the Gauteng Tourism Authority before even going to Alexandra was very beneficial as the agency has the database of the businesses and organisations the in tourism industry within Alexandra. Going to Alexandra was then very easy to get into contact with the relevant informants as the map of the township was also provided. At the time of arrival into Alexandra, all the informants were briefed about the purpose of the visit and the research to be conducted.

Ethics simply refer to the morally accepted norms or principles that rule or guide the behaviours of human beings, enabling them to distinguish between right and wrong (Resnik, 2011). In general, as they guide the actions and behaviours of people within their natural spaces of living, such norms are created to be accepted and followed as they are, i.e. they cannot be tested or be proven for their validity. In the case of research, ethics refer to the rules that are created to govern the process of conducting a study within a particular society. According to Callahan and Hobbs (2010), it is important for a researcher to consider ethical issues when planning a study about a particular location or topic, particularly when the study involves the participation of individual informants

as sources of information. The most important ethical aspect of a study is ensuring participants’ safety (i.e. protecting them from any harm or risk). In addition, it is argued that with regards to disclosure, it is the responsibility of a researcher to be accountable to his/her sources, and informants have a right to be advised or informed of the nature and aims of the study to be completed (Callahan and Hobbs, 2010).

The researcher was transparent about the procedures to be followed, and noted that there were no potential risks, possibility of danger, or benefits to the informants. Disclosing this information was necessary to make sure the informants were aware before they agreed to be part of the study. In addition, while informants were assured that their confidentiality was a priority if necessary, all informants were comfortable with the use of their names after assuring them that this was an academic study. All the participants were made aware that this was an academic research project, i.e. they were strongly assured that all the opinions and suggestions they disclosed were to be used only for research, and not commercial, purposes. No benefits were promised to any participants, and they were informed that their views could remain anonymous if they so wished. Banks and Armstrong (2012) noted that it is important for a researcher to be ethically considerate when dealing with a particular people and society, and that they should try to foresee any possible drawbacks and/or benefits of the research for the participants and their communities. In addition, the rights and privacy of potential informants should never be violated, whether they wish to participate in the study or not, and the researcher has a responsibility to act with integrity.

For this study, the ethical responsibility for the researcher was to:

 get the consent of each willing individual to be interviewed;  ensure that all individuals were treated humanely and with respect;  safeguard that all individuals’ rights and privacy were fully respected at all times;  ensure the safety of each participant;  protect the confidentiality of all information by only using it for academic purpose;  respect any participants’ requests for anonymity was not needed as all allowed use of their names for the academic purpose of the study; and  ensure no harm occurred.

3.6. Conclusion

The focus of this chapter was on the methodological approach that the study followed, and all techniques in terms of collecting and analysing the data were discussed within the context of a qualitative research method. The manner in which common themes were selected using content analysis was also covered, as were important methodological issues such as ethical considerations and the process used to select suitable individuals to be interviewed.

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

As discussed in the preceding chapter, content analysis was employed to identify the main themes that emerged from the semi-structured interviews. Theme one discussed the indirect challenges that have an impact on tourism growth and the potential for tourism in Alexandra; theme two outlined and explained the various initiatives that have been implemented over the years to improve tourism in Alexandra; and theme three dealt with the direct challenges that hinder the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra. Within this chapter, all of the findings will be presented according to the perspectives and understanding of the informants who participated in this research. Although the selected themes will be discussed individually, it is important to note that there are links and overlaps between them. All informants allowed the use of their names, considering that they are comfortable since this is an academic study.

4.1.1. Linkage between the findings and literature review

This is where the study reveals the linkages between the facts that are already known, through the literature review, and the findings of the study. While the findings supplement the literature, it also bring forth newly discovered information so as to enhance understanding about tourism development and tourism growth challenges in Alexandra since 2001. In chapter two, under literature review, it was revealed that the government had made several efforts to redevelop and brand the township of Alexandra through the implementation of the Alexandra Renewal Project and the Alexandra Tourism Development Project to become a tourism destination. The findings and literature revealed that priority during the early stages of the ARP was the provision of infrastructure and sanitation to improve social and economic wellbeing of the community. In addition, the priority for the ATDP included to develop tourism through the rich history and heritage, which has potential to grow economy and create jobs for residents. However, unlike the limited literature on tourism development in Alexandra, the findings further reveal the nature and extent of the tourism growth challenges resulting from the failures of both the ARP and ATDP. Thus, the findings have identified themes, which present both the successes and challenges for tourism growth in the township of Alexandra in more detail.

4.2 Theme one: Indirect tourism challenges and potential for tourism in Alexandra 4.2.1 Challenges of the Alexandra Renewal Project (ARP) and worsening social conditions facing civil society

Although the township has witnessed some development over the years, there are still old and new challenges that the township continues to face, such as a lack of skills development and unfulfilled social needs, which have limited tourism development. Most of the infrastructure and business support development programmes have resulted from the intervention of the national and provincial governments and the private sector. As noted in preceding chapters, some of the most practical developmental works have been due to the Alexandra Renewal Project (ARP), which was launched in 2001. In addition, the Alexandra Tourism Development Project (ATDP) has transformed Alexandra into a tourism destination on its own terms. However, after over two decades of intervention by the national and provincial governments, Alexandra is still faced with several challenges, indirectly hindering progress. Ester Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) noted the value of these development initiatives, but stated that they have not addressed the tourism skills deficit in the township:

“The ARP has been vital in the improvements of the infrastructure [in Alexandra] such as roads, street lights, pedestrian ways, public parks, sanitation facilities, water and power supply, which has been developed. In addition, public schools and libraries have been built and training programmes [such as the Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme] had been significant in cultivating the culture of entrepreneurship in Alexandra through skills development. There are also government institutions and agencies such as the Department of Trade and Industry and Gauteng Enterprise Propeller responsible with dealing with the needs of Small, Micro and Medium Enterprise (SMMEs) in Alexandra. They serve to provide financial support such as capital resources and non-financial assistance such as free business advice and training in order to better manage and grow their businesses. Alexandra is still faced with a lack of skills development, and therefore the provision of sharp training is important for social development.”

Other informants noted that despite some of the visible interventions in Alexandra, social needs, unemployment and poverty continue to be a challenge.

4.2.1.1 The prevailing environmental problems in hindering tourism potential

As mentioned, Alexandra has faced environmental challenges over the years; Thabo Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) argued that “the environmental problem in Alexandra is a worrisome issue for the community members. This results from the lack of sanitation and sewage system maintenance”. Busi Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) noted that most of the environmental impacts in Alexandra are caused by human activities due to the irresponsible use of the environment and its resources. Most respondents highlighted the irresponsible dumping of waste on the streets and in the Jukskei River as the main problem.

According to Manala (2014), during hot seasons, the dumping of waste in the informal settlements attracts flies into people’s homes and shops, which makes Alexandra a very unsuitable space for humans to live. The respondents from civil society also noted that there are many open spaces in Alexandra, which have become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and rodents. It is thus justifiable to conclude that the environmental challenges are related to the problem of a shortage of land, waste generation, hazardous health conditions (often caused by human activities, congestion, and pollution) and resources being pressured because of over-use and ill-treatment by humans.

Figure 8: Jukskei River pollution (Source: Manala, 2014)

The findings showed that the Jukskei River area is faced with severe environmental problems, in part because of a lack of adequate access to municipal services such as sanitation facilities and a waterborne sewerage system. The above figure 8 shows the polluted Jukskei River in Alexandra.

4.2.1.2 The lack of environmental awareness and the enforcement of environmental laws

The lack of sanitation facilities and waterborne sewerage systems has created a problem for the township, and is increasingly causing hazardous conditions for the residents. While this is the case, littering and waste mismanagement by residents seem to be increasing mostly in the informal settlements (Manala, 2014). There is thus a need to educate people about environmental conservation in Alexandra, by ensuring that the already launched environmental programmes are implemented in such a manner that they fulfil their mandate of environmental rehabilitation and training (Sinwell, 2005). Njabulo Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016) stated that the community needs to be made aware that every individual must be involved in the promotion

of the tourism industry, i.e. taking care of the environment is key. According to Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016), “…the host-community residents should continuously engage themselves in workshops that deal with and promote sustainable practices”. Over the long term, teaching the community about environmental sustainability will help them to be more responsible when it comes to caring for their environment. For example, planting more trees in Alexandra, which is important for air purification and wind control, is not fully encouraged by the local government. Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) also noted that the lack of education about environmental awareness is affecting the local community and tourism development:

“As there is a lack of awareness and education, illiterate parents and children suffer the most impact because they have no knowledge on how to address such a social challenge within their own communities. Thus, children would continue playing on the polluted spaces while exposed to such ill social conditions. Therefore, as long as people are not adequately educated on the issues around the importance of the protection and conservation of the environment and its limited resources, the goal of attaining sustainable development might not be seen in reality.”

The majority of respondents also mentioned the lack of visibility of the police in Alexandra, i.e. environmental protection is not a priority for them, even though the abuse of the environment is dire in the township. Sabelo Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) noted the need for environmental damage to be a punishable crime under law:

“The situation relating to environmental problems in Alexandra is also worsened by the provincial government’s inability to put in place strict environmental laws and declare irresponsible use of the environment [such as illegal dumping] as a punishable offense. Introducing environmental laws could work in favour of the township [Alexandra], accompanied by the already launched various environmental programmes that seek to rehabilitate some of the most environmentally affected settlements in Alexandra. As the situation is now, the issue of irresponsible use of the environmental is not taken seriously by police and residents are not encouraged to report it as a criminal matter to the police stations.”

The above suggests that the various environmental training and rehabilitation programmes alone are not sufficient to address the environmental challenges in Alexandra. Instead, such environmental programmes need to be supported by laws, which would help prohibit community members from degrading the environment and penalise those who are irresponsibly using natural resources.

4.2.1.3 The issue of the shortage of land and space

The township of Alexandra has experienced an influx of thousands of people as a result of migration since the pre-apartheid era. Johan Van Vyk (personal communication, 23 June 2016) stated that because of its close proximity to the city, improved infrastructure and availability of public transport, Alexandra has always been an obvious choice to live for many migrants, both local and foreign). Over 120,000 people are said to migrate to Johannesburg every year, with Alexandra and Soweto taking in a large number of these. Van Vyk stated that:

“Unlike Soweto, the township of Alexandra is relatively small in land mass and it was originally designed to accommodate 150,000 people. Such population rate was determined in accordance with the land space availability, environmental carrying capacity and resources availability to sustain the people in the area in the previous years. The initial development of Alexandra was to position the area into a suburb for white settlers in the 1912. Therefore, the design of residential stands was developed to accommodate single households, and not back yard dwelling, he added. In addition, the provision of municipal services [i.e. sanitation, waterborne sewerage system, water supply, infrastructure, etc.] was also to cater for single households in each and every stand. However, with a rise in population growth over the years, the township has been experiencing shortage in geographical land space. A majority of free and public spaces have been occupied by the shacks, which are often built each and every year illegally by immigrants.”

The findings of this study revealed that the free space around the public schools and the space along the banks of the Jukskei River have been filled with squatters, which has had a negative impact on the running of businesses. For example, Zanele Nkabinde (personal communication, 29

June 2016) noted that shacks are being built everywhere in Alexandra, including in areas where waterborne sewerage systems are passing underneath. This affects the day-to-day business operations of businesses such as bed and breakfasts and restaurants, because of the poor maintenance of sanitation facilities. Van Vyk (personal communication, 23 June 2016) stated that “…the sewerage system often gets blocked and the municipality would sometimes face challenges and take more time to address the sewerage problem, and many businesses end up being affected as a result.”

According to Michelle Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016), as it has increasingly been a challenge for the municipality to provide proper maintenance of the sewerage system, the township is now characterised by streets filled with waste, litter and sewage water, emanating from blocked waterborne sewerage systems. This has led to bad smells which are affecting the tourism industry. The building of shacks in close proximity to each other has also been a major challenge. Mhlongo stated that “…there are unplanned-built shacks all over the township and they are so close to each other, creating narrow streets and making it difficult to access some of the areas within the township”. All these problems are said to be the result of a lack of land, especially for human settlement, which has led people to build structures everywhere, including in spaces where they are not allowed to. Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) commented that “…as a result of overcrowding and congested shacks taking all the free land spaces in Alexandra, it is increasingly becoming difficult for tour operators and guides to conduct tours around the township”. According to Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016), the lack of land and narrow streets has also led to a point at which even tour operators do not encourage bus-tours for visitors in Alexandra, as the buses cannot drive around the streets in the area.

Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) claimed that as a result of this situation, the community has committed itself to promoting walking and cycling tours. Papi Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) agreed, saying that “…in terms of the business sector, the lack of access to land is a main challenge for business operators”. A concern was raised by Mbuli that people with businesses skills (who want to enter the tourism industry) and those already in the market want to improve their businesses, but they face the challenge of not being able to acquire premises because of the shortage of land in Alexandra. Nkabinde (personal communication, 23 July 2016) argued that the business sector is facing this shortage of land because of the increasing

number of squatters that have been building illegally across the township, while Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) added that the government is not doing anything with regards to the problem, and is neglecting Alexandra in favour of Sandton.

4.2.1.4 Overcrowding and congested spaces in Alexandra

As people build shacks everywhere, open public spaces have run out, resulting in increased social problems. Overcrowding, as a result of the growing population, has also led to increased pressure on the use and sharing of resources and the generation of waste in Alexandra. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 July 2016) clarified that “…as a result of the increasing population, which is largely led by the ongoing immigration, the overloaded waterborne sewerage systems and lack of land space in Alexandra is becoming a worrisome issue for the government”. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) argued that originally, Alexandra was developed according to its capacity to accommodate approximately 150,000 people, but over the years the township has grown to reach 750,000 inhabitants. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 July 2016) stated that all formal residential stands and houses in Alexandra were designed to accommodate single household living, but Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) noted the emergence of a sprawling ghetto in Alexandra as a result of population growth:

“As a result of rapid population growth, today most of the spaces in the township have been filled with backyard dwelling and illegal shacks. The increased number of shacks has been also creating a problem for the government as they are often built over waterborne sewerage systems and manholes. This makes it difficult for the local municipality to perform maintenance and provide sanitation. As the waterborne sewerage system had been more and more pressured, blockage and surcharge of the system had also increased. The lack of maintenance in the township is also a worrisome issue for the community, even though the government has been putting more efforts to improve the poor conditions with regards to the provision of more access to proper sanitation.”

Mbuli (personal communication, 13 July 2016) and Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) argued that the informal clusters in Alexandra experience a lack of access to proper

sanitation facilities, yet they form a large proportion of the population. This is thus contributing towards the social problems in the township. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 July 2016) noted that “…the informal settlements along the banks of the Jukskei River are not connected to the waterborne sewerage system and not provided with sanitation facilities. It is said that people use the running Jukskei River as garbage bin to dispose all their generated waste on into the river”.

In addition, the respondents revealed that the people near the river banks do not have flushing water toilets, but have been provided with chemical toilets which are worsening the living conditions in Alexandra. According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016), “…the chemical toilets in Alexandra are not pleasant to use and it is very costly for the EMLC to service them in a regularly basis”. Carlyn Smith (personal communication, 3 July 2016) also noted the serious nature of the deteriorating environmental impacts caused by local residents in the informal settlements of Alexandra:

“The ever increasing population, which often results in generation of waste and pollution [i.e. water, air and noise pollution] is one major cause of the environmental problems in Alexandra. As it has been mentioned earlier, various environmental programmes [i.e. the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme and the Alexandra Jukskei Rehabilitation Programme] have been put in place and their work is noticeable in creating awareness and teaching the community to look after the environment. However, as a result of several challenges that still face the township [such as increasing population, pressure on resources, poor sanitation and lack of maintenance of sewage system] the environmental problems have remained a serious issue in Alexandra. The increasing rate in which the township is turning into a sprawling ghetto, as a result of increasing number of shacks and backyard dwelling, is intensifying the problems in the township. The emergence of informal settlements in Alexandra resulted from the on-going influx of immigrants coming from all the parts of South Africa and other African countries.”

People are moving closer to the City of Johannesburg in search of better employment opportunities and living conditions, however Smith (personal communication, 3 July 2016) cautioned that it is difficult to determine the future patterns of population growth and migration of people into

Alexandra, and that environmental problems have remained a worrisome issue for the local government.

Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016) agreed that “…most of the squatters in the Jukskei River area have no access to sanitation. In addition, because of the illegal shacks and other structures built on the sewage waterborne system, it is a challenge to solve the problem”. In addition, as all the shacks in the Jukskei River area are built approximately one metre apart from each another, there are no proper community roads which makes it difficult for vehicles to go through the area conveniently.

4.2.1.5 A lack of leadership, corruption and mismanagement of funds in government

Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) noted that challenges like unemployment, poverty, crime, environmental degradation, and a lack of sanitation facilities in Alexandra are still confronting the township as a result of a lack of proper leadership and corruption in government. Many people feel neglected, particularly those living in the Setswetla and Jukskei River settlements, because of the limited development happening in these areas. In addition, there is an ongoing lack of social and economic progress (Smith, personal communication, 3 July 2016). Abraham Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) described the dire situation in Alexandra:

“While tourism development was anticipated to create jobs for local residents in the inception of the ARP and ATDP, the rate of unemployment in Alexandra is higher than the national average rate (i.e. 27 percent). A majority of young people are unemployed and a large number of households are still living in poverty. The issue of unemployment has an effect on the worsening poverty rates and lack of housing for many people.”

Figure 9: The shacks surrounding a church building in Alexandra (Source: Mabotja, 2012)

While Alexandra has seen some development over the years, especially since the establishment of the ARP to develop the area in 2001, Figure 9 shows that the majority of residents live in terrible social conditions, and that the lack of housing is a major issue. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) stated that “…even though housing is being made available in every financial year, informal settlements in Alexandra hardly acknowledged the work of the ARP in terms of improvements in service delivery”. The fact that there are many households in Alexandra still facing difficulties is a reality that must not be ignored, considering the high rates of poverty and the amount of people who are not part of the permanent labour force. In addition, a lack of leadership limits government’s potential intervention to provide skills training and business start- ups, as opposed to only infrastructural support. According to Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016), developments have occurred without the community’s involvement or input into the process:

“There are many people still living in shacks and backyard dwellings, often feeling forgotten and left out of the developments that are taking place around community. Even though the constitution of the country allow people to equal access to shelter, the allocation of the RDP houses is not done appropriate. There are many people who had registered for houses soon after 1994 but still have not been given right to any RDP houses while others

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have come in recent years in Alexandra but already own houses provided by the RDP initiative. This is the case, especially with the new housing developments in Extension 7, Extension 8 and River Park.”

This situation relating to the government’s failure to deliver development for social needs is said to be a result of corruption and the mismanagement of state funding. To make the situation worse, explained Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016), corruption and the mismanagement of government funds has been increasingly deepening the challenges within the ARP initiative, which is causing irreparable damage to the reputation of the government because people are losing faith in Alexandra.

4.2.1.6 Lack of maintenance of the infrastructure necessary to promote tourism growth in Alexandra

In general, all forms of tourism include some travelling from and to another destination, even though not all forms of travelling involve tourism. Therefore, it is important for the government to invest in infrastructural development projects to develop roads, street lights, foot walkways, and power and water supply in order to promote tourism. As discussed, the government has promised to develop infrastructure through the ARP project; some important roads have been redeveloped and today the township is better connected to the City of Johannesburg and other places in Gauteng. However, Jeffrey Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) argued that even though the development of infrastructure is a reality in Alexandra, a problem that remains is the issue of road maintenance. Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) commented that “…during the years leading to the FIFA World Cup in South Africa, it was part of the national and provincial plan for government to upgrade all roads in Johannesburg and such developments were noticeable across the country, including in Alexandra”.

Yet Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) argued that “…since 2010, the maintenance of roads in Alexandra has not been taken seriously by the provincial government, and this is leading to serious damage to the roads”. In addition, Shoes Mndebele (personal communication, 16 July 2016) stated that the condition of the roads is deteriorating, and is

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worsening due to the sewage water running on them every day. In other words, the lack of sewage system maintenance contributes to the damage caused to the roads.

4.2.1.7 The impact of crime and growth on the tourism industry in Alexandra

Even though the government has actively intervened to address the challenge of crime in Alexandra, which has brought about a decrease in crime rates, crime is still a problem Alexandra. In South Africa, studies conducted in 2014 revealed that the province of Gauteng led in crime rates, followed by KwaZulu Natal and the Western Cape. In addition, in Gauteng, the township of Alexandra led in criminal related incidents, followed by Thembisa and Soweto. Rachel Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) noted that the issues of crime and violence have a really negative impact on Alexandra’s attempt to promote tourism:

“Alexandra is always on television, radio and newspapers about different criminal related activities that take place in the area. However, crime is a universal problem as it is the same case in places such as the favelas of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, where slum tourism is commonly practiced. The violent attacks, including the one that took place in 2008 and the recent xenophobic attack on foreign nationals have become a worrisome issue not only in South Africa but with the international community as well. The tourism industry is being affected as a result of this violence because it often disturbs the social stability in the country and jeopardise the relationships that South Africa has with other countries, particularly in the African continent.”

Even domestic tourism is being affected badly, as there are South Africans who treat the township of Alexandra as one of the most dangerous places in the country (and it is). Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that “…with the recent experience of the xenophobic attacks on foreign nationals and prevailing social and economic challenges (i.e. unemployment, poverty and economic inequality) in South Africa, it is not guaranteed that the last violent incident will never take place in the future”. However, research has shown that there has been a significant drop in the crime rate in Alexandra over ten years, with Smith (personal communication, 3 July 2016) arguing that the community has shown that they are now prepared to work with the South African Police Service in an attempt to fight against crime in the township, but there are people not coming

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out to report crime as they are scaring for their lives. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) noted that “…even though there are still those who feel unprotected, many are reluctant to report criminal activities simply because of the fear for their lives. However, as a result of inequality, unemployment and poverty, each year the township of Alexandra is being associated with violent protests and strikes that often lead to crime incidents”. Most businesses are often affected by crime in the townships, not only in Alexandra. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) argued that in recent years, Alexandra has experienced numerous strikes, most of which originated in the township as peaceful marches, with people hoping to voice their demands. Mndebele (personal communication, 23 July 2016) noted that:

“As a result of disputes or the government being not able to meet up with their needs, the protests then develop into violent protests. Once the marches become violent and uncontrollable, looting from shops within the township begins and this has become a common practice in most cases whereby people are not satisfied with the government as a result of poor service delivery. There is now a concern and fear that when violent protests are taking place, the foreign nationals (some of them own shops in every corner of the township) become the first targets and victims of attacks. Thus, this has direct impact on the township and results with people in other places creating a negative image about Alexandra.”

Thus tourism development also suffers, as people become reluctant to visit the township because of the lack of safety and security, which is a vicious circle as then the opportunity for the growth of tourism disappears and its potential to contribute to the economy. Mndebele (personal communication, 23 July 2016) noted that “…the businesses that operate within the tourism sector are even worse affected than those not depending on the tourists’ expenditure”. It is said that businesses in tourism suffer more as a result of crime because they most often market their products and services to the customers that come from outside environments.

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Figure 10: A foreign national being attacked by group of men in Alexandra (Source: Tromp et al, 2015)

Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) stated that the issue of crime needs to be addressed, not only by the government but also with the involvement of the community in Alexandra working together to ensure a safer township for themselves and for visitors. Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that a reduction in crime and an increase in tourism “…will even encourage the youth who often leave the township after completing their secondary school education to search for a better life and opportunities in the big cities such as Johannesburg and Pretoria”. Opportunities such as decent jobs and an enabling environment for the development of entrepreneurs will make local people realise that Alexandra is no different from other flourishing township areas such as Soweto, which has a strong tourism economy.

4.2.2 The role of the government to address social conditions: the work of the ARP

According to Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016):

“Alexandra has a long history of developmental projects and, because of many reasons such as mismanagement of government resources, most of them resulted in failure. The

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only promising government-led initiative that seemed to have worked for the township is the ARP. The ARP was formed in 2001 following the announcement of the redevelopment plan for Alexandra by the former provincial premier, Mbazima Shilowa. The ARP was introduced as a five year project but because of many challenges within the project itself, and for the fact that the township needs more developments, the deadline of the ARP has been extended over the years. The project has brought some impacts of growth in the area, even though much still needs to be done in most of the sections. Service delivery is now accessible, the roads are improved and the completion of the shopping complex has created job opportunities for the people.”

Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that the main priority during the early stages of the ARP was the provision of housing, followed by infrastructure and sanitation. According to Natasha Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016), “…about 15,000 households in Alexandra have received new houses, which were provided as part of the RDP initiative”. The findings also show that the provision of sanitation and sewage management has also improved over the past 15 years in Alexandra. In addition, the presence of street lights, proper tarred roads, and parks (but parks are now being invaded by shack dwellers) are increasingly becoming noticeable throughout the township.

Figure 11: Women and men hostels, with improved roads, street lights and pedestrian way in Alexandra (Source: Mabotja 2011)

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Figure 11 shows the new Alexandra section, which has been improved with new road infrastructure, men’s and women’s hostels, street lights, and pedestrian crossing. The provision of such services has a direct and immediate impact on advancing people’s quality of life. Despite this, Alexandra is under pressure due to the overcrowded environment and lack of resources. Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that “…the government has been responding to this problem with the ARP (in partnership with the Department of Environmental Affairs) through launching the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme and the Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme”. Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) noted that the main purpose of the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme is to teach the local people how to take care of the environment and resources, and to use them for survival in line with the principles of sustainable development. According to Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016):

“The Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme was launched in Alexandra with an objective to identify the areas with ecological challenges, particularly around the informal settlements along the banks of the Jukskei River and rehabilitate them. Even though it is a government-led initiative, the local community is often consulted and involved in the decision-making and other discussions that take place. An agreement was reached between the management of the programme and the community to replace the chemical toilets with flushing toilets. However, in order to achieve that objective, people in the informal settlements need to be connected to the waterborne sewerage system. This has been one major challenges faced by the Department of Water and Sanitation because shacks and other structures have been illegally built over the years on the spaces where water and sewerage pipes are passing through.”

In responding to the problems and creating a way forward for the programme to continue with its work effectively, the findings reveal that the ARP leadership has been consulting with local people and made a proposal to demolish some of the shacks and structures. This relocation was seen as the only solution to effectively improve people’s access to clean water and sanitation. In addition, this would allow the ARP to perform maintenance and thereby create a more environmentally- friendly and hygienic township for residents and visitors alike.

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4.2.2.1 Government’s response to the issue of unemployment

According to Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016), in order to boost the economy, the government conducted the fourth wave of the National Income Dynamic Study (NIDS) in 2016 with the objective of understanding South Africans’ income levels. The NIDS is said to help the government determine strategies to contribute towards the reduction of unemployment in places such as Alexandra. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) stated that “…the constitution of the country has given responsibility to all the municipalities to ensure that all South Africans get access to the basic services (such as clean water, housing, sanitation, storm water drainage, etc.) in order to meet their basic needs”. With good quality water for public consumption, proper sewage management, and waste and refuse removal, healthier living conditions have been made possible in some parts of Alexandra. With regards to improving socio- economic standards in Alexandra, the government has created various institutions, some of which are based in township areas such as Alexandra, Soweto, Thembisa, etc., including the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller, Umsobomvu Fund, the Labour Advice Centre, etc. According to Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016):

“The Labour Advice Centre is a state institution that serves to provide the necessary information to the young people in Alexandra to be able to get access to employment opportunities in South Africa. With the establishment of the GEP in Alexandra, entrepreneurship had improved from seven percent to eleven percent, as people have been receiving training and equipped to become skilled business operators and managers.”

Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) stated that the Alexandra Plaza and Pan Africa Retail Centres have become one of the largest employers in the township, and that Alexandra has again become one of the entertainment and shopping hubs in Johannesburg. The findings of the study also reveal that the shopping centre has attracted many investors to do business in Alexandra, which generates revenue and employment opportunities for residents. The Pan African Mall also has a taxi rank (with hundreds of taxis providing transportation to the public) and more than 70 trader stalls. However, Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) argued that “…even though all the efforts that have been put forward have helped to change the conditions in

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Alexandra, as they contribute to attain a quality of life, it does not mean that all the challenges are over”.

4.2.3 Alexandra’s potential and opportunities for tourism development All the interviewees shared a similar sentiment that Alexandra is a tourism destination in its own right. Even though they acknowledged that it lacks behind other township areas such as Soweto, they all spoke highly of Alexandra and its potential for growth. According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016), Alexandra has shown potential for tourism growth and is one of the most historic sites in South Africa, despite its challenges. According to Pasha (Personal communication in Alexandra: Interview 24 June 2016), township tourism should be understood as a niche that is in its early stages of growth:

“One should take into consideration that township tourism development in South Africa is recent and driven highly by the history of the country’s politics, culture and heritage, and social structures since the pre-apartheid South Africa. It is also important to understand the definition of township tourism (which is also associated with poverty tourism), so that one can understand that this form of tourism is about people travelling to visit poor urban areas and observe the way of life of ordinary people in these areas.”

This suggests that the township of Alexandra has great potential for tourism, as do other townships in the country, regardless of their social problems. Soweto, for example, has become one of the most leading and visited tourism destinations in South Africa, while criminal activities, unemployment and poverty are still a social issue for the community. Ntshieng Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) stated that Alexandra used to be ignored by visitors in favour of other township destinations such as Soweto:

“For many years Alexandra has been overlooked and less favoured as a tourism destination as visitors would often chose Soweto as a place of leisure, and until recently that has changed because the township is establishing its own tourism industry through developing heritage sites. Through developing heritage sites and growing small businesses and also allowing public access to the township’s tourism facilities and attractions, the

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number of tourists in Alexandra is now growing every year, as visitors come to the township to explore the rich history and cultures that is unique to Alexandra.”

Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) defined Alexandra as a place where visitors come to be part of a guided tour where they can visit some popular tourist attractions. This suggests that the township of Alexandra, through its rich history and heritage, can offer a tourism experience that cannot be found in Soweto or anywhere else. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) explained that:

“The development of the tourism industry in Alexandra washes away the notion that most of the history of freedom struggle in Johannesburg is concentrated in Soweto, especially the one relating to the historical events in the period of apartheid in South Africa. Alexandra has contributed a lot towards the struggle of attaining freedom in South Africa and, during the apartheid period, the township has been always under threat and supervision from government as there were so many protests and riots taking place here because people were challenging the government. The township of Alexandra also became a first home for the former president Nelson Mandela when he arrived for the first time in Johannesburg from the Eastern Cape in 1942, before he went to live in Soweto. All these form part of history because it was the same period when Nelson Mandela and others leaders in Alexandra began to challenge the injustices and discrimination by the white power structure against black people in South Africa.”

A tourism destination is defined as a place that has man-made, cultural or natural resources, which uses them sustainably for the benefit of tourists and the local community to provide authentic experiences to visitors. According to the findings, Alexandra is no different, as the community uses its man-made, cultural and natural resources, especially the history connected to the struggle that led to the post-apartheid South Africa, to provide tourism experiences to travellers. Abraham Nkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) described Alexandra’s uniqueness as such:

“Alexandra occupies the status of being a destination in its own right and the township accommodates a lot of visitors at the Kings Cinema. Alexandra has many different attractions such as the Home of Nelson Mandela [i.e. a former and first black president of a democratic South Africa] which has now been developed into a heritage site. With all the

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interviews being conducted in Alexandra, it is without a doubt that the township is a historical area and its ability to attract people from all over the world shows that the valuable history of Johannesburg can also be found in Alexandra.”

Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) argued that the reason there are so many tour companies in Alexandra is because there is a tourism market. The community in general believes that in the near future, Alexandra is going to emerge as one of the most visited tourism destinations in South Africa. According to Nkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) “…with regards to tourism growth, the township still has challenges, but Alexandra is beginning to gain popularity because of the history that the area has got, especially because it is one of the oldest and most historic townships in South Africa. As a result, the township is slowly gaining the same status as Soweto, as a tourism destination”. With that being said, the respondents acknowledged that there is a lot still to be done, not only by the government, but also the residents, business people and other stakeholders. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that “…with stakeholders working in unity, Alexandra will grow and even overtake other successful tourism destinations in South Africa. However the recent attacks on foreign nationals create an impression that the township of Alexandra is not hospitable to outsiders”.

4.2.4 How indirect challenges affecting tourism growth in Alexandra? Having considered all the social conditions that the people of Alexandra are currently facing, it is apparent that the township has severe challenges that need to be addressed in order to pave the way for tourism development. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that the ongoing lack of service delivery in Alexandra has made local residents lose hope in the governing party. In addition, Nkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) stated that social instability negatively affects tourism:

“The social ills in the township and lack of government intervention had led people to be dissatisfied. To voice their demands, people often resort to violent protests. As they occupy the streets to have their voices heard, protests often result in vandalism and the community often targets public structures, including burning and destroying tourism facilities. For example, the anti-Jacob Zuma protesters (who were calling for the president of South Africa to step down as head of state) in 2016 has been viewed as a major delay for the official opening of the

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Alexandra Heritage Centre in Alexandra. Even though the centre is now operational, the ongoing violent protests in Alexandra make it to be under threat, as people are not happy that the government misallocates funds to less urgent developments instead of prioritising housing and infrastructure as those are urgent needs more than anything. All these are affecting tourism growth because it is residents themselves that must protect the public facilities such as the Alexandra Heritage Centre, instead they pose a threat of burning it whenever protesters go into the streets to voice their demands.”

According to Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016), “…the issue relating to criminal activities and violence (such as killing, car hijacking, house breaking, physical assault, abuse on women and children, human trafficking, and shop lifting) often make Alexandra to be viewed negatively in South Africa and other countries”.

Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) further commented that the provincial government is not addressing the social challenges in Alexandra:

“Over the years, even before the transition to democracy, Alexandra has been known for its long history of underdevelopment and poverty. The township even earned the name ‘Dark City’ because there was no electricity, making the township very dark during the evening, contrary to the neighbouring suburb of Sandton with high density and colourful buildings. This was because of the unwillingness of the pre-apartheid government, and the current governing party that fails to proper allocate budgets for the township in order to develop it. As a result, Alexandra developed many challenges such as environmental problems because of lack of sanitation facilities and education to raise environmental awareness among residents as its users.”

Even though much has been done through the Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme to clean up the Jukskei River Area, the lack of sanitation undermines all the work already done. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) stated that “…the foundation for such environmental problems in Alexandra is due to the decades of improper planning and bad decisions made regarding development in the apartheid era”. It is argued that such bad decisions affect the township even today, as environmental degradation caused at the time still has hazardous impacts on the health of the community. As a result, even after democracy, the government is still struggling to put long-term solutions in place to address such problems.

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4.3 Theme two: Initiatives implemented to develop tourism in Alexandra since 2001 As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the development of township tourism in Alexandra began in 2001, and several significant stakeholders are involved in the development of tourism in the township.

4.3.1 The role of civil society to promote the tourism industry 4.3.1.1 The social history project as community-based initiative Maposi (personal communication in Alexandra: Interview 9 July 2016) stated that the local community in Alexandra has been involved in the development of the tourism industry through the Alexandra Heritage Team, which is made up of members from within the township. Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) also noted that the community’s involvement in tourism is seen in its participation in the initiatives that are non-governmental, of which the Social History Project is one example. Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) described the work done by a community member who has documented local stories and heritage:

“The Social History Project in Alexandra is a community-based initiative that began in 2008, and is also supported by the local government. For the people of Alexandra, this is a unique project and its objective is to research and record the local stories of the township as being told by the people themselves. With this particular project since 2008, three books have been published and all tell the stories of Alexandra since the period before apartheid. The most successful book is named ‘Alexandra: A History’.”

However, the project is said to have its challenges. According to Mndebele (personal communication, 16 July 2016), one of the main challenges in Alexandra, which could also be an issue related to the lack of tourism growth, is that the history of the township has not been documented, as is the case with Soweto. Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) noted that “…there is hardly any recorded and published histories dating back to the pre-colonial era talking about the township. In South African history, especially the one talking about the struggle to freedom, the township of Alexandra is only mentioned in the books or journals that speak about Soweto and Alexandra is mentioned here and there”. This suggests that there is a need for local people to tell the history of Alexandra through a narrative approach, instead of having outsiders

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tell it. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) added that “…in Soweto there are so many books that have been published to tell the history of that area. As a result, Soweto is the most popular township in Johannesburg”.

The Social History Project was thus meant to challenge the inaccurate notion that the history of Johannesburg is only found in Soweto. According to Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016), “…the world must know that Alexandra is one of the oldest townships in the area of Johannesburg and has contributed a lot towards the long struggle to gain the independence that all people are enjoying today in South Africa”. This suggests that the Project has the potential to give a unique voice to the forgotten and less talked about memories and experiences of Alexandra and its people. It also allows an insight into the social and cultural narrative of the community, which has diverse people living in it. Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) noted that:

“The township of Alexandra is one of the oldest townships in South Africa that has had early contact with the white settlers. In the 1900s, before the township was declared as a place where black people could buy and own property, Alexandra was under threat of demolition. European settlers were planning to occupy and bring development in Alexandra as a white neighbourhood. Even the name of the township contains a white background as it was named by the farmer called Papenfus after his wife, Alexandra Papenfus.”

Many respondents argued that a lot of people do not know this simply because the history of the township has not been documented and shared. In fact, the study found that the township has been home to political activists, famous musicians, poets and sport figures. Mndebele (personal communication, 16 July 2016) noted that as a result of political consciousness in the black community and with the formation of political parties to challenge the apartheid government, Alexandra received numerous threats from the state in the period before democracy was attained.

4.3.1.2 The cycling and walking tours and ‘get-off-bus’ campaign as community-based initiative The findings of the study show that the community wants to get involved in the development of the tourism industry in the area, yet a lack of skills and knowledge is hindering their full participation. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) argued that “…in the recent

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years, there have been campaigns that are often led by the tour operators and tour guides (with the involvement of the community as a whole) done through the promotion of cycling and walking tours. Such campaigns are common in other township areas like Soweto”. According to Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) and Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016), bus tours are less encouraged in Alexandra because they show a disregard for the community, i.e. it seems as if people are coming to the township as if they are visiting a zoo to view animals as they move along the streets, and not where people live. In Soweto, however, bus tours are commonly incorporated into the guided tours that are packaged and offered to visitors by tour operators. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) stated that:

“The real matter of concern with conducting bus tours is that the visitors often do not want to get off the bus and meet with local people (i.e. to create relationships with the host- community), in order to learn local cultures and buy locally-produced products and services. Thus, as tourists often come in buses to Alexandra, the township only receives more of daily-visits and a very few visitors spent overnight trips. With the advantage that Alexandra is situated close to other flourishing suburbs, even those some few visitors who spend more than a day in Alexandra often preferred to go to Sandton and Johannesburg to seek better accommodation facilities. This is because the suburbs and the city have luxurious hotels, which cannot be found in the township.”

The promotion of cycling and walking tours in Alexandra is supported by the Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme, which aims to raise awareness in the community about tourism development.

These tours will contribute significantly to the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra, as well as promote socio-economic growth, as local business operators will have direct contact with tourists at the local markets. Yet Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) warned that “…although that is the case, there is still a concern that crime and violence poses a challenge in achieving the ‘get-off-the-bus’ campaign, as safety and security is not guaranteed”. As a result, the township has not been able to emerge as a leading tourism destinations, as there is still a need to ensure social cohesion and stability in Alexandra following the violent attacks on foreign nationals.

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4.3.2 The role of government in supporting tourism: The ARP and ATDP programme Since 1994, the government of South Africa has identified the tourism industry as an important tool for creating social development, economic growth, job opportunities, wealth transfer from rich to poor, and poverty alleviation. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that “…the township of Alexandra, for example, is one of the most populated and poorest townships in South Africa with high level of unemployment, crime, poor service delivery, environmental problems and poverty”. The development of the tourism industry in the township thus became one of the priorities and objectives of the ARP. According to Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016), in 2001, “…the government of the country made a promise to the people of Alexandra that the township deserves to be redeveloped to a tourism brand that would help to develop the tourism industry in the area”.

Figure 12: The Alexandra Heritage Centre Building (Source: Moatshe, 2014) The GTA, as an agency of the Gauteng provincial government, was given the responsibility of facilitating the development and promotion of tourism in Alexandra in 2001. The first project was to develop the Alexandra Heritage Centre, which also houses a tourism information centre. According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016), the GTA had long meetings on the issue of convincing the provincial government to consider the initial budget of the

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project and to increase spending on the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) clarified that the progressive work of the ARP and ATDP is to gradually change Alexandra into a potential tourism destination in South Africa:

“There were so many challenges within the ARP itself with regards to the issue of how the budget is to be allocated and spent in the developments of Alexandra. However, serious talks resulted with an agreement among the management of the ARP to consider establishing of the sub-programme which became known as the ATDP. The Gauteng Tourism Authority has been working to promote the tourism industry in Alexandra since fifteen years back and a tourism potential is increasingly been noticeable. In 2001, the GTA came into partnership with the ARP with the help of the National Lottery Board of South Africa. Together, these stakeholders made an effort to launch a programme called the ATDP, which came to existence under the ARP to specifically cater for the purpose of the development and promotion of the tourism industry in Alexandra.”

The Alexandra Heritage Team is comprised of people from the local community, who have introduced a range of heritage initiatives. For example, Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) explained that “…to claim the status of a tourism destination, R7 million of the ARP budget was set aside to develop the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre”. The construction of the centre was completed in 2004 and it includes a tourist information office, restaurant and other retail outlets.

4.3.2.1 The provision of municipal services to improve the tourism industry The findings show that the provision of municipal services have had a direct impact on the development of tourism in Alexandra. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) noted that such developments are vital in transforming the township into a brand for tourism and also creates opportunities to attract business and investment.

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Figure 13: An improved section in Alexandra with RDP houses, hostels, street lights, and tired roads (Source: Mngomeni, 2014)

Figure 13 shows the developed sections in Alexandra, which have better access to municipal services. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) explained that “…visitors are reluctant to visit areas where they might be subjected to unpleasant conditions such as environmental problems, as it is the case with Alexandra”. According to Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016), “…the development of infrastructure has improved Alexandra and today the township is more accessible through both public and private transport, and it all became possible with the work of the ARP”.

Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) noted the intervention of the local government through the provision of infrastructure:

“The government is still implementing suitable ways of attending to the problems of the Jukskei River area in Alexandra. Other important development that has been practically noticeable through the local government is the launching of the street lights and pedestrian ways’ project within the ARP. With the street lights being built in almost every street throughout the township over the years, Alexandra is slowly becoming one of the safest

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and coolest places in South Africa. The development of street lights and pedestrian ways has made the township much of a livable space for the community. It is becoming a place where children can play and all can drive and walk around without fearing of being robbed or assaulted in front of one’s own home and neighbourhood, as it has been often the case previously.”

4.3.2.2 Government initiatives to address the issues of lack of environmental problems The challenges that relate to the environmental issues in Alexandra are not new, however the community has been putting more pressure on the government through protests over the years, resulting in more efforts to address the environmental challenges that the township is facing. According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016), “…the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme and the Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme were introduced in the township as a response to the problem. These programmes have been very instrumental in cultivating the culture of being environmentally considerate among the residents in Alexandra”. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) added that the Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme is another government initiative that conducts responsible and sustainable tourism workshops in Alexandra with local people. The programme provides information as way to improve the community’s knowledge and understanding with regards to creating, maintaining and promoting a sustainable tourism industry that will benefit them in the long-term.

The Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme aims to raise awareness of the importance of protecting the environment by conducting workshops and street campaigns. To successfully achieve the goal of the programme, the Department of Environmental Affairs and the ARP have been actively involved in co-facilitating the workshops. The objective of the Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme, meanwhile, is to rehabilitate and revitalise the informal settlements in Alexandra, especially the areas along the banks of the Jukskei River. The Jukskei River area is a main priority for the government because it is an informal settlement with a lack of access to sanitation.

Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) clarified that “…since the area is filled with shacks built in close proximity (which makes it hard to drive through the narrow streets), the

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Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme is a tailor-made project to rehabilitate the Jukskei River areas”. The Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme has also had a significant role to play in Alexandra with regards to the raising of environmental awareness over the years, with the help of the Gauteng Tourism Authority (GTA). Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) described that “…in improving environmental awareness … over three thousand trees [were] planted throughout the township through these environmental campaigns since it launched in 2001”. In addition, the campaign also encourages the cleaning of public parks on a weekly basis. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that through the workshops, the local community is equipped with knowledge on how to play their part in ensuring that Alexandra becomes an environmentally clean area, which will enable the township to gain the status of a tourism destination.

4.3.2.3 The coming together of the community and government to end crime and violence The township of Alexandra was once known as a place in Johannesburg where urban culture and real township experiences are found. The findings revealed that the township was once home to famous people including musicians (Hugh Masekela, Thami Mnyele, Banza Kgasoane, Simon Mahlathini Nkabinde, etc.), politicians (Nelson Mandela, Kgalema Motlanthe, Zanele Mbeki, Paul Mashatile, Alfred Nzo, Samora Machel, Hastings Banda, etc.), poets (Wally Serote, etc.) and soccer players (Irvin Khoza, etc.). Yet according to Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016), the problem of crime and violence in Alexandra is still an issue that affects tourism:

“The township was known to be a place of pleasure, entertainment and struggle for freedom, as there are many political events that had taken place in Alexandra during the apartheid era. However, with the increase in crime (which was often as a result of increasing unemployment, poverty and growth in population rates led by the influx of migration of people to be closer to the city), the township saw a rise in gangsterism and violence. Since then, criminal related activities have been part of Alexandra and the violent attacks on foreign nationals have created a bad reputation for the township, as today it is viewed as one of the most dangerous places in the world.”

According to Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016), “…as a result of crime, such as xenophobia, Alexandra has lost the status of being the venue of entertainment like Soweto in the

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area of Johannesburg”. The majority of visitors (both domestic and international) prefer to spend their time and money in other places in Johannesburg, and Soweto has become an obvious destination for many people.

Figure 14: South African army on duty for crime prevention in Alexandra (Source: Makhafola, 2015)

Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) noted that the government has responded to the issue of crime by applying more human resources, e.g. more police officers and soldiers are being seen on the streets of Alexandra. Figure 14 shows soldiers during Operation Shanyela, which often launches raids on certain identified crime hot spots in Alexandra. For this reason, the community is now slowly becoming more and more involved in exposing crime by working closely with the authorities, enabling SMME owners to sell their products and services to people as they travel into the township. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) described the partnership

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amongst the community, NGOs and local government, which led to the formation of the Joint Operation Centre (JOC) in Alexandra to help victims of crime and violence:

“The community, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and local government have formed the Joint Operation Centre (JOC) in Alexandra. One main objective of the centre was to mobilise all the stakeholders into unity to come out with plans to help the immigrants. Foreign nationals are often the first victims of crime and violence whenever protests or xenophobia take place in Alexandra, and therefore the centre aims to protect their human rights. During and after the recent xenophobic attack, the City of Johannesburg joined the JOC in Alexandra in providing the necessary assistance to immigrants that were affected by helping those who got displaced and finding ways to put them back into their communities safely.”

The findings also revealed that assistance was provided to foreigners in the form of humanitarian aid, which helped many by preparing them to go back to their homes in Alexandra, as the majority of the victims had no desire to go back to their countries of origin. When the violent attacks on immigrants came to an end in 2015, the Centre continued with its work and a new focus was placed on teaching and encouraging people in Alexandra to disassociate themselves from being involved in violent acts and to learn to live together as African people. The majority of the political parties in South Africa (at both the national and provincial levels) and community leaders took part in the meetings that JOC conducted in Alexandra. According to Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016), one of the challenges for South Africa with regards to foreign nationals it that the majority of them are illegal immigrants, and therefore cannot be easily protected by law such as ensuring that their human rights are not violated. In order to improve the social and political stability in Alexandra, the government through the Department of Home Affairs have promised to work harder to ensure that all the foreign nationals in South Africa are documented and given legal status.

According to Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016), “…the government is also making more efforts through putting plans in place to create more decent job opportunities for people”. However, Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) argued that with the current economic conditions facing the country, the creation of enough employment for people to join the labour force is a challenge, especially for townships such as Alexandra. Mulaudzi

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(personal communication, 13 June 2016) added that everywhere around the world, whenever there are no job opportunities for people, crime and violence increases as people have to compete over limited resources for survival.

The above suggests that the ongoing crime and violence in Alexandra is not just a case of South African citizens having an unjustified dislike of foreign nationals, i.e. it is in large part caused by the challenging economy and the huge influx of people into the township every year. Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) concluded that “…the increasing rates of unemployment, poverty and inequality have been the main driver leading towards social instability in Alexandra over the previous years”.

4.3.2.4 The development of the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre in Alexandra The physical structure of the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre in Alexandra is considered to be a work of art. Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) noted that “…the interpretation centre houses an interactive exhibition that gives the history of the people, ideas and events that made the Alexandra of today”, while Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) and Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) clarified that the centre is where the valuable archives and resources of the community are conserved, and it is a place where one can learn more about a vibrant township that is home to many diverse people. Even though the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre was created and funded by the GTA and the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, the local community decides how the centre is operated, and indigenous knowledge is considered the most important factor toward maintaining and ensuring its continuity.

The interpretation centre is further appreciated by the entire community because it has also proven to result in long-term benefits for the people due to its meeting and training room. According to Samuel Mndebele (personal communication, 23 July 2016), “…the meeting and training room is used for the benefit of the community to conduct heritage and tourism-related initiatives. As the centre also accommodates visitor facilities such as the tourism information office, a restaurant and retail outlets, visitors have an opportunity to buy products and services that are locally produced such as hand-crafted goods”. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) added that with the abundance of space in the building, many SMMEs have emerged, i.e. the

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development of the interpretation centre has unlocked opportunities for businesses as local business operators can now market their products and services directly to the visitors that come to the township.

4.3.2.5 The development of heritage sites in Alexandra As mentioned, the ARP and ATDP have been the most successful government tools for the tourism industry in Alexandra. Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) described the work of the ATDP in identifying heritage sites in Alexandra:

“Within the period of five years following the introduction of the ATDP, more than 120 heritage sites were identified but only 30 of them have been given plaques to signify their status as heritage sites. Of all the heritage sites, it was only seven which were included or incorporated as part of the Alexandra Route of Rhythm. In addition, talks were also held among the stakeholders (with the community involvement) on ways to safeguard the heritage sites as part of the tourism resources in Alexandra. Meetings are often conducted between the ADTP leaders and local community to redevelop certain places with tourism potential, and more particularly those that are considered as more essential in fostering the socio-economic development and employment creation.”

According to Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016), as a result of the discussions on heritage sites, the management of ARP and ATDP reached a decision to develop the Alexandra Heritage Centre, which was completed in 2016.

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Figure 15: A heritage site, the Anglican Mission School in Alexandra (Source: City of Johannesburg, 2013)

The Heritage Centre also enables local people to go and learn about their history and heritage, as well as about the importance of taking care of the heritage sites in the area. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that through these sites, the tourism industry is growing and bringing tangible economic benefits to the people by allowing public access. The most prioritised heritage sites in Alexandra include the following:

Heritage site names Sites that receive the Sites with plaques most visitors that are on the Alexandra Township Route of Rhythm

African Methodist Episcopal Church Frequently visited Marked with plaque Alexandra Beer Hall Frequently visited Marked with plaque Alexandra University Clinic Alexandra Health Committee Building Marked with plaque Amalgamated Primary School Marked with plaque Anglican Mission School Frequently visited Colour Church and School Marked with plaque

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Entokozweni Freedom Square No 2 Frequently visited Holy Cross School Marked with plaque Jukskei River Kings Cinema Frequently visited Marked with plaque Jukskei Cemetery Madala Hostel Mandela’s Place Frequently visited Marked with plaque Methodist Church and School MC Weiler Primary School Mbuku Nhlannhla’s Home Marked with plaque Mophosho’s Family Home Moses Kotane’s Home Frequently visited Marked with plaque Mosess Mayekiso’s Home Msomi Gang Headquarters Marked with plaque Piliso Family Home Marked with plaque PLD Hall Marked with plaque Martin Romakgadi’s Home Serote Family Home Frequently visited St Engenas, Zion Christian Church St Hubert’s Catholic Church Frequently visited Marked with plaque TB Settlement Twelve Apostles Church of Africa Frequently visited Zanele Mbeki’s Family Home Table 2: Heritage sites in Alexandra (Source: Thabo Maposi, 2016)

According to Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016), “the Nelson Mandela Yard has been transformed into a precinct and still accommodates some of the materials that belong to former and first black president of South Africa. It is known to be the first house in Alexandra that Mandela lived in when he first move to Johannesburg in the 1940s before he went to Soweto”. The

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precinct is one of the most visited attractions in the area. As per Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) and Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016), the African Methodist Episcopal Church has also been given a plaque as it is one of the oldest churches in Alexandra. In addition, the Roman Catholic Church Precinct has also been developed into a heritage site, with a plaque hanging on the wall of this historic building. The church is situated in the open space in Alexandra along the busiest street filled with tuck shops and taverns.

4.3.2.6 Improving tourism and community’s participation through skill development As mentioned in the previous chapters, one of the challenges to the growth of the tourism industry in Alexandra is the lack of knowledge and understanding on how tourism works. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016) stated that in order to empower the community, skills development is necessary, thus the GTA and JTC, through the ATDP, launched a training initiative known as the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme (ATTP) in 2005. The Youth in Hospitality Training Programme (YHTP) was also introduced to provide tourism training for unemployed young people in 2011. According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016), the GTA and JTC also formed partnerships with the International Hotel School and Southern Sun to absorb tourism graduates and provide them with practical experience after completing their courses in tourism and hospitality. Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016) explained that the provincial government is determined to boost the socio-economy of township areas like Alexandra, and tourism is seen as the best tool for this:

“The government is very much committed in ensuring that the previously disadvantaged groups, especially in the black communities, get the necessary education and training as a tool for empowerment. This has a long-term benefit for Alexandra because empowerment through skill development enables people to better take control over their tourism industry and to take advantage of the tourism benefits, especially job opportunities. The tourism industry is often affected by the seasonal nature and SMME operators often find it difficult to remain in the market as a result. Therefore, since entrepreneurship among blacks is at developmental stages, the provision of tourism training is important to educate young people on how to become better entrepreneurs.”

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Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) noted that the Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme is a good example of the training that the government provides to the people of Alexandra. According to Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016), the training programme is being facilitated by the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller, which offers short but focused business courses to people who are in the business sector, including those with strong and implementable business ideas.

Figure 16: young people getting certificates after tourism training (Source: Naidoo, 2010)

Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016) added that with such training, street vendors operating within the informal sector can also be transformed into major role players in the mainstream economy, because the skills they acquire help them to grow their businesses. The training provision for the community has been viewed as an essential element towards attaining the objective of community empowerment (i.e. enhancing human resource development), which could benefit Alexandra as a whole. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that “during meetings and workshops, the SMME operators also get an opportunity to be provided with necessary information, technical advice, as well as business techniques with regards to how they can start-up, run and grow their enterprises to the next higher levels”.

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4.3.2.7 The role of government to support SMMEs in Alexandra The findings showed that the government recognises the important role that is played by SMMEs in South African communities, as they have the potential to contribute towards socio-economic growth and poverty alleviation, as well as create job opportunities for people. For this reason, the government has established institutions and agencies, as well as policies that deal with the needs of small businesses throughout the country, such as the GEP. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) described the involvement of the GEP in assisting with providing free training to small businesses in Alexandra:

“The GEP has been involved since 2005 in Alexandra and provides both non-financial and financial support to the local enterprises, including those within the tourism industry such as restaurants, tour guides and operators, bed and breakfasts, art and craft shops, taverns, cinemas, theatres, etc. One example of a programme that was introduced by the government in Alexandra, as way to help businesses to grow, is the Alexandra Entrepreneurial Training Programme. This is one of the non-financial supports which have been provided for by the government. At the local level, the ARP has formed the Alexandra Tourism Business Association (ATBA) to specifically deal with the enterprise development in Alexandra that operate within the tourism industry. In addition, the GEP has also established a township-based office in Alexandra as way to ease access for the people.”

The GEP has been a tool for the growth of small businesses because of the assistance that they provide at no cost. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) mentioned that since the GEP opened its doors in 2005, it has been giving SMME operators business advice on how to work with the limited resources they have, providing ways to save capital, develop budgeting skills, handle their finances, manage their businesses and grow their enterprises. Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) stated that by helping small businesses, the government is making sure that the townships (like Alexandra) become economic growth generating areas in South Africa, whereby jobs are being created for the people in the township areas where they live. According to Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) and Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016), the development of SMMEs in South Africa is based on several factors that are

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critical for previously disadvantaged communities, including economic growth, job generation, and poverty alleviation.

They both argued that allowing the poor access to productive income opportunities is very important and a way to make poverty a thing of the past for poverty-stricken township areas. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) further stated that “…one of the better and sustainable ways to uplift the poor is, without a doubt, to pave way for the development of small businesses for the previously disadvantaged communities”. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) explained that the government (in an effort to contribute to the growth and progress of SMMEs in Alexandra) created the White Paper for Small Business Development Act, which is said to have redefined the role of SMMEs in the modern South Africa and repositioned small businesses to become one of the job creators in the country. Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016) described the intervention of the government in the development of SMMEs in Alexandra:

“Alexandra is one of the townships where small businesses are drivers of the socio- economy and a majority of them possess the potential of using local labour, which do not necessary requires skills. There are many programmes [such as the Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Training Programme] that the government, with the help of the private sector, put in place in Alexandra and they are also aimed at reducing the increasing unemployment and poverty rates in the area. Such programmes are implemented behind the idea of sustainability, in a manner that the programmes affect the lives of the people in Alexandra in a long-term. For example, the poor are not just given money or food parcels to sustain their lives, because that is not going to be sustainable. Instead, financial assistance is given to small businesses as an investment to the community because the businesses create more revenue and job opportunities for the people. This is without a doubt a sustainable investment by the government through its institutions because businesses in communities do not just benefit individuals, but the whole community through the distribution of revenue.”

The above suggests that the programmes that the government initiates in Alexandra to help small businesses is a direct effort to increase the promotion of wealth creation, reduce unemployment and alleviate poverty. There are also several other agencies of the government that serve to deal

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with small businesses across the country, including townships such as Alexandra. According to Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016), “…the government is putting more emphasis on the previously disadvantaged populations and aim to promote the culture of entrepreneurship among black people through small business development”. The slogan, ‘Entrepreneurship, the life-blood of the nation’, has been popularised over the years through the Black Economic Empowerment Programme (BEEP). According to Johnson (Personal communication in Johannesburg: Interview 23 June 2016), SMMEs in South Africa constitute over 90 percent of all enterprises, which makes small businesses the largest employers in the country; their contribution towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) amounts to 45 to 50 percent. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) argued that small businesses in South Africa, especially those operating in the formal sector, create 50 to 60 percent of employment opportunities, and when the informal sector is included, this increases to 75 percent.

Figure 17: De Grandiose, a well-established bar and restaurant in Alexandra (Source: Mngomeni, 2014)

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According to Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016), the strong potential of small businesses, regardless of whether they operate in the informal or formal sector, led the government to review and amend the 1996 White Paper for Small Business Development. She added that the amendment of the White Paper for small business development was a necessary step that the government had to take in order to accommodate some institutional changes, which provide various support programmes for small businesses. Figure 17 shows an established restaurant in Alexandra. De Grandiose is known for providing the best hospitality to visitors, and is known for hosting international tourists.

The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) is responsible for providing assistance to SMMEs. According to Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016), the DTI formed a partnership with the ARP with the objective of transforming small businesses in Alexandra through the necessary training programmes and financial assistance. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) noted that “…the other two most resourceful agencies of the government with the task of dealing with SMMEs, at the provincial level, are the Small Enterprises and Development Agency (SEDA) and Khula Enterprises Limited”. Both of these institutions have initiated several programmes in Alexandra, offering assistance such as providing capital for start-ups and equipment and marketing for existing businesses. SEDA is an agency of the government that is known for providing non- financial assistance to small businesses through integrated support agencies. Khula, on the other hand, provides SMMEs with access to capital resources, and has connections with the private sector large such as the commercial banks. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) described the role played by the Department for Economic Development to help develop SMMEs’ potential in Alexandra:

“The Department for Economic Development in Gauteng has been the pillar of strength for behind the success of the GEP, as both non-financial and financial assistance is being provided to already existing businesses in the province, including Alexandra. The other body of government is the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (UYF) which was introduced within Khula and it also provides assistance, particularly to the young people who have business ideas but need resources to start-up their businesses in Alexandra. This institution focuses on the previously disadvantaged individuals (PDI) who were never recognised by the government, especially before 1994. A subsidiary of Anglo American known as Anglo

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Zimele also encourages people in the previously disadvantaged communities, such as Alexandra, to become entrepreneurs through allowing ease of access to capital resources for the people.”

The findings show that in Alexandra, in particular, the GEP has been focusing on transforming SMMEs, as the government recognises that it is often small businesses that dominate the economy in a township, and the current economic situation threatens their existence. The development of small businesses is believed to play a big role in creating opportunities for people across the township to participate in the tourism industry. In this way, say Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016), this could contribute towards the alleviation of poverty and a reduction in unemployment that has, over the years, become a reason for the on-going social instability in Alexandra. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) clarified that “financial assistance is also made available to most needy small businesses”. In the effort to grow small businesses and ensure that they remain economically viable for a long period of time within the township, GEP officials occasionally conduct business meetings with SMME operators as another way of consulting with them and to discuss their daily challenges and needs.

4.3.2.8 Empowerment of women through tourism development in Alexandra Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) expressed that “…anywhere in the world, throughout history, the business sector has often been dominated by men because of the prevailing economic inequality and prejudice against women”. However, in the case of Alexandra, Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) argued that the business sector predominantly consists of SMMEs operating in an informal and semi-formal economy, and women are seen selling their goods in large numbers. According to Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016), “…even though they are self-employed, a majority of women who are in business in Alexandra are street traders, selling fruits and vegetables. It is seen through the findings that street traders do not have potential to create employment opportunities for the people in Alexandra”. However, the income that they earn helps to contribute towards the livelihood of their families. This perspective suggests that women in Alexandra are seen in the business world, yet they face a challenge growing their businesses and

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becoming role players in the mainstream economy. According to Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016), unemployment in Alexandra has been most felt by women, but the launching of the ARP has made it possible for them to join the labour market and business world as many opportunities have been unlocked for them.

In 2008, the Alexandra Chamber of Commerce conducted a survey that confirmed that Alexandra has an estimated 500 informal traders, which Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated has increased over the years due to the construction of the Pan-African Mall. The findings reveal that within the informal sector of Alexandra, street vendors include those who trade in arts and crafts, sewing, beadwork and hair braiding etc. Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) explained that “…this kind of work, which is often done by women in the streets of Alexandra, is part of the African traditions and skill is applied and often passed on from one generation to another within families”. It is said that crafts and beadwork have now become part of the community’s design. According to Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016), since poverty and unemployment rates continue to increase in the township, many of these street vendors have realised the need and potential to expand their work by looking outside the township in order to increase their market and income. In other words, some women in the informal economy, especially street vendors, are expanding their horizons and selling their goods at traffic intersections to passing motorists. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) also noted that other family members go to places like the City of Johannesburg in order to reach more and new customers.

The findings showed that women with potential business skills and determination, especially those who are single parents, often do everything within their means to grow their businesses on the street corners of Alexandra. Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016) stated that “…in pushing women’s progress, the decision was made by the management of the ARP to introduce an initiative for the empowerment of women in Alexandra”. She continued that one of the main priorities of the ARP for women is to align their small businesses to an ARP project and to absorb them through the various training programmes to push skills development. Providing the necessary training within the tourism industry will provide women with an opportunity to take advantage of positions that were normally considered to be occupied by men. Training is said to instrumental in empowering women, as it enables them to reap the economic benefits that result with tourism

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development in Alexandra. Samuel Mndebele (personal communication, 23 July 2016) commented that “…the Alexandra Tourism Node is one good example of the node along the Jukskei River heritage site which has given opportunities for women to part of a formalised trading, which was completed in 2008”.

According to Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016), some of the SMMEs, especially those that are women-owned, have been also receiving funding from the National Trust and Umsobomvu since 2006. It is said that such assistance has helped some of the SMME operators to acquire better premises and grow their businesses to become potential role players in the formal sector. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) and Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) also noted that in 2007, the Alexandra Business Forum was created and many women became members in the different associations operating under the forum, such as the Alex Spaza Association, Alex Hair and Beauty Association, Alex Fruit and Veg Association, Alex Caterer’s Association and the Alex Sewing Association. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) and Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) argued that the development of tourism in Alexandra, which is guided by the ARP, has brought new energy to the area, saying that local residents are coming up with ideas that can foster more progress in Alexandra.

4.3.3 The role of the private sector in contributing towards township tourism development in Alexandra According to Maposi (personal communication, 9 July 2016), the private sector plays a very important role in the development of Alexandra, including in the promotion of tourism. For example, the findings reveal that the construction of the Pan African Mall, the Alexandra Plaza and the double story mega taxi rank in Alexandra, were spearheaded by private sector investment. In addition, Johnson (personal communication, 23 June 2016) specified that “…the Alexandra Mental Clinic, Botlhabela Village Phase 2, the River Park Housing Project and the M2 Phase 3 Development are projects which were launched by the private sector”. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) and Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) added that for other developmental projects, the South African National Lottery Board has been an instrumental funder, including for the Alexandra Heritage Centre. According to Maposi (personal

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communication, 9 July 2016), the completion of the Alexandra Heritage Centre marked an important stage in the transformation of Alexandra:

“The planning of the Alexandra Heritage Centre began in 2011 while the actual work of construction began in early 2012. The work involving the building of the centre was part of the government-initiated project under the ARP. However, while the project was doing well with the development of the centre, challenges arose during its second year of construction and resulted with the abandonment of the project. The development of the centre ceased for a full year because of challenges such as the mismanagement of the government funds and ongoing corruption. It wasn’t until the South African National Lottery Board joined with the government that [the project proceeded]. The South African National Lottery Board played a fundamental role in the development of the Alexandra Heritage Centre Building after it was left incomplete through investing substantial amount of money.”

The study also revealed another big investment in Alexandra (to promote skills development) made by the big corporation and independent institutions of higher learning, including the role of the Southern Sun Hotels and International Hotel School. These organisations are fundamental, with their partnerships with the government, in addressing the shortage of skills and knowledge about tourism in Alexandra. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) explained that “…with government-initiated training programmes (such as the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme and Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Programme), the International Hotel School is involved through its responsibility to provide and facilitate for the theoretical training for hospitality and tourism”. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016), meanwhile, stated that Southern Sun provides an opportunity for its graduates to be exposed to the working environment in order for them to gain practical experience to prepare them for the labour market.

4.3.4 The role of the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to assist improve the tourism industry in Alexandra Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) stated that in order to push development in Alexandra, the ARP, the City of Johannesburg and the local government have encouraged cooperation and partnerships with both the private sector and NGOs. This is said to be an essential

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step towards social, economic, physical and institutional transformation. Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016) noted that major NGOs, as role players in the development of tourism in the township, include the Greater Alexandra Development Forum, the Alexandra Chamber of Commerce, the Business Place and Gift of the Givers.

Collectively, the Greater Alexandra Development Forum, Alexandra Chamber of Commerce, and the Business Place have been working within the community in collaboration with government to help develop entrepreneurship through training programmes. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) indicated that “…the Business Place, for example, started a programme whereby young people are offered short courses in entrepreneurial training”. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) added that the intention is to build and promote long lasting relationships between the government and business in Alexandra in order to create a link with international business organisations. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) noted that “…in order to enhance effective voice, the Alexandra Chamber of Commerce seeks to advocate on behalf of the business community in Alexandra, in joint efforts with other business organisations in Africa, to push the level of community participation in business matters affecting Alexandra and South Africa as a whole”. The Business Place also serves to facilitate and ensure a wider participation of the business community in various development projects, including infrastructure developments occurring around the township. Through various workshops, these organisations improve and maintain ongoing collaboration amongst business people in the area, as meaningful community involvement remains key to economic growth and social development.

Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) identified that another important NGO in Alexandra is the Gift of the Givers, which has been involved in small community projects since 2005. For example, the organisation enabled the oldest school in Alexandra to procure new furniture, stationary, materials to build a wall, paint, and play structures (Mbuli, personal communication, 13 June 2016). As a result of the successful redevelopment of the premises and building structures, the school was developed into a heritage site. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) indicated that “…such determination to be transformed and identified into a heritage site was reached because of its history and value to the community, as there are many iconic individuals (i.e. politicians, musicians, sport figures, poets, religious figures, community leaders, etc.) who entered the school during the previous decades. Since then, the

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school has become one of the attractions, thereby contributing to the development of the tourism industry by adding to the host destination’s menu of activities”.

The findings revealed that such contribution includes the role played by individual organisations, such as international academic institutions and research organisations from developed countries. These organisations are often NGOs, which usually send groups of scholars to Africa for the purpose of doing research on particular fields or issues. South Africa is often a destination of choice for international visitors, including for research purposes. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) described the importance of the contribution made by NGOs towards developing tourism and Alexandra in general:

“As the country is classified as one of the third world nations and within the developing countries in the world, with various economic and environmental challenges, places such as the township of Alexandra has also become focus for research. As a result, the township is receiving attention of researchers from other countries. With different kinds of challenges (i.e. high levels of poverty and hunger, unemployment, environmental issues, crime, etc.), the tourists of good will contribute toward the development of Alexandra through charity work and donations. Such donations and charity work is often noticeable through the provision of financial and non-financial assistance. Assistance in terms of providing financial resources is seen when the scholars make their contributions on behalf of their respective organisations by investing with money within community-based initiatives. Their contribution is also seen within orphanage and old-age home [donating with money to buy blankets for winter seasons, help to improve food security, install electricity, ease access to clean water, fund for toiletries, etc.]. They also help public schools by helping to buy furniture, stationary, shoes and uniforms, sporting equipment, etc.”

Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) indicated that they further help the community by providing funding for the renovation of libraries, parks, stadiums, and other public facilities, and also assist with small community projects, sometimes through volunteering in accordance with their fields of study or professions. Additional non-financial assistance that such organisations provide is allocating professionals to help address environmental challenges through education so as to increase awareness. This has had a direct impact on the development of the tourism industry,

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considering that one of the tourism challenges in Alexandra is ecological. Pasha (personal communication, 24 June 2016) stated that “…the provision of education for the local people is very significant in order to empower the people with skills, which would help them to fully participate in the tourism industry”. In addition, Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) specified that with NGOs’ involvement, about five young people from Alexandra have had an opportunity to go overseas to the United Kingdom to receive training in the hospitality and tourism field.

4.4 Theme three: the direct challenges for the tourism industry in Alexandra As the findings of the study revealed, the community acknowledges the significant work of the ARP and ATDP with regards to the development of the tourism industry. In addition, most interviewees stated that the township has witnessed some form of development. However, some also noted that the township has not seen tourism growth, especially when compared to other destinations such as Soweto. The challenges hindering the township’s tourism development include a lack of knowledge and skills for tourism, poor infrastructure maintenance, a shortage of land and space, a lack of SMME growth, insufficient marketing of Alexandra as a destination, crime, a lack of participation of women and disabled people, environmental problems, and insufficient tourism facilities and supporting activities.

4.4.1 Lack of knowledge and skills for tourism According to Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016), “…the previously disadvantaged individuals and historically marginalised areas such as Alexandra seem to continue to suffer the injustices of the past, especially when it comes to enjoying opportunities in life, due to poor access to resources”. To a large extent, inequalities in terms of the economy, society and gender still exist in South African communities, which are often seen in conjunction with a lack of access to education, especially when it comes to tertiary education. Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that the government is committed to ensuring that those who are previously disadvantaged, especially in the black community, get the necessary education in order to empower themselves. However, Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) argued that “…cost sharing adversely affects the women population

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in Alexandra, just like elsewhere in the third world countries, in terms of the completion rates of education at all the school system”. Simphiwe Ngwenya (personal communication, 17 July 2016) added that “…within families where there is a lack of income, efforts are made to provide financial help in order to put a child into school and even in the institution of higher learning, and in most cases, it would be a male child over female child”. He further noted that as a result, young girls often miss out on many opportunities in life because of gender imbalances, which also creates economic inequalities based on gender differences within societies. Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) explained how the lack of access to education amongst women limits their potential to grow and play a fundamental role in community development in Alexandra:

“In the modern South Africa, there are still situations whereby young girls miss out on opportunities to become something good in life because parents force them into early arranged marriages. The issues around the lack of education and ensuring that the young people in Alexandra gets empowered through training is not only the responsibility of the government but also the community’s duty. Therefore, there is still a need to change attitudes in societies, particularly in traditional communities, because it is generally bias to favour one gender (i.e. men) over another when it comes to access opportunities such as education. In addition, in the townships, especially in Johannesburg and it surroundings, the prevalence of HIV and AIDS have forced many girls to quit school and come back to stay home for the rest of their lives than it is with boys. As many of the girls drop out from school, their future to be something good in life disappears and as a result they remain home with their mothers to help with domestic duties. In Alexandra, teenage pregnancy is also a worrisome issue for the government and the community. Even though young girls who leave school as a result of being pregnant and becoming young mothers are given an opportunity to go back to school, not all of them return. Most of the time, many girls prefer to remain home to look after babies or to go to seek for work, which is often unskilled, in order to support their families.”

As a result of a lack of skills and knowledge, the majority of SMME operators in Alexandra are facing similar challenges, thus the majority are unable to grow their businesses. Most business operators in Alexandra also do not know the state agencies that have been put in place for them to obtain assistance from. For example, according to Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June

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2016), not all people know about the Alexandra Tourism Business Association (ATBA) and others have less knowledge of the Gauteng Enterprise Propeller (GEP). As a result, Hlapa (personal communication, 7 June 2016) argued that “…there is a concern in government that the people in Alexandra do not use the opportunities that are being provided to them, as many do not come out in their numbers to take advantage of the training programmes made available”.

In addition, as the tourism industry has high and low seasons, for businesses to be competitive and remain economically viable, service providers need to understand that being in the tourism industry requires patience. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that in Alexandra, many businesses open and shut within a year, while Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) indicated that “…most of them they do not survive in the market because of the competition that they find themselves in, and while some lack the managerial and entrepreneurial skills, others do not have adequate access to the tourism market in Alexandra”.

With regards to the training that is being provided for the people in Alexandra, Nkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) and Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) argued that the government is not doing enough, as the number of people that are being trained every year is low. Namhla Zulu (personal communication, 7 June 2016) stated that “…the GEP provides training to about 250 young people in Alexandra through the Alexandra Entrepreneurial Programme”. However, Monica Ngwenya (personal communication, 7 June 2016) and Johnson (Personal communication in Johannesburg: Interview 23 June 2016) stated that the Alexandra Youth in Hospitality Programme and Alexandra Tourism Training Programme are good examples that prove the commitment of the government, as they provide training to 300 young people every year. Mkhomo (personal communication, 1 August 2016) agreed that more training still needs to be made available to the people of Alexandra, adding that it is important to educate people about tourism in order for them to be able to grow the industry and realise the tangible economic and non-economic benefits.

4.4.2 Lack of SMMEs’ growth as challenge for tourism As mentioned, the business sector in Alexandra is largely dominated by small businesses that operate in the informal and semi-formal sectors. Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) described the conditions in which small businesses operate in Alexandra:

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“In Alexandra, there are many small businesses, but the sad part is that most of them are struggling to remain in the market, and as a result of lack of access to capital resources they operate at a survivalist level. One of the challenges that are faced by the small businesses in the township is the lack of government assistance to the SMMEs. The lack of land space is also a problem in Alexandra. Most of the free public spaces in Alexandra have been occupied by illegal inhabitants and shack dwellers, thereby making the township a sprawling ghetto, which have completely made things difficult for the businesses to operate effectively and efficiently. The lack of knowledge and information in terms of how and where to get help from the government institutions is hindering the growth of small businesses within the tourism industry in Alexandra.”

The findings of the study revealed that crime and violent attacks on foreign nationals are a challenge for small business development, i.e. the goal of transforming Alexandra into a tourism brand cannot be achieved while people do not feel safe in the area. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) and Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) noted that the township of Alexandra has always been affected by crime, and that while the situation is not fully addressed, it will continue to affect businesses and their productivity. For tourists, an important factor to assess before travelling is the safety and security of the area. Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) described the impact that crime and violence has on Alexandra while tourism development is being promoted:

“As a result of crime, Alexandra has been less favoured by visitors because their safety cannot be guaranteed, especially when foreign nationals are being attacked as it has been happening in recent years. When people are reluctant in coming to Alexandra, this is not good for the tourism industry because businesses depend on visitors’ arrival and generate income through their expenditure on locally-produced and sold products and services. The SMMEs are also affected by crime in Alexandra that emerges, particularly when peaceful protests take place but resulting with violence. The township has been experiencing strikes over the years and they often originate as non-violent marches whereby people hope to voice out their concerns to the government. However, when people feel like their demands are not taken serious and met on time by the same government, they then often lead to violent marches. When protests degenerate into violence in the townships, as it is always

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the case with areas such as Alexandra and Soweto, some of the people use those events for devious purposes like becoming involved in looting from the shops in the local areas. This has become a common practice in Alexandra when people are marching in the streets to reach out to the government that must attend to their demands. It is unfortunate that the businesses, especially those that are owned and run by the foreign nationals happen to be the common targets for looting in most cases when protests are taking place.”

In addition, Alexandra is increasingly becoming an unfavourable destination for investors who may have an interest in putting their money into small businesses in South Africa.

Figure 18: Street traders selling fruits and vegies and accessories outside the Pan African Mall in Alexandra (Source: Mngomeni, 2014)

A lack of capital and proper premises for business development are issues for small businesses (Sinwell, 2005), as is the ongoing corruption and mismanagement of government funds. To make the situation worse, there is a lack of accountability and leadership, which is hindering the progress of SMMEs in Alexandra because some people in government tend to cater for their own needs as individuals before caring for others (Sinwell, 2005). According to Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016), state funding that is often meant to assist with the development of

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small businesses is often used to benefit the needs of individuals. Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) noted that another factor that contributes to the lack of SMME development in Alexandra is the economic crisis that is facing the country at the moment, i.e. the government is struggling to generate income and the currency is devaluing, which results in a lack of capital for those in need of state funding.

4.4.3 Lack of marketing of the township as a tourism destination As mentioned in the previous chapters, the main objective of the ARP and ATDP is to develop Alexandra and transform the township into a tourism brand, which will compete with other destination areas in South Africa. Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) and Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016) believed that if Alexandra was marketed and promoted as a tourist destination, like Soweto, significant net benefits (both economic and social) would accrue for the community. This perspective argues that marketing is necessary for the creation of a tourism brand, in part because that would diminish the notion that Alexandra is dangerous.

Marketing is a significant strategy that allows any service provider to make a product known to the potential consumers of such a product or service, however there is a lack of marketing agencies catering for SMMEs in Alexandra. In addition, business owners’ limited access to capital is a major constraint, as marketing requires investment. Further, given the lack of training and education amongst SMME owners, the majority of these businesses are not run effectively and efficiently. For example, most SMME operators in Alexandra are not able to distinguish between business operational costs and profits, and many do not have business bank accounts. Mbuli (personal communication, 13 June 2016) indicated that a lack of access to capital and government assistance are the major reasons for many businesses operators being unable to effectively market their products and services.

4.4.4 Lack of tourism facilities and supporting attractions This study found that there is still not much for visitors to do in Alexandra, which is one reason why visitors do not stay longer when visiting the township. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) noted that most people only visit for one day, while Mbuli (personal communication,

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13 June 2016) pointed out the shortage of facilities and activities as a factor hindering tourism development in Alexandra:

“The development of more facilities and amenities is necessary in order to add to the offering menu. Supporting products and services would also have an impact in promoting the tourism industry as have potential to complement the already existing attractions. This would also … encourage visitors to stay longer, thereby … increasing their expenditure in the local markets within the tourism industry. At the moment, the township mainly receives day visitors only. There is a concern that since visitors do not spend overnight trips in Alexandra, the accommodation sector [i.e. bed and breakfasts] is left out and not benefiting from local tourism industry because tourists never check-in. The bed and breakfast operators are often confronted with low occupancies at their establishments. As a result of the lack of demand, operating a bed and breakfast in Alexandra is a challenge and many of them often close down because there is no market.”

Dladla (personal communication, 23 July 2016) mentioned that “…some of the most popular attractions include the Nelson Mandela Yard, Anglican Mission School, African Methodist Episcopal Church, Alexandra Beer Hall, Jukskei River, Freedom Square No 2, Moses Kotane’s Home, King’s Cinema, Jukskei Cemetery, Jukskei Cemetery, to name a few”, all of which are visited by tourists on organised tours. Yet Smith (personal communication, 3 July 2016) advocated that “…there is a need to integrate other activities in Alexandra if the township is to have a strong tourism industry”.

As an example, the Pan African Mall in Alexandra is one of the biggest shopping hubs in Johannesburg, with improved infrastructure and an integrated public transport system that is linked to various places around Johannesburg, yet Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) noted that “…the lack of promoting a shopping lifestyle has been a missed opportunity in the township. It is said that when travelling for tourism purposes, people often desire to engage in shopping”. Ntshieng Mkhomo (personal communication, 1 August 2016) elaborated that the Pan African Mall is a modern shopping complex that has many retail stores which sell all kinds of fashionable designs, both local and imported. Throughout the world, especially in European countries where the tourism industry is strong, shopping is a lucrative segment of tourism, i.e. shopping can be integrated into tourism development anywhere. Skhosana (personal

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communication, 1 August 2016) agreed that Alexandra has not yet discovered the benefits of integrating fashion and shopping with tourism development, but added that shopping and fashion alone may not become a main motivation for visitors to come to Alexandra.

Despite this, integrating fashion and shopping with tourism development would significantly contribute toward development, as it would add to the menu of activities for tourists, benefit product development, and increase tourists’ length of stay and spending. Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016) claimed that in Soweto, tourists spend up to a week per visit because there are many activities to keep them busy.

With regards to tourism facilities, there is a concern that the government is not addressing some of the challenges that are confronting the tourism industry in Alexandra, for example Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) identified that there is a need for signage, which is important for visitors’ convenience and accessibility. While the Alexandra Tourism Information Centre was built in 2004 and equipped with trained staff to deal with the administration of matters concerning the local tourism industry, people find it difficult to locate the information centre to get help as there is no signage. In addition, Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) stated that “…the majority of the attractions, particularly the heritage sites, have been marked with plaques but it is also difficult to access them conveniently without proper signs for direction, especially for people who are not familiar with Alexandra”.

4.4.5 Unequal distribution of wealth and lack of jobs created through the tourism industry Many in Alexandra feel excluded whenever any kind of progress occurs, including tourism related developments, for example Mkomo (personal communication, 30 July 2016) indicated that “…the communities living in the areas surrounding the heritage sites and attractions (such as the Nelson Mandela Precinct and African Methodist Episcopal Church) have the advantage of receiving adequate municipal services and other forms of development” due to the area’s tourism potential, its close proximity to London Road and the ease of access to the City of Johannesburg. According to Nkabinde (personal communication, 29 June 2016), the areas classified as informal settlements that most often experience crime are generally neglected when development is discussed. Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) explained that “…the people living in the part of Alexandra, which is occupied by the shacks (such as Setswetla), do not see their communities as

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part of the developments that everyone is excited about concerning tourism”. Mkhomo, (personal communication, 1 August 2016) added that:

“There is a concern that some of are not even consulted with these developments. There is also a concern that instead of meaningful participation in tourism through ownership and entrepreneurship, the poor are only involved in the industry through their provision of labour to informal and semi-formal SMMEs. In terms of job opportunities through tourism development, the industry [through SMMEs] is not progressing as a labour-intensive industry. This is an actual fact, putting in consideration the high and increasing number of the people that are not in the permanent employment in Alexandra. To make the situation even worse for the poor, it is said that sometimes employment is being created on a part- time basis. The part-time jobs are good in giving people an opportunity to do something for themselves economically. However, they are not sustainable and therefore do not represent a long-term solution to the problem of unemployment in Alexandra. In addition, even those involved in full-time jobs in the tourism businesses [bed and breakfasts, cinemas, transport companies, etc.], often encounter certain challenges in a working environment. Even though their jobs are secured as full-time workers, they are often employed without having to sign legal contracts with the employer that would protect their needs. Since they would take any job as way to escape unemployment, they are in no position to challenge the employer on issues concerning contractual signing, which often forces the employer to adhere to the government’s regulations in the Basic Conditions of Employment Act (1997).”

According to Mhlongo (personal communication, 15 July 2016) and Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016), as workers do not sign contracts with their employers, there is also a concern that they do not receive even a minimum wage, as per government regulations. This simply means that the workers are not protected by law, since they also do not have unions to assist them. Mndebele (personal communication, 9 July 2016) also claimed that the majority of business operators in Alexandra do not use their economic power for the benefit of the township, i.e. they do not invest in the small developmental projects that are often initiated by the community.

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4.4.6 The lack of participation of women and the disabled people in the tourism industry Historically, in every country around the world, gender inequality and prejudice against women has always been a concern – particularly when it comes to the economy. As a result, women have remained largely dependent on men who dominate in most spheres of society (i.e. culturally, politically and economically). South Africa is no different, with studies showing that gender inequality has prevailed in both traditional and modern communities. In terms of tourism development in Alexandra, Skhosana (personal communication, 1 August 2016) pointed out the tourism market is highly dominated by men, while according to Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) “…even though there are also few determined women entering the business world through their small businesses, they are often encountered with prejudice from stereotypical men that they have to share the same market and compete with on a daily basis”.

Disabled people are said to experience even worse treatment, with few receiving education and training, despite the fact that the participation of disabled people is encouraged through training programmes. Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) stated that “…the rate of unemployment is high and increasing among the disabled people in Alexandra. It is said that the reason for such a limited participation of the disabled people is because they often complete the training but find it more difficult to obtain decent job opportunities”. Mokgoro (personal communication, 17 July 2016) went on to add that within the township there are different kinds of disabled people, for example there are those who are in wheelchairs but who can create and implement better business ideas than a person with no disabilities, however they have specific needs and in order for them to do something they often depend on other people to help them to move around. Mulaudzi (personal communication, 13 June 2016) agreed, noting that starting up and running a business requires a hard-working person with determination because challenges are often there.

In addition, Smith (personal communication, 3 July 2016) stated that for disabled people putting a business in place is often difficult, especially for SMME operators, because improving a small business also requires a lot of travelling, for example to register a business, open a business account, search for capital resources, etc. This makes the starting up and running of a business a huge challenge for disabled people, even if they have business potential. For this reason, Smith

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(personal communication, 3 July 2016) argued that women and the disabled encounter unique challenges in the tourism industry in Alexandra.

4.5 Conclusion The purpose of this chapter was to present the results collected from the fieldwork and turn them into findings, which were presented as per the respondents’ perspectives and understandings in relation to the development of tourism in Alexandra. As mentioned earlier, semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants, which included people in civil society, government, the private sector, and NGOs. All these stakeholders play a significant role in helping to uplift Alexandra and promote tourism in various ways.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter critically discusses and interprets the results of the study, with the intention of providing a clear perspective of the tourism growth challenges in Alexandra. This chapter also considers the research questions and literature reviewed in order to understand what other studies have revealed regarding tourism development in Alexandra.

5.2 Discussion of theme one: Indirect challenges as a factor for in the lack of tourism development in Alexandra while the potential for tourism growth is identified 5.2.1 Indirect challenges as a factor for lack of tourism development in Alexandra 5.2.1.1 The environmental problems and poor sanitation in Alexandra

Throughout the study, the prevailing environmental challenges were identified as issues hindering tourism development in Alexandra. From the observations made in the field, it became clear to the researcher that the work done by the various environmental programmes under the ARP are not fully addressing the issues at hand. These programmes include the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme, Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme, Alexandra Environmental Clean-up Campaign, and Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme. The findings of the study revealed that some work has been done, such as conducting environmental awareness campaigns, hosting responsible tourism workshops and providing training to local community members to empower them with the necessary knowledge to understand the importance of protecting the environment and its resources. Yet Sinwell (2005) stated that despite the work of these programmes, the fact remains that Alexandra is in an environmentally degraded condition.

In addition, according to Mawela (2008), the bad conditions are affecting the lives of the local residents and have limited the potential for tourism growth over the years. This means that there is more still to be done by the local government and community in terms of addressing the situation to pave the way for tourism development.

The reality is that the Jukskei River, East Bank and Setswetla settlements generate a large amount of waste, which is compounded by the lack of access to sanitation facilities for residents. It is

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evident from the findings that most of the waste is dumped in the Jukskei River, a local heritage site. This dumping is said to be creating tensions amongst the residents, considering that it is an attraction and part of the Alexandra Route of Rhythm, i.e. it brings value to the community in terms of promoting cultural pride and because it generates income for local people as an attraction. From the researcher’s observations made in the field, the river is often filled with old clothes, papers, plastic, cans, etc., which are causing extreme pollution and pose a health risk. Mawela (2008) stated that severe health conditions are often reported at local healthcare facilities in Alexandra, as children often play on the river banks, placing their health in danger. The same situation of illegal dumping is seen across Alexandra, including in the streets and other open areas (Sinwell, 2005), creating hazardous conditions and foul smells.

In addition, as the level of pollution increases, so the water becomes more contaminated, which often results in the spread of disease. The growing population and overcrowding in Alexandra is also contributing to the township’s environmental problems (Mabotja, 2011). The findings noted that there is a lack of awareness regarding the importance of environmental protection and conservation, i.e. there is a need to educate people about the environment and waste handling. In addition, the government needs to improve its service delivery, particularly in the provision of sanitation facilities and waterborne sewerage systems. According to Manala (2014), during hot seasons, waste attracts flies into people’s homes and shops, which makes Alexandra an unsuitable place for people to live and do business effectively. Any remaining open spaces have also become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and rodents, and a culture of planting trees for air purification and wind control has not been encouraged by the government.

As a result, these environmental problems make any efforts to develop tourism challenging, and there is a concern that if the environmental issues are not addressed, the situation may become irreversible. As there is a lack of awareness and education, illiterate parents and children suffer the most, because they have no knowledge of how to address this social challenge within their own communities, i.e. children will continue playing in the polluted spaces and being exposed to diseases. Therefore, this research found that as long as people are not adequately educated on the importance of the protection and conservation of the environment and its limited resources, the goal of attaining sustainable development may not be realised.

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5.2.1.2 The problem of crime in affecting tourism development

In terms of the challenges facing Alexandra, crime and violence is a key factor hindering tourism development. According to the respondents from the provincial government, the issues of crime and crime control have been a concern for years in Alexandra. Since the 1990s, the government has made tremendous efforts through various anti-crime policies to reduce crime and violence (Stavrou, 1993), for example a new police station was built in Alexandra with trained employees to serve the community. However, despite such efforts being put in place, crime and violence is still a challenge. Social issues (such as increasing unemployment, poverty, xenophobia and a lack of socio-economic growth and skills development) are said to be a contributing factor to the rising levels of crime and violence in the township, which in turn has led to a lack of private sector investment (Stavrou, 1993). In addition, the implementation of tourism policies and developmental projects is undermined if the buy-in of the community, as an important stakeholder, is not realised (Moyo, 2005).

The respondents noted that engaging in criminal activities provides individuals with some sense of power to survive difficult economic conditions, particularly in poverty stricken and child- headed families. Further, the informal settlements of Jukskei River and Setswetla are experiencing overcrowding, and are most affected by crime, poverty, unemployment and illiteracy. The respondents from civil society and NGOs stated that many residents have no way to provide for their families, thus their standard of living is deteriorating. Many youth also feel that they have no future, with some resorting to criminal activities as the only way to escape poverty or being dependent on their parents (Mngomeni, 2014). Another concern is that as tourists generally carry cash and other valuables, they have become targets for criminals, thus the township is increasingly being viewed as inhospitable, dangerous and violent.

As per the White Paper of 1996 on Responsible Tourism, the development and promotion of the tourism industry in South Africa is important because of its contribution to economic growth, the creation of job opportunities, support for the development of small businesses, and the development of infrastructure. In the case of Alexandra, however, while efforts have been put in place to develop tourism, much needs to be done in order to position the township as a tourist destination.

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5.2.1.3 Shortage of space and public land to accommodate the development of more tourism facilities

Alexandra was created in the 1900s as a suburb for white settlers due to its close proximity to the city, yet when such developments failed after 1912, it became a residential area for blacks (Davie, 2012). From that time, due to the government’s negligence, the township became impoverished. Although it was designed to accommodate 150,000 people, today Alexandra is home to 750,000 people, who live in congested spaces with limited space available for future developments. More open land is required for tourism development, but the provincial government is struggling to remove illegal occupants from vacant land.

5.2.1.4 The lack of maintenance of infrastructure and illegal electric connections

When the ARP began its work in 2001, one of the challenges in Alexandra was to improve the local infrastructure, thus most of its budget focused on infrastructure development, particularly roads and railways, walkways, power and water connections, street lights, garbage bins in public spaces, road signage, health-care facilities, and recreational parks. In this regard, the work of the ARP should be acknowledged as such developments were noticeable, particularly during the years when the country was preparing to host the Soccer World Cup in 2010. While some developments took place, however, many challenges with regard to infrastructure development in Alexandra remain, partly due to poor infrastructural maintenance. Potholes and the need for road signs are a particular challenge for road users in Alexandra, with the situation deteriorating daily. Such conditions make it difficult for local residents and visitors to drive around the township conveniently, particularly as local businesses within the tourism industry (such as tour companies) rely on the road infrastructure to provide services to tourists.

There are also growing problems with illegal electricity connections in most parts of Alexandra, which pose a threat to safety and make it difficult for Eskom to ensure a stable power supply in the area (Mabotja, 2011). Further, a large proportion of households do not have any power supply, while others are still connected to the old electrical network, which pose a danger to society. These illegal power connections and lack of electricity networks are problematic for small business operators, as are the ongoing power cuts.

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5.2.1.5 Lack of leadership and mismanagement of funding within the ARP and ATDP

The findings revealed that a major challenge with the ARP and ATDP is the issue of poor leadership and mismanagement of funding. This problem is evident through the multiple changes in the management of the ARP and ATDP, with various project leaders being dismissed. While corrupt leaders within the projects have been exposed by the local community for their failure to fulfil their mandates to deliver development, there is a concern that many involved in criminality are not brought to book. This shows that there is a lack of accountability in local and provincial government; instead of prosecuting corrupt leaders within these projects, they are being deployed to work elsewhere. The ARP and ATDP began with the task of developing the tourism infrastructure and promoting Alexandra’s heritage in 2001 with a huge capital investment, but there is little to show for it. The construction of the Alexandra Heritage Centre and Alexandra Pan- African Mall took many years due to poor leadership and the mismanagement of funding; in fact the private sector aided the provincial government by investing additional capital into the Mall.

5.2.2 Potential for tourism growth and opportunity for socioeconomic growth: Alexandra in a post-apartheid South Africa The respondents argued that the township is a tourism destination in its own right, as it has been home to several freedom fighters such as Nelson Mandela, and accommodates many people of diverse cultures. This multi-cultural society, as well as the country’s social and political history, is an integral part of tourism in Alexandra. Due to neglect, limited economic opportunities, and high levels of poverty, crime and violence, tourism development was not encouraged until recently with the new government’s intervention. Visits to the township’s historical sites are promoted through guided tours, and the host-community residents are encouraged use the economic opportunity to start and grow businesses to cater to visitors. Soweto has done just this, and has flourished as a destination since 1994. The majority of the respondents claimed that Alexandra also has such tourism growth potential, with tourism slowly gaining in popularity and the provincial government supporting tourism development through the ARP. In addition, the findings showed that tourism is gaining momentum as visitors have a desire to explore the lives of previously disadvantaged communities in post-apartheid South Africa.

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South Africa is no longer known only for its scenic beauty, climate and wildlife; many people now travel to the country for entertainment and educational purposes. Township tourism (because of its cultural element) is seen as edutainment, whereby visitors enjoy their trip while learning about other cultures (Ramchander, 2007). Most township tours since 2002, following the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, have encouraged developmental projects that link tourism conservation and pro-poor development. Therefore, while the promotion of culture and heritage is gaining recognition in Alexandra, sustainable development is also encouraged, even though there are still constraints.

During the promotion of tourism development in Alexandra, focus must be placed on domestic tourism, with product development that meets all tastes and cultures. Further, tourism products must have an educational element, as many tourists want to observe and learn in order to broaden their knowledge for personal development (Nieftagodien, 2013). In other words, increasing numbers of visitors are eager to visit previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra, which reflect both past and present human experiences. The findings further revealed that a growing number of small businesses, attractions, activities, facilities and tourism organisations also explain the potential for tourism development in Alexandra.

This shows that even though tourism is still new in Alexandra, it is increasingly gaining momentum as domestic and international visitors come to the area to explore the cultures of indigenous South Africans. The respondents believed that tourism development has created a platform for the poor in Alexandra to showcase their diversity through artwork, enabling some at the grassroots level to make a living for their families (Nieftagodien, 2013). The research also found that there is a need for Alexandra to implement the principles of the South African Tourism Strategy Paper of 2011, which emphasises the direct involvement of the poor in all forms of engagement, including decision making processes. This is said to be important for unlocking economic opportunities for the poor to start businesses, find decent jobs, and realise other forms of tourism benefits (Ramchander, 2007). According to the findings, tourism has also brought about non-financial gains through the provision of tourism training, raising environmental awareness, rehabilitation, infrastructural development, the identification of heritage sites, the development of the Heritage Centre, and so on.

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All these have an effect on promoting the livelihoods of people, including the poor and those in non-tourism businesses. According to the findings, tourism development in Alexandra is seen as a catalyst for economic growth and as significant for its linkage to poverty alleviation. A trending focus is on pro-poor, community-based, volunteer tourism, which aims to achieve ‘responsible tourism’. According to Sifolo (2015), pro-poor focused tourism development is suited to alleviating poverty and unemployment, as well as addressing inequalities amongst communities, by being more economically and socially inclusive. The respondents commented that there is a need to promote tourism that provides meaningful and transformative experiences for both the host-community and visitors, such as through the completion of the Alexandra Heritage Centre which has paved the way for cultural and educational tourism in the township (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). By looking through the findings and reviewing the literature on township tourism, it is apparent that the tourism industry in Alexandra is locally owned. This is evident with locally- owned and run SMMEs in tourism around Alexandra.

Residents are involved in tourism development, particularly as local labourers and service providers through their small businesses. Through local tourism SMMEs, particularly tours companies in Alexandra, visitors are given the best opportunity to experience the township, converting insecurity and unfamiliarity into adventure and pleasure (Dürr and Jaffe, 2012). The study found that through experiences, a poverty-stricken and crime-ridden township can be transformed into an attraction. For example, several crime hot-spots, known for being territories that belonged to various dangerous street gangs in the 1990s, have now become heritage sites that have been integrated into the Alexandra Route of Rhythm. According to Meyer (2004), most tours visit these places, thus tourism in Alexandra has made strides to serve as an economic growth tool. In this way, the image of Alexandra is changing, encouraging international visitors to visit. This is thanks in large part to the government, community, NGOs, and private sector.

The provincial government’s role in implementing tourism policies focuses on infrastructure development (Ramchander, 2007), while the community also has a role to play in developing tourism. This includes forming community-based tourism organisations and welcoming tourism development. Indeed, community-based organisations (working with other stakeholders) can help address social challenges.

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5.3 Discussion of theme two: The development of tourism through various initiatives Although there is still more to be done to bring about improvement, Alexandra has experienced some progress since 1994, when the new government promised to change the township as part of the national development plan for South Africa. As one of six nodal areas, Alexandra was identified as a township in need of urgent development by former President Thabo Mbeki, who realised that Alexandra had suffered from severe economic growth challenges and poverty due to negligence by the previous government (Davie, 2012). There have thus been efforts put in place through various developmental programmes such as the ARP since 2001. To bring about development, the first budget of R1.3 billion, which was allocated for seven years, was spent by 2005, i.e. three years before the deadline of 2008. Since the project was not complete, the deadline was then extended by another three years to expire in 2011 (Mabotja, 2011). As a result of fund mismanagement and corruption at the management level of the ARP, followed by demands for more developments from the community, the project deadline was later further extended until 2014. As the township continues to face the same developmental challenges, the ARP is still tasked with developing Alexandra; the budget of ARP’s projects has now exceeded R2 billion since 2001.

5.3.1 The role of government-led projects: The ARP and ATDP The government has an important role to play in Alexandra, as it is responsible for crafting and implementing policies that will create an enabling environment for tourism development (Sifolo, 2015). In addition, the government is a key stakeholder as it has provided most of the funding for the development of the tourism infrastructure. The government also has the capacity to attract and pursue potential investors to bring money and business to Alexandra. In terms of guiding development, the key initiative of the government is the National Development Plan Vision 2030, which is a long-term economic plan for South Africa as a whole that outlines important roles for all stakeholders (including government, private sector, civil society, and NGOs) in the economy. Other significant guiding documents, which were launched particularly for tourism development in South Africa, are the 1996 Tourism White Paper and the 2011 National Tourism Sector Strategy (Sifolo, 2015).

The findings further revealed that the provincial government’s ARP and ATDP have been key examples of government intervention in promoting tourism in Alexandra, which have brought

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about a practical transformation with regards to the development of the tourism industry in the area. As a sub-project specifically launched for tourism development under the ARP, the ATDP has done good work thus far, particularly the completion of the Alexandra Heritage Centre, even though there have been challenges due to the mismanagement of funds. According to Sifolo (2015), the cultural and heritage assets are fundamental for the township, which is why the ATDP leadership emphasised the need for heritage conservation by identifying ways in which such assets can be safeguarded for the long term. The tourism project helped to form the Alexandra Heritage Team, which was tasked with the responsibility of identifying potential heritage sites and marking them with plagues.

In addition, several heritage sites that were considered to have the potential to foster economic growth and generate much needed jobs have been incorporated into the Alexandra Route of Rhythm. In this way, stated Briedenhann and Wickens (2007), the agenda of developing tourism and commercialising the local cultures of diverse people in Alexandra became possible. As a result, much of the work in branding the township as a tourism destination has been done, even know there is still challenges such as lack of signage and other facilities to improve tourism. The Alexandra Tourism Team, in partnership with the government, has identified more than 100 heritage sites across the township, with 30 of them being marked with plaques to indicate their importance. The Alexandra Route of Rhythm was also launched to include a combination of different attractions and other activities for the enjoyment of visitors coming into the township to learn about the local cultures and observe the everyday life of the people. Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) stated that this is a significant sign that tourism development is moving in a forward direction, even though there are still challenges.

While the majority of respondents acknowledged that tourism development is very slow in Alexandra, Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) stated that with commitment from various stakeholders, the ‘rainbow nation’ is progressing towards a prosperous future by using its rich cultural assets for sustainable and inclusive growth. They also praised the ATDP for its contribution to conserving local culture and heritage, promoting indigenous knowledge, and instilling cultural pride amongst the local people. It is evident that cultural tourism is growing all over the world, as people travel across cultural boundaries to satisfy their needs for cultural

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exploration. Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) added that South Africa’s history and cultural diversity has made it a unique tourism destination that provides authentic experiences.

The findings also revealed that in order to accommodate other forms of tourism, which will allow an opportunity to deliver a wide range of tourism experiences, more tourism facilities have been developed in Alexandra. These include the sport and recreational facilities and renewal of the No 3 Square, Altrek Sports Precinct and Alexandra Stadium. Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) identified the completion of the youth precinct as one of the main successes of the ARP in Alexandra, which has a skateboard track, basketball courts, and a small stadium. The findings also noted fundamental developments, including the construction of better housing and the relocation of households into new settlements in order to clear up public spaces that were illegally occupied by squatter camps to pave the way for the development of tourism facilities. Within the open spaces created after the demolition of squatter camps, recreational parks were developed along the Jukskei River area, with hundreds of trees planted throughout the township to purify the air and control the wind flow (Davie, 2012). This has improved social conditions in Alexandra, making the township a better place for people to live. All these new developments are said to be significant for tourism growth in Alexandra, as the provision of infrastructure, facilities and other activities add to the variety of tourism offerings.

5.3.1.1 The government’s support for SMMEs within tourism The previous chapter also showed the government’s recognition of the significant role that is played by SMMEs in Alexandra, which dominate the business sector and contribute towards the local socio-economy. Given the high levels of unemployment (60%) and the need for business development, the ARP pledged to local residents that it would prioritise the use of local labour and service providers for its project in Alexandra (Davie, 2012). The findings revealed that since 2001, the ARP has been providing institutional support to job seekers to find work, to potential entrepreneurs to create start-up businesses, and to service providers to expand their businesses. An ongoing government-community-private sector partnership led to the establishment of the Alexandra Business Place, which was launched to provide advice and support to SMME operators (Davie, 2012). In addition, to combat the widespread unemployment, a labour centre was developed to help young people find jobs. Unfortunately, the unemployed and young people are

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said to be losing hope, and are resorting to criminal activities and violence to get by. The incarceration rate is extremely high amongst young people, most of whom are school dropouts.

For this reason, government support for young entrepreneurs and job seekers is important, as it plays a role in contributing towards the creation of a stable society and alleviating poverty in Alexandra. The respondents also acknowledged the provision of tourism skills through the ARP, which helps residents by increasing their chances of finding decent jobs. This study found that business activities have been increasing since 2001 (i.e. when the ARP was launched), from 7 percent to 11 percent. This has impacted significantly on job creation, even though poverty and unemployment is increasing. Therefore, through the government’s policies and programmes, which seek to promote small businesses, the township of Alexandra is gradually emerging as a tourism destination on its own terms.

Tourism development in Alexandra is appreciated because it benefits both tourists and residents; tourists get an opportunity to be educated about the local lifestyle, while residents have the opportunity to become entrepreneurs. In advancing access to opportunities and creating more platforms for SMME growth in Alexandra, the government has also intervened through its institutions, which deal with the needs of small businesses at the national, provincial, and local levels.

For example, at the provincial level, the government has intervened through the Department of Trade and Industry, the Department of Economic Development, and the Department of Small Business Development, which focus on providing assistance to SMMEs in Alexandra. There are also agencies such as SEDA, GEP and Khula Enterprises Limited, which the Gauteng Tourism Authority and Johannesburg Tourism Company partnered with to provide assistance to SMMEs in Alexandra (Sifolo, 2015). The respondents from the business sector indicated that it is difficult to access financial aid, and that most of the assistance from government institutions is non- financial. This assistance includes business training, whereby entrepreneurs are educated on how to better start up, manage and grow their businesses. Through the intervention of these government institutions and agencies, a wide range of programmes have been put in place. For example, Khula Enterprises Limited has introduced the South Africa Micro-credit Apex Fund (SAMAF) in order to make funding available to small business operators in places like Alexandra. In order to deliver tangible results, SAMAF is working directly with several community development agencies and

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cooperatives to understand the real challenges facing small businesses and young people interested in entering the business world. According to Agupusi (2007), to increase funding at low costs, Khula Enterprises Limited offers a range of financial services and has close relationships with several commercial banking institutions and private organisations in South Africa. For example, Khula Enterprises Limited has been working with Business Partners to provide assistance to small businesses by offering funding and mentorship programmes.

It was also revealed in the findings that SEDA has made a range of business development services available in Alexandra. Although these are only non-financial services, the integrated support for SMMEs is making a difference, by helping SMME operators to open business accounts and educate them on how to separate their operation costs and profits. To make things more convenient for SMME operators to easily access SEDA services, an Enterprise Information Centre based in Alexandra was established. In addition, a government intervention has been made available through the National Empowerment Fund (NEF). According to Agupusi (2007), the NEF is a government body that works as a funding agency to businesses, and it also provides start-up financial assistance to SMMEs ranging from R250,000 to R10 million. Some of the respondents praised the NEF for its focus on transforming previously disadvantaged communities, while many also spoke highly of the non-financial assistance provided for SMMEs by the GEP, which was established within the Department for Economic Development by the Gauteng Provincial Government (GPG).

At the local level, the Alexandra Business Tourism Association, Alexandra Business Forum and Alexandra Business Place originated from the ARP as government-initiated projects for SMME development. Most of the respondents stated that these bodies encourage local business operators to take part in the tourism awareness workshops and training made available to them. This shows that the government regards the need for the provision of education through training initiatives as necessary to empower people in Alexandra. The government respondents also acknowledged that skills development is very important for community transformation, particularly in previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra. According to Sifolo (2015), the issue of training is important for public policy and should be at the centre of pro-poor development strategies. The findings of the study revealed that by pushing skill development, the gap between rich and poor can be minimised, as all people should be able to fully participate in the tourism industry and also

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use the opportunity to take advantage of tourism benefits. Empowerment through skills development could also address economic inequality in South Africa.

At the moment, Alexandra and South Africa as a whole are facing the dual challenges of structural unemployment and a lack of business development, particularly in previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra where a large proportion of the population do not enjoy any form of participation in the mainstream economy. This is said to be a result of many factors, including a lack of productive skills and capital resources to invest in businesses. Structural employment can be defined as a situation whereby a large number of people are not given an opportunity to be economically self-reliant. Therefore, according to Sifolo (2015), there needs to be government intervention in the provision of training to enhance skills development (to create entrepreneurs with the potential to generate employment), and job creation is necessary in order to enable previously advantaged communities to take advantage of ‘white collar’ or decent job opportunities. Sifolo added that in order to pave the way for SMMEs’ growth in Alexandra, the National Department of Tourism (NDT) has emphasised the need for more tourism training in the country in order to meet the objectives of the 1996 Tourism White Paper. The government respondents described the issue of lack of training as a stumbling block hindering tourism development in Alexandra.

5.3.1.2 The government’s initiatives in providing tourism training for skill development The training initiatives, as per Chapter 4, include the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme, the Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Training Programme, and the Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme. These training programmes represent the government’s commitment to empower the previously disadvantaged communities in Alexandra, and are said to have resulted in community empowerment by pushing skills development and increasing residents’ ability to participate in the local tourism industry through starting up small businesses and providing labour to tourism establishments. Within the tourism industry, local people are often absorbed through the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme to be trained as professional tour guides. In addition, Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) stated that the Department of Arts and Culture helps artists by providing them with a platform to exhibit their work at both the national and international levels. The findings further showed that the Alexandra Business Tourism Association encourages local

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people and business operators to attend the annual SMME Indaba, in order to learn new and innovative ways of starting up, managing, sustaining and growing their businesses.

There is a need for pragmatism as well as tourism training in communities like Alexandra, in order to develop desire and instill knowledge. This is important because people should be able to make informed decisions about the manner in which they wish to develop their tourism industry. In other words, education will enable residents to take a driving seat in their tourism industry, especially when developmental projects are underway. The current situation in Alexandra is that unemployment rates are very high and the young people are totally discouraged; some are graduates but are not participating in the economy due to a lack of economic opportunities. The challenge relating to the provision of training has remained a concern for the government; in fact, one of the objectives of the 1996 Tourism White Paper in South Africa was to ensure that the government provided training to approximately 100,000 people every year, particularly the youth. Unfortunately this objective has never been translated into practice, as only 10,000 people are trained specifically for tourism every year in South Africa (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007).

This suggests that the government has not been able to deliver on its goal of providing tourism training, as it tasked itself. Kaplan (2004) noted that the number of people receiving training for tourism is not satisfactory, when compared to the rates at which the unemployment and overall population is growing. This also explains the lack of tourism skills in South Africa as a whole, which impacts negatively on tourism development. According to the findings of the study, most businesses in the tourism industry open and close within a year. This is said to be a result of the fact that most of the SMMEs in Alexandra are run by people who do not have the necessary entrepreneurial skills to enable them to remain in business. However, Kaplan also noted that the fact that the government has been empowering the people of Alexandra through these various training programmes cannot be ignored, particularly considering the work of various government institutions and agencies.

While the challenge of a lack of tourism training still remains, the government is implementing various tourism training initiatives, as mentioned earlier, to push skills development in Alexandra. Tourism development in South Africa is at the centre of the National Development Plan, as tourism was identified as a labour intensive sector. A certain number of graduates from the government training programmes are chosen annually and are allocated to various tourism establishments in

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Alexandra, the City of Johannesburg, and Sandton, as through such development, the industry can encourage communities in Alexandra to be self-sufficient.

The government should focus more on finding partners from the private sector to invest in promoting skills development for the tourism sector, as this would increase opportunities for tourism to reach its potential in South Africa. Once this is achieved, with a sufficiently skilled national workforce, South Africa and its previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra would enjoy socio-economic development, job creation, and business opportunities. Kaplan (2004: 380) also noted that tourism is one of the more competitive industries in the world, thus the generation of tourism professionals to develop, innovate and provide products and services is necessary in order to compete with other countries and destinations. Even though there are still challenges with regards to the provision of tourism training in Alexandra, it is evident that the government has put efforts in place through its policies to increase the availability of, and accessibility to, training to empower the community. According to the findings of the study, recent government policy reports emphasise not only the importance of providing tourism training, but also creating tourism training programmes that are increasingly accessible to the people. In addition, the reports emphasise that with regards to the availability of such training programmes, priority must be given to the previously disadvantaged communities across South Africa.

5.3.1.3 The government and community to address crime The township of Alexandra is considered to be one of the most crime-ridden and violent areas in the world, particularly given the recent incidents of xenophobia there. The issue of crime is not a new phenomenon for the township, however; it was a social challenge long before the apartheid era. Stavrou (1993) argued that the problem of crime has an effect on the transformation of Alexandra, which is why the government (in partnership with the community) has committed itself to fighting crime. In order to understand the causes of crime and to identify crime control measures, the Alexandra Community Crime Survey (ACCS) was introduced. This detailed pilot study by the provincial government had the objective of creating baseline data to give a clear understanding of how to develop a policy to deal with social problems in order to minimise criminal activities. Stavrou explained that in order to conduct an accurate study and avoid possible generalisations on the causes and impacts of crime and violence, the data had to stand on their own within the

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parameters of the case study of the township. This study serves as a foundation for future research on Alexandra, and can be used to measure improvements or a lack thereof in terms of crime reduction. Surveys such as this are necessary for places like Alexandra, because they give a clear picture of the causes of crime and can make recommendations on how to address it. The respondents to this study stated that the ACCS will help to reposition the township to be the safest place to visit in the country.

A new police station was built in 2001, while the installation of street and public lighting is said to have reduced crime and violence after dark. The civil society respondents stated that a 40 percent reduction in crime was seen in cases of house-breaking, shoplifting, murder, assault, car hijackings, and domestic abuse against women and children in 2009. Even though this does not mean that the problem of crime is solved in Alexandra, it does indicate that the government is committed to the fight against criminal activities and violence. A reduction in crime would help to promote the tourism industry in the area, by assuring the safety and security of not only the community, but also the visitors bringing money into the township.

There was a further 19.9 percent drop in criminal activities in 2015. The Gauteng provincial government introduced a strategic programme, Operation Shanyela, with the objective of fighting crime and bring stability to the province. In Alexandra, for example, the local police, with the assistance of the Johannesburg Metro Police Department, have regularly raided many crime hot- spots. The role of the community in this is significant, as they are partnering with government to improve security by identifying some of the crime hot-spots and hard-core criminals in the area. Stavrou (1993) noted that this makes the fight against crime easier for the justice system, while making Alexandra a livable space for all its residents, especially women and children who are the most vulnerable groups in society. However, there is a concern relating to the lack of protection for whistle blowers in the township, which makes some people reluctant to report serious criminal activities.

5.3.1.4 The government and community in the development of heritage sites and other facilities The development of over 120 heritage sites, such as the Alexandra Heritage Centre and the Nelson Mandela Yard Interpretation Centre, as well as the Alexandra Route of Rhythm, has been fundamental in the promotion and branding of the township as a tourism destination. All these

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heritage sites are very important to the people of Alexandra as they tell a particular history, which is unique to the township (Mabotja, 2011).

The work of the ARP and ATDP has given the community a sense of identity and dignity, and has instilled a cultural pride amongst the local people. The Alexandra Heritage Centre building, for example, is a work of art in itself, which was designed to have a modern physical structure to embrace the modern Alexandra in a post-apartheid South Africa. The township’s history has shaped the greater City of Johannesburg; it was where bus boycotts and other forms of protest took place in the apartheid years (Mabotja, 2011). In addition, Alexandra was critical for the development of gold mines and other related industries, as the township was a source of supply for unskilled labour.

The Alexandra Route of Rhythm connects a range of attractions in Alexandra, which tour operators capitalise upon by offering tour packages to visitors in the area. For example, all guided tours conducted in Alexandra include a stop at the Nelson Mandela Yard. These heritage sites are important, as not only do they draw in visitors who spend money, thus improving the local economy (Mabotja, 2011), but they also provide non-economic benefits to the host-community residents, as they enable them to enhance their cultural knowledge.

5.3.1.5 The government’s role in the improvement of municipal services The development of infrastructure by the ARP has been key, for example most community roads have been upgraded into tarred roads, some roads have been widened to minimise congestion and allow convenient traffic flow between Alexandra and Sandton, and two footbridges over the Jukskei River connecting the East Bank settlement with the rest of Alexandra have enabled school learners and workers to get across the river safely.

Such improvements have made the township more accessible, and has linked it with other important places and major cities across the country. This includes rail infrastructure (i.e. for the Gautrain), which has impacted the lives of the local people and visitors. Davie (2012) stated that the close proximity of a Gautrain station to the Greater Alexandra area has presented an opportunity for further development and private sector investment. In addition, there has been progress in terms of the provision of water and sanitation, which has improved the state of

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Alexandra over the years and enabled it to become a focus of research and business investment (Davie, 2012).

Most of the respondents believed that Alexandra is destined for further improvements, adding that residents should be motivated to support tourism by developing products and services, while the government rejuvenates the township by providing services and infrastructure. Respondents from the government noted that the Department of Public Works worked with the ARP to install new waterborne sewerage systems to improve sanitation, and throughout the new settlements, housing is being provided with water piped toilets and garbage bins. In the Jukskei River area and other informal settlements, the municipality provides residents with chemical toilets and garbage bins (Agupusi, 2007). Thus, while many remain without proper sanitation, there have been some improvements.

5.3.1.6 The government’s role in addressing environmental challenges and increasing awareness Various programmes have been introduced to create a township that is environmentally hygienic, including the Alexandra Environmental Programme, Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme and Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme (Davie, 2012). The latter programme mobilises people in Alexandra to attend responsible tourism workshops, during which issues concerning environmental challenges are discussed. In addition, the programmes come up with ways to protect the environment and provide training to people to cultivate a culture of caring for the environment.

To begin with the work of rehabilitating the informal settlement along the Jukskei River area, the ARP relocated over 7,500 households to new settlements, which were provided with housing and sanitation facilities (Davie, 2012). In addition, a free space of land of about 37ha was made available for developing a green-belt (row of trees) alongside the community roads and playgrounds for children. Following the clean-up campaign, the Jukskei River was developed into a heritage site to attract visitors and business. Considering the environmental condition of the Jukskei River area, the relocation of the thousands of families was necessary in order to allow the Alexandra Environmental Programme and Alexandra Jukskei River Rehabilitation Programme to continue with the rehabilitation work in the area.

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The findings revealed that because of the lack of access to municipal services such as sanitation facilities, and because the area is below the flood line and thus dangerous, the Jukskei River area is unsuitable for human settlement. However, as a result of a lack of space for settlement, illegal shack dwellers still occupy the land. The government respondents stated that the environmental revitalisation in the Jukskei River area was thus redundant, as shack dwellers treat the environment irresponsibly. In addition, as there is no service delivery such as sanitation management, the community members use the Jukskei River to dump waste, which pollutes the river. Thus, despite government efforts to address the environmental challenge, it is difficult to successfully do that because there is a lack of cooperation from the community. However, the programmes are still doing the work of cleaning up the area - the focus has just changed from evicting people from the area; an air quality monitoring station and a waste recycling facility were established to purify the air and recycle the waste generated by residents (Davie, 2012). This is very important for Alexandra, as applying such strategies show a move towards the principles of sustainable development.

5.3.1.7 Government’s role in promoting the participation of women and the disabled in tourism The government in promoting the tourism industry in Alexandra, national tourism policy has recognised the importance of involvement of women and the disabled people in tourism. The participation of women (i.e. through giving them skills and other opportunities that they were denied with in the past years) is said to be a significant step towards addressing the challenge of gender and economic inequality inequalities in society. As mentioned earlier, the national tourism policy explained it clearly that women empowerment and the participation of the disabled in tourism is significant. Thus, government is committed in supporting them in order to participate in the socioeconomic growth in their communities. Such support is through providing the provision of them with assistance in terms of starting up, managing, and growing their small businesses. Nieftagodien (2013) argued identified that the ATDP, in joint partnership with GTA and JTC, absorbs provides a group of women and the disabled training through the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme, Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Programme, and the Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme on an annual basis to offer them tourism training. These programmes places into different institution of learning within the province. After receiving such

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training to become qualified chefs, waiters, receptionists, tour guides, and other areas of expertise, they are also supported to find employment, considering that it is sometimes difficult to find work these days. The findings revealed that GTA and JTC help by allocating them in various tourism and hospitality establishments. This is said to include Southern Sun Hotel, Protea Hotel, and other multinational corporations within the tourism industry.

The findings also revealed that those who wishing to become entrepreneurs are also supported through financial support. , for example the ATDP encourages women and the disabled in Alexandra to develop tourism products and services that are competitive in order to enter and survive in the male- dominated tourism industry. Nieftagodien (2013) argued explained that developing competitive products and services for tourism is paving an opportunities the way for women to capitalise on tourism revenue, thereby contributing to the mainstream economy as entrepreneurs and employment creators. In this way, poverty alleviation is being achieved in female- headed households in Alexandra. This is a significant attempt step towards implementing the objectives set out in the Tourism White Paper on with regards to women empowerment and the involvement of the disabled in tourism development, particularly in the previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra. This shows that tourism has potential of creating an opportunity for the advancement of women and the disabled. It essential in paving way for them to be economically independent through entrepreneurship and labour.

Indeed, this shows that when tourism development is carried out responsible, by ensuring that all stakeholders are involved and understand their defined roles, socio-economic regeneration and pro-poor development is realised. In addition, ensuring explicit pro-poor focused development also increases the widening of tourism revenues, whereby the most marginalised also reap the benefits. In the case of Alexandra, findings of the study revealed that there are many SMMEs (i.e. bed and breakfasts, theatres, arts and craft markets, transport companies, tour guiding guides and tour operator companies, etc.) that are now owned and run by women, even though more than 70 percent of all the small business are still run by men.

Sifolo (2015) argued that in order to reduce this gap and bring about a balance in terms of ownership, all developments should present opportunities for women to tap into the business sector, have an opportunity to invent new tourism products, enjoy employment opportunities, access support from the government, and be involved in important decision making processes in

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Alexandra. Thus, meaningful inclusion is very important in the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra.

However, the findings also revealed that there has been a concern that women and the disabled often feel excluded during development processes, while men dominate and enjoy most of the benefits that come from the tourism industry in Alexandra. Sifolo (2015) argued that the lack of access to skills, labour market, and business opportunity is often noticeable among women and the disabled. Therefore, the government (in partnership with the NGOs and private sector) through its institutions and agencies need to committee itself in correcting the historical injustice against women by increasing opportunities for them through providing the necessary assistance. The government programmes (such as the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme, Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Programme, and Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme) must be monitored to keep providing training for women in Alexandra. As a result, through their involvement in training programmes, these women acquired skills and enhanced their abilities to be role players in the main-stream economy and become self-reliant.

This would will help them to become active and become recognised in the community, and act as well as role models to other women and men. Despite being disadvantaged for a long time, most women are no longer afraid to dream big and being ambitious and enthusiastic to about pursue pursuing economic success in various activities and across all levels in society. In addition, Sifolo (2015) argued that the GEP has been very instrumental in the provision of assistance to SMMEs within the township. Findings of the study (i.e. chapter 4) have revealed that the involvement of women and the disabled people has been highly encouraged. Respondents from the business sector noted that various initiatives endorse women involvement in tourism projects, not only through providing with their labour but also to own the industry. As a result, with all these the programmes that the government has put in place, women have been given an opportunity to be more skilled and economically self-reliant through becoming entrepreneurs and skilled labourers.

5.3.2 The role of community in promoting tourism In terms of township tourism development in Alexandra, the study revealed that the community is playing a significant role in various community-based initiatives. An example of such an initiative is the Social History Project, which seeks to document the oral history and heritage of the

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indigenous people in the township as untold stories to be commmercialised as a tourism product. According to Petesch (2013), the aim of this community-based initiative, which was created in partnership with the ATDP, is to showcase the important history and heritage of the township, particularly stories and events relating to anti-apartheid struggles. The civil society respondents stated that during the apartheid era, Alexandra residents faced and survived many threats of demolition. In addition, most arrests at the time were politically motivated, as the ruling party aimed to silence politically active black Africans and political organisations that challenged the government. Alexandra locals also played a significant role during the student uprisings of the 1970s, which began in Soweto.

Such a rich history highlights the importance of Alexandra, which should be shared with the rest of the world. The government has thus laid a foundation for the development of township tourism in Alexandra, and the community needs to take the opportunity to attract visitors into the township by telling their stories. According to Petesch (2013), as the residents record their oral histories, their cultural pride grows and there is a growing desire to educate visitors about their histories and lifestyles. In terms of attracting more visitors into the area to consume such attractions, the community (in partnership with the Alexandra Tourism Team) has also introduced a movement known as the ‘get off the bus’ campaign. The objective of the campaign is to encourage visitors to get off of their buses when visiting the township so that they have an opportunity to interact with the local people, experience the local cultures, and buy local goods from residents. This is done by promoting cycling and walking tours in Alexandra, which are conducted by professional guides. Such tours are said to be an effective tool to promote a tourism industry that provides an opportunity for local people to benefit from tourism, including the poor.

In terms of improving and ensuring the safety and security of all (i.e. both the local residents and visitors coming to the area), the community itself is playing a major role in the prevention of crime in Alexandra. Growing numbers of people are offering their services as volunteers to patrol the streets of Alexandra at night, and the community is also recognising the importance of working with the government to solve the ongoing crime (Petesch, 2013).

The Alexandra Police Station is said to be accessible to any citizen in the township, and the development of the road infrastructure has made it easier for police officers to navigate within the streets of Alexandra and more effectively do their jobs.

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5.3.3 The role of the private sector in the development of tourism The findings revealed that the private sector is also playing a huge role in the development of Alexandra, including in the tourism industry. As a result of being located in close proximity to Sandton and the City of Johannesburg, i.e. the largest commercial hubs in South Africa, Alexandra has been attracting important investments, including in the Pan Africa Retail Centres, which have brought more than R400 million into the local economy. Within the Pan Africa Retail Centres there are over 70 trader stalls, with a public transport infrastructure accommodating over 1,000 taxis (Agupusi, 2007). The construction of the Pan African Retail Centre also contributed through the creation of local knowledge and skills, as only project managers and experts were imported from outside. This is a good sign for socio-economic growth and the creation of job opportunities in the area, although the growth in population is making it difficult for people to realise the benefits, since unemployment is increasing every year. The mall is also slowly promoting a lifestyle of shopping and fashion in Alexandra, and tourists can buy locally produced and imported products and services from the over 300 stores there. Agupusi (2007) commented that ambitious young people, particularly those with strong business ideas and those who are already in the market, feel more inspired to grow their ventures even further, as the Pan African Mall is well marketed and geographically well situated.

The respondents also stated that ongoing small scale initiatives are focusing on SMME development in Alexandra, which are implemented by various role players from the private sector. Agupusi (2007) explained that these initiatives focus on skills development through tourism training, outsourcing, information dissemination, women and youth empowerment, and support for SMMEs.

Given the support from the private sector, young people need to consider creating and innovating in Alexandra. Respondents from the government and civil society noted that partnerships between the private sector and community-based organisations and initiatives must be encouraged, as these are part of the implementation of the BEE transformation initiatives. In addition, this is important for economic growth, social development, and the empowerment of previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra. Southern Sun is an example of a partnership that outsources several of its services to local people, for example Alexandra-based businesses are offered cleaning and housekeeping servicing contracts. These types of partnership are not only important for economic

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growth opportunities, but also for skills development. Small projects in Alexandra are also supported by the private sector, whereby local tour operators and crafters are taken overseas to exhibit their work and market their products and services.

Other companies that are helping to develop the tourism industry in Alexandra are the Protea Hotel Group and the International Hotel School, which are both found in Sandton. In pushing skills development through the provision of training, the GTA and JTC work closely with both companies, for example the International Hotel School facilitates the training of young people. Agupusi (2007) noted that these companies are providing a platform for graduates by exposing them to practical experiences in the hospitality sector.

5.3.4 The role of the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in the development of tourism In addition to the government and private sector, the ARP has partnered with several NGOs to bring tourism development to Alexandra, including the Greater Alexandra Development Forum, Alexandra Chamber of Commerce, Alexandra Business Forum, the Business Place and Gift of the Givers. As South Africa has a long history of inequality, closing the gap between the rich and poor had remained a challenge within communities throughout the country (Roefs et al., 2003), thus these organisations joined forces with the ARP to grow small businesses and create jobs. To promote the viability and sustainability of SMMEs, a database of small businesses was established and business workshops are held to provide mentorship to emerging entrepreneurs. Respondents from the NGOs stated that training is also made available that focuses on management and financial skills. The NGOs also promote tourism development by supporting informal businesses (Roefs et al., 2003), for example some organisations (such as the Alexandra Chamber of Commerce, Alexandra Business Forum, and the Business Place) negotiate with the government and the private sector to form partnerships with local service providers in Alexandra in order to expose them to the mainstream tourism market.

In addition, considering the high rates of unemployment and poverty, the Labour Centre is said to have been developed in Alexandra to help skilled and unskilled residents join the labour force. The NGOs’ crucial role in tourism development should thus be supported by both the government and the private sector, as the rate of unemployment and poverty are on the rise in Alexandra, which

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often results in social instability, crime, and violence. As an sector that is valued by most countries in the world for its potential to create revenue and jobs, the tourism industry promises to deliver both economic growth and social development for Alexandra. While pre-1994 there was a lack of business development amongst the black population in Alexandra, the Alexandra Chamber of Commerce had installed confidence in the young people in the area by engaging them in various entrepreneurial programmes. The Greater Alexandra Chamber of Commerce had also joined with the Centre for Development and Enterprise, an organisation dealing with business policy and research in South Africa, to create a body consisting of experts in the business world to have discussions on unemployment and youth empowerment.

In addition, scholars and researchers from NGOs all over the world have contributed to development in Alexandra through both financial and non-financial assistance. These include small scale community-based initiatives, which are often economically and socially inclusive and strive for the empowerment of the community as a whole, including the poor. Some non-profit organisations also promote charity projects in schools, whereby they help with the purchasing of learning and teaching materials such as stationary and books. Further, affluent tourists now have an opportunity to help others, for example international tourists (whom often come to the township for research purposes) contribute with donations to needy learners such as school shoes and uniforms.

The promotion of sport amongst young people in Alexandra has not only been a priority for the local government, but also NGOs. Donations by different organisations to the development of sporting facilities such as the Alexandra Soccer Stadium are done in partnership between NGOs and the government through the ARP. With such developments, the youth of Alexandra have something meaningful to do when they are not at home or school. The promotion of sport in the township has also had an impact on the growth of the tourism industry.

5.4 Discussion of theme three: The direct challenges for the tourism industry in Alexandra Whilst tourism has been recognized as a promoter to encourage economic growth, grow the feasibility of underdeveloped regions and increase the standard of living of local populations, tourism’s contribution towards socio-economic growth remains controversial in Alexandra, which is falling behind other township areas in South Africa with regards to tourism development. This

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suggests that despite the improvements that the ARP and ATDP managed to bring to Alexandra, there is still more to be done if its tourism potential is to be fulfilled. Some of the civil society respondents criticised tourism for its inability to deliver revenue regeneration, job creation, training and education, poverty alleviation, and a reduction in economic inequalities in Alexandra. Considering the township’s ongoing social and economic challenges, indeed tourism development has not uplifted the lives of the poor, and many people in Alexandra feel excluded, which cannot be ignored.

In addition, even though efforts to bring tourism development have been put in place and some form of progress is noticeable in Alexandra, the issue of inequalities in terms of access to resources within communities is a challenge facing the industry. For this reason there is a need to look at issues of power relations, access to resources, empowerment, and participation within tourism in order to promote inclusive economic growth for all (Meyer, 2004). South Africa is one of the most unequal societies in the world, therefore a distribution of the benefits of tourism is key.

5.4.1 A lack of skill and knowledge Black people were oppressed and not allowed to participate in the tourism industry in South Africa until 1994 (Rogerson, 2004a). In addition, the government under the National Party invested more money in the development of white suburbs, while neglecting black communities in the reserves across the country. As a result of this lack of access to education and representation, opportunities to access economic, social and cultural capital are limited for black South Africans when compared to their white counterparts. The civil society respondents also voiced their concern about the lack of community consultation by government when projects for tourism development are being planned in Alexandra. Thus, even though conditions began to change for the better following the period of democratic transition, the township has been showing a lack of progress in terms of its tourism industry.

In addition, while the White Paper on Responsible Tourism in South Africa clearly provides guidelines for tourism development, management, and promotion, the shortage of skills and lack of availability of information among communities is hindering tourism growth. A lack of education means that people are not sufficiently equipped or empowered with the skills and knowledge needed to improve their understanding of the issues concerning tourism developmental

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projects in the area, which limits their ability to fully take part in the development of tourism. Following the transition to democracy, the phrases ‘transparency’ and ‘community participation’ have become important elements of tourism development in the country, yet the desired development cannot take place because of locals’ lack of knowledge about tourism. Some respondents also noted that language skills are important, because most of the international visitors into Alexandra come from Europe and North America.

5.4.2 The lack of SMME growth The lack of SMME growth is a challenge for the tourism industry in Alexandra. Many respondents noted that while is it acknowledged that tourism has the potential to bring business development opportunities, the reality is that tourism SMMEs are not playing the expected role of creating jobs and boosting socio-economic growth in Alexandra. Many factors have led to the inability of the small businesses to develop further and contribute to socio-economic growth in the township. According to Sifolo (2015), the majority of the challenges that are faced by Alexandra, as well as other townships in South Africa, are a result of the historic injustices that emerged with the colonial and apartheid regimes, which enforced unfair and biased laws against black people for a long time. Even though it has been over 20 years since the first democratic elections, the apartheid government introduced pervasive policies with long-term implications, which negatively affected development in black neighbourhoods like Alexandra. For example, as black people were forced to live in areas away from the city, business development was rarely encouraged. In addition, respondents from the business sector stated that as they were forced to live on the periphery of the cities, black people in townships were denied business opportunities.

The government before 1994 also did not encourage black-owned businesses, which has destroyed the culture of entrepreneurship amongst many black people. Thus, according to Sifolo (2015), the majority of people in Alexandra, particularly those in the business sector within the tourism industry, are struggling to make progress because they have few role models. Yet the new government made promises to the entire population that it would commit itself to the principles of democracy and fair governance, and new business polices encouraged the development of SMMEs in South Africa, particularly in previously disadvantaged communities like Alexandra (Agupusi, 2007). Thus, the government defined the role of SMMEs and committed itself to providing both

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financial and non-financial assistance in order to alleviate poverty and create jobs. However, over the years it has become apparent that achieving SMME development in Alexandra is a more complex and challenging task than it appears on paper. The lack of entrepreneurial skills and culture amongst the residents in Alexandra, which is a challenge rooted in the apartheid system and the inability of the new government to fully support SMMEs in practical terms, is a large reason for this.

The civil society respondents noted that corruption and the misuse of government funds is also hindering business development in Alexandra. This, together with the lack of necessary skills and knowledge, is causing residents to seek job opportunities rather than engage in a challenging struggle to create and innovate (Agupusi, 2007). The GEM’s calculation of total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) shows that South Africa’s business development is behind countries such as Uruguay and Argentina, and there is a concern that the government is not doing enough to provide assistance to the SMMEs in Alexandra.

The ever-present challenge of a lack of access to funding is also a constraint facing small business owners in Alexandra. The respondents from the business sector noted that the government institutions that are supposed to provide assistance to SMMEs have complicated procedures that business operators have to meet in order to obtain financial aid. SMME owners who cannot access aid are thus unable to do proper business marketing, train workers and purchase the necessary technologies to grow and become economically viable. Government business development agencies and service providers that can assist micro and survivalist businesses are thus necessary (Ashely and Roe, 2002), and NGOs and CBOs also have a role to play in this regard. As a result of these skills shortages and lack of business development, the gap in terms of tourism development is widening between the previously disadvantaged communities and their white counterparts.

5.4.3 The lack of commercialisation of heritage and culture as tourism products According to the findings of the study, particularly with regards to the challenges to tourism growth in Alexandra, it is clear that there is a lack of commercialisation of heritage and culture for visitors’ consumption. In other words, Alexandra has not been transformed into a brand in South Africa and little is known about its tourist attractions. This is considered to be one of the major constraints

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to the development of the tourism industry in the township. The respondents thought that a contributing factor to this problem is the historical exclusion of black heritage in tourism, which denied black people an opportunity to embrace their heritage and share it at a global level, as western countries have done. Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) argued that the historical isolation from tourism was achieved through many years of brainwashing. For example, black South Africans were often taught that their ways of doing things were not civilised, and their adjustment into western cultures deprived them of the opportunity to fully embrace African cultures and traditions. Thus the practice of tourism in South Africa is recent, and even more so in the township areas which were where black people were previously disadvantaged and marginalised.

Everywhere around the world, both locally and internationally, destination areas market their attractions as commodities for the consumption of travelling tourists through the use of mass media. Marketing is fundamental to creating a brand so that it becomes known and easily accessible to consumers, yet Alexandra is falling behind in this. For example, the slum areas such as the township of Soweto and the favelas in Rio de Janeiro are globally known as tourism destinations, which offer cultural experiences to travelers and pleasure seekers. Briedenhann and Wickens (2007) argued that visitors coming to South Africa, particularly those visiting the City of Johannesburg for business purposes, rarely leave the country without visiting Soweto because of the rich history and heritage found in the township.

In addition, Soweto was made popular through the Sho’t Left campaign, which was responsible for promoting the tourism industry across the country through the extensive marketing of locations using mass media at the national level. In the case of Alexandra, it is also important to note that the township still has to overcome the negative images from crime and the violent attacks against foreign nationals (Makhafola, 2015), which led to the international community threatening to cut ties with South Africa. As a result, crime and violence have an impact on the growth of the tourism industry because it is difficult to attract investment into the area.

5.4.4 The inability for tourism to create job opportunities in Alexandra Another major challenge in Alexandra is the inability of the tourism industry to create more decent job opportunities for the residents. Although the tourism industry has the potential to contribute towards improving lives and developing crime-ridden and high poverty areas, Rogerson (2004a)

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argued that Alexandra has shown a lack of progress in this area when compared to other tourism destinations in the country. The current economic situation is contributing to this problem, which is in part due to the worsening rates of unemployment and poverty. In fact, the unemployment rate in Alexandra is higher than the national average, and is growing.

The respondents noted that a recent study by the government showed that 51 percent of residents are local and international immigrants who came to Alexandra in search of better opportunities. In addition, the findings confirmed that 49 percent of the population consists of single parents, and there are also thousands of female- and child-headed families in Alexandra. Almost all families in Alexandra (93 percent) receive a monthly income of less than R5,000, while 20 percent of those live on R1,000 a month (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2007). Even though the challenge of unemployment in South Africa is a national problem, these figures show that tourism development in places like Alexandra has not addressed the issues of unemployment and poverty. For immigrants, many of whom have no relatives living locally, the situation is even more difficult. As a result, while some resort to starting small businesses as street vendors, many end up living a life of crime in an attempt to escape poverty (Davie, 2012).

The civil society respondents noted that many people are struggling in terms of economic progress, even those in the labour force, because they are earning close to nothing. As a result, people are increasingly dependent on the assistance provided to them by the government, including receiving food parcels and social grants to support their children, and the provision of housing, water, electricity, etc.

5.4.5 The lack of facilities and other tourism activities in Alexandra The lack of facilities and other tourism activities in Alexandra is another contributing factor that is hindering the growth of the tourism industry. The findings noted that the township is popular for its historic and heritage sites, as well as its establishments that offer traditional cuisines, yet there is a need for more investment from the private sector and other role players to create more tourism. As tourists are pleasure seekers, they need to be entertained with various activities while visiting a tourism destination. Therefore, Alexandra still needs to improve its tourism menu in terms of what local residents offer, to supplement the core attractions (Sifolo, 2015). The government has played a minimal role in developing parks and other leisure activities, and there

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is a concern that the facilities that were built by the government are often neglected due to a lack of maintenance and bad treatment by locals, leaving them in poor and unhygienic conditions.

The NGO respondents believed that government officials only come to Alexandra during elections, and develop a few structures so that they can publicise these upgrades through the mainstream media. The fact of the matter is that Alexandra is underdeveloped and the government is neglecting the people, which is evident from the uncompleted developmental projects. The findings also noted that the services provided are never sufficient for the whole population. The development of tourism facilities, which is initiated by the ARP, ATDP and other partners, has been very ineffective in delivering real and tangible progress, particularly for the most marginalised (Sifolo, 2015). The construction of the Alexandra Tourism Information Centre and the Alexandra Heritage Centre took almost ten years due to inconsistences within the ARP management regarding the irregular use of funds. Further, locals are not given opportunities to develop new tourism products, due in part to a lack of space for development. Residents are often told by the municipality that vacant land belongs to external investors.

In addition, there is a lack of signage, which is necessary to direct visitors to tourism facilities and attractions when they are navigating around the township. The majority of tourists also do not spend the night, unlike in Soweto where tourists’ stay longer because of the availability of lodging facilities. In a tourism destination, it is the availability of facilities and activities that influence a tourist’s decision on whether to spend more time there. There are currently no hotels in Alexandra, and only a few bed and breakfasts offer lodging. In addition, all restaurants and taverns are traditional, i.e. they mostly cater to African tastes by marketing local foods. This shows that there are no establishments that can meet and satisfy international tastes, preferences, cultures, nationalities, and expectations to accommodate tourists from Europe and North America. Agupusi (2007) stated that service providers in Soweto offer products and services that not only embrace African cultures, but also international expectations and tastes. Tourists from developed countries coming to visit Alexandra often choose other neighbouring suburbs such as Sandton, however, as they have more suitable accommodation facilities. As a result, with such limited facilities and activities on offer, the township is unable to attract more visitors and keep them in the area for a longer period of time in order to positively affect local socio-economic growth.

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5.4.6 The unequal distribution of benefits In terms of other challenges, there is a concern about the unequal distribution of benefits that has resulted from the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra. According to Sifolo (2015), the tourism industry in township areas is promoted with the objective of developing previously disadvantaged communities. In addition, the government aims to link the industry with poverty alleviation through the creation of job opportunities for the poor. According to the findings of this study, however, in the case of Alexandra there is little evidence that tourism development is affecting the lives of the poor. This is a result of several contributing factors, including a lack of accountability in government, corruption and the mismanagement of government funds. All of these come at the expense of taxpayers and the poor.

The situation is worsened by a lack of skills, which is forcing local residents to fully depend on government assistance for survival while only a few local people benefit from tourism, thereby causing further inequalities within the community. The business sector is also not addressing the situation, since most enterprises operate as micro and survivalist SMMEs within the informal and semi-formal sectors (Agupusi, 2007).

The 1996 Tourism White Paper on Responsible Tourism outlined ways in which previously disadvantaged groups can fully benefit from the development of the tourism industry in their areas, particularly the promotion of participation for poor people at the grassroots level. Such participation is said to be promoted through ensuring that local skills and labour are used by creating more decent job opportunities. The government also took responsibility for making efforts to pave the way for the development of SMMEs under the ownership and management of the poor, which must be done by creating policies that will create an enabling environment for SMMEs to operate and be economically viable and sustainable (Agupusi, 2007). In addition, the need to put in place institutions that will better deal with the needs of small businesses in the townships was also identified.

Yet despite some progress, Alexandra is still considered to be one of the most underdeveloped and poorest townships in the country, i.e. the government’s policies have never been translated into reality. Therefore, even though there are developmental projects underway in the area, the communities within Alexandra perceive development in different ways and there is a concern that affluent people are taking advantage of the poor. For example, the findings revealed that the

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business operators enjoy most of the tourism benefits in Alexandra because of their access to the tourism market, but they do not bother to give back to the community.

The findings also revealed that in other countries, business operators within the tourism industry commercialise destination areas for the good of the community. For example, tour operators and transport companies in Rio de Janeiro invite visitors into the slums and drive them around to show them the everyday lifestyles and cultures of the locals, and use the income that they generate to give back to the poor through donations. Whilst the findings show that there are businesses within the tourism industry in Alexandra that do give donations, the culture of giving back to the community is not common (Agupusi, 2007). As a result, since there is a lack of entrepreneurial growth, there is a concern that people in Alexandra are only involved through their labour instead of entrepreneurship.

5.4.7 The lack of participation, particularly among women and the disabled people. A key challenge for the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra is a lack of participation, particularly amongst women and the disabled. While the government respondents stated that the ARP has given women and the disabled an opportunity to access training to be skilled workers and entrepreneurs, the majority of disabled people remain home all day, while women often work in the streets as vendors selling fruits and vegetables. Unlike men, women in Alexandra are rarely granted an opportunity to be part of the business sector, as most of their small ventures in the streets are not registered. Yet women and the disabled are eager to be involved in tourism, and often seek help from government agencies such as GEP and SEDA in Alexandra. Indeed, women and the disabled are, just like any other human being, capable of being entrepreneurs or occupying position as skilled labourers, however they encounter extraordinary challenges within the tourism industry, including a lack of education, skills and financial resources. As a result, Nieftagodien (2013) argued that women and the disabled often feel discouraged and excluded from tourism development, and find themselves having no option but to depend on other people. This is connected to the patriarchal system, which continues to exist within communities, whereby society believes that only men should be breadwinners for their households, while women must submit to them and remain home as housewives.

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Within the business sector, women also face negative stereotyping, whereby men look down on them because of their gender. Hülsekopf (2011) explained that as the majority of women serve as street traders and are unable to effectively manage their businesses and grow them, they generally operate on a survivalist level. In addition, as they have limited business skills, it is difficult for them to receive any form of assistance from the government, as they do not have business accounts, they only employ one or two people and they do not have proper business premises. Nieftagodien (2013) projected that tourism development in South Africa will emerge with a shift from mainstream tourism into a new form of tourism development (i.e. using innovative cultural, heritage and nature-based products), whereby community-based tourism and small projects will drive such developments, with increased community involvement.

This kind of tourism has been gaining momentum over the years and is receiving more attention from governments, researchers, and travelers. Hülsekopf (2011) argued that township tourism is a form of tourism development that is embraced by many countries because it reflects the principles of responsible tourism and pro-poor elements, and promotes inclusive and healthy socio-economic growth, localisation, local cultures, indigenous knowledge, educational tourism, and a bottom-up approach to development. In addition, it is environmentally and socially considerate. Within this kind of tourism development, women are said to be necessary agents. The most recent government reports on the growth of the tourism industry and the provision of training in South Africa state that the country has not been successful with regards to skill development (Kaplan, 2004), i.e. the objectives of the Tourism White Paper of 1996 have not been achieved. There is thus a massive need to provide training, including for women and the disabled, in order to enhance skills development.

5.5 Conclusion

The aim of this chapter was to discuss the findings of the study. After presenting the results gathered from the fieldwork in the previous chapter, this section created a connection between the first two chapters in order to explore tourism growth challenges in Alexandra, which was the key objective of the study.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

The primary objective of this study was to identify the challenges facing tourism growth in Alexandra; the second objective was to determine the level of government support and effectiveness in uplifting township tourism; the third objective was to determine the role of the private sector and NGOs in promoting township tourism; and the fourth objective was to make recommendations for improving township tourism in Alexandra for the benefit of the community.

These objectives were met by conducting semi-structured interviews with key informants in the township of Alexandra. To tackle these challenges and get more insight into tourism development, focus was placed on the involvement of key stakeholders such as government, civil society, the private sector, and NGOs. The interviews gave the researcher an insight into the efforts being made by all the relevant stakeholders in the development of tourism in Alexandra, which helped him to understand whether the tourism industry has been helped or hindered by the ARP and ATDP. This was determined in terms of tourism’s lack of capacity to pave the way for increased community participation, unblock opportunities for women and the disabled, create jobs, alleviate poverty, and support SMMEs. Tourism’s inability to foster development was also evident given the unsuccessful work of the various initiatives put in place by the provincial government.

6.1.1 Summary of the findings

The study was guided by the main research questions, which asked what the challenges to tourism growth are in Alexandra, and who the key social actors are. The study also had four emerging sub- questions, i.e. what are the key tourism challenges in Alexandra, especially those faced by the local community to move towards effective tourism development; how has government assistance spearheaded township tourism in Alexandra; how is the private sector assisting in the promotion of township tourism; and how can township tourism be improved to uplift the community of Alexandra?

The findings revealed that Alexandra is a tourism destination, which the government recognised early on. In 2001, the ARP and ATDP were formed to develop tourism and heritage, with the

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support of provincial and local government, civil society, the private sector, and NGOs. It is apparent that the support of all these key role players has helped to pave the way for tourism development over the years, particularly through their mutual partnerships which focus on fostering development in Alexandra.

In terms of the role of the provincial government, the findings showed that it has intervened to foster tourism development by implementing various programmes, including the Alexandra Tourism Awareness Programme launched under the ATDP. This tourism campaign seeks to educate and involve local residents in tourism, and also encourages them to welcome and accommodate visitors. In addition, the Alexandra Environmental Awareness Programme and Alexandra Environmental Clean-up Campaign is another effort by government to address environmental challenges in Alexandra. These programmes educate local residents about the need for environmental conservation and conduct clean-up campaigns to rehabilitate the environmentally degraded and polluted areas in Alexandra. The government has also committed to fighting crime and violence in Alexandra by providing additional human resources (i.e. police force), creating partnerships with civil society for crime prevention, and launching ‘Operation Shanyela’. The ARP is also fundamental in improving local infrastructure and sanitation facilities. The findings further noted that government agencies support small businesses by providing owners with training, advice, information, funding, and mentorship. In addition, women empowerment is embraced by the ARP to ensure women’s involvement in tourism development as a way to address gender inequality.

The findings also showed that civil society is an important stakeholder for tourism development in Alexandra, for example the Alexandra Tourism Team, a community-based organisation, directly involves community residents in tourism. Both the Alexandra Tourism Team and the Alexandra Tourism Association are made up of community members from the township, and had a huge role to play in the formation of the Alexandra Rhythm Route. In addition, encouraging cycling and walking tours by the community (i.e. working together with SMMEs in tourism) shows that civil society supports tourism development in Alexandra. Local residents are also committed to working with government in the fight against crime. The Social History Project is another community- based initiative, which seeks to document the oral history and heritage of this vibrant township to promote tourism.

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The private sector is also noted to have contributed to the development of the tourism industry in Alexandra, such as through the construction of the Pan-Africa Shopping Mall. The findings show that within the tourism sector, the International Hotel School, the Protea Hotel Group, and the Southern Sun Hotel Group in Johannesburg and Sandton are instrumental in tourism development in Alexandra. These corporations work closely with government agencies to promote skills development, particularly by facilitating the Alexandra Youth in Tourism and Hospitality Training Programme and the Alexandra Tourism Training Programme. To increase impact, the private sector is also creating economic linkages by partnering with local SMMEs to promote black empowerment. For example, the Southern Sun in Sandton outsources some of its services into Alexandra in order to boost socio-economic growth and skills development. There are also small projects in Alexandra that are supported by the private sector, whereby local tour operators and artists are taken overseas to exhibit their work and market township tours.

The findings also acknowledge the role of NGOs in tourism development in Alexandra, which aim to improve small businesses and create jobs. To promote the viability and sustainability of SMMEs, databases of small businesses have been created and workshops are held to provide mentorship to emerging entrepreneurs, while training that focuses on business management and financial skills is also offered. International organisations make a further contribution through research and donations.

The involvement of these stakeholders shows that tourism is being developed to become a significant agent for economic growth, job creation, and social development. However, while township tourism began in 1994 in South Africa, Alexandra is still in its early stages of development. Despite efforts by stakeholders, it is thus evident that there are several constraints hindering tourism growth in Alexandra.

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6.2 Recommendations

The following are recommendations to improve tourism in Alexandra and address some of the existing challenges:

Provincial government

 The provincial government should design and implement more localised tourism policies, in consultation with the community, that better deal with Alexandra as a previously disadvantaged community. Emphasis must be placed on skills development, entrepreneurship, and the development of women and the disabled. Further, business development agencies should assist with SMME development.

 The provincial government must create an enabling business environment (e.g. through improving infrastructure), which would convince the private sector to invest in tourism products and facilities.

 The provincial government must keep supporting the local environmental programmes in order to raise environmental awareness and rehabilitate environmentally degraded areas in Alexandra.

 Tourism development needs planning, thus local developments in Alexandra must be studied and guided in terms of location suitability and reserving land for future developments. In other words, tourism must be developed to remain environmentally, socially, and culturally considerate, so as to minimise impacts.

Civil society

 To improve tourism, the community needs to help market Alexandra as a tourism destination by welcoming and being hospitable to tourists, and local SMME owners should take advantage of government assistance to develop more tourism products.

 In order to address crime and violence, the community needs to partner with local government by reporting criminal activity. In addition, community anti-crime prevention forums must be maintained and supported by local residents, which would bring the rate of crime down and

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also change the image of Alexandra to be a safer destination for domestic and international visitors.

Private sector

 To improve the local business sector’s economic viability and sustainability, the private sector within the tourism industry in Sandton needs to create partnerships with SMMEs in Alexandra in order to create economic linkages.

NGOs

 The Alexandra Tourism Association and Alexandra Heritage Team must market local attractions and other offerings using the Alexandra Route of Rhythm. There is also an opportunity to link tourism and shopping in Alexandra by integrating the Pan-African Mall into the Alexandra Route of Rhythm.

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ANNEXURE A: RESEARCHER’S PROFILE AND PERMISSION LETTER

Dear Sir/Madam

My name is Ayanda Dladla, a tourism student at a University of Johannesburg. I am a postgraduate, and currently busy conducting a research project which focuses on tourism development in Alexandra. The study is titled ‘exploring obstacles to tourism growth in Alexandra, Johannesburg’. The purpose of this study is to investigate and understand the role of tourism in the area, with more attention paid to tourism improvement and/or lack of improvement since the government officially recognised the potential for tourism in Alexandra in 2001. Specifically, the study focuses on the tourism growth challenges and also looks at efforts to foster tourism development and its connection to poverty alleviation, create jobs, small business growth and development of infrastructure.

Therefore, I would kindly like to ask for your permission for you to be part of the study as an informant. As the study follows a qualitative research method to collect the data, the conversation will take place in a form of an interview of not more than an hour. This method entails open-ended questions that will allow you, informant, to give your own understanding, view, and perspective with regards to the tourism development in Alexandra, particularly the prevailing tourism growth challenges. You are also allows to diverge and bring new information that has not been considered but relevant to the study.

As an academic research, participation is voluntary and, as a participant, you are assured that the information you provide will be used for such academic purpose only. In addition, since this is an academic study, an informant is informed that their participation, there is no reward neither financial nor otherwise. You are also assured that if as participant you want to remain anonymous, your wish will be respected. Your participation is much appreciated.

Should you have any questions, please be free to contact me or the School of Tourism and Hospitality. My contacts are: cell. 0720763976 or email [email protected] and for my supervisor, Prof. L Leonard, tel. 0115591036 or email [email protected].

Thank you for your time and assistance, Yours sincerely, Ayanda Dladla

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ANNEXURE B: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESIDENTS (GUIDING QUESTIONS)

Community residents

1. Could you please introduce yourself? 2. Just from your own understanding, is Alexandra a tourism destination? 3. What are the real tourism challenges in Alexandra? 4. What are the obstacles or barriers hindering the residents and youth to move towards township tourism? 5. What has been done so far in order to promote local participation in the tourism industry? 6. Are the local residents welcoming and supportive of township tourism in Alexandra? 7. What are the residents doing to show their support for tourism development in Alexandra? 8. What is the government doing to assist to improve Alexandra? 9. What is the government doing to assist to improve tourism in Alexandra? 10. What has been done to ensure that women are included in tourism? 11. How can the government assist, in your view, to improve the tourism industry in Alexandra? 12. How is the private sector playing their part in contributing towards township tourism development in Alexandra? 13. What form of assistance (such as training) is being provided to the people as a way to promote the participation of youth in tourism in Alexandra? 14. Is the tourism industry contributing to poverty alleviation, creating jobs, helping to providing necessary training and paving the way for small business growth? 15. What are the tangible benefits that are noticeable through tourism in Alexandra? 16. Is there any organisation or body that stands to represent the interests or needs of the people of Alexandra? 17. Is there anything you would like to say in conclusion?

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ANNEXURE C: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS (GUIDING QUESTIONS)

1. Could you please introduce yourself? 2. What does your organisation do? 3. Just from your own understanding, is Alexandra a tourism destination? 4. Does the provincial and local government support township tourism development in Alexandra? 5. What are the programmes or policies that the government has adopted to support the agenda of promoting township tourism in Alexandra? 6. How is the private sector playing its part in contributing towards township tourism development in Alexandra? 7. Is the government combining its efforts with the private sector to ensure a strong tourism economy in Alexandra? 8. What has been done to ensure that women are included in tourism? 9. Alexandra is known for its lack of environmental hygiene due to poor sanitation and sewage management, so what is been done to ensure environmental health and to create environmental awareness among the people? 10. The issue of crime and attacks has also affected the image of Alexandra for years; what is the government doing to restore the area’s reputation and to ensure the safety of international travelers? 11. Most locally-owned businesses in Alexandra are in the informal and semi-formal sectors and operate at a survivalist level, so what is the government doing to promote black entrepreneurship in Alexandra? 12. What form of assistance (such as training) is being provided to the people as way to promote the participation of youth in tourism in Alexandra? 13. What is the government doing to ensure that businesses in the townships are exposed to the main tourism markets, as it is the case in Soweto, so that their products and services are known and accessible by visitors? 14. What are the successes and improvements done by the government to promote tourism in Alexandra?

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15. According to the government, what still needs to be done in Alexandra as a way to promote tourism? 16. Is there anything you would like to say in conclusion?

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ANNEXURE D: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR PRIVATE SECTOR (GUIDING QUESTIONS)

Small, medium, and micro enterprises (SMMEs)

1. Could you please introduce yourself? 2. What does your business do? 3. Just from your own understanding, is Alexandra a tourism destination? 4. What are the main challenges that are faced by businesses in tourism? 5. Is the government doing anything to assist small businesses or local entrepreneurship in Alexandra? 6. What more can the government do to better the conditions and viability of the small businesses in the area? 7. Does the infrastructure (i.e. roads, railroads, water provision, and power supply) gives useful environment for businesses to operate effectively on a day to day basis? 8. What are the barriers to entry for small businesses in the tourism industry of Alexandra? 9. What are the main challenges that are facing tourism in Alexandra? 10. What has been done to ensure that women are included in tourism? 11. What form of assistance (such as training) is being provided to the people as way to promote the participation of youth in tourism in Alexandra? 12. Is there any organisation or body that stands to represent the interests or needs of the small businesses in the township? 13. Is the market under which the business operates viable, growing, and competitive? 14. As the tourism industry is a labour-intensive industry, is the business creating job opportunities for people? 15. The industry is often known to be affected by the seasonal nature of tourism and therefore most jobs are part-time; how do you deal with employment sustainability? 17. What has been done to ensure that businesses in the townships are exposed to the main tourism markets, as is the case in Soweto, so that their products and services are known and accessible by visitors? 18. Is there anything you would like to say in conclusion?

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ANNEXURE E: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR NON- GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND PRIVATE SECTOR (GUIDING QUESTIONS)

Non-Governmental Organisations and private sector (guiding questions)

1. Could you please introduce yourself? 2. With your knowledge of the tourism industry, is Alexandra a tourism destination? 3. What does the organisation do and what is your responsibility as an organisation to develop tourism in Alexandra? 4. What are the main challenges for township tourism in Alexandra? 5. Is the organisation working close with the government, and if so, how is the government assisting the organisation to meet its tourism objectives? 6. What would you say about the hospitality and transport sector in Alexandra in relation to tourism? 7. What has been the biggest achievement of the organisation since it started to operate in Alexandra? 8. Are you satisfied with the present number of travelers that the township manages to attract as tourists? 9. What are the tourism activities on offer and how are they used to promote the tourism industry? 10. Where do you see the tourism industry of the township in five years? 11. What has been done to ensure that women are included in tourism? 12. What are the goals or objectives of the organisation and how do you achieve them? 13. Does the organisation work with other tourism organisations, such as the Soweto Tourism Association, to combine efforts to promote township tourism in South Africa? 14. Is there anything you would like to say in conclusion?

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